PLAGIARISM COMPARISON SCAN REPORT

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A highly contagious cough ailment that is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide is pertussis.
A vaccination can stop it from happening. Bordetella pertussis causes most human illnesses, although
Bordetella parapertussis also causes some. A pleomorphic, aerobic, gram-negative coccobacillus is called
Bordetella. Even nations with strong children vaccination rates have seen an increase in pertussis infections in
recent years. Babies who are too young to benefit from immunization experience the highest rates of
morbidity and death from pertussis infections. Most cases of severe infections that need
hospitalizationincluding in an intensive care unitoccur in infants younger than three months of age.
Consequently, efforts in public health and research have been made to better understand Bordetella pertussis
and stop its spread. Research comparing the cost-benefit of pregnant women being vaccinated against
cocooning tactics has shown that vaccinations are preferable for pregnant women. This strategy should be
less expensive and prevent more instances of pertussis, hospital stays, and fatalities in infants under one year
of age. Studies have shown that family members are typically the source of infection in infants. Strong
immunization campaigns are required for adults and children, particularly for expectant mothers.Over the
ages, there have been several names for whooping cough or pertussis. Several outbreaks have been reported
since it was first identified in the Middle Ages. More than a century ago, in Paris, Jules Bordet and Octave
Gengou identified Bordetella pertussis, the organism causing whooping cough, which presented a favorable
chance for vaccine development. The whole-cell pertussis vaccine was created in 1914, and it was made
widely available in the 1940s when it was coupled with tetanus and diphtheria toxoids to create DTP. Since
then, there has been a consistent decline in the disease's occurrence. About 80% of people have received the
vaccination in order to prevent serious illness and pertussis-related deaths. The vaccine's protection lasts for
five to ten years after the final dosage of the whole course of vaccinations, which is a disadvantage. The
second concern is how to prevent the whole-cell vaccine's adverse effects. The US developed the acellular
vaccine in the 1990s, progressively replacing the whole-cell vaccination. A potential failure with the new
vaccination, or a lack of long-term protection, has been identified around ten years later. Both vaccinations
are used nowadays, although in the majority of affluent nations, the acellular vaccine is administered.
Although the frequency of pertussis has grown during the 1980s, emerging strategies for prevention include
booster doses tailored to certain age groups.In 2001, the P. multocida avian isolate Pm70's first complete
genome sequencing was published. Numerous predicted virulence genes were found by genome analysis,
including genes linked to iron transport and metabolism and two that encode homologues of the filamentous
haemagluttinins of Bordetella pertussis. The availability of the genome sequence made a variety of whole-
genome transcriptomic and proteomic investigations possible, which have improved our understanding of the
ways in which P. multocida reacts to growth in the host, in the presence of antibiotics, and in low iron
environments. Unfortunately, no other P. multocida genome sequences were found for the remainder of the
decade, which limited the possibility of doing comparative genomic analysis until recently, when a few fresh
genome sequences were discovered that could be used. Here, we employ the available data to determine the
strains' evolutionary connections as well as a number of notable similarities and differences. It's interesting to
note that there is no obvious correlation between phylogenetic relatedness and host preference or illness
based on current evidence.In 2004, the epidemiology section of the Israel Ministry of Health reported a record
1564 new cases of pertussis. With the incidence rate now at 23 per 100,000 people, the prevalence of
pertussis has decreased significantly from 1-3100,000 in 1998, 9 in 2001, and 14 in 2003. The diagnosis of
pertussis is challenging and contributes to its rising prevalence because of the rate of atypical presentations
of the illness in vaccinated individuals, the loss in pertussis resistance after vaccination, and the decreased
awareness of possible infections in the adult population. Babies and young children have continued to be the
group most vulnerable to the morbidity and death associated with pertussis throughout this century.
Preschoolers who are undervaccinated and newborns under 6 months old who are not old enough to have had
three doses of the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine have been at the highest risk of problems related to
pertussis in recent years. After the whole cell pertussis vaccination became widely available, the incidence of
pertussis infection fell sharply, with the number of cases recorded in the US reaching an all-time low in 1976.
Widespread vaccination has likely been the main contributor in lowering pertussis-related death, just as it
helped decrease the prevalence of the illness. The United States has had a constant or growing vaccination
rate since 1962, yet since the early 1980s, the risk of pertussis infection has been rising. The number of
pertussis cases recorded in 1993 was the highest since 1967 and represented an 82% rise over cases
reported in the year prior. In children under the age of five, pertussis became the most often reported
vaccine-preventable illness in the US in 1993. The main reason for the reappearance of pertussis in the US
seems to be the growth of a vulnerable adult population extensive vaccination has decreased the likelihood
that people may develop exposure-induced immunity. According to certain reports, adults make up the bulk of
Bordetella pertussis cases at this time. A small number of studies have verified the significance of pertussis as
the cause of adults' and teens' chronic coughs. Adolescents and adults are now a major source of B. pertussis
infection transmission to other household members, especially babies and young children who are not
properly immunized, as the diagnosis of pertussis remains unidentified in these elderly patients and treatment
is either delayed or provided only partially.Leukocytosis, or the notable and occasionally sudden rise in white
blood cell counts in circulating blood, has been identified for more than a century in infants with pertussis, or
whooping cough. All ages can be affected by pertussis, although small infants are more susceptible to severe
cases, which is why leukocytosis is more noticeable in these cases. Excessive leukocytosis is linked to worse
outcomes for infants hospitalized for pertussis, and contemporary therapies frequently try to lower the
leukocyte count. The soluble protein toxin that Bordetella pertussis emancipates during infection is the cause
of pertussis leukocytosis, albeit the precise processes behind this process are yet unknown. In this minireview,
I go over the
history of clinical and experimental4
research on pertussis leukocytosis, potential contributing factors that lead to this condition, and therapies
meant to lessen leukocytosis in infants who are hospitalized. This review comes at a good moment since
recent research has shown a significant correlation between certain levels of pertussis leukocytosis and a
deadly outcome. This might spur fresh ideas about how to approach this issue and find solutions.Bordetella
pertussis can cause severe and
potentially fatal complications, especially in very young2
babies.
Early diagnosis and treatment before the paroxysmal stage of disease can help1
extenuate complications and decrease the spread of this highly epidemical disease.There is minimal indication
that Bordetella pertussis is resistant to antibiotics, and antibiotics are frequently used to treat confirmed cases
of pertussis as well as to prevent illness in situations where an outbreak is occurring. Erythromycin is the most
widely used antibiotic yet, its secondary effect reduces compliance and, consequently, efficacy. Azithromycin
and clarithromycin are two more antibiotics that have been demonstrated to be at
least as effective as erythromycin in3
treating and preventing pertussis. They also have less side effects, which improves patient compliance.The
only macrolide antibiotic that has become widely used in the US is erythromycin. When it was first introduced
in 1952, it quickly gained a reputation that it still has today. Since then, a plethora of other antimicrobial
products have been on the market an entirely new class of antibiotics, both synthetic and natural, has been
identified, investigated, and approved for use in humans. While many of the more recent medications have a
wider range of antimicrobial action, erythromycin remains the medicine of choice for many infections that the
newer medications are ineffective against, therefore its position in the clinician's toolbox is unaffected. It is
among the safest antibiotics available today, and its efficacy against susceptible organisms and inappropriate
therapeutic settings is well-established.Common macrolides are often treated with azithromycin or
clarithromycin in place of more effective medications for treating upper respiratory, lower respiratory, and
dermatological infections. They are more convenient to take, less toxic, and more tolerated in this function as
an alternative therapy, but at a higher expense to the patient. Nelson's research indicates that patient
compliance varies between 95% when prescribed once daily and 58% when administered four times a day,
making dosage convenience a crucial consideration for healthcare professionals. Therefore, the potential for a
shorter course of6
treatment with azithromycin and less
frequent dosing with both5
medications may be therapeutically advantageous.
Pertussis is a highly infectious vaccine-preventable cough illness that continues to be a
significant source of morbidity and mortality around the world. The majority of human illness is
caused by Bordetella pertussis, and some is caused by Bordetella parapertussis. Bordetella is a
Gram-negative, pleomorphic, aerobic coccobacillus. In the past several years, even countries
with high immunization rates in early childhood have experienced rises in pertussis cases. The
most morbidity and mortality with pertussis infection is seen in infants too young to benefit
from immunization. Severe infection requiring hospitalization, including in an intensive care
setting, is mostly seen in those under 3 months of age. As a result, research and public health
actions have been aimed at better understanding and reducing the spread of Bordetella
pertussis. Studies comparing the cost benefit of cocooning strategies versus immunization of
pregnant women have been favorable towards immunizing pregnant women. This strategy is
expected to prevent a larger number of pertussis cases, hospitalizations, and deaths in infants
lt1 year old while also being cost-effective. Studies have demonstrated that the source of
infection in infants usually is a family member. Efforts to immunize children and adults, in
particular pregnant women, need to remain strong.Bordetella pertussis can cause serious and
potentially fatal complications, especially in very young2
infants.
Early diagnosis and treatment before the paroxysmal stage of disease can help1
mitigate complications and reduce the spread of this highly contagious disease.Pertussis or
whooping cough has been given many names over the centuries. It was first recognized in the
Middle Ages and since then various epidemics have been described. Jules Bordet and Octave
Gengou isolated Bordetella pertussis, a causative agent for whooping cough, in Paris more than
100 years ago, which created an excellent opportunity to invent a vaccine. In 1914 the whole-
cell pertussis vaccine was invented, then in the 1940s it was combined with tetanus and
diphtheria toxoids to become DTP and it became widely available. A successive decrease in the
incidence of the disease has since been observed. The vaccine has been about 80 fective in
preventing serious disease and death from pertussis. The disadvantage is that the vaccine
offers protection for 5-10 years after the last dose of the full vaccination course. The second
issue is the question of how to prevent side effects of the whole-cell vaccine. In the 1990s, the
acellular vaccine was introduced in the US and gradually replaced the whole-cell vaccine. About
10 years later, a possible failure with the new vaccine has been observed, that is a lack of long-
term protection. Nowadays, both vaccines are used, with the acellular vaccine being vastly
predominant in most developed countries. Pertussis incidence has increased since the 1980s,
but new prevention strategies include booster doses for specific age groups.The first complete
genome sequence of the P. multocida avian isolate Pm70 was reported in 2001. Analysis of the
genome identified many predicted virulence genes, including two encoding homologues of the
Bordetella pertussis filamentous haemagluttinins, and genes involved in iron transport and
metabolism. Availability of the genome sequence allowed for a range of whole-genome
transcriptomic and proteomic analyses and these have helped us understand how P. multocida
responds to growth in the presence of antibiotics, under low iron conditions and in the host.
Unfortunately, no new P. multocida genome sequences were determined during the rest of the
decade, limiting any possible comparative genomic analyses until recently, when several new
genome sequences have become available. Here we use the available data to identify a number
of important similarities and differences between the strains and determine their phylogenetic
relationships. Interestingly, based on the current data there is no clear correlation between
phylogenetic relatedness and host predilection or disease.The Israel Ministry of Health's
epidemiology department reported a record number of 1564 new pertussis cases in 2004. This
brings the incidence rate to 23 per 100,000 population, indicating a marked increase in the
prevalence of pertussis, from 1-3100,000 in 1998, 9 in 2001, to 14 in 2003. The rate of atypical
pertussis presentations in vaccinated patients, the decline in pertussis immunity post-
vaccination, and the decreased awareness of potential infections in the adult population make
the diagnosis of pertussis difficult and contribute to the rising incidence. Throughout this
century infants and young children have remained most susceptible to pertussis-related
morbidity and mortality. In recent years infants younger than 6 months who are not old enough
to have received three doses of the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis vaccine and under-vaccinated
preschool children have been at highest risk for pertussis-associated complications. Pertussis
infection rates dropped dramatically after the whole cell pertussis vaccine came into
widespread use, and an all-time low in reported cases in the United States was reached in 1976.
Just as widespread immunization helped control the incidence of pertussis, it has probably been
the primary factor in reducing pertussis-related mortality. Despite a stable or increasing
vaccination rate in the United States since 1962, pertussis infection rates have been rising since
the early 1980s. In 1993 the number of cases of pertussis reported represented an 82%
increase over reported cases during the previous year and the highest incidence of pertussis
since 1967. In 1993 pertussis became the most commonly reported vaccine-preventable
disease among children in the United States younger than 5 years old. Growth of a susceptible
adult population appears to be the primary factor contributing to the resurgence of pertussis in
the United States widespread immunization has reduced the potential for individuals to acquire
exposure-induced immunity. It has been suggested that the majority of patients now infected
with Bordetella pertussis are adults. Several studies have confirmed the importance of pertussis
as the cause of persistent cough among teenagers and adults. As the diagnosis of pertussis
goes unrecognized in these older patients and treatment is delayed or administered only
partially, adolescents and adults have become an important source for transmission of B.
pertussis infection to other household members, particularly infants and young children who are
not adequately immunized.The significant and sometimes dramatic rise in the number of
circulating white blood cells (leukocytosis) in infants suffering from pertussis (whooping cough)
has been recognized for over a century. Although pertussis is a disease that afflicts people of all
ages, it can be particularly severe in young infants, and these are the individuals in whom
leukocytosis is most pronounced. Very high levels of leukocytosis are associated with poor
outcome in infants hospitalized with pertussis and modern treatments are often aimed at
reducing the number of leukocytes. Pertussis leukocytosis is caused by pertussis toxin, a soluble
protein toxin released by Bordetella pertussis during infection, but the exact mechanisms by
which this occurs are still unclear. In this minireview, I discuss the
history of clinical and experimental4
findings on pertussis leukocytosis, possible contributing mechanisms causing this condition and
treatments aimed at reducing leukocytosis in hospitalized infants. Since recent studies have
detailed significant associations between specific levels of pertussis leukocytosis and fatal
outcome, this is a timely review that may stimulate new thinking on how to understand and
combat this problem.Antibiotics are commonly used for treating confirmed cases of pertussis
and also for disease prevention in outbreak situations, and there is little evidence of antibiotic
resistance of Bordetella pertussis. The most commonly used antibiotic is erythromycin, but the
associated side effects limit compliance and therefore efficacy. Other antibiotics, such as
clarithromycin and azithromycin, have been shown to be at
least as effective as erythromycin in3
preventing and treating pertussis, and they also have fewer side effects, which improves
compliance. This article outlines the use of different antibiotics in pertussis management and
their effect on preventing disease transmission and reducing disease severity and
duration.Erythromycin is the only macrolide antibiotic to have gained widespread use in the
United States. Introduced in 1952, it rapidly gained a popularity that it enjoys to this day.
Numerous other antimicrobial agents have been marketed since that time Whole new classes of
antibiotics, both natural and synthetic, have been discovered, studied, and released for general
use. Many of these newer agents boast a broader spectrum of antimicrobial activity, yet
erythromycin's place in the clinician's arsenal is unthreatened because erythromycin remains
the drug of first choice for a number of pathogens against which the new drugs are inactive. It is
one of the safest antibiotics available for use today and when used against susceptible
organisms and in indicated clinical situations, its effectiveness is unquestioned.Azithromycin
and clarithromycin are alternatives to conventional macrolides in the routine treatment of many
dermatologic, upper respiratory, and lower respiratory tract infections. In this role as alternative
therapy, they are better tolerated, less toxic, and more convenient to take, although at a
greater cost to the patient. This dosing convenience is an important consideration for the
clinician as shown by Nelson, patient compliance ranges from 95% with once-daily dosing to
58% with four-times-a-day dosing. Thus, less
frequent dosing with both5
drugs as well as the
shorter course of6
therapy possible with azithromycin may be therapeutically advantageous.
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