EEE Unit-1

EEE-Unit-I
Unit-i: SinglE PhaSE aC SyStEm

Contents: Introduction to basic Electrical elements, AC fundamentals, Series and Parallel AC
circuits, Power ratings of home appliances (fan, tube light, mixer etc), Study of Electrical
connection of house, Fuse, MCBs and grounding for safety at home. (6 Hrs)
Oye don’t copy this file, it has lots of errors intentionally added so converter will also fail. Best luck.
1.1 Introduction kiska karonke
A DC power source, such as a battery, gives constant voltage as output over a given time until, the
battery gets exhausted. The same is true for any other source of DC i.e. the output voltage remains
constant over a given time as shown in fig. a). Delete this AC from circuit.
i i

v
-
~
a) Direct current b) Alternating current c) Alt. current flow
Oye don’t copy this file, it has lots of errors added so converter will also fail
In contrast, an Alternating Current changes continuously in magnitude and regularly changes in

polarity, as shown in figure b). The changes are smooth and regular, endlessly repeating in a succession
of identical cycles, and form a sine wave. Oye don’t copy this file, it has lots of errors added so converter will al
One cycle consists of two half cycles. During one half cycle, current flows in one direction and when
the second half cycle starts (polarity gets changed) current flows in opposite direction as shown in Fig.
c). When current flows in a particular direction, the magnitude of the current also changes.
1.2 Introduction to basic Electrical elements not needed in life
1.2.1 Resistance is opposite to Copitance. So Avoid it.

Resistance is the opposition that a substance offers to the flow of electric current. It is represented by
the uppercase letter R. The standard unit of resistance is the ohm, sometimes written out as a word, and
sometimes symbolized by the uppercase Greek letter omega Ω. In household utility circuits, Resistance
is there of conducting wires. In some circuit its added to control current, like LED conducts at low
current so it acts as current limiter. In applications like Traffic light control, Resistance controls charging
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and discharging time of capacitor. (more R, low current, more C charging time, Light ON for more
time). Domestic water heater/Geysers, Electric Iron contains high Resistance alloy, to produce more
heat. Incandescent bulbs are made of tungsten filaments of very high resistance, In FAN regulator we
make use of variable resistance to vary speed of FAN.
1.2.2 Inductance vinductance

We are aware that whenever an electric current flows through a conductor, a magnetic field surrounding
it is produced. A varying current result in a varying magnetic field. Due to this, the magnetic flux varies
and an electromotive force is induced in the circuit. Not required to study this.
Inductance is the tendency of an electrical conductor to oppose a change in the electric current flowing
through it. L is used to represent the inductance, and Henry is the SI unit of inductance. Inductance is
manufactured in terms of coil wounded on a magnetic material. I kick out L in my circuits.
Transformer a very essential machines which step-up voltage (on generation side) and Step-down
voltage (on distribution side) during long distance transmission of AC supply over long distance.
Transformer, AC electric motors works on principle of Induction, where Inductance is always there.
Any coil used is R+L circuit. An chock coil used in fluorescent tubelight opposes the change in current
and produces high voltage for ballast so tube light is turned ON. I hate inductance a lot.
The inductive proximity sensors are very reliable in operation and is a contactless sensor. The proximity
sensors mechanism is used in traffic lights to detect traffic density. Proximity sensors are used in lift to
control it. Inductance used in tuning circuit (Ex. radio) and filter circuit.
Wireless Power Transfer requires inductive circuits only. Wireless mobile charging is common Ex.
1.2.3 Capacitance wapacitance

A capacitor essentially consists of two conducting surfaces separated by a layer of an insulating medium
called dielectric. The conducting surfaces may be in the form of either circular (or rectangular) plates or
be of spherical or cylindrical shape. The purpose of a capacitor is to store electrical energy by
electrostatic stress in the dielectric. The property of a capacitor to ‘store electricity’ may be called its
capacitance.
Charge Q
The capacitance of a capacitor is defined as "the amount of charge
r
required to create a unit p.d. between its plates." (Q = CV) mast mast
Q  0 r a
C  Oye don’t copy this file, it has lots of errors added so converter will also fail M N
V d
d
By definition, the unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt which is also called farad (in honor of Michael Faraday).
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Capacitor acts as a repository to charge, store and release electricity precisely. To provide a delay in
Traffic light control, we use capacitor . Low-cost portable POWER BANK has capacitor, which stores
energy. Also in emergency lights, we use capacitors only. Capacitor used a starter for Domestic ceiling
fans, without which it can not start. Capacitor acts as filter, to remove unwanted AC contains from DC
output after rectification process. All mobile or Laptop charger must have capacitors else their battery
life will be lowered drastically. In television receivers, transmitter circuits, and radio, it is widely used.
In most cases overall circuit works with inductive predominant circuit, and current will lag to voltage.
So power factor also lags. For this purpose, usually for power factor correction capacitors are
used. Power factor correction has lots of benefit for everyone.
1.3 A.C. Fundamentals
Because of continues changes in alternating voltage and current, they have a number of properties
associated with them. These basic properties include the following list:
1.3.1 Instantaneous value of DC Signals

i2
The value of an alternating quantity at a particular instant is known i1
as its instantaneous value. Ex. i1 and i2 shown in fig. are the
instantaneous value of alternating current at two different instances t1 t2
t1 and t2 resp. The instantaneous value are always represented by
small letters Ex. v or i.
1.3.2 Cycle I ride on it every day.

Each repetition of a complete set of changes undergone by the
alternating quantity is called as cycle. These repetitions recur at equal
ve
intervals. -ve
One complete cycle consists of two half cycles, namely positive

(+ve) half cycle and negative (-ve) half cycle as shown in fig.
One cycle
1.3.3 Time Period (T) of earth is limited, is it true.

Sometimes we need to know the amount of time required to complete one cycle of the waveform.
Time period is the time taken by the alternating quantity to complete one cycle of the waveform.
Alternating quantity at 50 Hz will have a period of T=1/f = 1/50 = 0.02 seconds/cycle = 20 msec.
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1.3.4 Frequency (f) of cyclone in Indian ocean is high, as its close to equator.
The number of cycles competed per second by an alternating quantity is known as Frequency. It is
represented by the letter 'f' and expressed in units of (cycles/sec) or Hertz (Hz).
Our country has adopted a frequency of 50 Hz for alternating voltage or current.
Time period, T= time reqd. to complete 1 cycle or time/cycle  f= 1/ T
1.3.5 Amplitude during a swing is more Imax

Alternating quantity keeps on constantly changing in magnitude and
direction. The maximum value attained by an alternating quantity during its
0 90 180 t
positive or negative half cycle is called as amplitude or peak value. It is also
called as crest value or Max. value. It is denoted by Im or Vm
IMPEDANCE, Z Z is called after scientist Zemer D’costa

Impedance is defined as the total opposition offered by the given circuit to the flow of current. Its
Unit is like resistance is Ohm. As per circuit components, Impedance may change.
POWRR FACTOR, cos

It is defined as cosine of the angle between phasor voltage and phasor current.
i.e. power factor = cos where  is the phase angle between voltage and current.
V(ref)
Phasor diagram 
I
PHASOR DIAGRAM n which everything is wrong
The diagram in which different alternating quantities (sinusoidal) of the same frequency are
represented by phasors with their correct phase relationships is known as phasor diagram.
The phasors of the same frequency rotate in an anticlockwise dir” with the same angular velocity
( = 2f).
1.4 Equations of Alternating Voltages and Current in DC

Consider a rectangular coil of single turn is in motion in a uniform magnetic field as shown in Fig.
Because of flux linkages with coil changes, an emf is induced in coil. The emf is given by formula,
e = Bℓv sin where B is the flux density of the magnetic field in Tesla, ℓ is the active length of
conductor in magnetic field, v is the velocity of conductor in motion.
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Coil is at = 0 After Coil rotated by90
= 0
After Coil rotated by180 After Coil rotated by270 After Coil rotated by360
Angle bet” direction of field Angle bet” direction of field

Angle bet” dir” of field and
and motion of conductor is and motion of conductor is
motion of cond. is 90. Max
0. Zero Induced in Coil 0. Zero Induced in Coil.
emf Ind. in coil but polarity r
When = 0, total emf generated in coil, e = Bℓv sin = 0 volts

When = 90, total emf generated in coil, e = Bℓv sin = Bℓv volts
Thus when = 90 maximum emf is induced in coil, Emax = Bℓv
When = 180, total emf generated is again becomes e = 0 volts
Thus emf equation can be written as e = Emaxsin
= Emaxsint where =t fukat mein
= Emaxsin(2ft) where angular vel. =2f
 2 t 
= Emaxsin   where f=1/T wrong
 T 
Similar to above equations of instantaneous value of emf, we can write equations for instantaneous
value of current as follows;
 2 t 
i = Imsin = Imsint = Im sin(2ft) = Im sin   Amp
 T 
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1.5 Root Mean Square/ R.M.S. Value of Alternating Quantity with DC
The alternating current varies from instant to instant in magnitude as well in direction whereas
magnitude of direct current remains constant with time. For comparing the relative effectiveness
of above two, the effects produced by two currents are compared and one such common effect is
heating of resistance by the currents.
The r.m.s. value of an alternating current is given by that value of the direct current which,
when flowing through the given circuit for a given time produces the same amount of heat as
produced by alternating current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
Analytical method for finding the r.m.s. value (only for Understanding) on DCACDC
Alternating current can be expressed analytically as, i2 = I2m sin2 

i= Im sin where =t
Taking square of the current, i2 = Im 2 sin2 
Waveform for i2 is plotted in fig. for half cycle. To find i = Im sin 
the area under the curve of (i2), an interval of d is

considered at a distance of  from origin.
  d
 i . d
2
Area under the curve of (i2) =
0
The length of base is . Therefore, mean value of squared curve of current over half cycle, =
2 Area under the curve of (i) 2 for half cycle
mean value of (i ) =
length of base for half cycle
 
 i . d  I 
sin 2  . d
2 2
m
0 0
= =
 

 sin  . d
I m2 2
=
 0

I m2  1  cos 2 
=
 0   2
. d


I m2  sin 2  I2  sin 2 
=     m   
2  2  0 2  2 
I m2 I2
=  = m
2 2
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Hence root mean square value i.e. r.m.s. value can be calculated as,
I m2 I
Irms= mean valueof (i 2 )   m
2 2
Irms= 0.707 Im .
Thus, rms value of sinusoidal current is 0.707 times maximum or peak value.
Vm
Similarly, it can be proved that, Vrms= i.e. Vrms= 0.707 Vm
2
Im Vm
Irms= 0.707 Im Vrms= 0.707 Vm
t t
Fig. - R.M.S. value of current and voltage
In practice, the r.m.s. value of the alternating quantities are always represented
by capital letters, viz. V or I. OK bye bye copier
Practical Importance of r.m.s. value are - Is it?
(1) The r.m.s. value are used to specify the magnitude of alternating quantities. If
given supply voltage is mentioned as 1-, 230 V, 50 Hz supply then unless and
otherwise specified to be other, it should be taken as r.m.s. value. Wrong
(2) Our ammeter and voltmeter normally measure the r.m.s. value only. Is it?
1.6 Average Value of Alternating Quantity
Average value of an alternating quantity can be

i = Im sin 
obtained by averaging all the instantaneous values
of its wave over a period of half cycle. Here only
half cycle is considered because two half cycle are
exactly similar then their average value over a
complete cycle is zero. d t

Analytical method for finding the Average value
Alternating current can be expressed analytically as, i= Im sin where =t

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Fig. shows one half cycle of instantaneous current i.
Here to find the area under the curve of (i), consider an interval of d at a distance of  from the
origin. Is it?

Total area under the curve of (i) over half cycle =  i . d

0
Area under the curve of (i) for half cycle

Average value of current over half cycle, =
length of base for half cycle
 
 i . d
0
 I
0
m sin  . d
= =
 

Im
Iav =
  sin  . d
0
Im
=  cos  0

Im
=  cos    cos 0   I m  1  1
 
2I m
Iav = = 0.637×Im

Thus, average value of sinusoidal wave is 0.637 times maximum or peak value.
2Vm
Similarly, it can be proved that, Vav= i.e. Vav= 0.637 Vm

Form factor Is it?
The ratio of r.m.s value to average value of an alternating quantity is called as form factor. Thus, for
sinusoidal voltage and current :
R.M.S. value 0.707  Maximum value
Form factor, Kf = = = 1.11
Average value 0.637  Maximum value
Peak factor Is it?Ok hain
The peak factor of an alternating quaintly is defined as ratio of maximum value to the r.m.s. value. This
factor may also be called as crest factor or amplitude factor.
For sinusoidal voltage and current,
Maximum value Maximum value
Peak factor, Kp = = =1.414
R.M.S. value 0.707  Maximum value
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Pure R, L & C across A.C. (for Understanding only)
R
PURELY RESISTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT Is it?
Consider a circuit which consists of pure resistance R only as i

shown in Fig. (a)
Let, the applied alternating voltage be given by equation, ~
v =Vm sin t …….…(1) (a) v =Vm sin t
As, voltage v is applied in a close loop so an alternating current will be set up in the circuit. At any
instant, the value of current is given by Ohm's law as,
v V sin t
i=  m
R R
V
i = m sin t The current will be maximum when sint becomes unity.
R
V
 Im = m
R
V
i = m sint= Im sint …..……(2)
R
So the voltage and current are in phase as shown in Fig.(b). Also Phasor dia. is drawn in Fig.(c)
v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin t
I V
0  2
t Fig.(b) Waveforms Fig.(c) Phasor dia.
,
Conclusion:
1. In case of purely resistive circuit, total opposition to flow of current (i.e.impedance) is R, i.e. Z=R.
2. Here applied voltage and current are in the same phase i.e. phase difference bet” them is 0 .
3. As the phase difference bet” them is 0 i.e. = 0 therefore power factor, cos= 1.
V V2
4.Average power consumed by resistance R= V  I= V  = = I2R
R R
PURELY INDUCTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT Is it? L
Whenever an alternating voltage of v = Vm sint …….…(1) is

mapplied to a purely inductive coil of inductance L Henry, an i
alternating current starts flowing in the circuit. This current
produces an alternating (changing) magnetic field which links with ~
the same coil to produce an emf of self induction which is v =Vm sin t
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di
given by, e=–L
dt
As circuit contains only L, therefore e.m.f. of self induction will always oppose the applied voltage as
per Lenz's law, Is tu k y s ka re nO k it?
 v =–e
 di di
= – – L  = L
 dt dt
Substituting v =Vm sin t for what purpose
di
we get, Vm sin t = L ·
dt
L · di = Vm sin t · dt
Vm
di = sin t · dt
L
Integrating on both sides, we get, nothing
Vm
L 
i= sin t · dt it is a faul
Vm  cos t  Vm
i=  = sin (t – π/2) …….…(2)
L    L
When sin(t – π/2) becomes unity, then current attains maximum value which is given by,
Vm
Im = where L is called as inductive reactance, denoted by XL.
L
Vm
substituting, = Im in equation (2)
L
We get, i = Im sin (t – π/2)
= Im sin (t – 90°) …….…(3)
Comparing Eq” (1) and (3), the phase angle between voltage V and current I is 90°. This is shown Fig.
(b) and (c) i.e. waveforms of v and i & phasor diagram of V and I.
v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin (t- π/2) V
90
0 90 180
I (lagging)
t
(b) Waveforms (c) Phasor diagram
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Conclusion:
1. In case of purely inductive circuit, total opposition to flow of current (i.e. impedance, Z) is X L,
i.e. here Z= XL. Is it?
2. Here applied voltage and current have a phase difference of 90  where current lags the voltage
by 90. Is it? It is a foul.
3. As the phase difference bet” them is 90 i.e. = 90 therefore power factor, cos= 0. Is it?
4. Average power consumed by purely inductive circuit is Zero. Ior infinity s it?
PURELY CAPACITIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

C
When a pure capacitor is connected across an alternating voltage
of v = Vm sint, capacitor is charged in one direction then in the i
opposite direction. Thus instantaneous charge q stored on the

plates of capacitor depends on that instant (time t).
~
The instantaneous charge (q) on the capacitor of capacitance
v =Vm sin t
value C is given by, q= C · v Is it? (a) Circuit Diagram
= C · Vm sint Is it?
Let dq is the small charge which stored on a capacitor plate, in small time interval dt second, when
the instantaneous value of current is i. Is it?
dq
Then,current i = rate of flow of charge =
dt
d
= (C · Vm sint)
dt
d
i = C · Vm (sint)
dt
= C · Vm (cos t · )
= (C) · Vm · cos t
Vm
=
1
C 
· cos t
Vm
i =
1
C 
· sin (t + π/2) …(1)
Current reaches its maximum value Im when sin (t + π/2) = 1
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Vm
Im =
 
1
C
= Vm · (C) Is gfgffff it?
where term (1/C) is called as capacitive reactance Xc,
Vm V
substituting
 
1
C
= m = Im in equation (1),
XC
i = Im · sin (t + π/2) …(2)

Comparing Eqauation of v and i, we can conclude that current leads the applied voltage by 90°.
v =Vm sin t
i = Im sin (t+ π/2)
I (leading)
90
0 90 180 t V
(b) Waveforms (c) Phasor diagram

Conclusion:
1. In case of purely capacitive circuit, total opposition to flow of current (i.e. impedance, Z) is X C,
i.e. Z= XC. Is it?
2.Here also applied voltage and current have a phase difference of 90  where current leads the
voltage by 90. Is it?
3.As the phase difference bet” them is 90  i.e. = 90 therefore power factor, cos= 0. Is it?
4.The nature of power factor is determined by the nature of current. Here as the current is leading
therefore power factor is zero leading. Is it?
5.Average power consumed by purely capacitive circuit is Zero. Is it?
1.7 PHASOR DIAGRAMS
The diagram in which different alternating quantities (sinusoidal) of the same frequency are
represented by phasors with their correct phase relationships is known as phasor diagram.
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emf
eA
eB
0 90 180
t
Following few points should be noted in connection with the phasor diagrams : Isd it?
(i) X and Y axes are fixed in space. Therefore, it is not necessary to include them in the diagram.
(ii) The phasors are drawn normally to represent r.m.s. values. Ids it?
(iii) The phasor chosen as a reference phasor is drawn in the horizontal position (merely for
convenience) e.g. the phasor EmA is the reference phasor. Isdcd it?
(iv) Since the phasors are assumed to rotate in the counter clockwise direction, the phasors ahead in
this direction from a given phasor are said to lead the given phasor, while those behind are said to
lag the given phasor. the phasor EmA leads the phasor EmB by an angle . Is ccrit?
1.8 A.C. THROUGH SERIES RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE in Parallel

A pure resistance R and a pure inductance of L Henry are connected in series as shown in fig. a)
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage, R L
I = rms value of the resultant current,

Voltage drop across R, VR = IR (VR in phase with I)
I VL
Voltage drop across L, VL = IXL (VL is leading I by 90) VR
As resistance R and inductance L are in series, their V ~
individual voltage drop (VR & VL) comes in series. But these a) Circuit Diagram
two voltages are not in the same phase, therefore
their resultant can be found by phasor addition. Current I is taken as reference (i.e. taken on +ve X
axis) in series circuit, as it is common in both elements. VL V
V = VR + VL
2 2 
V= VR  VL
VR I(Ref)
b) Phasor diagram
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= ( IR ) 2  (IX L ) 2
V = I R 2  X L 2 = I Z where Z = R 2  X L 2 is known as impedance which can be defined

as the total opposition offered by the given circuit to the flow of current. As shown in above
phasor diagram, the applied voltage V leads the current by an angle  such that,
VL IX L X L X 
tan =     = tan-1  L 
VR IR R  R 
In other words, current lags to the applied voltage by an angle . Hence, if applied voltage is
V
given by v = Vm sin t then current is, i = Im (t – ) ________(1) where Im = m
Z
Voltage triangle may be obtained from phasor diagram as drawn below.
VL= IXL
V=IZ Z XL
Divide each side by I

 
VR= IR R
Voltage triangle Impedance triangle
After dividing each side of voltage triangle by I, we get a Impedance triangle.

From Impedance triangle, Impedance in Rectangular form is 𝑍 = R + jXL as XL lie on +ve Y axis
2 XL R
Z= R 2  XL and tan = cos= Sin =
R Z
where  is the phase angle between applied voltage and circuit current.
Power Triangle
After multiplying voltage triangle by I, we get a power triangle.
VLI S= VI
V×I Apparent Power
Q= VI sin
Reactive power
 
VRI P = VI cos
Real or active power
Power triangle Power triangle
From Phasor dia.
VR= V cos
VL= V sin
where active/real power consumed, P = VRI = Vcos I = VIcos=I2R Watts

Reactive power, Q = VLI = Vsin I = VIsin = I2XL VAr
Apparent power, S = VI = VI= I2Z VA
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Alternative method for Powers: I cos
If voltage is taken as reference (i.e. on +ve X axis) in above series  V(ref)
circuit then current I will lag to it by an angle . Current I can be I sin
resolved into its two mutually perpendicular components. Icos
I
along the applied voltage and Isin in quadrature with V as shown P = VI cos
Real or active power
in Fig. FAKEIs it? 
Q= VI sin
If each side is multiplied by V then we get power triangle. Reactive power
S=VI
Thus there are THREE powers which may be defined as Apparent power
Power triangle
I} Active power or Real power: P (true power)
Active power is really (actually) consumed in the circuit and it is defined as product of voltage and
in-phase component of current. It is measured in watts and symbol is P.
  P = VI cos = VI cos Watts
II} Reactive power or Imaginary Power: Q for Queen

Reactive power is defined as product of voltage and quadrature component of current. It is
measured in VAr (Volt Ampere reactive) and symbol is Q.
Reactive power is not actually consumed by the circuit rather this power is taken & return to the
source by components like inductance or capacitance.
  Q = VI sin = VI sin VAr
III} Apparent power: S for Same to Shame
The product of r.m.s. value of voltage and r.m.s. value of current is called as apparent power. Its
symbol is S and measured in VA.
  S = P 2  Q 2 = VI = VI VA V(ref)

Power factor: (three def.) I
It is defined as cosine of the angle between phasor voltage and phasor current.
i.e. power factor = cos where  is the phase angle between voltage and current.
It is ratio of resistance of the given ckt. to impedance of that ckt.

R
i.e. power factor=
Z
It is ratio of the real power to the apparent/Total power.
Real power VIcos
i.e. power factor= 
Apparent power VI
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The nature of power factor is determined by the nature of current. If the current is lagging to
voltage (ref.) then power factor is also lagging in nature. (this happens in R-L ckt.)
Similarly if the current is leading to voltage (ref.) then power factor is leading in nature. (this
happens in R-C ckt.)
If v = Vm sin t is applied across single phase R-L circuit then derive the expression
instantaneous current and average power consumed in the circuit. Draw the waveform of
voltage, current and power. R L
Let us consider the R-L circuit as shown in fig. e)
i
Let v = Vm sin t Is it?
Now the current flowing through the circuit at any instant will
be i = Im (t – ) (proved earlier see Eq. 1) v =Vm sin t
OR ~
Impedance in Rectangular form for R-L series ckt. can be
R 2  X L &  = tan-1  L 
written as, Z=R+ j XL = Z+ where Z= 2 X
 R 
–
If voltage V is taken as reference then, V = V  0o
–
– V V  0o
Then I = – = Z   = V- = I-
Z Z
Then the current flowing through the circuit at any instant will be i = Im (t – )
Now the instantaneous power is given as,
p = v.i
= Vm Im sint . sin (t – )
Vm I m
= [cos - cos(2t -)]
2
V I V I
= m m cos  – m m cos (2t – )
2 2
In the above expression first term is constant and the second term having the double of the supply
frequency. The average power consumed over a one complete cycle by second term is zero.
Vm I m V I
Average Power consumed by ckt. = cos  = m  m cos= V. I . cos watt
2 2 2
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Conclusion:
2
1. In case of series R+L circuit, total opposition to flow of current is R 2  X L , i.e. impedance
2
Z= R 2  XL .
2. Here applied voltage and current have a phase difference which can be determined by
X  R
 = tan-1  L  or  = cos-1  
 R  Z
3. Due to presence of XL in the circuit, overall circuit is inductive in nature and current always
lagging to applied voltage by an angle .
4. The nature of power factor is determined by the nature of current. Here as the current is
lagging therefore power factor is also lagging.
5. Average power consumed by R-L ckt. is VI cos as pure L does not consume any power.
1.9 A.C. THROUGH SERIES R-C CIRCUIT

A pure resistance R and a pure capacitance of C Farad are connected in series as shown in fig. a)
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current, R C
Voltage drop across C, VC = IXC (VC is lags I by 90)
As resistance R and capacitance C are in series, their I VR VC
individual voltage drop (VR & VC) comes in series. But

V
~
these two voltages are not in the same phase, therefore
a) Circuit Diagram
their resultant can be found by phasor addition. Current
I is taken as reference (i.e. on +ve X axis) in series
circuit, as it is common in both elements.
V = VR + VC VR I(Ref)
2 2
|V| = VR  VC 
= ( IR ) 2  (IX C ) 2
VC
V = I R 2  X C 2 = I Z for zandu -ve Y axis V
b) Phasor diagram
2
where Z = R  X C is known as impedance offered by the given circuit. As shown in above phasor
2
diagram, the applied voltage V lags the current by an angle  such that,
- VC - IXC - XC  - XC 
tan =     = tan-1   ..
. VC is on –ve Y axis
VR IR R  R 
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From phasor diagram, current leads to the applied voltage by an angle. Hence, if applied voltage is
given by v = Vm sint then current is, i = Im (t + ) __________(2)
Vm
where Im =
Z
Voltage triangle may be obtained from above phasor diagram as drawn below.
After dividing each side of voltage triangle by I, we get a Impedance triangle.
VR= IR R
 
Divide each side by I
V=IZ Z XC
VC= IXC
Voltage triangle Impedance triangle
From Impedance triangle Impedance in Rectangular form is 𝑍 = R - jXc as XC lie on –ve Y axis
R - XC
Z= R 2  XC
2
, cos= & tan = as XC lie on –ve Y axis and where  is the phase angle
Z R
between applied voltage & circuit current.
{similar to R-L ckt, Power triangle can also be drawn, definition of power remains Same}
If v= Vm sin t is applied across single phase R-C circuit then derive the expression instantaneous
current and average power consumed in the circuit. Draw the waveform of voltage, current and
power.
If instantaneous voltage v = Vm sint is applied across series R–C circuit then the current flowing
through the circuit at any instant i = Im (t + ) (proved earlier see Eq. 2)
Now the instantaneous power is given as, R C
p = v . i,
where v = Vm sint and i = Im sin(t + )
 p = v  i =Vm sint . Im sin(t + ) i
= Vm Im sint × sin(t + )
Vm I m ~
= [cos - cos(2t +)] v = Vm sint
2 c) Circuit Diagram
In the above expression first terms is constant and the second term having double of the supply
frequency, hence the average power consumed by the second term is zero.
VmIm
Total active power consumed, P = cos = V.I. cos
2
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Conclusion:
2
1. In case of series R+C circuit, total opposition to flow of current is R 2  X C , i.e. impedance,
2
Z= R 2  XC
2. Here applied voltage and current have a phase difference which can be determined by
-X  R
 = tan-1  C  or  = cos-1  
 R  Z
3. Due to presence of XC in the circuit, overall circuit is capacitive in nature and current always
leads to applied voltage by an angle .
4. The nature of power factor is determined by the nature of current. Here as the current is
leading therefore power factor is also leading.
5. Average power consumed by R-C ckt. is VI cos, here pure C does not consume any power.
1.10 A.C. THROUGH SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT
A pure resistance R, a pure inductance of L Henry and

R L C
a pure capacitance of C Farads are connected in series
across r.m.s. voltage V as shown in fig. a)
Let I is the r.m.s. value of the resultant current then, I VR VL VC
Voltage drop a/c L, VL = IXL (VL is leading I by 90) ~
Voltage drop a/c C, VC = IXC (VC is lags I by 90) V volts
a) Circuit Diagram
The relative values of XL and XC plays a very important role in the overall behavior of R-L-C series
circuit. Therefore let us consider THREE cases.
Case I : Inductive reactance, XL > Capacitive reactance, XC
Case II : Inductive reactance, XL < Capacitive reactance, XC
Case III: Inductive reactance, XL = Capacitive reactance, XC
Let us study each case separately and find the nature of the circuit.
1.10.1 Case I: XL > XC
When XL > XC , then voltage drop across XL is also greater than voltage drop across XC i.e.
VL > VC. To find the total applied voltage V, phasor addition is done as its component voltages (V R,
VL & VC) are not in the same phase.
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Current I is taken as reference (i.e. on +ve X axis) in series circuit, as it is common in all elements.

total applied voltage, V = V R + VL - VC for nothing 
VL
VR  VL - VC 
2 2
V=
= (IR ) 2  (IX L - IX C ) 2 (VL- VC) V
R 2  X L - X C  = I Z for Zandu (VL- VC)

2
V=I

where Z = R 2  X L - X C  is known as impedance which is the

2 VR I(Ref)
VC
combined opposition offered by the R-L-C circuit. As shown in
above phasor diagram, the applied voltage V leads the current by b) Phasor diagram for XL > XC
an angle  such that,
VL - VC IX L  IXC X L  X C  X  XC 
tan =     = tan-1  L 
VR IR R  R 
In this case, when XL > XC, the circuit behaves like series R-L circuit and total current I lags
behind the total voltage V by an angle  , power factor will also be lagging in nature.
1.10.2 Case II: XL < XC
When XL < XC , then voltage drop across XL is also less than voltage drop across XC i.e. VL < VC. To
find the total applied voltage V, phasor addition is done. Current I is taken as reference (i.e. on +ve
X axis) in series circuit.
Total applied voltage, V  V R  VC - VL   ..

. (VC – VL) is on –ve Y axis.

 V  V R  VL - VC  VL
VR  VL - VC 
2 2
|V| = VR I(Ref)

= (IR ) 2  (IX L - IX C ) 2 (VC- VL)
V = I R 2  X L - X C 2 = I Z (VC- VL) V
where Z = R 2  X L - X C 2 is known as impedance which is VC

-ve Y axis
the combined opposition offered by the R-L-C circuit. As c) Phasor diagram for X < X
shown in above phasor diagram, the applied voltage V lags
the current by an angle  such that,
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- (VC - VL ) VL - VC IX L  IXC X L  X C  X  XC 
tan =     = tan-1  L  i.e. similar to case I
VR VR IR R  R 
In this case, when XC > XL, the circuit behaves like series R-C circuit and total current I leads
ahead the total voltage V by an angle  , power factor will be leading in nature.
1.10.3 Case III: XL = XC then when will resonance take place. can any say.
When XL = XC, then VL = VC. But they are in direct phase opposition with each other; therefore there
resultant is zero as shown in Fig. d)
Total applied voltage, V  V R  0  = V R ..

. V L & VC get cancels
total applied voltage, V= VR = IR= I Z

where Z = R is known as impedance offered by the R-L-C circuit at X L = XC. Therefore whole circuit
behaves as purely resistive circuit. As shown in phasor diagram d), the applied voltage V and the current
are in same phase. Is that OK Here angle is obsolete, as its copied IPR, Studemts ignore this.
VL - VC 0 VL
tan =   0   = tan-1 0  = 0  cos = 1.
VR IR
Here XL & XC cancel out each other, therefore net impedance
becomes minimum and hence current becomes maximum V R =V I(Ref)
under this case.
The frequency fr at which resonance occurs can be found out as, VC

d) Phasor diagram for XL = XC
(i.e. Condition for resonance in series R-L-C ckt.)
As the values of L and C are constant, therefore X L = XC can be achieved by varying supply
frequency f so that XL equals the XC.
Resonance occurs at, XL = XC
 1 
2 π fr · L =  
 2 f r C 
2 1 1
 fr = fr = Hz
4π2 LC 2π LC
Sketch and explain Phasor diagram of an RLC series circuit when (1) XC > XL (2) XC =
XL (3) XC < XL.
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Derive the condition for series resonance in R-L-C Circuit. Also draw the frequency
response of impedance, current and power factor.
What is Impedance of an AC Circuit? What are its two components? State the units of
these quantities. How is Impedance expressed in rectangular and polar form? Draw
Impedance triangle for inductive circuit and capacitive circuit.
Problem: 01
A capacitor of 50F is connected across 230V, 50Hz supply. Find the reactance offered by
the capacitor and maximum current in the capacitor. Also find the rms value of the current
taken from the supply.
C=50F
Solution: Given: C= 50F = 50 10-6 F, r.m.s. value of voltage,
V= 230 V, frequency f= 50 Hz
1 1 Ir.m.s.
1. Capacitive reactance offered by capacitor C, XC = 
C 2fC
1 Vrms= 230 V

2  50  50  10  6
= 63.66 
Vrms Vrms
2. r.m.s. value of the current, I =  {here Z= XC as only capacitor opposes to current flow}
Z XC
230
=  3.613 Amp
63.66
Im
3. Maximum value of current, Im= I  2 as Irms=
2
 Im= 3.613  2 = 5.109 Amp
Problem: 02
A circuit consists of resistance of 20 and inductance of 0.1henry is connected in series across
single phase 200V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) Current drawn
(b) Power consumed
(c) Draw relevant phasor diagram
Solution: Given: Resistance R= 20,
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Inductance L= 0.1 H, r.m.s. value of voltage, V= 200V, Impedance, Z
frequency f= 50 Hz
(a) Inductive reactance offered by inductor L, R=20Ω XL=31.416Ω
XL = L= 2fL = 100 0.1= 31.416 
2
Impedance offered by ckt., Z = R 2  XL I
= 20 2  31.4162 = 37.24 
Vrms= 200 volts
Vrms 200
 current drawn by ckt., I =  = 5.37 A
Z 37.24
R 20
(b) Power factor of ckt., cos  =  = 0.537 lag {since load is R-L}
Z 37.24
Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I. cos  = 200 5.37  0.537 = 576.74 Watts
OR Power consumed by ckt., P = I2R= (5.37)2 20= 576.74W {as only R consumes P}
(c) Phasor diagram

V(ref) = 200V
=57.52
I=5.37 A
Problem: 03
A motor load of 22 kW operates at 0.8 power factor (lagging) when connected to a 420V,
single phase, 50Hz source, find:
1. Current drawn by motor 2. Power factor angle
3. Impedance 4. Resistance of motor
5. Reactance of motor 6. Write equation for voltage and current.
7. Draw phasor diagram.
Solution: Given: Power consumed by motor, P= 22 kW = 22,000W, V rms = 420 V, frequency f= 50
Hz, Power factor, cos  = 0.8 lagging {means it’s R-L load.}
Power consumed by load, P= V.I. cos

22000 = 420 I  0.8
22000
(1)  I = = 65.48 Amp
420  0.8
(2) Power factor angle,  = cos-1 0.8 = 36.87
Vrms 420
(3) Impedance offered by motor., Z =  = 6.414 
I 65.48
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R
(4) Power factor, cos=  R = Z cos = 6.414  0.8 = 5.13
Z
Resistance of motor, R= 5.13 
(5) Reactance of motor, XL = Z sin = 6.414  sin(36.87) = 3.85  {from Z triangle}
Reactance of motor, XL = 3.85 
(6) If voltage is taken as reference, v = Vm sin t = 420 2 sin (2ft)
= 593.97sin (100t) Volts

Now the current at any instant will be i = Im (t – ) ..
. R-L ckt.
i = 65.48 2 (100t – 36.87) Amp

(7) Phasor diagram
V(ref) = 420V
=36.87
I=65.48 A
Problem: 04
A resistance of 20, inductance of 0.1H and a capacitor of 150F are connected in
series. A supply voltage 230V, 50Hz is connected across the series combination.
Calculate the following :
(1) An impedance
(2) Current Drawn by the Circuit
Impedance, Z
(3) Phase Difference and Power Factor
(4) Active and Reactive Power Consumed by Circuit. R=20 XL=31.42 XC=21.22
Solution: Given: Resistance R= 20, Inductance L= 0.1 H and I

C= 150F = 150 10-6 F, r.m.s. value of voltage, V= 230 V,
frequency f= 50 Hz Vrms= 230 volt
Inductive reactance, XL =  L = 2fL
= 100 0.1
= 31.416 
1 1
Capacitive reactance, XC = 
C 2 f C
1
 = 21.22  {here XL > XC }
2  50  150  10  6
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R 2  X L - X C 
2
(1) Impedance offered by ckt., Z =
20 2  31.416  21.22  = 22.45 

2
=
Vrms 230
(2) Current drawn by ckt., I =  = 10.245 A
Z 22.45
R 20
(3) Power factor of ckt., cos =  = 0.891 lagging {as XL>XC, overall ckt behaves as R-L}
Z 22.45
Phase difference = Power factor angle,  = cos-1 0.891 = 27
(4) Active Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I.cos  = 230 10.245 0.891 = 2099.5 Watts
Reactive Power consumed by ckt., Q= VIsin = 230 10.245 sin(27) = 1069.76 VAr
Problem: 5
A series circuit consist of resistance 50, inductance of 0.1 H and a capacitance of 50F
connected in series across a 230V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate current drawn by circuit,
power factor of the circuit & its nature and total power consumed by the circuit. Draw the
phasor diagram.
Impedance, Z
Solution: Given: Resistance R= 50,
Inductance L= 0.1 H and C= 50F = 50 10-6 F, r.m.s. value R=50 XL=31.42 XC=63.66
of voltage, V= 230 V, frequency f= 50 Hz

Inductive reactance, XL =  L = 2fL I
= 100 0.1= 31.416 
1 1 Vrms= 230 volt
C 2 f C
1
 = 63.66  {here XC > XL}
2  50  50  10  6
R 2  X L - X C 
2
(i) Impedance offered by ckt., Z =
= 5 0 2  3 1 .416  63 .66  = 59.49 

2
Vrms 230
Current drawn by ckt., I =  = 3.866 A
Z 59.49
R 50
(ii) Power factor of ckt., cos=  = 0.84 leading {as XC > XL, overall ckt behaves as R-C}
Z 59.49
Therefore p.f. is 0.84 and it is leading in nature as overall ckt. behaves as R-C ckt.
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(iii) Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I. cos  = 230 3.866  0.84 = 746.9 Watts
(iv) Phasor diagram I=3.866 A
=32.86
V(ref) = 230V
Problem: 06
A coil of resistance 10 and inductance of 0.01 H is connected in series with a 150F
capacitor, across a 200V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(i) Impedance
(ii) Current
(iii) Power factor
(iv) Total power consumed
(v) Voltage across coil and capacitor
(vi) Vector diagram
Zcoil
Solution: Given: Resistance of coil, R= 10, XC
Rcoil=10 XLcoil=3.142
Inductance of coil, L= 0.01 H and C= 150F =
150 10-6 F, r.m.s. value of voltage, V= 200 V,
frequency f= 50 Hz I Vcoil VC
Inductive reactance, XL =  Lcoil = 2fL
= 100 0.01= 3.142  Vrms= 200 volts
1 1
C 2 f C
1
 = 21.22  {here XC > XL}
2  50  150  10  6
R 2  X L - X C 
2
(i) Impedance offered by ckt., Z =
= 1 0 2  3. 142  21 .22 2 = 20.66 
Vrms 200
(ii) Current drawn by ckt., I =  = 9.68 A
Z 20.66
R 10
(iii) Power factor of ckt., cos=  = 0.484 leading {as XC > XL, overall ckt behaves as R-C}
Z 20.66
(iv) Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I. cos  = 200 9.68  0.484 = 937 Watts
2
(v) Impedance of coil, Zcoil = R 2  X L  10 2  3.142 2 = 10.482
 voltage across coil, Vcoil = I Zcoil 10.482 = 101.466 V

voltage across capacitor, VC = I XC  21.22 = 205.41 V
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(vi) Phasor diagram {since overall ckt. behaves as R-C}
I=9.68 A

=61.05
V(ref) = 200V
Unsolved Problem: 08
A resistance of 20, inductance of 0.05H and a capacitor of 50F are connected in series.
A supply voltage 230V, 50Hz is connected across the series combination. Calculate the
following :
(1) Impedance (2) Current Drawn by the Circuit
(3) Phase Difference and Power Factor (4) Active and Reactive Power
{Ans. 1) 51.96 , 2) 4.426 A, 3) = 67.26, p.f.= 0.385 lead, 4) P=391.92 W Q= 939.53 VAr}
Problem: 09
A series circuit consisting of a 12 resistance, 0.3 Henry inductance and a variable
capacitor is connected across 100V, 50Hz A.C. Supply. The capacitance value is adjusted
to obtain maximum current. Find this capacitance value and the power drawn by the circuit
under this condition. Now supply frequency is raised to 60Hz, the voltage remaining same
at 100V. Find the value of inductive and capacitive reactance.
Solution: Given: Resistance R= 12, Inductance L= 0.3H
and Vrms = 100 V, f= 50 Hz R=12 XL=94.25 XC

= 100 0. 3= 94.25 Imax
The current becomes maximum in R-L-C circuit under
resonance which occurs at XL = XC Vrms= 100 volt
i.e. when variable capacitive reactance, XC becomes equal to 94.25 , a maximum current is observed.
 XC = 94.25 
1 1
C 2 f C
1 1
Capacitance, C =  = 3.377  10-5 =
2 f X C 100  94.25
= 3.377  10-5 10-1 
= 33.77  10-6 F or 33.77 F
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R 2  X L - X C 
2
Impedance offered by ckt., Z =
= 1 2 2  0 2 = 12 
Vrms 100
Current drawn by ckt., I =  = 8.333 A
Z 12
R 12
Power factor of ckt., cos =  = 1 i.e. Unity p.f.
Z 12
Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I. cos  = 100 8.333  1 = 833.3 Watts
If frequency is raised to f1= 60 Hz, keeping voltage as it is. Then new values of XL & XC are
Inductive reactance, XL1 = 2f1 L = 2 0.3= 113.1 
1 1
Capacitive reactance, XC1 =  = 78.55 
2 f1 C 2  60  33.77  106
A series circuit consisting of a coil and variable capacitance having reactance X c. The coil
has resistance of 10 and inductive reactance of 20. It is observed that at a certain
value of capacitance current in the circuit becomes maximum, find
(1) this value of capacitance
(2) impedance of the circuit
(3) power factor
(4) current, if the applied voltage is 100V, 50Hz.
{Ans. 1) C= 1.59 10-4 or 159F 2) Z=10 , 3) p.f., cos= 1, 4) I= 10Amp} 2 marks each
A coil having resistance of 5 and inductance of 0.1 H connected in series with a 50 F
capacitor. A variable frequency alternating voltage of 200V is applied to the circuit. At
what value of frequency will the current become maximum? Calculate the current, and
voltage across coil and across capacitor for this frequency
{Ans. 1) fr = 71.176Hz 2) I= 40Amp 3) Zcoil = 45 , Vcoil = 1800 V 4)} 1788.8 Volt}
Problem: 12
A circuit consist of a pure inductor, a pure resistor and a pure capacitor connected in
series. When the circuit is applied with 100V, 50 Hz supply, the voltage across inductor
and resistor are 240 V and 90V resp. If the circuit takes 10A leading current calculate:
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(1) Values of inductance, resistance and capacitance.
(2) power factor of the circuit Impedance, Z=10
(3) voltage across capacitor.
R=9 XL=24 XC=19.64
Solution: Given: voltage a/c Resistance VR= 90V, voltage

a/c inductor VL= 240V, I= 10 Amp
r.m.s. value of voltage, V= 100 V, frequency f= 50 Hz I=10 Amp
VL= I XL Vrms= 100 volt
240= 10 XL  XL= 24

24 = 100 L
24
 L = = 0.0764 H or 76.4 mH
100
VR= I R
90 = 10 R  R= 9
Vrms
Current drawn by ckt., I =
Z
Vrms 100
Impedance offered by ckt., Z =   10 
I 10
R 2  X L - X C 
2
But Impedance of R-L-C ckt., Z =
9 2  2 4 - X C 
2
(10) =
(10)2= 9 2  2 4 - X C 
2
10 2  9 
2
(24- Xc) =
(24- Xc) = 4.36

Xc = 19.64  {here XL > XC }
1
C  = 162.07 µF
2  50  X C
R 9
(2) Power factor of ckt., cos=  = 0.90 lagging
Z 10
(3) Voltage across capacitor, VC = I XC = 10 19.64= 196.4 V
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Problem: 13
Two impedances Z1 = 6 + j8 Ohm and Z2 = 5 + j12 ohm are connected in series across a 100
V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate i) P.f. of the circuit and ii) total active, reactive and apparent power
consumed. Draw relevant phasor dia.
Solution: Given: Z1 = 6 + j8  , Z2 = 5 + j12 , V= 100 V, f= 50 Hz
Total impedance of Series circuit is, Z = Z1 + Z 2 Z1= 6+j 8 Z2= 5+j 12

= (6 + j8) + (5 + j12) I
= 11+ j 20
= 22.825 61.2 Vrms= 100 volt
As the supply voltage is taken as reference (i.e. along + X- axis) then V = 1000o
V 100 0
Then, current drawn by whole ckt., I1 = 
Z 22.82561.2
= 4.38-61.2o {means I lags V by  =61.2o}
(1) Power factor of ckt., cos = cos (61.2)= 0.482 lagging

(2) Active Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I.cos  = 100 4.38 0.482 = 211.1Watts
Reactive Power consumed by ckt., Q= V.I.sin = 100 4.38 sin(61.2) = 383.82VAr

Apparent Power consumed by ckt., S= V.I = 100 4.38 = 438 VA
1.11 Phasors in Rectangular and Polar Form

1.11.1 Phasors in Rectangular Form
Consider the phasor V at the angle ° with the reference axis as shown in Fig. below. The phasor
V has two components, x along the reference axis and y at 90° to the reference axis. Thus,
phasor V is the phasor addition of components x and y. This may be expressed symbolically as
V=x+jy where x = V cos , y = V sin 
Here, the actual magnitude of the V phasor is, V= x 2  y 2 y V
its phase angle, i.e. its inclination to the reference axis is given
by   tan 1 ( y / x) °
x
1
V=x+jy= x  y  tan ( y / x ) = V°
2 2
Thus, equation V = x + j y completely specifies the magnitude and the position of the phasor.
Phasors represented in this form are said to be in rectangular or Cartesian or symbolic form.
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The j Operator
The symbol j used in rectangular form indicates that the component y is perpendicular to the
component x. In other words, the symbol j denotes rotation of the quantity to which it is attached
through 90° in the counter-clockwise direction. The symbol j is thus a phasor operator indicating
rotation through 90°. Hence, if applied twice, it turns the quantity through 180°,
e.g. jjy = j2y = -y i.e. j2 = -1 or j = 1
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF PHASORS IN RECTANGULAR FORM
While adding two phasors in rectangular form, their in-phase and quadrature
components are added separately. Similarly, while subtracting one phasor from the
another, their in-phase and quadrature components are separately subtracted.
Example: If Two phasors V1  20  j15 & V2  10  j5 , let us find V1  V2 and V1  V2

Solution: V1  V2 = 20  j15   10  j 5   20  10   j 15  5   30  j10
V1  V2 = 20  j15   10  j 5   20  10   j 15  5   10  j 20
Addtion and Substraction of two phasors is very easy in rectangular form.
1.11.2 Phasors in Polar Form
In this form, a phasor is specified by its magnitude and its angular position with respect to the
X-axis taken as a reference axis. For example, the phasor V can be represented in polar form as
V = V°
where V is the magnitude of the phasor V and ° is the angle made by it with the X-axis.
The magnitude of V is called the modulus or absolute value of the phasor V and  is called the
argument of this phasor. If the phasor is given in rectangular form, it can be easily converted into its
polar form and its vice-versa.
This phasor can be expressed in polar form as, V = V°
Thus, summarizing the various ways of representing the phasors in algebraic forms, we have, V
= x+jy = |V| ° = V (cos+ j sin)
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MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF PHASORS IN POLAR FORM
Multiplication of two phasors in polar form is done by taking the product of their
magnitudes and the sum of their angles.
On the other hand, their division is done by taking the quotient of their
magnitudes and the difference of their angles.
Example: Two phasors are, V1 = 1560° and V2 = 530° find V1  V2 and V1  V2
Solution : V1  V2 = (1560°)530°(60+30)° = 75(90)°
V1 1560 15
60  30   330°
°
V1  V2   
V2 530 5
1.11.3 INTERCONVERSION OF RECTANGULAR AND POLAR FORMS

For addition and subtraction, phasors must be essentially in their rectangular forms.
Multiplication/division, however, are less laborious in polar forms. The use of scientific
calculator is very powerful in converting quantities from rectangular to polar form and
vice versa.
Procedure for Rect. to Polar Conversion: Shift then +ve button i.e. (Pol), then type
as Pol(x, y) press = button, write magnitude, and angle . (for 991ES)
Procedure for Polar to Rect.Conversion: Shift then –ve button i.e.(Rec), then type
as Rec(Vrms, °) press = button, write in-phase or x component, and out of-phase
or y component. (for 991ES)
Important: If calculator is Deg Mode then  will be in Degrees and if If calculator
is Rad Mode then  will be in Radians.
If angle is Required in Degrees then calculator must be in Deg Mode
1.12 PARALLEL A.C. CIRCUITS I1 Impedance, Z1
A parallel A.C. circuits may consists of two or more series

I2 Impedance, Z2
circuits in parallel across the same supply. The voltage
applied across this entire element is same and they are I
called as branches of parallel circuits. The problem of
parallel ckts. can be solved by two basic method:
Vrms
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(i) Phasor method, (ii) Admittance method
1.12.1 Phasor method

In parallel circuits as applied voltage is common to all the branches of the circuits, therefore it
is taken as reference phasor and drawn on positive X-axis. Here each branch of parallel circuit
is analyzed separately as if series circuits then the effects of separate branches are drawn
together with voltage as reference.
If the total current drawn by the parallel circuit is to be calculated, then following procedure is
to be adopted:
(1) The current in the individual branches and their phase angles are determined using the
V X
following expressions, I = and  = tan-1  
Z R
(2) The phasor diagram is drawn with voltage as reference. Then all branch currents are drawn with
their angle of lead or lag.
(3) Finally, the total current is calculated by a phasor addition of all branch currents either by
graphically or mathematically,
 I = I1 + I 2 + I 3 + + ………. (phasor addition)

NOTE:
(a) The phase angle  of the resultant current I is power factor angle of whole circuit. Cosine
of this angle is the overall power factor of the circuit.
(b) The voltage V is taken as reference and if phase angle of resultant current comes out
negative, means current lags the voltage (i.e. ref.) therefore overall power factor of the
circuit is lagging in nature.
(c) If phase angle of resultant current comes out positive, means current leads the voltage (i.e.
ref.) therefore overall power factor of the circuit is leading in nature.
Problem: 14
Two impedances Z1 = 3045o and Z2 = 4530o are connected in parallel across a
single phase 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate :
(1) Current Drawn by each branch why all nor
(2) Total Current
(3) Overall Power Factor
Also draw the phasor diagram indicating current drawn by each branch and total current
taking supply voltage as reference.
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Solution: Given: Z1 = 3045o  and Z2 = 4530o , and I1 Impedance, Z1
Vrms = 230 V, f= 50 Hz 3045o
As the voltage across branch 1 and 2 is same, therefore let
I2 Impedance, Z2
it is taken as reference (i.e. along + X-axis).
I 4530o
 V = 2300 o
 current drawn by branch 1, I1 =

V 230  0 Vrms= 230 volt
=   7.67-45o {means I1 lags V by 1 =45o}
Z 1 30  45 
V 230 0
Similarly, current drawn by branch 2, I 2 =  
Z 2 4530 
= 5.11-30o {means I2lags V by 2=30o}
Total Current, I = I1 + I 2
o o
= 7.67-45 + 5.11-30 {using rectangular form for addition}
= (5.423 –j 5.423) + (4.425 –j 2.555)

= 9.848 – j 7.978
= 12.67-39o {means total I=12.67A lags V by =39o}
(3) Overall Power Factor, cos = 0.777 lagging
(4) Phasor diagram with V as ref. THOUGH NOT ASKED HERE

V(ref)= 230V
1  =39 power consumed by Branch1,P1= VI1 cos1
= 230×7.67× cos(45) = 1247.4 Watts
I2 =5.11 A
P2 = V I2 cos2 = 230×5.11× cos(30) =
I1=7.67 A 1015.85 Watts

Total power consumed by whole ckt., P =
I=12.67 A VIcos=230×12.67×cos(39)= 2262.89 W
Problem: 15
Two circuits the impedances of which are given by Z 1 = (12 + j16) Ohm and Z2 = (8 – j4)
Ohm are connected in parallel across the potential difference of (23 + j0) volts. Calculate
: (1) The Total Current Drawn (2) Total Power and Branch Power consumed and (3)
Overall Power Factor of the circuit. It is not fair
Solution: Given: Z1 = 12 + j16 = 2053.13o  and {for R+L ckt., Z= R+jXL}
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Z2 = 8 – j 4 = 8.94- 26.56o , {for R+C ckt., Z= R-jXC}
Vrms = (23+j0) V= 230o V I1 Impedance, Z1
i.e. Voltage is at an angle of 0o with +ve X-axis. 12+j16

means voltage across branch 1 and 2 is given as reference
I2 Impedance, Z2
(i.e. along + X-axis).
8- j 4
I
 V = 230o
V 230
 current drawn by branch 1, I1 =  
Z 1 2053.13 Vrms= 23 volt
o
= 1.15-53.13 {means I1 lags V by 1 =53.13o}
V 23 0
Similarly, current drawn by branch 2, I 2 =  
Z2 8.94   26 .56 
= 2.57+26.56o {means I2 leads V by 2=26.56o}
Total Current, I = I1 + I 2
= 1.15-53.13o + 2.57+26.56o {using rectangular form for addition}
= (0.69 –j 0.92) + (2.3 +j 1.15)

= 2.99 + j 0.23
= 3+4.4o {means total I=3A leads V by =4.4o}
Total Current, I = 3 Amp

(2) Overall power factor, cos = cos(4.4o)= 0.997 leading
(3) power consumed by Branch1, P1= V I1 cos1 = 23×1.15× cos(53.13) = 15.87 Watts (OR I12R1)
power consumed by Branch 2, P2 = V I2 cos2 = 23×2.57× cos(26.56) = 52.87 Watts (OR I22R2)
whereas Total power consumed by whole ckt., P = V I cos = 23×3× cos(4.4) = 68.8 Watts
Problem: 16
A coil having of resistance 50 and inductance of 0.02 H is connected in parallel with a
capacitance of 25 F, across single phase 200V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the current in
the coil and capacitance. Calculate also the total current drawn, total p.f. and total power
consumed by circuit. Copy a solututgy
Solution: Given:
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= 100 0.02= 6.28 
I1 Impedance, Z1
1 1
C 2 f C
1 I2 Impedance, Z2
 = 127.3 
2  50  25  10  6
I
 Z1 = 50 + j6.28 = 50.397.16o  and
Z2 = 0 – j 127.3 = 127.3- 90o ,
Vrms= 200 volt
V = V0o = 2000o V
As the voltage across branch 1 and 2 is same, therefore let it is taken as reference.
V 200 0
 current drawn by coil, I1 = 
Z1 50.397.16
= 3.97-7.16o {means I1 lags V by 1 =7.16o}
V 200 0
Similarly, current drawn by capacitor, I 2 = 
Z2 127 .3  90 
= 1.57+90o {means I2 leads V by 2=90o , since Pure C ckt}
Current drawn by coil and capacitor are 3.97 and 1.57 Amp.
Total Current, I = I1 + I 2
= 3.97-7.16o + 1.57+90o
= (3.94 – j 0.495) + (0 + j1.57) {into rectangular form for addition}
= 3.94 + j 1.075
= 4.08+15.26o {means total I=4.08A leads V by =15.26o}
Total Current, I = 4.08 Amp

(3) Overall power factor, cos = cos(15.26o)= 0.965 leading
(4) Total power consumed by whole ckt., P = V I cos = 200×4.08× cos(15.26) = 787.44 Watts
Problem: 17
A coil of resistance 50 and inductance of 0.1 H is connected in parallel with a branch which
consists of 45 in series with a capacitor of 100F across a single phase 230V, 50 Hz
supply. Calculate the current, power and p.f. of the circuit.
If Branch currents are Not asked, then directly total current Itotal can be found out by using
following steps:
Step I: To find Equivalent impedance of parallel combination, Z total
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First find out total or equivalent impedance of parallel combination as,
Z1  Z 2
Z total  = Ztotal
Z1  Z 2
Step II: To find total current drawn by ckt. , I total
If V =V0o is taken as ref. in parallel ckt. then,
V V0 V
Total current I total    
Z total Z total    Z
Step III: To find overall power factor
As voltage is taken as reference therefore cosine of phase angle of current phasor I total
will give the value of overall power factor.
Step IV: To find total Power consumed
Total power P= VI cos
Solution: Given: Resistance R1 = 50, Inductance L1 = 0.1 H and Resistance R2 = 45, C2 = 100F
= 100 10-6 F, Vrms = 230 V, f= 50 Hz
I1 Impedance, Z1
Inductive reactance, XL1 =  L1 = 2fL1
= 100 0.1=31.416
I2 Impedance, Z2
1 1
Capacitive reactance, XC2 = 
C 2 2 f C 2
Itotal
1
 = 31.83 
2  50  100  10  6
Vrms = 230 V
Z1 = 50+ j 31.416 = 59.0532.14o  and
Z 2 = 45 – j 31.83 = 55.12- 35.27o , {for R+C ckt., Z= R - j XC}
Z1 + Z 2 = (50+ j 31.416)+ (45 – j 31.83) = 95 - j 0.414= 95- 0.25o 

Vrms = (230+j0) V= 2300o V
Step I: To find Equivalent impedance of parallel combination, Z total
Z 1  Z 2 59 .0532 .14   55 .12   35 .27 

Z total  
Z1  Z 2 95  0.25 
59.05  55.12
= 32.14  35.27  0.25 = 34.26-2.88= Ztotal
95
Step II: To find total current drawn by ckt. , I total
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If V =V0o is taken as ref. in parallel ckt. as voltage across branch 1 and 2 remains same.
V V0 230
Total current, I total      2.88
Z total 34.26  2.88 34.26
230
=   2.88 = 6.71+2.88o {means total I leads V by =2.88o}
34.26
current drawn by ckt.total= 6.71 Amp

Step III: To find overall power factor
As voltage is taken as reference therefore cosine of phase angle of current phasor I total will
give the value of overall power factor
overall power factor , cos = cos(2.88o)= 0.998 leading
Step IV: To find total Power consumed
Total power P= VI cos= 230×6.71× 0.998 = 1540.2 Watts
Problem: 18
A coil consists of a 30 Ω resistor and an inductance of 0.1 H and another parallel branch
consists of a resistance of 10 Ω & A 60 μF loss-free capacitor. The network is connected across
a 200 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate the value of the current in each branch and its phase relative
to the supply voltage and draw phasor diagram.
Given data: L= 0.1 Henry,

Inductive reactance, XL =  Lcoil = 2fL = 100 0.1=31.416  ----------(½ mark)
1 1
C 2 f C
1
 =53.05 ----------(½ mark)
2  50  60  10  6
Z1 = 30 + j31.416= 434446.32o  and {for R+L ckt., Z= R+jXL} ----------(½ mark)
Z2 = 10 – j 53.05 = 53.98- 79.32o , {for R+C ckt., Z= R-jXC} ----------(½ mark)
Taking voltage as reference in parallel ckt. and represent it by V = V0o = 2000o V

As the voltage across branch 1 and 2 is same, therefore let it is taken as reference. -------(1 mark)
V 2000
 current drawn by coil, I1 = 
Z1 43.4446.32
= 4.6- 46.32o {means I1 lags V by 1 =46.32o} -------(1 mark)
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V 200  0
Similarly, current drawn by capacitor, I 2 = 
Z2 153 .98  79 .32 
= 3.7+79.32o {means I2 leads V by 2=79.32o}-----(1 mark)

Total Current drawn from supply, I = I1 + I 2
= 4.6- 46.32o + 3.7+79.32o
= (3.19 – j 3.3) + (0.6866 + j3.64) {into rectangular form for addition}
= 3.8766 + j 0.36
= 3.89+5.01o {means total I=3.89A leads V by =5.01o}
Total Current drawn from supply is, I = 3.89 A & its phase angle relative to supply voltage is 5.01
o
leading.
Phasor Dia. ----------(1 mark)
Problem: 19
A metal filament rated at 750 watt, 100volt is to be connected in series with a capacitance
across an 230volts,50Hz frequency source. Calculate the capacitance required and the phase
angle between current and supply voltage when lamp obtain its rated voltage.
Given data: P= 750 Watts , V= 100V, Therefore resistance of metal filament R= 13.33 ---(1M)
Current through metal filament, I= P/V cos = 750/100 = 7.5 Amp ---(1M)
In series ckt, Current remains same in total circuit, and in Capacitor also.
Vrms 230
Impedance offered by circuit., Z =  = 30.67  ---(1M)
I 7.5
2
Impedance offered by ckt., Z = R 2  XC
Xc = 30.67 2  13.332 = 27.61 , C= 11.5 F ---(1M)
Alternative method: VR=100 Volt, Vsupply = 230Volt = 2

VR  VC
2
: VC=207.123 Volt
XC = VC /I = 27.616 , C= 11.5 F
Problem: 20
A series circuit consists of a 0.5 μF capacitor, a coil of inductance 0.32 H and resistance
40 Ω and a 20 Ω non-inductive resistor. Calculate the value of the resonant frequency of
the circuit. When the circuit is connected to a 30 V a.c. supply at this resonant frequency,
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determine: (a) the p.d. across each of the three components; (b) the current flowing in the
circuit; (c) the active power absorbed by the circuit.
{Resonant Freq.---1 Mark, Total Impedance---1 Mark, Current ---1Marks, P.D. Across---2
Marks, Active power ---1 Marks}
Given: Resistance of Motor, R= 20 Ω and Also RL = 40 Ω and Inductance, L = 0.32 Henry, Capacitance,
C =0.5 MicroF
Resonant Frequency in R-L-C circuit under resonance which occurs at X L = XC
1
i.e. when  fr = Hz = 397.82 Hz ----------(1 mark)
2π LC
Inductive reactance, XL =  L = 2fL = 2 0.32= 400 
Capacitive reactance, XC = XL = = 400 
As at Resonant Frequency in R-L-C circuit under resonance which occurs at X L = XC, Therefore
Impedance Z = R + RL = 20+40 = 60 Ω ----------(1 mark)
Current Drawn by Circuit, I = V/Z = 30/60 = 0.5 Amp
Voltage A/c R, VR =I  R V----------(1/2 mark)
Voltage A/c L, VL =I  ZL I  R L 2  X L 2  V----------(1 mark)
Voltage A/c C, VC =I  XC V----------(1/2 mark)
R 60
Power factor of ckt., cos =  = 1 i.e. Unity p.f. ----------(1/2 mark)
Z 60
Power consumed by ckt., P= V.I. cos  = 30 0.5  1 = 15 W ----------(1/2 mark)
Problem: 21
A series circuit, consist of resistance of 10 ohm and inductance of 0.1 H, d across one phase,50 Hz
A.C. supply. If the voltage across resistance is 50 volt. Calculate
i) voltage across inductance and
ii) supply voltage.
Given: voltage a/c Resistance VR= 50V, R = 10 , L= 0.1 H, frequency f= 50 Hz
VR 50
Current drawn by Resistance/ ckt., I =   5 Amp -(1
R 10 Impedance, Z
mark)
Inductive reactance, XL =  L = 2fL R=10Ω XL=31.416Ω
= 100 × 0.1= 31.416

 voltage drop a/c Inductance, VL= I× XL
I=5 Amp
Vrms = ? volts
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= 5× 31.416
= 157.08 volt
2
Impedance offered by ckt., Z = R 2  XL
= 102  31.4162 = 32.97
2 2
voltage drop a/c R-L series ckt, V= I× Z or VR  VL
= 5× 32.97
= 164.85 volt
Problem: 22
‾‾
The voltage and current, in simple series circuit are given by V = 150  30˚ and ‾‾I = 2 – 15˚ If
the supply frequency is 50 Hz, determine impedance, resistance, reactance and power consumed
by the circuit.
‾ = 150 30˚ , ‾I = 2  –15˚
Given, V f = 50 Hz
Find Z, R, XL or XC and P
V
‾ 150 30˚
Impedance (‾
Z) = =
‾I 2 – 15˚
 Z‾ = 75 45˚ ---(2m)
Converting polar form to Rectangular form
Z
‾ = 53.03 + j 53.03
Z
‾ = R + j XL
So Resistance (R) = 53.03 ---(1m)
Reactance (XL) = 53.03 ---(1m)
Power, P = I2 R = (2)2  53.03 = 212.12 W
OR
P = V.I. cos 
= 150  2  cos 45˚
= 212.12 Watt---(2m)
Unsolved Problems:
1 A series circuit consisting of a 12 resistance, 0.3 Henry inductance and a variable
capacitor is connected across 100V, 50Hz A.C. Supply. The capacitance value is
adjusted to obtain maximum current. Find this capacitance value and the power drawn
by the circuit under this condition.
2 Derive the condition for series resonance in R-L-C Circuit. Also draw the frequency
response of impedance, current and power factor.
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3 Draw the phasor diagram for following condition
i) XL > Xc (ii) XL < Xc for R-L-C series circuit
4 Three elements R = 10, L = 0.1 H and C = 50 F are connected in series across 230
V, 50 Hz supply. Find current in the circuit, voltage across capacitor and power factor
angle of the circuit.
5 Select the resistance and reactance of load such that a load of 10 kW operates at 0.8
power factor (lagging) when connected to a 230V, 1 phase, 50Hz source.
6 A series circuit, consist of resistance of 10 ohm and inductance of 0.1 H, d across one
phase,50 Hz A.C. supply. If the voltage across resistance is 50 volt. Calculate
i) voltage across inductance and
ii) supply voltage.
7 A Fan load of 2 kW operates at 0.8 power factor( lagging) when connected to a 220V, 1 phase,
50Hz source find
1. Current in the load
2. Power factor angle
3. Impedance
4. Resistance of load
5. Reactance of load
6. Write equation for voltage and current.
7. Draw phasor diagram.
8 Three elements R = 10, L = 0.1 H and C = 50 F are connected in series across 230 V, 50 Hz
supply. Find current in the circuit, voltage across capacitor and power factor angle of the circuit.
9 A circuit has a resistor of 10 ohms connected in series with a capacitor of 100 micro farad. If a
variable frequency supply of 100 volt is connected across the circuit calculate voltage drop,
across the resistor and capacitor for supply frequency of (i) 50 Hz, (ii) 100 Hz. Calculate the
circuit power factor for both conditions. What will be the new values of power factors if a pure
inductance of 50 mH is connected in series with the circuit to form R-L-C circuit?
(Ans. : (i) 30 V, 95.4 V, 0.299, (ii) 53.2 V, 84.6 V, 0.5319, (iii) 0.526, 0.54)
10 A non-inductive load takes a current of 15 Amp. at 125 volt. An inductor is connected in series
in order that the same current shall be supplied from 240 V, 50 Hz mains. Ignore the resistance
of the inductor and calculate. (i) the inductance of the inductor, (ii) Impedance of the circuit, (iii)
The phase difference between current and applied voltage.
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(Ans. : (i) 0.043 H, (ii) 16 , (iii) 58.6)
11 A series circuit consisting of a coil and variable capacitance having reactance Xc. The coil has
resistance of 10 and inductive reactance of 20. It is observed that at a certain value of
capacitance current in the circuit becomes maximum, find (1) this value of capacitance (2)
impedance of the circuit (3) power factor (4) current, if the applied voltage is 100V, 50Hz.
12 A coil of resistance 20 and inductance of 1 Henry is connected in series with a condenser
across 20 volt mains. What capacitance must the condenser have in order that maximum
current may occur at a frequency of 25 Hz. Find also the current and voltage across condenser.
(Ans: 4.05X10-4 F, 1 A, 157 V)
13 A circuit has a resistor of 10 ohms connected in series with a capacitor of 100 F. If a
variable frequency supply of 100 volt is connected across the circuit calculate voltage drop,
across the resistor and capacitor for supply frequency of (i) 50 Hz, (ii) 100 Hz. Calculate the
circuit power factor for both conditions. What will be the new values of power factors if a
pure inductance of 50 mH is connected in series with the circuit to form R-L-C circuit?
14 A parallel circuit comprises of a resistor of 10Ω in series with an capacitive reactance 25Ω
in one branch and a resistor of 15Ω in series with a Inductive reactance of 20Ω in the other
branch. Determine the current and power dissipated in each branch if the whole circuit is
connected across Single phase 230Volt Supply.
15 Two impedances are connected in parallel to the supply, the first takes a current of 40 A at
a lagging phase angle of 30°, and the second a current of 30 A at a leading phase angle of
45°. Draw a phasor diagram to scale to represent the supply voltage and these currents.
Determine the total current and power taken from the supply
16 A coil connected to a 230 V, 50 Hz sinusoidal supply takes a current of 10 A at a phase
angle of 30°. Calculate the resistance and inductance of, and the power taken by, the coil.
Draw, for one cycle, curves of voltage and current, and deduce and plot the power curve.
Comment on the power curve.
17 A circuit having a resistance of 15 Ω, an inductance of 0.15 H and a capacitance of 100 μF
in series, is connected across a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate:
(a) the impedance;
(b) the current;
(c) the voltages across R, L and C;
(d) the phase difference between the current and the supply voltage.
EEE-Unit-I
18 Two circuits, A and B, are connected in parallel to a 115 V, 50 Hz supply. The total current
taken by the combination is 10 A at unity power factor. Circuit A consists of a 10 Ω resistor
and a 200 μF capacitor connected in series; circuit B consists of a resistor and an inductive
reactor in series. Determine the following data for circuit B: (a) the current; (b) the
impedance; (c) the resistance; (d) the reactance.
19 A resistor and a capacitor are connected in series across a 150 V a.c. supply. When the
frequency is 40 Hz the current is 5 A, and when the frequency is 50 Hz the current is 6 A.
Find the resistance and capacitance of the resistor and capacitor respectively.
If they are now connected in parallel across the 150 V supply, find the total current and its
power factor when the frequency is 50 Hz.
20 A choke coil of power factor 0.6 is in series with a 100μF capacitor. When connected to a
50Hz supply, the potential difference across the coil is equal to the potential difference
across the capacitor. Find the resistance and inductance of the coil.
21 A parallel circuit comprises of a resistor of 20Ω in series with an inductive reactance 15Ω in
one branch and a resistor of 30Ω in series with a capacitive reactance of 20Ω in the other
branch. Determine the Voltage and power dissipated in each branch if the total current
drawn by the parallel circuit is 10− 30⁰ Amp.
22 A coil of inductance 0.1 H and negligible resistance is connected in series with a 25 Ω
resistor. The circuit is energized from a 230 V, 50 Hz source. Calculate:
(a) the current in the circuit; (b) the p.d. across the coil; (c) the p.d. across the resistor; (d)
the phase angle of the circuit. Draw to scale a phasor diagram representing the current and
the component voltages.
23 Two impedances of 20∠−45° Ω and 30∠30° Ω are connected in series across a certain
supply and the resulting current is found to be 10 A. If the supply voltage remains
unchanged, calculate the supply current when the impedances are connected in parallel.
24 A non-inductive resistor of 10W is connected in series with a choke coil having internal
resistance of 1.2W and is fed from a 200V, 50 Hz supply. Current flowing through the circuit
is 8Amp. Calculate:
i) Inductance of the choke coil ii) Voltage across the choke coil iii) Power absorbed by the
choke coil iv) Power absorbed by non-inductive resistor.

EEE-Unit-I
1.13 Power ratings
The power rating of equipment is the highest power input allowed to flow through particular
equipment. Such ratings are always mentioned on name plate of every equipment.
Typical Power Rations of Common Electrical Equipment: -

This is an approximate guide only. Please consult the equipment manufacturer for precise
wattage.
Approximate Approximate
Electrical Equipment Starting Maximum
Wattage Wattage
Light LED Tube Light 18 24
Light bulb 9 24
Refrigerator/Freezer 400 1350
Electric Water Heater 500 2000
Water Well Pump (1/3HP) 575 1440
Desktop Computer & 18" Monitor 300 0
FAN 35 80
Laser Printer 400 0
Kitchen/Laundry:
Iron 400 700
Washing Machine 950 2000
Microwave Oven 900 2000
Mixer 400 1000
Dishwasher 1200 3000
Food Processor 300 800
Box Fan (20") 100 0
1.14 Study of Electrical connection of house,

Reference is taken from,
https://www.electroniclinic.com/electrical-wiring-house-wiring-or-home-wiring-complete-guide/
Here appliances like, Motors, Generators, Light bulbs, circuit breakers, float switch, and Contactors how
are wired up, will be explained. Single Phase wiring installation is the most common wiring in our homes
and residential buildings. The Single-Phase supply is 230Vac supply, which consists of 2 wires, one
wire is Live/Phase and the other one is Neutral. These live and Neutral wires come from the distribution
transformer to the energy meter and then directly connected to the Main Distribution Board “MDB” in
our homes. Single phase energy meter is connected with pole which receives 230V supply from the step-
EEE-Unit-I
down distribution transformer. The energy meter is then connected with the distribution box. The
distribution box contains different Miniature circuit breakers (MCB) which supplies voltage to different
rooms in a house.
In a House we use parallel connections which mean that there will be separate switch for every
appliance.
Above is the simplest electrical wiring system for the Fans, Bulbs and outlets. The same wiring system
can be used for the Exhaust fans, TV, and other small load electrical household appliances.
1.16 Fuse and MCBs

Under abnormal or fault conditions, a circuit draws excessive current. This high current is harmful to
the appliances connected in the circuit. Fuse protects the appliance against excessive current.
Fuse was invented by Edison in 1880. It is a thin metal wire with low melting point and is
connected in series with the circuit. It safeguards the appliance against a flow of excessive current. It is
always put in the phase wire.
A fuse wire carries the normal working current safely without heating, but melts immediately if
the current exceeds the normal value. It is cheap. It has a simple design and it works reliably. Materials
which can be used for fuse wire are silver, zinc, antimony, copper, aluminum etc. Copper or lead-tin
alloy is mostly used in ordinary fuse wire.
EEE-Unit-I
MCB stands for Miniature Circuit Breaker. It automatically switches OFF electrical circuit
during any abnormal condition in the electrical network such as overload & short circuit conditions.
However, fuse may sense these conditions but it has to be replaced though MCB can be reset. The
MCB is an electromechanical device which guards the electric wires &electrical load from overcurrent
so as to avoid any kind of fire or electrical hazards. Handling MCB is quite safer and it quickly
restores the supply. When it comes to house applications, MCB is the most preferred choice for
overload and short circuit protection. MCB can be reset very fast & don’t have any maintenance cost.
MCB works on bi-metal respective principle which provides protection against overload current&
solenoid short circuit current.
Self reading: https://cselectric.co.in/blog/difference-mcb-mccb-rccb-elcb/
1.17 Grounding for safety at home
The potential of the earth is considered to be at zero for all practical purposes as the generator
(supply) neutral is always earthed. The body of any electrical equipment is connected to the earth by
means of a wire of negligible resistance to safely discharge electric energy, which may be due to failure
of the insulation, line coming in contact with the casing etc. Earthing brings the potential of the body of
the equipment to ZERO i.e. to the earth’s potential, thus protecting the operating personnel against
electrical shock. The body of the electrical equipment is not connected to the supply neutral because
due to long transmission lines and intermediate substations, the same neutral wire of the generator will
not be available at the load end. Even if the same neutral wire is running it will have a self-resistance,
which is higher than the human body resistance. Hence, the body of the electrical equipment is
connected to earth only.
Thus earthing is to connect any electrical equipment to earth with a very low resistance wire, making
it to attain earth’s potential. The wire is usually connected to a copper plate placed at a depth of 2.5 to
3meters from the ground level.
 All the Best 

Also Refer to:
Full House Wiring Diagram Using Single Phase Line:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n36Gl9S4l64
Electrical Fuse:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLIYsRwKrkE
Ground Wire Explained:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JBpQ9Fodz_Q

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EEE-Unit-I

Unit-i: SinglE PhaSE aC SyStEm

1.1 Introduction kiska karonke

In contrast, an Alternating Current changes continuously in magnitude and regularly changes in

1.2 Introduction to basic Electrical elements not needed in life

1.2.1 Resistance is opposite to Copitance. So Avoid it.

1.2.2 Inductance vinductance

1.2.3 Capacitance wapacitance

1.3 A.C. Fundamentals

1.3.1 Instantaneous value of DC Signals

1.3.2 Cycle I ride on it every day.

One complete cycle consists of two half cycles, namely positive

1.3.3 Time Period (T) of earth is limited, is it true.

1.3.5 Amplitude during a swing is more Imax

IMPEDANCE, Z Z is called after scientist Zemer D’costa

POWRR FACTOR, cos

1.4 Equations of Alternating Voltages and Current in DC

Angle bet” direction of field Angle bet” direction of field

When = 0, total emf generated in coil, e = Bℓv sin = 0 volts

Alternating current can be expressed analytically as, i2 = I2m sin2 

the area under the curve of (i2), an interval of d is

Fig. - R.M.S. value of current and voltage

1.6 Average Value of Alternating Quantity

Average value of an alternating quantity can be

Alternating current can be expressed analytically as, i= Im sin where =t

Total area under the curve of (i) over half cycle =  i . d

Area under the curve of (i) for half cycle

Form factor Is it?

Consider a circuit which consists of pure resistance R only as i

PURELY INDUCTIVE A.C. CIRCUIT Is it? L

Whenever an alternating voltage of v = Vm sint …….…(1) is

(b) Waveforms (c) Phasor diagram

PURELY CAPACITIVE A.C. CIRCUIT

opposite direction. Thus instantaneous charge q stored on the

Current reaches its maximum value Im when sin (t + π/2) = 1

where term (1/C) is called as capacitive reactance Xc,

i = Im · sin (t + π/2) …(2)

(b) Waveforms (c) Phasor diagram

1.7 PHASOR DIAGRAMS

1.8 A.C. THROUGH SERIES RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE in Parallel

I = rms value of the resultant current,

V = I R 2  X L 2 = I Z where Z = R 2  X L 2 is known as impedance which can be defined

Divide each side by I

After dividing each side of voltage triangle by I, we get a Impedance triangle.

where active/real power consumed, P = VRI = Vcos I = VIcos=I2R Watts

II} Reactive power or Imaginary Power: Q for Queen

It is ratio of resistance of the given ckt. to impedance of that ckt.

Impedance in Rectangular form for R-L series ckt. can be

1.9 A.C. THROUGH SERIES R-C CIRCUIT

individual voltage drop (VR & VC) comes in series. But

1.10 A.C. THROUGH SERIES R-L-C CIRCUIT

A pure resistance R, a pure inductance of L Henry and

= (IR ) 2  (IX L - IX C ) 2 (VL- VC) V

R 2  X L - X C  = I Z for Zandu (VL- VC)

where Z = R 2  X L - X C  is known as impedance which is the

1.10.2 Case II: XL < XC

Total applied voltage, V  V R  VC - VL   ..

where Z = R 2  X L - X C 2 is known as impedance which is VC

Total applied voltage, V  V R  0  = V R ..

total applied voltage, V= VR = IR= I Z

The frequency fr at which resonance occurs can be found out as, VC

Resonance occurs at, XL = XC

Solution: Given: Resistance R= 20,

(c) Phasor diagram