REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES NW hy COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT ELEN 20024 Circuits 1 INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL Compiled by: ENGR. JAYSON BRYAN E. MUTUCCourse Outline TABLE OF CONTENTS Course Description Course Objective Course Outcome MODULE MODUE MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE MODULE 1 2 9 10 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE AND OHMS’ LAW WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT COMPLEX CIRCUIT KIRCHOFF’S LAW AND MAXWELL MESH METHOD NODAL ANALYSIS AND SOURCE TRANSFORMATION SUPERPOSITION THEVENIN’S AND NORTON THEOREM. MILLMAN’S THEOREM. ANS TO SELECTED SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS and SERIES OF EXAMS. Course Description: This subject is the most fundamental to electrical and electronics circuitry. The basic foundation of electrical engineering technology from the nature of electricity voltage, current, and resistance, to basic construction of circuitry series and parallel circuit up to complex circuitry connection. The last part is the most important since it tackles variety of techniques to circuitry analysis which will be useful to other higher electrical or electronics circuitry subjects. Course Objectives 20 27 37 44 55 61 63 67 71 This course aims to equip students the ability to analyze the basic circuit concepts series and parallel connection up to vast connection of networks. This course prepares students to have arsenal once they are in the ac circuit analysis, also to develop critical thinking skills on how to provide design solution for electrical network problems.POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Course Outcomes By the end of the course, the students will be able to: sappreciate that electrical resistance depends on four factors + appreciate that resistance R=pl/a, where p is the resistivity + recognize typical values of resistivity and its unit + perform calculations using R=pl/a + define the temperature coefficient of resistance, a + recognize typical values for a + perform calculations using R@ =RO(1+08) + recognize common electrical circuit diagram symbols + understand that electric current is the rate of movement of charge and is measured in amperes + appreciate that the unit of charge is the coulomb + calculate charge or quantity of electricity Q from Q=It + understand that a potential difference between two points in a circuit is required for current to flow + appreciate that the unit of pd. is the volt + understand that resistance opposes current flow and is measured in ohms + appreciate what an ammeter, a voltmeter, an ohmmeter, a multimeter and an oscilloscope measure + distinguish between linear and non-linear devices + state Ohm's law as V =IR or | =V/R or R=Vil + use Ohm's law in calculations, including multiples and sub-multiples of units + describe a conductor and an insulator, giving examples of each =I2R=V2iRwatts + appreciate that electrical power P is given by P= + calculate electrical power + define electrical energy and state its unit + caloulate electrical energy + calculate unknown voltages, current and resistances in a series circuit + understand voltage division in a series circuit 10f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING + calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in a parallel network + calculate unknown voltages, currents and resistances in series-parallel networks + understand current division in a two-branch parallel network. + understand and perform calculations on relative and absolute voltages + describe the advantages and disadvantages of series and parallel connection of lamps + know how series-parallel and parallel circuit looks like + transform wye to delta and delta to wye + know to how analyze circuit with dependent sources + able to utilize network theorem techniques (Kirchoff’s, Mesh, Nodal, Source Transformation, Superposition, Thevenin, Norton, and Millman's Theorem) 20f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MODULE 4 FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY 4.1 Structure of an Atom Atom is composed of sub-atomic particles of electrons, protons, and neutron in various combinations Electron (negative charge particle) revolves around the nucleus Proton (posiitve charge particle) found inside the nucleus Neutron (neutral charge particle) found inside the nucleus A stable (neutral) atom has a certain amount of energy, which is equal to the sum of the energies of its electrons. Electrons, in turn, have different energies called energy levels. The energy level of an electron is proportional to its distance from the nucleus. Thereforg,,the energy levels of electrons in shells farther from thesnwoleus are highenthan those arene as shells nearanithe nucleus. verge | a Xe) Soe Foun sh Nateus (04 proto, 18 newton) (29 protons 3 neutrons) Fig 1.1 Siicon Atom (Left) and Copper Atom (Right) The electrons in the outermost shell are called valence electrons. When external energy such as heat, light, or electric energy is applied to certain materials, the electrons gain energy. This may 30f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING cause the electrons to move to a higher energy level. An atom in which this has occurred is said to be in an excited state. An atom in an excited state is unstable When an electron has moved to the outermost shell of its atom, it is least attracted by the positive charges of the protons within the nucleus of its atom. If enough energy is then applied to the atom, some of the outermost shell or valence electrons will leave the atom. These electrons are called free electrons. It is the movement of free electrons that provides electric current in a metal conductor. 4.2 The Electrostatic Field The fundamental characteristic of an electric charge is its ability to exert a force. This force is present within the electrostatic field surrounding every charged object. When two objects of opposite polarity are brought near each other, the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area between them (fig). The electric field is indicated by lines of force drawn between the two objects. Electrostatic lines of force Positive ‘object Fig 1.2 The electrostatic field between two charges of appoete pola. 1.3 Potential Difference Because of the force of its electrostatic field, an electric charge has the ability to do the work of moving another charge by attraction or repulsion. The ability of a charge to do work is called its potential. When one charge is different from the other, there must be a difference in potential between them. 40f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, The sum of the differences of potential of all the charges in the electrostatic field is referred to as electromotive force (emf). The basic unit of potential difference is the volt (V). The symbol for potential difference is V, indicating the ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move. Because the volt unit is used, potential difference is called voltage. Ww v=— aa (1.1) Where: V - voltage or potential difference (volts) W - work done or energy transferred in the charge (joules) Q- charge (coulombs) 4.4Current The movement or the flow of electrons is called current. To produce current, the electrons must be moved by a potential difference. Current is represented by the letter symbol (I). The basic unit in which current is measured is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as the movement of one coulomb past any point of a conductor during one second of time. I= 7 1.2) t (1.2) Where: 1 current (ampere) Q— charge (coulomb) t- time (second) 5 0f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 1.5 Sources of Electricity Chemical Battery A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of materials which are used for converting chemical energy into electric energy Generator Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by the principle of electromagnetic induction Thermal Energy The production of most electric energy begins with the formation of heat energy. Solar Cells Solar cells convert light energy directly into electric energy. They consist of semiconductor material like silicon Piezoelectric Effect Certain crystals, such as quartz and Rochelle salts, generate a voltage when they are vibrated mechanically. Thermocouples If wires of two different metals, such as iron and copper, are welded together and the joint is heated, the difference in electron activity in the two metals produces an emf across the joint 6of87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 4.6 Direct Current and Alternating Current Direct current (dc) is current that moves through a conductor or circuit in one direction only de Current ic Voltage ar + vy LS Nols Magnitude ‘ Magnitude of current v 7 of voltage ° — o —___ Time > Time > Fig 1.3 Waveform de Curent (ft de voltage (lt) A de voltage source can change the amount of its output voltage, but if the same polarity is maintained, direct current will flow in one direction only. An alternating-current voltage (ac voltage) source periodically reverses or alternates in polarity. Therefore, the resulting alternating current also periodically reverses direction. The ac power line used in most homes is a common example. ac Voltage ac Current +s Time Time Fig 1.4 Waveform ac Voltage (lef) ac Current (righ) 70f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 1.7 Resistance It may be defined as the property of a substance due to which it opposes (or restricts) the flow of electricity (:¢., electrons) through it. The practical unit of resistance is ohm.** A conductor is said to have a resistance of one ohm if it permits one ampere current to flow through it when one volt is impressed across its terminals. ** After George Simon Ohm (1787-1854), a German mathematician who in about 1827 formulated the law known after his name as Ohm’s Law. 1.8 Laws of Resistance The resistance R offered by a conductor depends on the following factors: {i) It varies directly as its length, | (ii) It varies inversely as the cross-section A of the conductor. (iif) It depends on the nature of the material. {iv) It also depends on the temperature of the conductor. If area is in Circular Mils CM Area = d2 (1.3) inch = 1000mils 1 cmil = 11/4 sq.mils Smale A Geese L R= PZ (1.4) 80f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING R = resistance (ohms) p = specific resistivity length of conductor A= area of conductor Resistivity Length Area om m sq.m ‘Q-cm cm sq.cm O-CM/ft ft cM 4.9 Conductors Undergoing a Drawing Process Conductors passed through drawing gauges increases its length at the expense of reduction in cross-sectional area in most cases, the waste during the drawing process is assumed negligible, keeping the volume of the conducting material is constant. 4.10 Resistance Variations with Respect to Resistivity of Some Common Materials Length Material Resistivity p Resistance caries directly as the square of the Om ‘O-CMift length ‘Aluminum 2.83 x 10° 17.02 Copper 1.724 x 108 10.37 Rz Gold 2.44x 10° 14.676 Ro (Lp/lyPr 5) Iron 98 x 108 589.4 Silver 1.629 x 108 9.805 1.11 Resistance Variations with Respect to Diameter Resistance caries directly as to the fourth of the diameter R. R = (d,/dz)* (16) 90f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Self-Assessment Write the word which most correctly completes each of the following statements: (a) A rubber rod repels a second rubber rod, so both rods have charges (b) Glass rubbed with silk attracts rubber rubbed with fur. If the rubber rod is negative, the glass rod must be Write the word or words which most correctly complete each of the following statements. (a) The ability of a charge to do work is its (b) When one charge is different from the other, there is a of (0) The unit of potential difference is the (d) The sum of potential differences of all charges is called (e) The movement of charges produces (f) A greater amount of moving charges means a value for the current, (g) When the potential difference is zero, the value of current is (h) The rate of flow of charge is called (i) The direction of the conventional flow of current is from a point of potential to a point of____ potential. ({) Electron flow is opposite in direction to flow. (k) Direct current (dc) has just direction. (A is an example of a de voltage source. (m) An alternating current (ac) its polarity 10 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Problem Solving ‘An energy of 20 joules is required in moving a 2-coulomb charge from point A to B. What is potential difference between point A and B? How many electrons pass a given point in 40 seconds in a conductor carrying 10 amps? Whatis the resistance of a copper wire having a diameter of 10-mm anda length of 10-m. the resistivity is 1.72 x 10° O-m. Ans, 2.19-m2 A wire measuring 1.5 m® has a resistance of 0.955yO at 20°C; its length is 1.5m and an area of 1m? Calculate the resistance of this wire at 20°C if the length is changed to 150-m and its area to 450-cm? Ans. 2.12-mO A 1-km cable consists of 12 identical strands of aluminum each 3mm in diameter. What is the resistance of the cable? Ans. 0.33-Q. A piece of silver wire has a resistance of 1 Q. What will be the resistance of manganin wire of one third the length and one third the diameter, if the specific resistance of manganin is 30 times of that silver? Ans. 90-0. ‘A one meter rod of 2 cm diameter is drawn until its resistance is 100 times the initial resistance. Its length afterward is? Determine the resistance of a bus bar made of copper if the length is 10 meters long and cross- sectional area is 4 x 4 sq.cm. the resistivity is 1.724 yO-cm 11 0f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING A rectangular carbon block has dimensions 1.0 cm x 1.0 cm x 50 cm. whats the resistance measured (a) between two square ends. (b) between two opposing rectangular faces / Resistivity of carbon at 20°C is 3.5 x 10° O-m. 120f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MODULE 2 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE AND OHM’S LAW 2.1 THE EFFECT OF RISE IN TEMPERATURE IS: 4, to increase the resistance of pure metals. The increase is large and fairly regular for normal ranges of temperature. The temperature/resistance graph is a straight line. As would be presently clarified, metals have a positive temperature co-efficient of resistance. 2. to increase the resistance of alloys, though in their case, the increase is relatively small and irregular. For some high-resistance alloys like Eureka (60% Cu and 40% Ni) and manganin, the increase in resistance is (or can be made) negligible over a considerable range of temperature. 3. to decrease the resistance of electrolytes, insulators (such as paper, rubber, glass, mica etc.) and partial conductors such as carbon. Hence, insulators are said to possess a negative temperature-coefficient of resistance. Some typical values of temperature coefficient of resistance measured at 0°C are given below: Copper 0.0043/°C Aluminium 0.0038/°C_ Nickel 0.0062/°C Carbon -0.00048/°C Constantan 0 Eureka 0.00001/°C (Note that the negative sign for carbon indicates that its resistance falls with increase of temperature.) 2.2Temperature Coefficient of Resistance Let a metallic conductor having a resistance of Ro at 0°C be heated of t°C and let its resistance at this temperature be R:. Then, considering normal ranges of temperature, it is found that the increase in resistance A R = Ri- Ro depends 13 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING a) directly on its initial resistance b) directly on the rise in temperature c) on the nature of the material of the conductor. oR, —Ry & RyoXt or R,—Ry = aRy xt ee where a (alpha) is a constant and is known as the temperature coefficient of resistance of the conductor. Ro Re Rearranging the Eq. we get gq = —~__£ (2.2) Ry Xt IfRo=19,t=1°C then = AR=Rr- Ro Hence, the temperature-coefficient of a material may be defined as : the increase in resistance per ohm original resistance per °C rise in temperature. we find that R, =Ro(1+at) (2.3) It should be remembered that the above equation holds good for both rise as well as fall in temperature. As temperature of a conductor is Resistance decreased, its resistance is also decreased. In \ 5 Fig. is shown the temperature/resistance graph for copper and is practically a straight line. If this — & line is extended backwards, it would cut the temperature axis at a point where temperature is 5° ye —— 2 ve : -234.5°C (a number quite easy to remember). 421 Temp sope of Copper 14 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING It means that theoretically, the resistance of copper conductor will become zero at this point though as shown by solid line, in practice, the curve departs from a straight line at very low temperatures. From the two similar triangles of Figure it is seen that: R,_ T+, (2.4) R, T+ Where: Ri = resistance at temperature 1 T = inferred absolute temperature Re = resistance at temperature 2 temperature when resistance ti = temperature 1 of a given material is zero te = temperature 2 2.3Value of a at Different Temperatures So far we did not make any distinction between values of a at different temperatures. But it is found that value of a itself is not constant but depends on the initial temperature on which the increment in resistance is based. When the increment is based on the resistance measured at 0°C, then a has the value of av. At any other initial temperature t°C, value of a is at and so on. It should be remembered that, for any conductor, ao has the maximum value. i THe ae a In case Ro is not given, the relation between the known resistance Ri at ti°C and the unknown resistance Rz at tz°C can be found as follows: R, = R,(1 + a, At) (28) 15 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Inferred Absolute Zero _|the resistance of a material at room temperature Temperatures (approximately 20°C) if Material_| TC) i Annealed | 234.5 ot |e Copper & t Aluminum | _ 228 ie Hard-Drawn | 241.5 i Copper t Iron 180 ene eae Silver 243 2.4 Variations of Resistivity with Temperature Not only resistance but specific resistance or resistivity of metallic conductors also increases with rise in temperature and vice-versa. As seen S, a from Fig. the resistivities of metals vary ¢ oe linearly with temperature over a ' ae significant range of temperature -the Copper variation becoming non-linear both at | very high and at very low 900 0 200 40 temperatures. ( oemes Pz = Px(L + ay Al) or simpyas Pa = Po(1 + at) (27) pi= resistivity at ti °C p2= resistivity at t2°C Note. It has been found that although temperature is the most significant factor influencing the resistivity of metals, other factors like pressure and tension also affect resistivity to some extent. For most metals 16 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING except lithium and calcium, increase in pressure leads to decrease in resistivity. However, resistivity increases with increase in tension. 2.5 Ohms Law States that the current | flowing in a circuit is directly proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely proportional to the resistance R, provided the temperature remains constant. I 4 (2.8) R Where: V = voltage in volts current in amperes R = resistance in ohms Schematic Diagram A simple electric circuit is shown in pictorial form in Fig. 2.4 a. The same circuit is drawn in schematic form in Fig. 2.4 b. Dye ano (@ Picoria diagram (Schematic digress Figure 2.4 simple lamp circuit SELF-ASSESSMENT 1.Name four factors which can effect the resistance of a conductor 2. If the length of a piece of wire of constant cross-sectional area is halved, the resistance of the wire is 17 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 3. If the cross-sectional area of a certain length of cable is trebled, the resistance of the cable is 4, What is resistivity? State its unit and the symbol used. 5. Complete the following: Good conductors of electricity have a. value of resistivity and good insulators have a. . .. .. value of resistivity 6. What is meant by the ‘temperature coefficient of resistance? State its units and the symbols used. The resistance of a copper wire measures 25-m Q at 25°C. Calculate its resistance when heated to 75°C. Ans, 29.82-mA A conductor has a resistance of 7- Q at 0°C. At 20°C the resistance becomes 7.5 Q. Calculate the temperature coefficient of the conductor at 20°C. Ans, 0.00333 A A coil has a current of 50mA flowing through it when the applied voltage is 12V. What is the resistance of the coil? Ans. 240.0 Determine the p.d. which must be applied to a 2k Q resistor in order that a current of 10mA may flow Ans. 20V Accoil has a resistance of 18 Q when its mean temperature is 20°C and of 20 0 when its mean temperature is 50°C. Find its mean temperature rise when its resistance is 21 Q and the surrounding temperature is 15°C. Ans. 50°C The resistance of the tertiary winding of a power transformer is 0.125 ohms and 25°C and the temperature coefficient of resistance at 25°C is 0.00393. what is the resistance at 65°C? Ans. 0.145 18 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING A carbon resistor has a resistance of 1k Q at 0°C. Determine its resistance at 80°C. Assume that the temperature coefficient of resistance for carbon at 0°C is -0.0005/°C The resistance of the shunt winding of a d.c. machine is measured before and after a run of several hours. The average values are 55 ohms and 63 ohms. Calculate the rise in temperature of the winding. (Temperature coefficient of resistance of copper is 0.00428 ohm per ohm per °C). The resistance of a copper wire at 30° 0°C is 0.00427, what is the resistance at 100°C? 50 ohms. If the temperature coefficient of copper at Two heating elements which is 500 ohms and 250 ohms are connected in series with temperature coefficients of 0.001 and 0.003 ohms per °C, respectively at 20°C, Calculate the effective temperature coefficient of the combination Some copper wire has a resistance of 200 Q at 20°C. A current is passed through the wire and the temperature rises to 90°C. Determine the resistance of the wire at 90°C, correct to the nearest ohm, assuming that the temperature coefficient of resistance is 0.004/°C at 0°C. 19 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, MODULE 3 WORK, POWER, AND ENERGY 3.1 Electrical Power The rate of energy transfer. In electrical terms, the standard unit of power is the watt. One watt is the amount of electrical power dissipated when one joule of work energy is expended per second. The unit “watt” was named after the British inventor James Watt : v2 w Q WQ ew P=VI=PR=— V=— [= >= P=—- == — R Q t Ott Where: P = electrical power (watt) V = voltage (volt) |= current (ampere) R = resistance (ohm) W =energy (joules) t= time (seconds) Today, life without electricity is highly unimaginable. Electric locomotives, heaters, and fans are some of the appliances and machines which convert electricity into work and energy 3.2 Effect of Electric Current It is a matter of common experience that a conductor, when carrying current, becomes hot after some time. As explained earlier, an electric current is just a directed flow or drift of electrons through a substance. The moving electrons as they pass through molecules of atoms of that substance, collide with other electrons. This electronic collision results in the production of heat. This explains why passage of current is always accompanied by generation of heat. 20 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 3.3 Joule’s Law of Electric Heating The amount of work required to maintain a current of ! amperes through a resistance of R ohm for t second is W.D. = PRtjoules = Vit joules = Wt joules = V4tiR joules This work is converted into heat and is dissipated away. The amount of heat produced is work done _ WD. Ls mechanical equivalent of heat’ — J J = 4,186 joules/kcal 3.4Thermal Efficiency It is defined as the ratio of the heat actually utilized to the total heat produced electrically. Consider the case of the electric kettle used for boiling water. Out of the total heat produced (i) some goes to heat the apparatus itself i.e. kettle (i/) some is lost by radiation and convection ete. and (iif) the rest is utilized for heating the water. Out of these, the heat utilized for useful purpose is that in (iif). Hence, thermal efficiency of this electric apparatus is the ratio of the heat utilized for heating the water to the total heat produced. Hence, the relation between heat produced electrically and heat absorbed usefully becomes vit “71% = ms(82 — 81) 3.5 Electrical Energy Is the capacity to do work. In electrical sense, electric energy is the product of power and time 21 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING The base unit for electrical energy is watt-sec, however, the kilowatt-hour (kWh) is more commonly used unit for practical reasons W=Pt 3.6 SL. Units 4, Mass. It is quantity of matter contained in a body. Unit of mass is kilogram (kg). Other multiples commonly used are 1 quintal = 100 kg, 1 tonne = 10 quintals = 1000 kg 2. Force. Unit of force is newton (N). Its definition may be obtained from Newton's Second Law of Motion i.e. F = ma. ‘1m/s?, then F = 1 newton. iim=1kg; Hence, one newton is that force which can give an acceleration of 1 m/s? to a mass of 1 kg. Gravitational unit of force is kilogram-weight (kg-wt). It may be defined as follows: or Itis the force which can impart an acceleration of 9.8 m/s2 to a mass of 1 kg. Itis the force which can impart an acceleration of 1 m/s2 to a mass of 9.8 kg. Obviously, 1 kg-wt. = 9.8 N 3. Weight. Itis the force with which earth pulls a body downwards. Obviously, its units are the same as for force. (a) Unit of weight is newton (N) (b) Gravitational unit of weight is kg-wt* Note. If a body has a mass of m kg, then its weight, W = mg newtons = 9.8 newtons. 4, Work, Ifa force F moves a body through a distance din its direction of application, then Work done W= F xd (a) Unit of work is joule (J) If, in the above equation, F = 1 N: d= 1m; then work done = 1 N.m or joule. 220f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Hence, one joule is the work done when a force of 1 N moves a body through a distance of 1m in the direction of its application. 5, Power. Itis the rate of doing work. Its units is watt (W) which represents 1 joule per second, 1W=1dis If a force of F newton moves a body with a velocity of v m./s then power = F x v watt If the velocity v is in km/s, then power = F x v kilowatt jowatt-hour (kWh) and kilocalorie (kcal) 1kWh= 1000 xt x 3600s = 36x 10° joules 1 kcal = 4,186 J therefore 1 kWh = 36 x 10/4, 186 = 860 kcal 7. Miscellaneous Units 1watt — hour(Wh) = thx 3600s = 3600 Joules 1 horse power (metric) = 75 m-kg/s = 75 * 9.8 = 735.5 J/s or watt 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W and 1 megawatt (MW) = 10° W 1 BTU = 252 Calories 1 joule = 10” ergs 1 kw-hr = 3413 BTU 3.7 Calculation of Kilo-watt Power of a Hydroelectric Station Let Q = water discharge rate in cubic metres/second (m/s), H = net water head in metre (m). g = 9.81, n ; overall efficiency of the hydroelectric station expressed as a fraction. Since 1 m? of water weighs 1000 kg., ischarge rate is 1000 Q kg/s. When this amount of water falls through a height of H metre, then energy or work available per 23 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING second or available power is = 1000 QgH J/s or W = QgH kW Since the overall station efficiency is n, power actually available is = 9.81 nQH kW. SELF ASSESSMENT State the unit of electrical power. State three formulae used to calculate power State two units used for electrical energy A 12 V battery is connected across a load having a resistance of 400. Determine the current flowing in the load, the power consumed and the energy dissipated in 2 minutes. A source of e.m.. of 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for six minutes. How much energy is provided in this time? Electrical equipment in an office takes a current of 13 A from a 240 V supply. Estimate the cost per week of electricity if the equipment is used for 30 hours each week and 1 kWh of energy costs 7p An electric heater consumes 3.6 MJ when connected to a 250 V supply for 40 minutes Find the power rating of the heater and the current taken from the supply. Determine the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 209 when a current of 10 A flows through it. If the fire is on for 6 hours determine the energy used and the cost if 1 unit of electricity costs 7p. A business uses two 3 kW fires for an average of 20 hours each per week, and six 24 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 150W lights for 30 hours each per week. If the cost of electricity is 7p per unit, determine the weekly cost of electricity to the business. Abattery of e.m.f. 15 V supplies a current of 2 A for 5 min. How much energy is supplied in this time? In a household during a particular week three 2 kW fires are used on average 25 h each and eight 100 W light bulbs are used on average 35 h each. Determine the cost of electricity for the week if 1 unit of electricity costs 7p. Calculate the power dissipated by the element of an electric fire of resistance 300 when a current of 10 A flows in it. If the fire is on for 30 hours in a week determine the energy used. Determine also the weekly cost of energy if electricity costs 7.2p per unit. The heater element of an electric kettle has a constant resistance of 100 © and the applied voltage is 250 V. Calculate the time taken to raise the temperature of one litre of water from 15°C to 90°C. assuming that 85% of the power input to the kettle is usefully employed. If the water equivalent of the kettle is 100 g, find how long will it take to raise a second litre of water through the same temperature range immediately after the first. Ans. 10 min and 52 seconds; 9 min and 53 seconds A Diesel-electric generating set supplies an output of 25 kW. The calorific value of the fuel oil used is 12,500 kcal/kg. If the overall efficiency of the unit is 35% (a) calculate the mass of oil required per hour (b) the electric energy generated per tonne of the fuel. Ans.4.91 kg and 5088 kWh ‘An hydro-electric station has a turbine of efficiency 86% and a generator of efficiency 92%. The effective head of water is 150 m. Calculate the volume of water used when delivering a load of 40 MW for 6 hours. Water weighs 1000 kg/m? 25 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Ans. 78.14 x 104 m? ‘A pump driven by an electric motor lifts 1.5 m® of water per minute to a height of 40 m. The pump has an efficiency of 90% and motor has an efficiency of 85%. Determine : (a) the power input to the ‘motor. (b) The current taken from 480 V supply. (c) The electric energy consumed when motor runs at this load for 4 hours. Assume mass of 1 m3 of water to be 1000 kg Ans. 12.81 kW, 26.7 A, 51.2kWH Estimate the rating of an induction furnace to melt two tonnes of zinc in one hour if it operates at an efficiency of 70%. Specific heat of zinc is 0.1. Latent heat of fusion of zinc is 26.67 kcal per kg. Melting point is 455°C. Assume the initial temperature to be 25°C. An electric water heater is rated at 120 volts, 1000 watts and is used to boil water. Calculate the time required to raise the temperature of 1 liter of water from 15°C to boiling. The heater has an over- all efficiency of 92% Find the work in kWh to lift 1 ton at a height of S5ft for 10 sec. the motor gear efficiency is 51% 26 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MODULE 4 SERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUIT 4.1 Resistance in Series When some conductors having resistances Rr, Re and Rs etc. are joined end-on-end as in the Figure (left), they are said to be connected in series. It can be proved that the equivalent resistance or total resistance between points A and D is equal to the sum of the three individual resistances. Being a series circuit, it should be remembered that (i) current is the same through all the three conductors (ii) but voltage drop across each is different due to its different resistance and is given by Ohm's Law and (iif) sum of the three voltage drops is equal to the voltage applied across the three conductors. There is a progressive fall in potential as we go from point A to D as shown in Figure (right) 4% 6m c ® D 4 Awe + be Ke Re >| v Kp ul \ t % ¢c % eoVe D r=h=h 1. same current flows through all parts ofthe circuit 2. different resistors have ther individual voltage drops Rr = Ry +R, +R3t.. +R, 3. vollage drops are additive 4. applied voltage equals te sum of different voltage drops TpRp = IRy + IR, +IR3H+..+1Ry 5 resistancesare additive 6. powers are additive Vp = Vy tVyt Vet. 4V, Pr = Pi + Py +Pyt..4+Py 27 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 4,2 Resistances in Parallel Three resistances, as joined in the Figure are said to be connected in parallel. In this case (i) p.d. across alll resistances is the same (ii) current in each resistor is different and is given by Ohm's Law and (iif) the total current is the sum of the three separate currents. ae Vp =V, =, =V3 =, ea Ip=htht+ht..th b UR 1 1,141,121 1 Ar " Gp = G, + Gz + G3+..+G, 1. same voltage acts across all parts of the circuit 2. different resistors have their individual current. Pp = Py + P, + P3+..+P, 3. branch currents are additive. 4. conductances are additive. 5. powers are additive. 4.3 Short and Open Circuits When two points of circuit are connected together by a thick metallic wire (Figure left), they are said to be short-circuited. Since ‘short’ has practically zero resistance, it gives rise to two important facts (i) no voltage can exist across it because V=IR=/* 0=0 (if) current through it (called short-circuit current) is very large (theoretically, infinity) 28 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING A rs =| Mano g aes Rest of Circuit E |) Isc = tap | RestofCircuit a a #1" isc <= 5 Rp-- i [sasanean B Two points are said to be open-cirouited when there is no direct connection between them (Figure right). Ob. uusly, an ‘open’ represents a break in the continuity of the circuit. Due to this break (9 resistance between the two points is infinite. (ii) there is no flow of current between the two points. 4.4 ‘Shorts’ in a Series Circuit Since a dead (or solid) short has almost zero resistance, it causes the problem of excessive current which, in turn, causes power dissipation to increase many times and circuit components to burn out, a A i A rein 12 19 t i R520 —12V 20 S12 39 i c C R330 3a 3a (meee 2 (Oe 29 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Solve for | and P for all conditions 4.5 ‘Opens’ ina Series Circuit In anormal series circuit like the one shown in Figure left (a), there exists a current flow and the voltage drops across different resistors are proportional to their resistances. If the circuit becomes ‘open’ anywhere, following two effects are produced: (A since ‘open’ offers infinite resistance, circuit current becomes zero. Consequently, there is no voltage drop across Ri and Re (if) whole of the applied voltage (i.e. 100 Vin this case) is felt across the ‘open’ i.e. across terminals A and B [Figure right] AW R R A Vv — 10V 100V. a B R, Ry Ws The reason for this is that R; and Re become negligible as compared to the infinite resistance of the ‘open’ which has practically whole of the applied voltage dropped across it (as per Voltage Divider Rule). Hence, voltmeter in Figure will read nearly 100 Vie. the supply voltage. “The reduction in the value of voltage being measured by the voltmeter is called voltmeter loading effect because voltmeter loads down the circuit element across which it is connected. Smaller the voltmeter resistance as compared to the resistance across which it is connected, greater the loading effect and, hence, greater the error in the voltage reading. Loading effect cannot be avoided but can be minimized by selecting a voltmeter of resistance much greater than that of the network across which it is connected. 30 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 4.6 ‘Shorts’ in Parallel Circuits Suppose a ‘short’ is placed across Rs (Figure). It becomes directly connected across the battery and draws almost infinite current because not only its own resistance but that of the connecting wires AC and BDis negligible. Due to this excessive current, the wires may get hot enough to burn out unless the circuit is protected by a fuse. Short (@ @) Following points about the circuit of Figure (a) are worth noting 4. not only is Rs short-circuited but both R: and Re are also shorted out i.e. short across one branch means short across all branches. 2. there is no current in shorted resistors. If there were three bulbs, they will not glow. 3, the shorted components are not damaged, For example, if we had three bulbs in Figure(a), they would glow again when circuit is restored to normal conditions by removing the short- circuited It may, however, be noted from Figure (b) that a short-circuit across Rs may short out Re but not Rr since it is protected by Ra 31087POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 4.7 ‘Opens’ in a Parallel Circuit Since an ‘open’ offers infinite resistance, there would be no current in that part of the circuit where it occurs. In a parallel circuit, an ‘open’ can occur either in the main line or in any parallel branch. As shown in Figure(a), an open in the main line prevents flow of current fo all branches. Hence, neither of the two bulbs glows. However, full applied voltage (i.e. 220 V in this case) is available across the open. Open a earn 220V ‘Open Filament (@) OD) In this Figure(b), ‘open’ has occurred in branch circuits of B1. Since there is no current in this branch, B: will not glow. However, as the other bulb remains connected across the voltage supply, it would keep operating normality. It may be noted that if a voltmeter is connected across the open bulb, it will read full supply voltage of 220 V. 320f87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 4.8 Voltage Divider Theorem The voltage drop across any resistor R in a serially-connected group of resistors is equal to the product of the supply voltage impressed and the ratio of the resistance R to the total resistance of the circuit. aaa a R R = a 2 _ y's R2 4% A R WRaVeE V3=VE is T T T Re sc R32 W% ms The division of current in the branches of a parallel circuit is directly proportional to the conductance of the branches or inversely proportional to their resistances. We may also express the branch currents in terms of the total circuit current for two resistances in parallel Ry SW. I; >——— 4 B R, +R, hb AN R =i ene ul R, +R, U____» vo —___I 33 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, In case three resistances in parallel Ca. Heel 4, ® 1 UT RAR, + Ry + RR, TN =p ss 2 'T RR + R2R3 + RR; ur ' RiRz I, =1 3 "TRiRz + R2R3 + R3Ry SELF-ASSESMENT Two resistors are connected in series across a 24 V supply and a current of 3 A flows in the circuit. If one of the resistors has a resistance of 2 9 determine (a) the value of the other resistor, and (b) the p.d. across the 2 © resistor. If the circuit is connected for 50 hours, how much energy is used? Ans. 62 ; 6V ; 3.6 kWh Two resistors, of resistance 3 © and 6 Q, are connected in parallel across a battery having a voltage of 12 V. Determine (a) the total circuit resistance and (b) the current flowing in the 3 Q resistor. Ans.20;4A “Two resistors of values 1 kQ and 4 Q are connected in series across a constant voltage supply of 100 V. A voltmeter having an intemal resistance of 12 kO is connected across the 4 kQ resistor. Draw the circuit and calculate (a) true voltage across 4 kQ resistor before the voltmeter was connected. (b) actual voltage across 4kQ resistor after the voltmeter is connected and the voltage recorded by the voltmeter. (c) change in supply current when voltmeter is connected. (d) percentage error in voltage across 4 kQ resistor Ans. 80 V; 75 V; 5mA ; -6.25% 34 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Find the equivalent resistance between terminals A and B of the circuit shown in the Figure Also, find the value of currents /h, l2, and Js. All resistances are in ohm. Ans. 89 ;2A;0.6A; 12 40 60 Ait AM av In the figure if resistance between terminals A and B measures 1000 Q, which resistor is open circuited. All conductance values are in mill-siemens (mS). AO 02 03 Bo O8 oss Find the current supply in the Figure 8 —24V Q 122 35 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Determine the value of voltage V shown in Figure 4a Explain the potential divider circuit Compare the merits of wiring lamps in (a) series (b) parallel 36 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, MODULE 5 COMPLEX CIRCUITS 5.1 Wye or Star Network and Delta Networks. The network in the Figure 5.1 is called a T ("tee") or Y ("wye”) network because of its shape. T and Y are different names for the same network, except that in the Y network the Ra and Re arms form the upper part of a Y. ein Ry b Figure 5.2 called a 1 (pi) or A (delta) network because its shape resembles these greek letters and A are different names for the same network 37 of 87Ato Y conversion or 11 to T conversion = RRs _ R, +R, +R; = RR, R, + R, + Rs RR; R, + R,+ Rs Y to A conversion or T to 1 conversion R,Ry + RR. + RRs R R,R3 R,+R, Rr Rp = Ryt 5.3 Parallel Series eines a ms POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, Rule 4: The rule for A to Y conversion can be stated as follows: The resistance of any branch of the Y network is equal to the product of the two adjacent sides of the A network divided by the sum of the three A resistances, Rule 2: The tule for Y to A conversion can be stated as follows: The resistance of any side of the A network is equal to the sum of the Y network resistances multiplied two at a time, divided by the resistance of the opposite branch of the Y network. 5.4 Series of Parallel Ry(Rz + R3) 38 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 5.5 Independent and Dependent Sources Those voltage or current sources, which do not depend on any other quantity in the circuit, are called independent sources. An independent d.c. voltage source is shown in Figure (a) whereas a time- varying voltage source is shown in Figure (b). The positive sign shows that terminal A is positive with respect to terminal B. In other words, potential of terminal A is v volts higher than that of terminal B. oA 4 oA OA ee @ ® © @ Similarly, Figure (c) shows an ideal constant current source whereas Figure (d) depicts a time- varying current source. The arrow shows the direction of flow of the current at any moment under consideration. A dependent voltage or current source is one which depends on some other quantity in the circuit which may be either a voltage or a current. Such a source is represented by a diamond-shaped symbol as shown in Figure so as not to confuse it with an independent source. There are four possible dependent sources: 4. Voltage-dependent voltage source [Figure (a)] 2, Current-dependent voltage source [Figure (b)] 3. Voltage-dependent current source [Figure (c)] 4, Current-dependent current source [Figure (4)] 39 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING to 809 ° A) ° @ o o @ Independent sources actually exist as physical entities such as a battery, a d.c. generator and an alternator etc. But dependent sources are parts of models that are used to represent electrical properties of electronic devices such as operational amplifiers and transistors etc. SELF-ASSESSMENT 1) A Anetwork is shown in Figure. Find the resistances of an equivalent Y network and draw the network 2) Given the calculated resistances of the Y network in previous example, Re = 1.20, Ro = 20, and Re = 30, confirm the values of equivalent resistances in the Anetwork. 3) Find the total resistance, total circuit current, and branch currents of the circuit shown Ans. 18 0, 3A, 2A, 1A 40 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 4) Determine the voltage of the dependent voltage source 2 eo +B 4 div %S4 c In the unbalanced bridge circuit of Figure (a), find the potential difference that exists across the open switch S. Also, find the current which will flow through the switch when it is closed. Convert delta circuit into wye network 109 100 9 41 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Convert wye network into delta network a 290 109 109 Find the equivalent resistance of the network The current in the given circuit with a dependent voltage source is 40 42 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING ‘An ohmeter is used for measuring the resistance of a circuit between its two terminals. What would be the reading of such an instrument used for the circuit of Figure at point (a) AB (b) AC and (c) BC? All resistances are in ohm Sop ns 15: - 43 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING MODULE 6 KIRCHOFF’S LAW AND MAXWELL MESH METHOD. 61 irchhoff’s Laws These laws are more comprehensive than Ohm's law and are used for solving electrical networks which may not be readily solved by the latter. Kirchhoff's laws, two in number, are particularly useful (a) in determining the equivalent resistance of a complicated network of conductors and (6) for calculating the currents flowing in the various conductors. The two-laws are: 1. Kirchhoff’s Point Law or Current Law (KCL) It states as follows: in any electrical network, the algebraic sum of the currents meeting at a point (or junction) is zero. Put in another way, it simply means that the total current /eaving a junction is equal to the total current entering that junction. It is obviously true because there is no accumulation of charge at the junction of the network. Consider the case of a few conductors meeting at a point A as in Figure left. Some conductors have currents leading to point A, whereas some have currents leading away from point A. Assuming the incoming currents to be positive and the outgoing currents negative, we have @ I+ (-h) + (-b) + (+ 4) + (Is) =0 orhth-b-b-b=0 © orhth=h+h+ls or incoming currents = outgoing currents 48 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Similarly, in Figure (right) for node A +14 (-h) + (-b) + (Ch) + (Fl) =Oore ht hth +h 2. Kirchhoff's Mesh Law or Voltage Law (KVL) It states as follows: The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in any closed path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs. in that path is zero. In other words, E JR +E e.m-f. = 0.....ound a mesh. It should be noted that algebraic sum is the sum which takes into account the polarities of the voltage drops. Node, () (a se Fe Loop Node “ = ‘Sumourrents IN ‘Sum Votages (counterclockwise order) Branch 1,+1+h=0ams V+ V,+V, +Vjr0 volts ‘Sumcurents OUT ‘Sum Voltages (Clockwise order) Kirchhot's analysis fore SL Vas sper siratre ria above mesh (a) is given in 2 2-V.-V5+ Ve ade Kirchhoff's Current Law —_Kirehhoff's Voltage Law The basis of this law is this: If we start from a particular junction and go round the mesh tll we come back to the starting point, then we must be at the same potential with which we started. Hence, it means that all the sources of e.m.f. met on the way must necessarily be equal to the voltage drops in the resistances, every voltage being given its proper sign, plus or minus. 45 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 6.2 Determination of Voltage Sign In applying Kirchhoff’s laws to specific problems, particular attention should be paid to the algebraic signs of voltage drops and e.m.fs., otherwise results will come out to be wrong. Following sign conventions is suggested. (a) Sign of Battery E.M.F. A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a -ve sign. Keeping this in mind, it is clear that as we go from the -ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal (Figure), there is a rise in potential, hence this voltage should be given a + ve sign. If, on the other hand, we go from +ve terminal to -ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, hence this voltage should be preceded by a -ve sign. It is important to note that the sign of the battery e.m-f. is independent of the direction of the current through that branch. current current 4 Ale EEE y ai Paes ea) eatin ee | © 1! e- Ww ° e =e R _— — 8... motion —__» motion Rise in Fall in Fall in Rise in Voltage Voltage Voltage Voltage +E E V=-IR +V= +R b) Sign of IR Drop Now, take the case of a resistor. If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is a fall in potential because current flows from a higher to a lower potential. Hence, this voltage fall should be taken -ve. However, if we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise in voltage. Hence, this voltage rise should be given a positive sign 46 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING It is clear that the sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of current through that resistor but is independent of the polarity of any other source of e.mf. in the circuit under consideration. Consider the closed path ABCDA in Figure. As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage drops will have the following NGA Lee Ah win 14Re is ~ ve (fall in potential) LbRe is - ve (fall in potential) Rais + ve (rise in potential) 4Rs is ~ ve (fall in potential) Ex is - ve (fall in potential) Er is + ve (rise in potential) Using Kirchhoff's voltage law, we get “IR: ~bRe -IsRo ~l4Rs ~E2 + Es = 0 or HR: + bRo IRs + IsRe = Es -E2 6.3 Assumed Direction of Current In applying Kirchhof's laws to electrical networks, the question of assuming proper direction of current usually arises. The direction of current flow may be assumed either clockwise or anticlockwise. If the assumed direction of current is not the actual direction, then on solving the question, this current will be found to have a minus sign. If the answer is positive, then assumed direction is the same as actual direction. However, the important point is that once a particular direction has been assumed, the same should be used throughout the solution of the question. Note. It should be noted that Kirchhoff's laws are applicable both to d.c. and a.c. voltages and currents. However, in the case of alternating currents and voltages, any e.m.. of self-inductance or that existing across a capacitor should be also taken into account 6.4 Mesh Analysis To write a set of mesh equation we do two things: Express element voltages as function of mesh currents 47 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Apply KVL to each meshes of the circuit R R x 4 B w= ___ayy__ 5 4) ara is 2 ae, h ) ee Ree ee ae D ¢c F A At Loop 1 E;-h(Ri # Ra) + LR =0 At Loop 2 + bo(Ro + Ra + Rs) + h(Rs) + IsRs = 0 At Loop 3 + Ex—b(Rs + Res) + laRs = 0 Supermesh is one larger mesh created from two meshes that have independent or dependent source in common 6a wa 6a a Exclude these » @ elements 48 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, 6.5 Mesh Analysis Using Matrix Form R % % Rir Riz R13 4 yp 2 __yp_4_y__$ Roy Roz Rog = | as R31 R32 R33. sk +(Ry + Ry) —Ry o Ry +(R2 + R4+ Rs) —Rs 0 -Rs +(R3 + Rs) +(R1 + Ry) Ry 0 Ty Ey Ry +(Rz + Ry +Rs) —Rs In) =|0 0 —Rs +(R3 + Rs)| Us. E2 In general, let Ris = self-resistance of mesh (i) Ro2 = self-resistance of mesh (if) i.e. sum of all resistances in mesh (if) Res = Self-resistance of mesh (iif). sum of all resistances in mesh (iif) Riz = Roi = ~ [Sum ofall the resistances common to meshes (i) and (i)] Res = Rea = - [Sum of all the resistances common to meshes (i) and (ii)] Self-Assessment Solve for mesh currents by using Kirchoff's Law and Mesh Analysis % 49 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Write the mesh equation of the three mesh circuit do not solve 20 aa 6a Solve for mesh currents 20 10v 20 | Supermesh 50 0f 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Solve for mesh currents 90 3a 2v@G) z GC) 6a Determine the value of the voltage measured by the voltmeter in Figure Voltmeter @ )) 30a 4a 30 Solve for la so 4 «122 4b 51 0f87Determine the mesh current it, iz, is for the circuit shown, POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Dery 2) Find ip for the circuit shown O5A 50Q 750 Cot Gy Qe 50Q 252 3) The value of the mesh currents in the circuit shown in the Figure below are i1 = 2A i2 = 3A, is = 4A. Determine the value of the resistance R and find the voltages of v: and v2 of the voltage source. 520f87ution Bi POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING Determine the value of the voltage measured by the voltmeter in the figure 6a Voltmeter Find vo for the circuit shown below 50i, 60 ma (f 2500 53 0f877) Find v2 for the circuit shown in Figure below .04v2 54 of 87 POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 100 a t)i0vPOLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING, MODULE 7 NODAL ANALYSIS AND SOURCE TRANSFORMATION 7.1 Electric Circuits and Network Theorems There are certain theorems, which when applied to the solutions of electric networks, wither simplify the network itself or render their analytical solution very easy. These theorems can also be applied to an a.c. system, with the only difference that impedances replace the ohmic resistance of d.c. system. Different electric circuits (according to their properties) are defined below: 4, Circuit. A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either flows or is intended flow. 2, Parameters. The various elements of an electric circuit are called its parameters like resistance, inductance and capacitance. These parameters may be /umped or distributed. 3. Liner Circuit. A linear circuit is one whose parameters are constant i.e. they do not change with voltage or current. 4, Non-linear Circuit. Itis that circuit whose parameters change with voltage or current. 5. Bilateral Circuit. A bilateral circuit is one whose properties or characteristics are the same in either direction. The usual transmission line is bilateral, because it can be made to perform its function equally well in either direction 6. Unilateral Circuit. It is that circuit whose properties or characteristics change with the direction of its operation. A diode rectifier is a unilateral circuit, because it cannot perform rectification in both directions. 7. Electric Network. A combination of various electric elements, connected in any manner whatsoever, is called an electric network. 8, Passive Network is one which contains no source of e.m.f. in it 9. Active Network is one which contains one or more than one source of e.m.f. 410. Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are connected together. 411. Branch is that part of a network which lies between two junctions. 412. Loop. It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more than once: 55 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES: College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 13. Mesh, It is a loop that contains no other loop within it. 7.2 Nodal Analysis With Sources The node-equation method is based directly on Kirchhoff current law unlike loop-current method which is based on Kirchhoffs voltage law. However, like loop current method, nodal method also has the advantage that a minimum number of equations need be written to determine the unknown quantities. Moreover, itis particularly suited for networks having many parallel circuits with common ground connected such as electronic cirouits, For the application of this method, every junction in the network where three or more branches meet is regarded a node. One of these is regarded as the reference node or datum node or zero- potential node. Hence the number of simultaneous equations to be solved becomes (n - 1) where nis the number of independent nodes. These node equations often become simplified if all voltage sources are converted into current sources. 56 of 87POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES College of Engineering DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING 7.3 Source Transformation Allows us to replace a voltage source and a series resistor by a current source and parallel resistor. Doing so does not change the current or voltage of any other element of the circuit From voltage source to current source R OA Wo le Cw I=WR Gt Se B OB From current source to voltage source 4 ——AWV04 GO = VIR Cv OB 57 0f 87