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Published
Argonauts of the Desert: Structural Analysis of the Hebrew Bible
Philippe Wajdenbaum
Thomas L. Thompson
Routledge
Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2013 by Equinox, an imprint of Acumen
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Acknowledgments ix
Abbreviations xiii
Introduction 1
Philip R. Davies
9. How Yahweh became God: Exodus 3 and 6 and the heart of the
Pentateuch 119
11. Why talk about the past? The Bible, epic and historiography 147
15. From the mouth of babes, strength: Psalm 8 and the Book
of Isaiah 235
Chapter 1: ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives 4: Narratives about the Origins
of Israel,’ originally published in J. M. Miller and J. H. Hayes (eds),
Israelite and Judaean History (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster,
1977), 210–12.
Chapter 2: ‘Historical Notes on Israel’s Conquest: A Peasants’ Rebellion,’
originally published in the Journal for the Study of the Old Testa
ment 7 (1978), 20–27.
Chapter 3: ‘The Background of the Patriarchs: A Reply to William Dever and
Malcolm Clark,’ originally published in the Journal for the Study
of the Old Testament 9 (1978), 2–43.
Chapter 4: ‘Conflict Themes in the Jacob Narratives,’ originally published in
Semeia 15 (1979), 5–26.
Chapter 5: ‘History and Tradition: A Response to J. B. Geyer,’ originally
published in the Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 15
(1980), 57–61. Geyer’s article was published in the same issue of
the journal.
Chapter 6: ‘Text, Context and Referent in Israelite Historiography,’ originally
published in Diana V. Edelman (ed.), The Fabric of History: Text,
Artifact and Israel’s Past (Sheffield: SAP, 1991), 65–92. Diana
Edelman is to be thanked for many substantial improvements in
the style and content of this paper.
Chapter 7: ‘Palestinian Pastoralism and Israel’s Origins,’ originally published
in the Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 6/1 (1992), 1–13.
Chapter 8: ‘The Intellectual Matrix of Early Biblical Narrative: Inclusive
Monotheism in Persian Period Palestine’ is dedicated to the gradu-
ate students at Marquette University. It was first presented at a
1992 symposium chaired by Diana Edelman at the annual meet-
ing of the Society of Biblical Literature in San Francisco. It was
subsequently published in D. V. Edelman (ed.), The Triumph of
Elohim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms. Contributions to Biblical
Exegesis and Theology (Kampen: Kok Pharos, 1995), 107–26.
x Acknowledgments
Chapter 9: ‘How Yahweh Became God: Exodus 3 and 6 and the Heart of
the Pentateuch.’ This paper was first presented as the inaugural
lecture at the University of Copenhagen on September 14, 1993
and was published under the title: ‘Hvorledes Jahve blev Gud:
Exodus 3 og 6 og Pentateukens centrum’ in DTT 57 (1994), 1–19.
The English version was published in Journal for the Study of the
Old Testament 20 (1995), 57–73.
Chapter 10: ‘4QTestimonia and Bible Composition: A Copenhagen Lego
Hypothesis.’ This essay was first presented as a lecture at a con-
gress on the Dead Sea Scrolls at Schaeffergården, sponsored by
the Institute for Biblical Exegesis of the University of Copen
hagen in June of 1995, and published in the collected papers of
the congress in Frederick H. Cryer and Thomas L. Thompson
(eds), Qumran Between the Old and New Testaments (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 261–76.
Chapter 11: ‘Why Talk About the Past? The Bible, Epic and Historiography.’
This previously unpublished chapter was originally presented as a
paper at the 1999 meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature.
Chapter 12: ‘Historiography in the Pentateuch: Twenty-Five Years after Histor
icity,’ originally published in the Scandinavian Journal of the Old
Testament 13/2 (1999), 258–83. The title alludes to T. L. Thompson,
The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974).
Chapter 13: ‘The Messiah Epithet in the Hebrew Bible’ was presented as a
paper at the annual Rostock–Copenhagen conference on biblical
exegesis, which was held at the University of Rostock on April
29–30, 2001. It was published in the Scandinavian Journal of the
Old Testament 15/1 (2001), 57–82
Chapter 14: ‘Kingship and the Wrath of God: Or Teaching Humility,’ origi-
nally published in the Revue Biblique 109 (2002), 161–96.
Chapter 15: ‘From the Mouth of Babes, Strength: Psalm 8 and the Book of
Isaiah,’ originally published in the Scandinavian Journal of the
Old Testament 16/2 (2002), 226–45.
Chapter 16: ‘Job 29: Biography or Parable?’ originally published in Thomas
L. Thompson and Henrik Tronier (eds), Frelsens Biografisering
(Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 2004), 115–34.
Chapter 17: ‘Mesha and Questions of Historicity,’ originally published in the
Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 21/2 (2007), 241–60.
Chapter 18: ‘Imago Dei: A Problem in the Discourse of the Pentateuch.’ This
lecture was originally given on the occasion of my retirement
from the Faculty of Theology of the University of Copenhagen on
February 26, 2009. I have tried as best I can to maintain the struc-
ture and tone of the original. It is dedicated to Gerd Lüdemann,
Professor of New Testament in Göttingen and his current struggle
for academic freedom. It was first published in English in the
Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament 23/1 (2009), 135–48.
Acknowledgments xi
The patriarchs, and especially Abraham, are the means by which the bibli-
cal tradition has expressed Israel’s political, sociological and geographical
ties with the world surrounding it … Understandably, the stories often are
aetiological in intent and are used to explain the historiographical relation-
ship between the eponymous ancestor or hero and the tribe, village, or region
bearing his name.1
1. T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: De Gruyter, 1974), 298.
2 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
The chapters in this volume show how Thompson has clarified and refined
the question of how we should understand narratives that we treat as ‘historiog-
raphy.’ Indeed, he regards ‘historiography’ as an inappropriate category: such
narratives do not attempt to reflect the realities of the past. In a social world
whose time and space were not measured by scientific (rather than mythical)
calendars and maps, and where the past was perceived only in story, ‘history’
in our modern sense is meaningless. Rather the past was – could only be – an
extension of the present, configured by stories that inevitably conformed to liter-
ary conventions, to the point where, he comes to argue in his later work, modern
historical reconstruction from such narratives is largely pointless.
Such a conclusion, however, is not achieved or defended by ignoring the
realia of Palestine’s past that are available to modern scholarship. The essays
here also show that Thompson has always possessed a detailed knowledge of
archaeology and of topography. However, rather than seeking ‘congruence,’
‘correlation,’ or ‘confirmation’ of the narratives by various strategies, in the
manner of the now-defunct ‘biblical archaeology,’ he insists that this kind of his-
torical research is futile. Those of us who have recently come to understand that
‘cultural memory’ is a more appropriate conceptual tool for classifying these
narratives can now look at Thompson’s work and see how, beginning forty years
ago, he had anticipated this insight. The essays presented here demonstrate the
increasing clarity and sophistication with which Thompson has explained how
the Bible’s extended narratives work. It is fair to say that the majority of biblical
scholars do not follow his path, at least to the end; but equally fair to say that
(wrongly) the majority did not follow him forty years ago, either.
Of the first four chapters, three work out a position on the issue of Israelite
origins in critical reaction to other scholars. Chapter 2 is specifically a critique
of Mendenhall’s ‘peasants’ revolt’ theory, but covers other conquest and pasto-
ral models of Israel’s conquest/settlement in Palestine. Underlining the fact that
there is actually no evidence for the ‘revolt’ theory, he makes the striking obser-
vation that the agreement among these theories about the chronology of Israel’s
settlement ‘is rather a procedural consensus, wrought out of the uncertainty of
how it happened and even of what happened.’
In 1977 Hayes and Miller’s Israelite and Judaean History appeared – a
moment when much of this history was highly contested. Unfortunately, the
chapter on the Patriarchs had already been assigned when Thompson was invited
to contribute, and so he wrote instead (with Dorothy Irvin) on the Joseph and
Moses narratives. But he did respond critically to the authors of the Patriarchs
chapter, Dever and Clark. Chapter 3 is in fact a substantial review of the entire
issue, which develops the case for an Iron Age terminus a quo, concluding
with the assertion that ‘one cannot posit the existence of a tradition without
the concomitant existence of the bearers of that tradition’ – in other words, no
‘Israelite’ tradition without an Israel. But his own chapter (with Irvin) on Joseph
and Moses in turn came under attack from John Geyer, opposed to Irvin’s use of
comparative oral tradition as a means of assessing historicity and to Thompson’s
insistence that the Pentateuchal tradition was irrelevant to the history of Israel’s
origins. In Chapter 5 (implicitly) and Chapter 6 (explicitly), Thompson rebuts
Introduction 3
Beyond historiography
With Chapter 6 we come to what I regard as the pivotal point in this collection,
which deserves some extended comment. Here some very significant moves
become evident. Thompson announces a fundamental break with literary-
historical criticism by insisting that one cannot convert a composition theory
into history. The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel (1987), extending the work
already undertaken on the Jacob stories, produced an analysis of Genesis–
Exodus 23 as a single complex chain-narrative. This article, however, contains
other important milestones in Thompson’s thinking: Exodus 23.20–24.8, for
example, is concerned not with an initial entry in to the Promised Land:
4 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
It has also become a viable method for one significant aspect of Israel’s his-
tory; for the development of the tradition reflects the historically significant
formative process by which ‘Israel,’ through its use of tradition, was created
out of the political and historical disasters of the Assyrian and neo-Babylonian
periods. The formation of biblical narrative – this ideologically motivated,
originating process that makes Israel – begins at the earliest during the course
of Assyria’s domination of Palestine. At the latest, the Israel we know from
the tradition comes to be during the pre-Hellenistic postexilic period.2
The biblical ‘Israel’ is seen as a vision of a new Israel, and thus necessarily born
out of the destruction of the old one: as he puts it, in the ‘twilight and destruc-
tions of the states of Samaria and Jerusalem.’ But whereas much of Thompson’s
work to this point has been concerned with ‘tradition,’ he now queries this notion
itself. The historical evidence strongly suggests that ancient Israelite written lit-
erature, and the scribal institution that this implies, cannot be dated before the
eighth or (‘perhaps even better’) seventh century bce. The biblical literature is
thus the product of ‘a small handful of scholarly bibliophiles,’ and the ‘tradi-
tion’ represented in its narratives is not a popular cultural memory (the term had
2. T. L. Thompson, The Early History of the Israelite People from the Written and Archae
ological Sources (Leiden: Brill, 1992).
Introduction 5
not yet been introduced, of course), nor concerned with preserving a realistic
account (Thompson would say, now if not then, any account) of the past. Earlier
stories may be embedded within, but also tropes belonging to the ancient Near
Eastern literary tradition itself, well known to these ‘scholarly bibliophiles,’ but
with no historical rooting. The narratives as a whole are the product of schol-
arly imagining, of intellectual reflection, of theology, even. This conclusion
anticipates Thompson’s later work, in which the context of all biblical literature
is seen, not as a world of history but of literary tropes. The currency of this
scholarly elite, cycled and recycled, produced a web of intertextuality incapable
(on the whole) of untangling in synchronic terms at all, or at least in terms of
historical development – and so precluding the spinning of history out of text.
The distinction between biblical and non-biblical representations of the past
is taken up in Chapter 7, where Thompson summarizes elements of his Early
History, most importantly (in my view) the section entitled ‘The separate ori-
gins of “Israel and Judah”.’3
Thompson distinguishes the Iron I settlement of the central highlands from
the contemporary settlements in Galilee (which together belonged to the king-
dom of Israel) and the Iron II settlement in Judah, which along with the northern
Negev and Shephelah, formed the kingdom of Judah. The notion of a ‘twelve-
tribe Israel,’ indeed of an ‘Israelite nation,’ is part of the biblical story, but not
part of history. Any history must now be a history of Palestine in which the
societies and states and provinces of Judah and Israel/Samaria are a part, and
the genre ‘History of Israel’ is dead. It is as disappointing as it is inevitable that
such conclusions have evoked an imputation of anti-Semitism. Thompson has
not overtly engaged in such polemics, but he has engaged with Palestinians
and (along with Ingrid Hjelm) with the Samaritans – a dwindling and threat-
ened community who have better reason than their Jewish neighbors to claim
a historic right to the ancient territory of Israel. This (as one who shares these
views) I regard simply as a recognition of the need to remember the history
of the land and all its peoples correctly and not skew it in the interests of any
modern ideology.
The issue of monotheism and its origins is a major aspect of the distinction
between a ‘biblical’ Israel and the historical societies of Judah and Samaria,
and two essays here are devoted to this topic. In Chapter 8 the emphasis is
on an inclusive monotheism located within a late Persian matrix, in which the
various profiles of the deity in older stories are recast as images of a High
God. Specially mentioned are Exodus 3 and 6, two theophany stories that are
treated in more detail in the following essay. An important advance evident
especially in Chapter 9 is the attention Thompson pays to the Hellenistic period,
in which he acknowledges the influence of his Copenhagen colleague Niels
Peter Lemche. He has now moved his terminus ad quem (see above), drawing
attention both to evidence of editing of the Hebrew Bible in the Hasmonean
period in the Masoretic chronologies (as he had already in his earlier work)
how it was forged as a nation out of the wars with the Philistines. The origin
of Israel spoken of in Ezekiel 16:3-22 relates undoubtedly to unknown narra-
tives that place the origin of the southern kingdom and its people in the land
of Canaan: ‘Your birth and your nativity is of the land of Canaan …’ But also
in the Pentateuch we find narratives that relate the origin of Israel to Palestine
itself. The stories of Abraham and Lot, and particularly the separation narrative
in Genesis 13, relate the origin of Israel in the separation of the Israelite peoples
from those of the Moabites and Ammonites. Similarly, the Abraham/Ishmael
narratives separate Israel from its southern neighbors. Granted that these nar-
ratives are essentially etiological, with references to political or social realities
of Israel of the time in which the narratives are told, are they not nonetheless
historiographically oriented to questions about Israel’s origins, and do they not
show that the narrators are free to relate any account consonant with their own
etiological purpose? Must not the same be said, methodologically, of the narra-
tives which refer Israel’s origins to Egypt or the wilderness, to Mesopotamia,
Syria, or Transjordan: the narrow etiological purpose of any given narrative can
be determinative of both the substance and the setting of a story? Of all of the
origin narratives listed above, the David narratives appear the most amenable to
the historian, not only because they are set closer in time to the historical Israel,
but also because they offer a causality for the founding of a nation that is, at least
in broad outlines, plausible. Nevertheless, they are not to be preferred, for fun-
damental methodological reasons. First, their historiographical intentionality
is at least questionable. Second, not only is their historical relevance and accu-
racy unattested, but their literary genre is essentially ahistorical and the guid-
ing motivations of their construction are fundamentally disruptive of historical
categories. Of these narratives, as well as all of the narratives of the Pentateuch,
the historical problem is not so much that they are historically unverifiable, and
especially not that they are historically untrue, but rather that they are radically
irrelevant as sources of Israel’s early history.
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2
Scholars today are in nearly unanimous agreement about the chronology for the
origin of Israel: the transition in Palestine from the Late Bronze Age to the Iron
Age. However, this consensus is not the conclusion of a problem solved after
long debate; for there is no agreement whatever on the evidence for the consen-
sus. It is rather a procedural consensus, wrought out of the uncertainty of how it
happened and even of what happened. The adherents of the two most dominant
interpretations (Albrecht Alt’s settlement hypothesis in contrast to William F.
Albright’s conquest) are not themselves entirely convinced by them.1 In such
uncertainty, it is not only important to be aware of the many alternatives avail-
able, but also to see clearly the presuppositions and methods of each. It is this
service that Hauser attempts with his discussion of the thesis of Mendenhall and
Gottwald. In many ways, his discussion is a reaffirmation of Manfred Weippert’s
thorough rebuttal of the Mendenhall thesis in 1967.2 However, it can be argued
with some justice3 that Weippert’s critique was premature, since at that time
Mendenhall’s thesis was based on only a single popular article.4 Now, a decade
later, the literature has grown greatly, and the thesis, though little changed, has
become increasingly influential. I have great reservations about Hauser’s reit-
eration and affirmation of some of the basic arguments of Alt and Noth,5 and
I am nonplussed by his strange assertion that the biblical narratives are ‘the
only substantial body of source material we possess that treats Israel’s origin
in Palestine,’ since not only must very significant epigraphic, archaeological,
and geographical evidence be considered (see below), but the question of the
1. For a recent, sound and comprehensive survey, see J. M. Miller, ‘The Israelite Occupa
tion of Canaan,’ in J. H. Hayes and J. M. Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History
(Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977), 213–84.
2. M. Weippert, Die Landnahme der israelitischen Stämme in der neueren wissenschaftli-
chen Diskussion, FRLANT 92 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1967).
3. G. Mendenhall, ‘Review of M. Weippert, Die Landnahme der israelitischen Stämme in
der neueren wissenschaftlichen Diskussion,’ Biblica 50 (1969), 432–6.
4. G. Mendenhall, ‘The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,’ BA 25 (1962), 66–87.
5. A. J. Hauser, ‘Israel’s Conquest of Palestine: A Peasants’ Rebellion?’ JSOT 7 (1978),
9–11.
14 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Nomadism
carry great conviction.8 On the other hand, the claims of the ‘nomadic hypoth-
esis’ are not easily dismissed, even when they are not ultimately convincing.
Most recent proponents of this position, and, indeed, most scholars who
speak of nomadism during the second millennium, do not use the term in the
way that Steuernagel did in 1901.9 But it is Steuernagel’s understanding that
is basically attacked and definitively overturned by Gottwald and Mendenhall
with the help of the analogy of Luke’s study of tribal groups from Mari.10 Not
even Kupper11 and Moscati12 are guilty of such naivety,13 and certainly Weippert
has never been.14 Rather, there has existed a great vagueness about the term
‘nomadism,’ and, like its counterpart ‘sedentary,’ this word is lazily used for
a variety of forms of economies and societies, as is revealingly suggested by
the impenetrable synonyms ‘semi-nomadism’ and ‘semi-sedentary.’ The range
of this term ‘nomadism’ is only slightly larger than that of Gottwald’s own
‘transhumance pastoralist.’ Some of the forms that have (at times, with justice)
been included under this term are: farmers with small herds who leave their
villages seasonally, full-time shepherds directly associated with the agricultural
regions – some of whom live in villages and others in tents, cave-dwellers with
land-based economies in agricultural regions, dwellers of the steppe for whom
agriculture is subsidiary to pastoralism (with variations in their degree of set-
tlement), people who live in oases of the wilderness in both a variety of per-
manent structures and tents, as well as traders, caravaneers, miners, societies
of the wilderness and steppe that have developed in symbiosis with mining and
trade industries – also variously involving permanent and transient settlements,
military personnel, guards at border outposts, as well as outlaws, scavengers,
refugees, and so on. All of these and more are found in the sources from the
second millennium bce in the regions of Palestine, and the steppe and desert
areas of the south and east. And all of these need to be distinguished before the
structures of ancient Palestinian society can be adequately defined. Precision is
possible only when concrete historical data are used.
Transhumance pastoralism
Mendenhall and Gottwald give historical context to their concept of the ‘trans
humance pastoralist,’ a form of land use with which they associate the proto-
Israelites who allegedly rebelled against city-state overlords, through the
dissertation of Tracy Luke on Mari.20 In doing this, the analogy between ‘tribal’
groups referred to in the Mari texts and the origins of Israel is made to bear a
considerable interpretive weight, though a half millennium separates the two
periods! Mendenhall and Gottwald fail, however, to consider that nowhere in
Palestine, the Transjordan, the Negev, or the Sinai is the geography and ecology
– and concomitantly the agricultural and pastoral economies and their associ-
ated social structures – comparable to those at Mari, where the fertile Euphrates
valley enters the steppe. In Palestine, almost all of the agricultural regions,
which are settled during the Bronze Age, lie apart from the steppe, and, in most
cases, isolated from it.21 Particularly during the Late Bronze period, animal
husbandry, within the most densely settled agricultural zones, appears to have
been closely associated with the town–village agricultural economy, and was
hardly affected – even when it involved some ‘transhumance’ – by the struc-
tural relationships of groups or whole settlements within the greater society,
although, without question, the lives of many individuals were thereby affected.
Those pastoralists who may have been associated with the larger steppe regions
in and near Palestine – especially the northern Negev and the grasslands of
eastern Transjordan (to mention only the largest) – were, during the Bronze Age
and early Iron I period, certainly very few. If they had close associations with
the many outlying agricultural villages of Palestine, and undoubtedly they did,
they were, nevertheless, like so many of those fringe villages, independent of
and isolated from the major Late Bronze city-states of the coastal plains and the
great inland valleys.22 There is little here that can be compared with the close
association that existed between the state of Mari and North Mesopotamian
steppe pastoralism.
in the central hill country – are established in regions that appear to have been
agriculturally marginal at the level of Bronze Age technology. Enabling this
transition, three new technological developments may well have been involved:
terracing, slaked-lime cisterns, and iron tools. Such developments are difficult
to associate with any non-agricultural people or, indeed, any migration from
outside of Palestine. Finally, the character of the small Iron Age settlements
(judging from the analogy of the Middle Bronze II period) suggests that they
were undertaken during a period of political and military stability; that is, cen-
tralizing, peace-keeping forces – perhaps Egyptian – were effectively involved
in the settlement of Iron Age Palestine.
Finally, it must be recognized that much of Mendenhall’s understanding of
the origins of Israel depends upon his assertion of the historicity of Exodus
20.25 In considering the origins of this people, however, from a sociological and
economic perspective, the question of origin must first of all be a question of the
origin of the settlements and peoples that became Israel. That is, we are dealing
primarily with historical questions, and only potentially and derivatively with
questions of biblical interpretation.
25. G. E. Mendenhall, ‘The Relation of the Individual to Political Society in Ancient Israel,’
in J. M. Myers (ed.), Biblical Studies in Memory of H. C. Alleman (Locust Valley, NY: J.
J. Augustin, 1960), 92–3.; G. E. Mendenhall, Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient
Near East (Pittsburgh, PA: The Biblical Colloquium, 1955), G. E. Mendenhall, ‘Biblical
History in Transition,’ in G. E. Wright (ed.) The Bible and the Ancient Near East: Essays
in Honor of William Foxwell Albright (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965), 37–58; G.
E. Mendenhall, The Tenth Generation, 1; cf., however, T. L. Thompson, ‘The Joseph and
Moses Narratives,’ in J. H. Hayes and J. M. Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History
(Philadelphia: Westminster, 1977), 149–212 [160–62, 210–12].
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3
Introductory remarks
This text is written in response to the recent chapter of Malcolm Clark and
William Dever in the new Israelite and Judaean History by Hayes and Miller.1
The first part attempts to clarify my position for giving an Iron Age post quem
dating for the origin of the Genesis narratives, while the second part discusses
the sociologically descriptive term ‘dimorphic’ as used by Dever in his article,
and as it has been variously used in the writing of Mesopotamian history. I then
discuss the limits of the use to which such parallels or analogies can be put in
developing a history of Palestine. The EB IV/MB I period is then used as an
example of the effect of sociological and anthropological questions on the writ-
ing of a history of Palestine, while the final discussion deals with the complexity
of settlement patterns in Bronze Age Palestine and the variety of political struc-
tures implied by such patterns, as well as the impact of such observations on the
history of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Ages. The changes that have occurred
during the last decade in publications dealing with the historical background
of the patriarchs, beginning with Morton Smith’s 1968 presidential address to
the Society of Biblical Literature and the publication of the English version
of a 1969 article of Benjamin Mazar have dramatically altered our perspec-
tives on both the Pentateuchal tales and the late pre-history of Palestine.2 The
chapter written by William Dever and Malcolm Clark admirably reflects this
change. While both authors show respect for the ambiguities of early historical
and archaeological data, both also attempt to mark off clearly the consider-
able grounds of agreement which now exist among scholars, and to suggest
guidelines for possible future consensus on a number of far-reaching problems.
So comprehensive is their representation of current scholarship that one can
hardly object to the general conclusions drawn from their survey. Nevertheless,
it is clear in both articles that a consensus on a reconstruction of the historical
context of the patriarchal stories has not yet been reached, but only cast in the
future. The present situation, in fact, is immensely unstable, and fraught with
new methodological problems and assumptions that had not been apparent in
earlier discussions.3 The concurrent uncertainties in Pentateuchal criticism add
a complexity and depth to discussions about the patriarchs that also had not
existed a decade ago.4
In discussing the ‘date and setting of the patriarchal traditions’ Clark sets out
four important rules: extra-biblical data must be accurately and independently
evaluated; such data should not be arbitrarily selected on the basis of precon-
ceptions about the biblical narratives; the biblical text should be examined,
prior to any comparison, to avoid harmonization; and, in comparing similari-
ties between the biblical and extra-biblical materials, differences as well as
likenesses must be candidly dealt with.5 Although these four principles essen-
tially outline the methods I used in re-examining the so-called ‘Nuzi parallels
to patriarchal customs,’6 I cannot wholeheartedly agree with them as proposed
and understood by Clark. My hesitation is not due to any objection to the rules
themselves, but only to their limitations. Such rules are best applicable where
a clearly defined ‘parallel’ is in question and a direct affirmation or negation is
sought, such as in the cases of the Nuzi contracts or early West Semitic names.
For a general methodology, however, Dever’s call for a divorce between the
7. See Chapter 1, this volume; also T. L. Thompson, ‘A New Attempt to Date the Patriarchal
Narratives,’ JAOS 98 (1978), 76–84; T. L. Thompson, ‘The Jacob–Esau Conflict
Narratives,’ Semeia 15 (1979), 5–26.
8. Dever, ‘The Patriarchal Traditions I,’ 120.
9. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition.
10. Thompson, ‘A New Attempt to Date the Patriarchal Narratives,’ 76–9.
11. Thompson, Historicity, 324–6; cf., however, T. L. Thompson, ‘A New Attempt to Date
the Patriarchal Narratives.’
24 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
‘Dimorphism’ in Mesopotamia
16. Dever, ‘The Patriarchal Traditions I,’ 72–9; cf. the similar arguments of M. E. Martin,
The Appraisal of Argument in Biblical Archaeology (unpublished dissertation, University
of Leiden, 1976), esp. 114.
17. P. Parr, ‘Settlement Patterns and Urban Planning in the Ancient Levant: the Nature of the
Evidence,’ in P. J. Ucko, R. Tringham, and G. W. Dimbleby (eds), Man, Settlement, and
Urbanism (London: Duckworth, 1972), 805–10.
18. Dever, ‘The Patriarchal Traditions I,’ 117.
19. J. R. Kupper, Les Nomades en Mésopotamie au temps des rois de Mari (Liège:
Bibliotheque de la Faculté de Philosophie et Lettres de l’Université de Liège, 1957),
fasc. 142; S. Moscati, I Predecessori d’Israele, Studi Orientali publicati a cura della
scuola orientale, IV (Rome: Dott Giovani Bardi, 1956); H. Klengel, Benjaminiter und
Hanger zur Zeit der Könige von Mari (Dissertation, Berlin, 1958); H. Klengel, ‘Zu
einigen Problemen des altvorderasiatischen Nomadentums,’ Ar Or 30 (1962), 585–96.
20. Thompson, Historicity, 87–8.
21. M. Weippert, Die Landnahme der israelitischen Stämme in der neueren wissenschaftli-
chen Diskussion (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht, 1967), 106 and 110; English
translation: The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Palestine: A Critical Study of Recent
Scholarly Debate SB 11 (London: A. R. Allenson, 1971).
22. G. E. Mendenhall, ‘The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,’ BA 25 (1962), 66–87; G. E.
Mendenhall, Review of M. Weippert, Die Landnahme, Bib 50 (1969), 432–6; cf.
26 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
28. P. Fronzaroli, ‘West Semitic Toponomy in Northern Syria in the Third Millennium,
B.C.,’ JSS 22 (1977), 145–66.
29. Dever, ‘The Patriarchal Traditions I,’ 94–5.
30. Thompson, Historicity, 52–7.
31. Cf. J. Renger, ‘Who Are All Those People?,’ Or 42 (1973), 259–73 [264].
32. See, also, Haldar, Who Were the Amorites? and, especially, Liverani, ‘The Amorites’; M.
Liverani, ‘Review of H. Klengel, Zwischen Zelt and Palast,’ OrAn 15 (1976), 68–73;
M. Liverani, ‘Review of R. de Vaux, L’Histoire ancienne d’Israel I.II,’ OrAn 15 (1976),
145–9.
33. Compare Thompson, ‘Historical Notes’ and N. K. Gottwald, ‘The Hypothesis of the
Revolutionary Origins of Ancient Israel: A Response to Hauser and Thompson,’ JSOT 7
(1978), 37–52.
34. Haldar, Who Were the Amorites?; Liverani, ‘The Amorites.’
35. T. L. Thompson, The Settlement of Sinai and the Negev in the Bronze Age, BTAVO 8
(Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1975); T. L. Thompson, The Settlement of Palestine in
the Bronze Age, BTAVO 34 (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1979).
28 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
‘dimorphism’ has been used in very different ways in discussions in the Mari
texts by both Luke and Rowton to facilitate independently conceived radical
departures from earlier, no longer tenable, concepts of nomadism. Although
Rowton’s usage is more widely known and has been adopted by Liverani and
others, Dever’s understanding of the term as relating to Mari seems to be drawn
essentially from Luke’s unpublished dissertation. Although Luke seems to
misunderstand both Kupper and the Mari texts, his description of some of the
Early West Semitic groups at and near Mari as having been ‘dimorphically’
both sedentary and transitory, consisting of both farmers and pastoralists, is
acceptable as a description of some of these groups.39 It does appear correct to
speak of such groups as the Ha as a single socio-political entity with, however,
two distinguishable patterns of life: sedentary and transitory, which are largely
dependent upon the regionally separable, but integrated economic functions of
agriculture and animal husbandry. However, this description does not fit all of
the West Semitic groups, and can certainly not be used to describe the society of
Mari. The city itself, and most of those agricultural towns and villages depend-
ent on the irrigation works administered from Mari, can hardly be described
other than as sedentary. Luke’s description is applicable to those on the periph-
ery of Mari’s society. Yet one must doubt the entire appropriateness of the term
‘farmer-shepherd’ as used by Dever and applied to such groups, however appli-
cable this term might be to some of the more sedentary agriculturalists here and
elsewhere in the Near East. It oversimplifies. Very different small groups live
on the periphery of Mari: some entirely pastoral; others entirely agricultural;
some perhaps with a pastoral, more transitory past. Still others follow a pattern
of patch cultivation in a mixed economy with seasonal migration. Moreover, the
situation current among these peripheral groups at the time of the Mari texts was
not of their own making, but rather the direct result of specific historic actions
taken by the Mari administration to settle into alanu and kupratum – for pur-
poses of control and taxation – some of the migratory steppe dwellers within the
Mari domain.40 Sociologically speaking, the marginal agricultural and sedentary
character of many of these groups is a direct effect of the groups’ subordination
to the state bureaucracy and military. I do not mean to imply that agriculture
had been previously foreign to these groups, but wish only to underline that the
uniquely mixed economies reflected in the Middle Bronze texts from Mari are
related to quite specific historical actions, and that the social structures resulting
from such actions can be used properly as analogues only in situations where
similar actions have been taken by great states in an attempt to control subor-
dinate groups.
Rowton’s concept of ‘dimorphism’ offers a much more satisfying interpre-
tive structure for understanding the steppe dwellers of Mesopotamia. Rowton
structure concrete historical data where such distinctions are essential.46 The
three spectra are conceptually independent and coalesce only under quite spe-
cific historical and geographical circumstances. Nomadism does not of itself
imply pastoralism47 and pastoralism is only one of the many economic forms,
frequently and often causally associated with nomadic peoples.48 Nomadism is
one of many types of territorial occupation which has a large variety of forms of
dwelling structures, which need to be analyzed along a continuum according to
their stability and transitoriness. This continuum ought properly to include also
the immense variety of what is often globally understood as sedentary – city,
town, village, hamlet, homestead, and so on, all of which have sociologically
considerable transitory elements in their society.49 Although animal husbandry
is frequently a mainstay of nomadic economies in modern societies ‘nomadic’
or ‘transhumance’ pastoralism, as reflected by some of the groups living on the
Mesopotamian steppe during the Mari period, was a relatively new economic
development which was dependent on and subsidiary to the large-scale state
irrigation networks. Nomadism, as such, in earlier pre-historic and even Bronze
Age times has been more typically associated with a variety of hunting and
food-gathering economies, as well as with forms of swidden and patch agricul-
ture. Animal domestication, on the other hand, is indigenous, not to the steppe
zones generally associated with Bronze Age nomadic groups, but to the agri-
cultural zones with a Mediterranean climate.50 In Palestine and Syria, animal
husbandry is from very early times associated with intensive forms of agricul-
ture and is necessary to the heavy cropping systems typical of Palestine since at
least the Early Bronze Age. Indeed, it is extremely doubtful that nomadism, as
a form of society, played any significant role in the Palestinian economy, though
shepherding frequently has taken the form of a specialized trade (further below).
It is also not indicated by historical evidence that tribal political structures
can be understood as peculiarly nomadic.51 Well-known examples of sedentary
tribes can be cited from south Arabia52 and modern Africa, as well as ancient
Israel. Nor has it yet been shown clearly that even the pastoral groups at Mari
were tribal societies,53 though this failure may be due to inadequate sources.54
Finally, it must be doubted that agriculture is wholly identifiable with sedentary
forms of occupation.55 Not only do most nomadic groups practice some form of
agriculture, but forms of swidden agriculture frequently require very transitory
forms of settlement.56
Rowton not only has difficulty in maintaining systematic distinctions
throughout his analysis, but he is inclined to view the essentially abstract poles
of his paradigmatic structures as dichotomous, and this is perhaps an inevitable
result of what is finally a misuse of the word ‘dimorphic.’ Though undoubtedly
contiguity and symbiotic associations lie at the base of most class stratifica-
tion, social oppositions and conflicts,57 and though they can even be understood
as determining the form of some historical upheavals, they do not themselves
generate the dichotomies characteristic of such conflicts. Moreover, the binary
concepts ‘state versus tribal’ and ‘agricultural versus pastoral’ are not true
polarities or opposites as is the structure ‘sedentary versus nomadic.’ Rather
they are distinct types, among others, of political structures and economies.
Within Rowton’s analysis of Mari, the functions ‘tribal’ and ‘pastoral’ are not
truly dimorphic, but relate to forms which are subsidiary to the state and to its
primary economy of agriculture, as are other political and economic subgroups.
There are many autonomous groups within a sovereign state; as there are many
specialist trades associated with large-scale irrigation agriculture.
The methodological leitmotif of the above criticisms of the studies of Luke
and Rowton is that form is not an alternative to content, nor structures to data.
Methods must be made appropriate to the materials studied, and conclusions
must be drawn from evidence.58
(Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1978); Sinai und der Negev in der Frühbronzezeit, B
II 10a (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1980); T. L. Thompson, Sinai und der Negev in
der Übergangszeit der Frühbronze/Mittelbronzezeit, B II 10b (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert
Verlag, 1980); T. L. Thompson, Sinai und der Negev in der Spätbronzezeit, B II 10c
(Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1980).
65. Thompson, The Settlement of Palestine, 27–32.
66. Thompson, The Settlement of Palestine, passim.
The background of the patriarchs 35
the Palestinian Bronze Age must be developed than what is appropriate for
Syria and Mesopotamia. Much as the agricultural zone of the Beth Shan Valley
is significantly different from that of Mari, so the steppe which meets the Beth
Shan Valley to the south is radically different from the great Syrian steppe of
Mesopotamia. The Jordan Valley is much more arid, its rainfall decreases rap-
idly from an average of about 250 mm near the Beth Shan Valley to less than
100 mm near the Dead Sea. Its climate ranges from semi-steppe to desert, and
much of the area is given over to badlands. Significant agriculture or herd graz-
ing is limited to the fans of the wadis, descending from the hill country. In the
desert climate of the extreme southern valley, agriculture is largely limited to
oases. Small pockets of settlement are separated from each other, not by steppe
grazing lands, as in Syria’s Jebel Bishri area, but by desert. Although some
winter grazing is certainly to be assumed in these regions, it involved a small
number of people. The economy and social forms can hardly be described as
mixed or ‘dimorphic.’ The small, agricultural zones follow a pattern similar to
the irrigation regions of the northern valley, while the steppe zones are also quite
small and lacking all but the most transient occupation. The Judaean desert to
the south and southwest forms a significant barrier between the rich oases of the
southern Jordan Valley and the grasslands of the northern Negev. The small size
of the population involved does not seem to allow the development of an indig-
enous society, distinct or separable from the sedentary population of Palestine
as a whole, in the manner that such groups did develop on the Syrian steppe.
What grazing there was seems far more easily explained as a subordinate trade
of farmers, providing fertilizer, wool, milk, cheese, and meat as a supplement
to the area’s agricultural products. Sheep and goat herding should be viewed as
one trade among others – such as cattle herding, beekeeping, weaving, trans-
port, and in specific areas (fishing, shipping, dyeing, textile production, mineral
extraction, etc.). Not only is most of Palestine’s arable land separated from a
relatively small steppe region, but Palestinian agriculture is dependent upon
animal husbandry for the maintenance of its intensive cropping systems. Nor is
there evidence that Palestine had developed distinct ethnic groups specifically
associated with sheep and goat herding as did Mesopotamia, consigning this
industry to groups associated with the steppe, and as Old Kingdom Egypt had,
confining so much of its herding to the more ‘Asiatic’ Delta.67 Part of the reason
for this surely was that, in Palestine, much agriculture – particularly the majority
small-scale dry agriculture of the plains and valleys – was carried out within
short distances of grasslands within the Mediterranean climate, which were
grazed over long periods of the year.68 That is, the primary areas of shepherd-
ing in Palestine were within and near agricultural zones, with the likely conse-
quence that individuals and families, not peoples, carried out this trade. The hill
country of Palestine was not heavily settled and appears to have been largely
wooded during the Bronze Age. Though deforestation began at least as early as
the Early Bronze Age, it does not seem to have been irreversible in most areas
until the Iron Age. Although most settlements in the hills, particularly during
the EB and MB II periods, were associated with agriculturally oriented valley
and enclosure terracing,69 a number of dwellings, some of which were in caves,
are probably to be associated with less sedentary economies, such as herding.
The primary reason for arguing against an assumption of large groups of
nomadic or transhumance pastoralists over long periods in the unsettled por-
tions of Palestine is not so much the lack of evidence for such groups grazing
flocks within the plains, and in the hills of central Palestine. It is rather that
there was no need for such groups during most periods; nor, given Palestine’s
peculiarly local and regional fragmentation, much room to accommodate them.
However, those areas which border on the steppe and desert lands of the east and
south, developed essentially distinctive patterns of settlement, both in relation
to their more arid climate, and, ultimately, in the forms of their economies. The
coastal area south of Ashqelon, and the Beersheva and Arad basins, with their
semi-arid climate and rich steppe grasslands, form a continuous, and historically
most significant, steppe zone in Palestine. It is an area of transition between
the Negev and Sinai deserts to the south and southwest and the Palestinian hill
country and coastal plain to the north. Because of aridity and the irregularity of
rainfall, permanent settlement during the Bronze Age throughout this extensive
area is unstable and transhumant.70 Villages and towns in this transition zone
are confined almost entirely to the areas of highest agricultural potential and are
usually found in the northern part of the region, along the major drainage wadis.
There is some possibility that at least the larger of these towns were not so domi-
nantly agricultural as towns in the rest of Palestine, but were much more eco-
nomically dependent on grazing. A substantial investment in animal husbandry
would give greater stability to what must have been otherwise a precarious
economy. Herding would also add to the town’s much greater area of economic
exploitation than would otherwise be allowed by severely limited farmlands.
In addition, it is possible that these settlements were markets and centers for
the larger population, which may have included non-sedentary groups grazing
flocks within the plains, and in the hills of central Sinai and the Negev, whose
economy was perhaps supplemented by patch agriculture, carried out in the
smaller wadi beds of the upland regions. On the basis of such a mixed economy
of the towns of the northern Negev and the southern coast, as well as the neces-
sary symbiotic political and social relationships that would have resulted from
such an economy, one might describe the social structure as ‘dimorphic,’ signi-
fying not that farmers were also shepherds, but that the economic importance
of shepherding was such that it supported significant transitory groups, who,
69. Z. Ron, ‘Agricultural Terraces in the Judaean Mountains,’ IEJ 16 (1966), 33–49 and
111–22.
70. Thompson, Settlement of Sinai and the Negev, 5–11; T. L. Thompson, Settlement of
Palestine, 7–9 and 60–62.
The background of the patriarchs 37
having developed distinctive social and political traits appropriate to their way
of life, dealt symbiotically with the sedentary population of the border towns
of Palestine, which, in turn, developed a significant dependence on the non-
sedentary groups. The lack of direct archaeological evidence of such groups,
however, makes such an interpretation dependent on the interpretation of quite
limited texts. Since the towns are oriented towards the most fertile arable lands,
which are independent for long periods of time, it ultimately rests upon a con-
crete analysis of historical changes in the settlements of this region.
A similar interpretation might be applied with more conviction to the Bronze
Age settlement of the southern part of Transjordan between the Wadi Hasa and
the Wadi Wala, some ten kilometers south of Amman. This area is bordered on
the east by a 10–30 km strip of steppe, just west of the watershed. Though large
areas are barren, much of this area is grassland. Permanent settlement during
the Bronze Age was confined to the hill country within a narrow Mediterranean
zone. This region is sharply broken by deep gorges, and, on the plateau north
of the Wadi-Mujib, by intermediate steppe zones, which form excellent grazing
areas but hardly support agriculture other than occasional patch cultivation. The
known settlement of south Transjordan is very limited throughout this region
during all periods of the Bronze Age. Broken up into isolated agricultural pock-
ets, regional groupings among these settlements could have been neither strong
nor very large. Individual settlements generally require some form of larger
social and political context,71 and the marked isolation of these sites suggests a
connection with the steppe. The higher mountains to the south, not too far from
the grasslands, could support a form of transhumance pastoralism in limited
numbers, which could find markets and supplementary agricultural products
from the villages. The essential requirement of historical evidence is finally
satisfactorily met by the settlements of the central Negev during the EB IV/
MB I period.72 The several hundred settlements in the central Negev from this
period have been found in two economically distinct environmental zones. The
largest number of settlements and dwellings and all of the large villages, lie
on the northwest slopes of the central hills. In spite of the desert climate of the
region (less than 100 mm rainfall), these sites were supported by an agriculture
based on wadi terracing in which arable fields were kept under cultivation by
run-off water. The necessary maintenance of the wadi terracing suggests an
intensive form of cultivation, rather than the patch or swidden agriculture more
typical of arid regions. This, in turn, suggests long-term, perhaps continuous,
occupation.73 Several large sites, with a long history of occupation, such as Tel
Yeroham, confirm this. The most typical form of housing structure – appar-
ently small round huts, generally ranging from 3 to 7 m in diameter, related in
Dever has argued that the non-sedentary West Semitic groups of Mesopotamia
are to be understood as living in a symbiotic relationship with the settled
86. For a very incomplete collection of sites and sources, see Thompson, Settlement of Sinai
and the Negev and Thompson, Settlement of Palestine.
87. For a description of this theory, see Thompson, Historicity, 160–61.
88. On this and the following, see T. L. Thompson, ‘The Settlement of Early Bronze IV–
Middle Bronze I in Jordan,’ ADAJ (1974), 57–71.
89. Thompson, Settlement of Palestine, 52.
The background of the patriarchs 41
A small number of sites along the shore of the Haifa Bay, near Atlit, and along
the central coast,90 suggest that some fishing and perhaps sea trade was carried
out during this period. The extensive occupation of the central coast is largely
confined to the banks of major rivers, again suggesting a decided preference
for irrigable lands. The area of greatest EB settlement, the broad alluvial plain
near the eastern hills which had probably been developed by dry farming tech-
niques and a system of intensive cropping, an area where also heavy grazing is
possible, is abandoned during the EB IV/MB I period. As one moves further to
the south, into the more arid zones of the coast, the restriction of EB IV/MB I
settlement to well-watered regions is even more marked. Near the Nahal Soreq,
where rainfall is close to 500 mm, settlement is still intensive, though restricted
to the river banks. South of this river, however, as the steppe zone is approached,
settlement gives out almost completely – in contrast to all other Bronze Age
periods. The rich grazing lands of the wide southern coast lies beyond the fringe
of EB IV/MB I settlement. The area of the northern Transjordan is another area
of Mediterranean climate with extensive agricultural settlement during EB IV/
MB I. Here, the sedentary character of settlement has never been in doubt and
is primarily based on dry-farming techniques. Attempts to date these settlements
to earlier than those of western Palestine have been unconvincing.91 As in the
MB II and LB periods, the center of EB IV/MB I settlement was in the Irbid
depression.92 The pattern of settlement within this area reflects an intensive
agricultural occupation which was relatively stable throughout the Bronze Age.
In the higher area of the ‘Ajlun, a rugged area with plentiful rainfall (more than
600 mm), a large number of EB sites have been found, typically situated on
isolated flat-topped bluffs and ridges. Most of these settlements are small and
relatively unstable. Few sites survive the EB period and the regional settlement
is limited and sporadic during all subsequent Bronze Age periods. A similar pat-
tern is found (except in the more stable area just to the south of Wadi ar-Rab)
in the extreme northern area of Transjordan, just south of the Yarmuk, where a
large number of relatively small EB settlements are found in isolated, rugged
terrain. The following period reflects a collapse of regional settlement and a
widespread abandonment of the area.
In western Palestine, very similar changes in settlement appear in the very
rich but isolated agricultural plain of the Carmel coast. After a very intensive EB
settlement, based in irrigation agriculture, and a number of cave dwellings in the
eastern hills, probably based in animal husbandry, the plain is largely abandoned
by the end of the EB period and during all subsequent Bronze Age periods.
Similar patterns of the collapse of EB occupation of agricultural regions are
also noticed in the hill country of western Palestine. In the (for the Bronze Age)
agriculturally marginal Allonim hills,93 EB settlement is limited to the isolated
The observation of both excavation reports and settlement patterns is that the
end of the Early Bronze Age was catastrophic, involving destruction of cities,
widespread impoverishment, the dramatic shrinkage of population, the aban-
donment of large regions, and the dispersal of population into areas which ear-
lier had been wilderness. Explanations which depend upon assumptions of vast
numbers of landless pastoral peoples invading Palestine are unsatisfactory.99
The disruptions of the Early Bronze period occur over a span of half a millen-
nium! Moreover, the hallmark of the most intensively settled regions during the
EB IV/MB I period is water exploitation: a continuation of the Early Bronze
irrigation networks and the opening of new areas based on wadi terracing and
run-off collection systems. Conversely, the inability to maintain settlement in
Palestine’s best grazing regions hardly supports confidence in a description of
Pastoral dominance. Nor is there any reason to see this period as involving a
new population. Indigenous burial traditions,100 the ephemeral character of so
many of the settlements, widespread frugality and population decline require
other explanations. The roots of the disaster which overcame the Early Bronze
period could lie within the period itself: in its large cities and its relatively large
population. The prosperity of EB II is not just a counterpoint to the poverty of
EB IV/MB I; it is perhaps its ultimate cause. EB II witnessed an unprecedented
expansion of population in Palestine. Cities of over 20 dunams (l dunam = 1000
m2) with thousands of inhabitants were found in nearly all of the fertile regions
of Palestine. Small villages and hamlets proliferated. Settlement expanded
through enclosure and wadi terracing into the more difficult hill country, wher-
ever good soils and water were abundant. The population also expanded beyond
these regions – into steppe zones capable of supporting only limited populations
over time. The one near constant of history, demographic growth,101 however,
made such settlements precarious, and, with growth, ever more dependent on
favorable weather and soil conditions: as was the case during EB II. Also with
growth, grazing and cropping intensified. Longer fallows gave way to shorter
ones and ever more marginal land was brought under cultivation. In the primary
agricultural zones, once maximum population density was approached, pres-
sure for migration mounted, not only to newer regions – into the hills and the
steppe – but equally into the towns and non-agricultural economies, increasing
yet more an already growing market for the agricultural sector, which, in turn,
became less capable of meeting the demands made on it. With the burgeoning
of the towns and consequent inflation, the potential for eventual catastrophe
was there. In marginal regions, collapse may have been inevitable. In areas
where agriculture depended largely on dry-farming techniques, even normal
99. Thompson, Historicity; Martin, The Appraisal of Argument, 61; Haldar, Who Were the
Amorites?, 49, 66.
100. Prag, ‘The Intermediate Early Bronze–Middle Bronze,’ 99–102; E. M. Meyers, Jewish
Ossuaries and Secondary Burials in their Ancient Near Eastern Setting (dissertation,
Harvard University, 1969).
101. Adams, ‘Early Civilizations,’ 591.
The background of the patriarchs 45
climatic variations can result in crop failure in drier years. Long-term drought
or frequently recurring dry spells cause not only crop failure but a lowering of
the water table and a loss of springs and wells. With ever larger areas opening
up to relatively simple methods of cultivation, already poor soils must fail to
produce consistently high yields. With compensation through a shortening or
even abandonment of fallow systems, much of the land increasingly becomes
subject to salinization. In heavily overpopulated marginal regions, such as the
Arad Basin, drought can result not only in agricultural failure but also overgraz-
ing and a consequent denudation of the soils.102 Once serious food shortages
began to occur, danger of widespread famine increased, increasing the political
and military importance of stabilizing and regulating limited resources, how-
ever incapable they were of dealing with the causes of the shortages. Even
short-term famines, spread over large regions, could, once the stores of the
towns were threatened with depletion, bring about political conflict and regional
wars. Such conflicts, however, might be contained for considerable periods of
time, with only episodic fighting and the occasional destruction of villages and
weaker cities. Nevertheless, a long period of instability, with frequent hostilities
within major regions, also has the capability of so disrupting normal life as to
cause an internal collapse of the economy of a region and the abandonment of
areas where settlements were relatively isolated and consequently insecure and
incapable of fielding an adequate defense. Such collapse, even when regionally
contained, creates large numbers of refugees to strain further limited supplies,
thereby increasing insecurity through the growth of robber bands. In the early
Bronze period, the destruction of major cities and abandonment of settlements
within the agricultural heartland had begun already during EB II. The end of
the Early Bronze period witnesses recurrent destructions of fortified towns. By
the EB IV/MB 1, whole regions had been given up and agriculture in most of
the hill country and outlying, marginal lands had collapsed. The population –
diminished through starvation, warfare and emigration – was concentrated in
the very richest and largest agricultural zones, where continuous fertility was
supported through irrigation. Yet the economy was frugal, village-oriented, and
isolated from any world beyond Palestine. Even so, a lack of major fortifications
suggests a return to military stability and an absence of population pressure.
The steppe zones, ecologically the most fragile, were perhaps the first areas that
were abandoned. New settlements were undertaken by immigrants and refu-
gees in the agriculturally more difficult, but also more viable Central Negev. A
mixture of the economy there and heavy dependence on herding undoubtedly
provided a satisfactory margin against periodic drought. Similarly, the stability
of the marginal areas of the southern Transjordan and the lower Jordan Valley –
in contrast to more fertile and better watered regions – may be understood, if we
102. For analogies, see Smith, ‘Land Use’; T. C. Young, Jr., ‘Population Densities and Early
Mesopotamian Urbanism,’ in Ucko, Tringham, and Dimbleby (eds), Man, Settlement,
and Urbanism, 827–42; Harris, ‘Swidden Systems’; Allen, ‘Ecology, Techniques, and
Settlement Patterns.’
46 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
The most widespread type of settlement in Palestine is the regionally very sta-
ble occupation of environmentally circumscribed agricultural zones where both
large and small (but usually isolated) villages occur. At times, a small number of
settlements, perhaps dominated by a larger town, are found within geographically
107. Thompson, Settlement of Palestine, site no. 1513.07 (Palestine grid: 1549.1320), 341.
108. Ibid., 339, 357–58, sites 1413.06.09 and 1412.01.-04), including one site with consider-
able EB pottery (1412.03).
109. See the bibliography for this site in ibid., site no. 1412.05, 358.
110. Allen, ‘Ecology, Techniques, and Settlement Patterns,’ 221.
111. On the method of analysis uses, see K. V. Flannery, ‘The Origins of the Village as a
Settlement Type in Mesopotamia and the Near East: a Comparative Study, in Ucko,
Tringham, and Dimbleby (eds), Man, Settlement, and Urbanism, 23–54.
48 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
very limited regions. This is a pattern in areas such as the Upper Galilee, Mount
Carmel, the Lower Galilee, the southern Jordan Valley, the Judaean hills, the
steppe zones of the southeast, as well as most of the Transjordan. Though each
of these regions has significant local variations, most representative are sites in
the Upper Galilee, where very small hamlets are found with very large towns
(e.g., Tall Qadas measures 100 dunams) in regional isolation, on top of large
hills or plateaus, near springs or in larger valleys. Economically, the relative
importance of a site is based on the wealth and stability of its environmental
context: the larger the area under cultivation, the larger the potential politi-
cal importance. Regional hegemony, if it existed, appears to have been more
the result than cause of size and wealth. Beyond individual and small regional
organizations, there is every reason to suppose that there existed only frag-
mented and transient political organization. Stability within these regions is
very high throughout the Bronze Age. Changes in economic and political struc-
tures are not notable. The possibility of major economic and political involve-
ment with nomadic pastoralists, particularly in the more arid regions, would of
course increase the environmental context of these sites. Yet this only affects
their political structure marginally, since both the size of the steppe zones and
the numbers of nomads potentially involved are limited. Similarly, in regions
with a more Mediterranean climate, other industries – particularly fishing and
logging – alter the geographical and economic context of sites considerably.
Such militarily weak regions are vulnerable to imperial exploitation. However,
the lack of regional centralization makes the cost of imperial control over iso-
lated and frugal settlements prohibitive. Not until the Iron Age, with its great
increase in population in these regions through the expansion of terracing
beyond the valleys, hilltops, and occasional spring-fed slopes, developing an
intensively productive dry agriculture on the newly terraced slopes of the hills,
do these regions become more densely populated, centralized, economic units.
First, then, does their regional importance become significant and find expres-
sion in the patronage kingdoms of the first millennium.
The second type of region is found in the most stable and important areas of
Palestine, including the Jezreel Valley, the lower Hula Basin and the Jordan rift
north of the Sea of Galilee, the Irbid depression, and the inter-related valleys
of the central hill country in the immediate vicinity of Tall Balata. These are all
large, open, intensively settled, and prosperous regions: areas which witness
long continuous settlement, with many large tells showing occupation through-
out the whole of the Bronze Age. There are also a number of small settlements,
occupied only for short periods. The displacement of the largest towns sug-
gests that the larger valleys may have been regionally subdivided, with each
subdivision often dominated by a single major settlement. A variety of possible
coalitions of subdivisions bay have developed pyramids of considerable politi-
cal power and permanence, such as at Megiddo and Taanach. In some of the
The background of the patriarchs 49
smaller, but still environmentally rich, regions, entire geographic areas tend to
be dominated by single great tells, such as Qedesh and Hazor in the lower Hula
area or Shechem in the central hills, and Gezer and Lachish in the Shephelah.
These are sites, more than any others, which best fit the popular understanding
of ‘city-state,’ as the term has been used of ancient Palestine: states consisting
of a geographically limited region, dominated by a single town, often control-
ling a number of subject villages and hamlets. That the political structure of
such settlements should be described as ‘feudal’ rather than patronage is doubt-
ful. The primary agricultural economy and land ownership in these areas is
only marginally dependent on centralized control. Irrigation, for the most part
is on a small scale, and much of the agricultural production can be maintained
through the labor of individuals and families. Trade routes on the other hand,
and the defensive importance of many of the largest towns, would certainly
have demanded that these towns play a major historical role in foreign impe-
rial plans to control and exploit Palestine. Though these towns were occasion-
ally destroyed, regional settlement is remarkably continuous. During the Late
Bronze period, there is a marked increase in the size and the importance of
the very largest towns. Also during this period, many fewer small villages and
hamlets are occupied. This possibly indicates long-standing military insecurity.
The basic pattern of settlement, however, with its marked dominance of large
towns, is not noticeably changed in the early Iron Age.
Regional federations
large port towns, geographically spaced along the shoreline, while the less favo-
rable agricultural plain is occupied during the LB period by small villages or
hamlets, set on high ground to the east of the plain. These patterns are severely
sharpened at the end of the MB II period and during LB. The settlement on the
shore continues to expand, with an ever-larger number of settlements. In the
areas of the great tells, however, the LB occupation is largely confined to the
largest towns, which increase in size. In the central coastal areas, there is some
indication of serious long-term disturbance. Several regions are abandoned at
the end of MB II, particularly along the swamp-prone lower Nahal Hadera and
Nahal Poleg. Politically, the coastal regions are obviously dominated by the
large towns. However, though many of the richer agricultural towns and the
Haifa Bay port settlements could be understood as independent ‘city-states,’ the
continued spread of largely unprotected villages and hamlets in adjacent areas
during a period of considerable disturbance suggest rather larger, transregional,
political structures such as federations of villages and towns or the like, where,
for example, defence is less localized and related to strategic coalitions, the
maintenance of borders and police networks. In a federation of political units,
the defensive requirements for new settlements do not include site-by-site forti-
fication. A transregional orientation of defences may explain much that is unu-
sual in the southern coastal area and along the border between coastal Palestine
and the Sinai. As typical of settlements in marginal lands, most villages, and
towns here are situated in the alluvial oases of the wadis which drain towards
the Mediterranean. They have the appearance of independent villages and ham-
lets, loosely organized in sub-regions near major springs or in areas where the
water table is high. Large sites are found near rich soils and abundant water,
and appear to be – even if fortified – large villages. Their political hegemony
over smaller settlements is difficult to assume, except perhaps those few within
their immediate environs. It is possible, however, that they provide markets for
a very large area. Their proximity to the North Sinai trade route112 would cer-
tainly strengthen this function. The separateness of these sites, however, may
be misleading. The largely unsettled, but rich grasslands of this region, with the
opening to Sinai in the south and the southwest, suggests the possibility that the
larger border towns such as Tall Jamma may have formed, during some periods,
symbiotic associations with pastoralists and other non-sedentary groups of the
Negev and Sinai.113 Similarly, the many fishing villages and installations along
the southern coast in areas where agriculture was unlikely must have developed
a symbiosis with the larger agricultural towns. The long-term political distur-
bances at the end of the MB II period and throughout the LB is also here quite
marked, especially along the Nahal Shiqma, which is abandoned in the open
plain. In other areas, large and fortified sites increase in their relative importance
and size. Along the coast, however, settlement is maintained, and small unforti-
fied hamlets and villages survive. Presumably they are under the protection of
sites which are beyond their immediate regional context. The apparent impor-
tance and remarkable size of the southernmost settlements might then also find
explanation as border towns of a military region, unified through political coali-
tions or federations.
Irrigation agriculture
of the settlements of this vast and complex area are abandoned by the beginning
of the Late Bronze period. Outside the large unified region around Tall Balata,
LB settlement is largely restricted to a few small ephemeral sites near springs
in the south. The disruption in this region is more extreme than anywhere else
in the north. Recovery is noticeably slow, although the settlement of many areas
is re-established in the Iron I Period. However, several potentially prosperous
areas are not resettled until Iron II, when the region as a whole experiences a
widespread expansion, with the increased use of slope-terracing.
Concluding remarks
The current standard interpretation of the conflict themes in the Jacob narratives
understands the stories as more or less historiographic traditions that reflect real
historical or sociological conflicts between ancient Israel and neighboring or
related groups of people, or, as in the Joseph narratives, conflicts within Israel
itself. This interpretation took its initial impetus from two form-critical articles
of Hermann Gunkel, published in 1919 and 1922.1 In the first of these articles,
Gunkel argued that the earliest pre-literary form of the Jacob tradition – from
which he understood the rest of the tradition to have been a family tale (about
the good man and his evil brothers, without any historiographic connotation). In
a very early secondary development, Gunkel understood the Joseph narrative to
have been reinterpreted in terms of the twelve tribes of Israel, adding to the nar-
rative not only the names of Joseph and his brothers, but also a historiographic
level of meaning heretofore absent in the narrative. Consequently, the story
comes to serve as a means of expressing the conflicts and inter-relationships of
the tribes of Israel. Whether the historiographic intent is etiological or histori-
cal is irrelevant to our discussion here, though it is by no means irrelevant in
scholarly discussions following Gunkel.2
Otto Eissfeldt, while chiding Gunkel for his conscious bypassing of the results
of source criticism,3 nevertheless takes up and develops Gunkel’s recognition of
understand the narratives about the patriarchs and especially the conflict narra-
tives as reflecting behavior and conflicts of nations and tribes which formed or
were related to Israel in its earliest memories of its existence. Wide disagree-
ment, of course, exists among these authors regarding the extent and the nature
of the history that can be gleaned from such narratives; but there is a surprising
unanimity among them that the stories, in however symbolic a manner, are in
fact talking about real social and historical conflicts of the states of Israel or
Judah, whether of the early formation of the nation during a ‘time of the judges’
or during a yet earlier ‘patriarchal period,’ or even from the time of the early
monarchy. My own earlier study of the patriarchal narratives was itself far too
influenced by Eissfeldt10 and fails to challenge this interpretation of the narra-
tives adequately.
Scholars more conservative than Bright, Noth, and de Vaux, such as Albright
and Speiser,11 who would understand the narratives to be about historical indi-
viduals of the past, still see the movements and conflicts of these heroes as
representative of larger historical and sociological realities.12 This form-critical
evaluation, implied by both these groups of scholars, is of cardinal importance
in the interpretation of the patriarchal narratives because it touches upon the
intention of the narratives, their purpose, and their context. How the understand-
ing of a tale is affected can clearly be seen in Eissfeldt’s contrasting Abraham
with Isaac and Jacob by arguing that Abraham is, in all probability, a historical
individual in Israel’s past, but ‘that Isaac and Jacob portray personifications of
groups, and that the union of the three in our traditions in a father-son-grandson
relationship is at least an unhistorical construction.’13
Eissfeldt classifies the stories into three categories which reflect degrees
of historicity and are distinguished one from another on form-critical grounds
according to the intention of the narrative: (1) the historical narrative about
individuals; (2) the tribal tale wherein the protagonist in the narrative represents
or personifies a historical group; and (3) literarily constructed unhistorical mate-
rial, often redactional in nature and serving to bring together and harmonize
narrative materials of different types.
Eissfeldt’s classification, however, is methodologically weak, first of all
because there are historiographical differences in the narratives of great impor-
tance that cannot be subsumed under one or other of his classifications. Second,
it is not clear that his first type is really distinguishable, on form-critical grounds,
from his all-important second type. While the recognition of his third type shows
the inadequacies of Gunkel’s interpretation, it is not clear that his alternative is
more adequate. It is important to the discussion to add to the above classifica-
tion two further types which are implicitly and explicitly discussed by Gunkel
17. M. D. Johnson, The Purpose of the Biblical Genealogies, SNTSMS 8 (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1969); Thompson, Historicity, 50–51, 298–308, 311–14.
Conflict themes in the Jacob narratives 61
The development of each episode must be examined in its own right. In turn-
ing to a more detailed discussion of these narratives, it is first to be noticed in
regard to the Jacob–Esau birth episode of Genesis 25:19-34 that the narrative in
its present form, consisting of a patterned repetition of three variants of a single
plot development (19-23, 24-28, and 29-34), is presented in the narrative form
of a genealogical expansion of the ‘genealogy’ in Genesis 25:19-22. This fictive
genealogical context is parallel to Genesis 25:12-18 and is used here in order
to place the succeeding complex tale about Jacob–Esau within the tradition of
the Abraham–Isaac/Ishmael stories. This context is clearly historiographical in
form, though possibly not in intention. The first of the three ‘beginnings’ of the
Jacob–Esau conflict narrative uses the ‘traditional birth episode,’18 within which
a conflict motif is drawn and interpreted within the narrative (v. 23) as a conflict
between the peoples of Edom and Israel, which conflict is resolved on the basis
of the literary motif of the success of the unpromising; namely that the younger
Jacob/Israel shall be served by the older Esau/Edom. The primary intentionality
is that of a heroic tale about individuals within which, however, a description
is given of the eponymic referents and of the nature of their relationship (the
element is more that of Standessage than of Stammessagel). This gives to the
heroic tale of the birth of these awesome children a powerful ‘point of attraction’
for the Israelites at the expense of the Edomites. It is very difficult to understand
this narrative as a historiographical reference to a past or contemporary hege-
mony of Israel over Edom, and it is certainly not possible that Israel is under-
stood here by the narrator as historically later in origin than Edom – whatever
the real history of these peoples may have been – for the past ‘ancestral event’
is not referred by the narrator to either his contemporary world or to the world
of the historical past of Israel and Edom. It is rather a claim of superiority-by-
association by the Israelite narrator that its ancestor bested Edom’s.
The second variant episode similarly uses the basic form of the heroic tale
about individuals without, however, any admixture of Stammessage. It is also
doubtful that the references to Esau as a hunter and to Jacob as a tent-dweller
are to be understood as a situation tale element as, for example, may well be
the case in the Cain/Abel story. These occupational functions of the patriarchs
here rather seem to serve as an introduction to (and accordingly this segment
is essentially connected to) the two parallel conflict episodes in Genesis 25:29-
34 and 27:1-45. The first narrative episode is the sub-tale about the sale of the
birthright, a purely heroic tale, which by its context within the patriarchal nar-
ratives as a whole secondarily attains a ‘point of attraction’ for the Israelites.
The conflict, however, is a literary conflict using again the motif of the suc-
cess of the unpromising. Jacob, though the younger son, gains the birthright.
This narrative also makes a play on the folk-etymological meaning of the name
Jacob as deriving from the root ‘qb’ – ‘over-reaching’ and ‘grasping,’ and by
extension ‘deceitful,’ ‘insidious’ (Jer 9:3, 17:9). Genesis 27, dealing with the
deception of Isaac by Jacob, develops the same basic motif of the success of the
unpromising and the younger son. It also expands the theme of the sly Jacob
which will be found again in the subordinated tale of Jacob outwitting and
bankrupting Laban in Genesis 30. Under the influence of the patriarchal narra-
tives as a whole, which form a secondary context of the Jacob narratives, the
end of the sub-tale in Genesis 27 has developed a historiographical element
of tribal tale in the blessing of Esau. This blessing, like that in Genesis 49, as
well as those of Jacob, establishes the destiny of the people represented by their
ancestor. It is important to notice, however, that in this context of blessing it is
neither a conflict between Israel and Edom nor the subservience of Edom to
Israel which carry the central weight of the blessing in verses 38-40. Rather,
the conflict and subservience are elements belonging to the patriarchal realm of
Jacob–Esau, deriving from Jacob’s deception and the resulting blessing which
Israel’s patriarch had received. Note that Jacob’s blessing does not refer in its
historiographical connotation to Edom; Esau’s blessing has two quite distinct
functions: the tale function of overcoming the difficulty which Jacob’s blessing
has raised for Esau, and the establishment of the destiny of Esau’s descendants,
Edom, in independence and power (cf. Ishmael in Genesis 21). This multi-level
problem is handled deftly; the weight of the scene is thrown upon the ultimate
reclaiming of Edom’s independence. The conflict between Jacob and Esau and
the hegemony of Jacob over Esau is represented as a conflict and a hegemony
which belonged to the patriarchs and to that narrative time; but when Esau/
Edom increases in strength, that is, becomes a people, the conflict is resolved in
Edom’s independence (Genesis 33:16, 36). The historical referent was Edom’s
independence but, given the literary (i.e., fictional) tale of conflict between the
two brothers – understood also as eponymous ancestors – a bridge was needed
to link the heroic with known reality.
Genesis 27:41-45 and 29:1 form a redactional transition which has several
purposes. It originally links the narrative in 27:1-40 with Genesis 29. In doing
this, it prepares ultimately for the otherwise enigmatic meeting with Esau upon
Jacob’s return (Genesis 32). By the time that Jacob has stayed with Laban (‘for
a time,’ 27:44), Esau has become a people and has achieved his independence,
threatening Jacob when he crosses the Jabbok on his return home. The threat
is overcome and the passage is peaceful as a result of the cleverness of Jacob
(32:13-31). The narrative reads on two levels. The superficial one relates the
peaceful reunion of the brothers foretold by Jacob’s mother. This, however,
involves the solution of their conflict on a second, more fundamental level.
Jacob purchases his passage through Edomite territory, a symbolic reference
to (but not representation of) the tribes of Israel’s passage to the promised
land, which is related in the Joshua narratives. This historiographical allusion
is emphasized by the secondary narrative segments attracted to it in the pro-
cess of a later historiographically motivated revision of the Jacob narratives.
Genesis 32:9-12, the prayer of Jacob, echoes the Joshua narratives while at the
same time referring to an ‘original’ division between the people of Jacob and
the people of Esau. Genesis 32:24-32, which is given a structural or ‘chiastic’
balance with the theophany of Genesis 28:11-15, explicitly identifies Jacob with
Israel and is used to signify the intentionality of this secondary redaction, that
Conflict themes in the Jacob narratives 63
the Jacob story is the history of Israel. Narrated within the primary Jacob–Esau
conflict story and in conjunction with it, forming the complex-narrative about
the adventures of the clever, grasping, struggling Jacob, we find a series of
episodes forming a tale within a tale, the Jacob and Laban conflicts. The open-
ing episode (Genesis 29:1-14) follows the pattern of the family tale and is very
similar to the Moses story in Exodus: the hero waters sheep for the daughter(s)
of his future father-in-law. Genesis 29:15 develops the tale further in the pattern
of the folktale motif of working for a set number of years for his father-in-law
in order to pay the bride-price. However, by means of the motif of the suc-
cess of the unpromising (the ugly, unloved Leah versus the beautiful, beloved
Rachel) and the motif of deception by disguise (cf. Genesis 27:15-40), Jacob’s
desire for Rachel is thwarted, and he marries Leah. With consummate irony
(and also, incidentally, indicating the close relationship of this episode with the
Jacob–Esau tale), Laban’s actions are justified on the basis of Leah being the
first-born. The deception sets the stage for a double conflict: between the elder,
hated wife and the younger, beloved (and here, it cannot be denied, we have an
‘element of attraction,’ playing on the empathy of older and younger wives in a
polygamous society), as well as the conflict of wits between Laban and Jacob.
The first conflict is played out in a family tale in which the wives compete
for the affection of the husband through bearing children. It should be stressed
that throughout this contest no element of Stammessage or historiography enters
the narrative; we are not dealing with a historical classification of the tribes of
Israel into Rachel and Leah tribes! The folk etymologies explaining the names
of the children are in terms of the contest of the story and bear no relationship
to hypothetical tribes of a historical Israel. Nor is the order of the children’s
birth perceived as referring to tribal relationships or any possible chronology for
their origin in Israel. The Rachel–Leah conflict episode here is purely literary
and fictive. The second conflict develops the plot of the sly Jacob, who outwits
Laban and impoverishes him by means of imitative magic, becoming himself
rich in the process (so Gen. 30: 25-43; Gen. 31:1-16 is perhaps an apologetic
revision of the narrative, exonerating Jacob). Jacob then runs off with his gains
and his host’s daughters. The present narrative involves two significantly sepa-
rable issues in the chase, one with Laban and his sons and their anger at being
duped and the other dealing with Rachel’s theft of Laban’s gods. The final har-
monization has Laban angry that Jacob ran off with his daughters, which anger
is rebuked in the unsuccessful hunt for the stolen gods and the divine warning
given to Laban. The search account is enhanced by the use of the literary motif
of the unknowing condemnation of the beloved by the hero (cf. also the story
of Jephthah’s daughter). The conflict, and this episode of the narrative, is con-
cluded in the Jacob–Laban debate (Genesis 31:36-54) with the iteration of both
sides of the argument, at the same time totally true and totally opposed. The
conflict is resolved in the full settlement of the marriage agreement (Genesis
32:44, 46-50, 55), which had been so long demanded by Jacob and so long put
off by Laban. Only in a secondary revision of the narrative is this agreement
between Laban and Jacob marginally understood as Stammessage (Genesis
32:45, 51-54), as having been between Laban’s people and Jacob’s people
64 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Geyer’s article1 centers on two distinct issues in the recent treatment of the
‘Joseph and Moses Narratives’ in Hayes and Miller’s Israelite and Judaean
History, namely, the use of comparative literature in exegesis as an alternative
to the traditional interpretations of Pentateuchal stories, which have proceeded
from questionable assumptions about the tradition’s genesis and historicity, as
well as the question of whether the Pentateuch tradition is relevant to the work
of the historian as evidence of Israel’s origins. The first issue was raised by
Dorothy Irvin in an essay2 in which she extends to the Joseph and Moses stories
her earlier analysis of some of the tales of Genesis.3
Geyer poorly understands Irvin’s use of analogy. She neither identifies nor
equates the literature compared. Nor do assumptions about literary origins, bor-
rowing, or dependence have a legitimate place. What is comparable is at the
same time – and by that fact – understood as different. One classifies, and clas-
sification enables one to clarify the individuality of each text in its own con-
text.4 Irvin’s comparative analysis of some of the tales of Genesis and Exodus
demonstrates a procedure by which one can define and clarify the intention and
the implicit values borne by the narrative. Geyer’s claim that the Old Testament
is ‘theological reflection on events believed to have taken place’ may well be
true of the deuteronomistic redaction of the former prophets. It might also be
legitimately argued that the final redaction of the Pentateuch perhaps dealt with
‘events believed to have taken place.’ That this, however, is clearly not the case
with much of pre-deuteronomistic biblical literature raises formidable problems
for their use as historical sources.5 Moreover, it is Irvin’s intention to argue that
1. J. B. Geyer, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives: Folk Tales and History,’ JSOT 15 (1930)
4–56.
2. D. Irvin, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives 3: The Joseph and Moses Stories as Narrative
in the light of Ancient Near Eastern Narrative,’ in J. H. Hayes and J. M. Miller (eds),
Israelite and Judaean History (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977), 180–209.
3. D. Irvin, Mytharion: A Comparison of Tales from the Old Testament and the Ancient
Near East, AOAT 32 (Neukirchen: Neukirchner Verlag, 1978).
4. Irvin, Mytharion, 112–15.
5. The degree of historiography implied must be evaluated with each stage of a tradition’s
development. See my The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974), 3. For an examination of the
historiographic quality and intentionality of the Jacob tales, see Chapter 4, this volume.
68 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
It is important to note that all three of these observations relate to the current
achievements and abilities of biblical exegetes and historians. They relate to
what scholars do and to what they use to understand and reconstruct Israel’s
origin. I do not think that the current issue is centrally one of the narrative’s
historicity or truth. We have rather a dispute over what is relevant to, or useful
for, writing history.
I also do not think it is a conflict between conservative and liberal theolo-
gians, as Geyer’s opening allusion to a book edited by Hick suggests. It was
above all in the nineteenth-century liberal circles of higher criticism that the his-
tory of Israel, and particularly of Israel’s origins, came to be so closely related
to interpretations of Israel’s traditions. Still today, it is in such liberal circles that
the bible is claimed to be the main source of Israel’s early history.9 In regard to
the current generation of handbooks on the history of Israel, one needs to recog-
nize the irony of the liberals’ dependence on biblical tradition for Israel’s history
and their rejection of most archaeological and historical materials as irrele-
vant to a reconstruction of Israel’s earliest time.10 An over-riding assumption
6. This issue is discussed not only in the Hayes and Miller article referred to by Geyer (T. L.
Thompson and D. Irvin, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds),
Israelite and Judaean History, 147–212, esp. 151–66), but is also the central theme of
my Historicity.
7. T. L. Thompson, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives 2: The Joseph–Moses Traditions
and Pentateuchal Criticism,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History,
167–80 [177]; also Chapter 4, this volume.
8. Thompson, ‘The Background of the Patriarchal Narratives,’ JSOT 9 (1978), 5–38, esp.
37.
9. For example, the recent article in JSOT 1 (1978) by A. Hauser: ‘Israel’s Conquest of
Palestine: A Peasant’s Rebellion?’ 10. See also my response to Hauser: ‘Historical Notes
on Israel’s Conquest of Palestine: A Peasants’ Rebellion,’ JSOT 7 (1978), 20–27.
10. I think above all of Gunneweg and Fohrer, but also of Hayes and Miller’s volume,
Israelite and Judaean History, in contrast to, for example, Bright, de Vaux, and Hermann,
to say nothing of ultra-conservative theologians.
History and tradition 69
c ommon to both liberals and conservatives; namely, that the so-called ‘biblical
view of history’ is in fact a ‘view of history,’ lacks warrant. In approaching the
origin of Israel, one can no longer take one’s starting point from within Israel’s
traditions. Additional support for a methodical separation of the Pentateuch and
the modern task of writing Israel’s early history is given by the comparative
analysis of traditional narrative urged by Irvin, that the general classification of
literature with which we must deal, hardly allows us to assume without direct
evidence that, in dealing with traditional narrative, there is a ‘truly historical’
to be distinguished from an ever-recurrent and much to be regretted imagined
historical.11
On the other hand, I think it is necessary to take the discussion a step further.
Particularly when one wishes to include in the question most of the traditional
narratives found in the books of the ‘Former Prophets,’ the issue is clearly not
one of historicity; that is of whether the tales are true or untrue historically. In
fact, a large number of irreducible elements within the traditions cannot cat-
egorically be assumed to be fictitious. Among such are not only various tradi-
tions of origin both from within and without Palestine,12 but, above all, such
irreducible themes implied in the ever-recurring implication of the Israelites not
being indigenous to the ‘land of Cana’an’ and the understanding of the land as
divine gift, as well as various themes of warfare and conquest, of a wilderness
past, of freedom from Egypt, of a process of unification and amalgamation,
and so on.13 Nor can the heroic protagonists of these tales – from Abraham and
Jacob to David and Solomon – easily be thought of as entirely imaginary. For
reasons given elsewhere, however,14 it does appear that some of these themes
and characters are indeed fictional and cut from whole cloth. Yet analogies from
cultures where historical data is readily available make it emphatically clear
that historical events commonly foster narrative traditions, especially of the
sort found in the books of Joshua–II Kings. The likelihood that critical events
in the history of Palestine had creative influence on Israelite tradition is very
strong. Nevertheless, the present stage of research into the origin traditions of
Israel has only begun to distinguish between the real and the imagined. Even
the little we can already do is – with very few exceptions – negative: a process
of discounting what is obviously not historical, the miraculous, motifs which
11. Geyer’s plea that the biblical narrative be accorded at least as much historical relevance
as the literary traditions of Israel’s neighbors is ingenuous. The claim that Marduk’s
rise to power in the Enuma Elish is based on political events in Babylon of the previous
millennium is mere assertion. The claim that a Ba’al cult supplanted an earlier hegemony
of ’El is not supported clearly by either literature or history, in spite of arguments by
Cassuto, Kapelrud, and Pope.
12. Thompson, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives,’ 210–12.
13. M. Weippert, ‘Fragen des israelitischen Geschichtsbewusstseins,’ VT 23 (1973), 415–42,
points out a similar fundamental consciousness within the traditions, which he sees
as historiographically relevant. I am indebted to the students and the faculty of the
University of Sheffield for an earlier discussion of this issue.
14. See Chapter 4, this volume.
70 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
15. The need for recognition of this axiom has recently been supported in David Gunn’s
review of the so-called ‘history of David’: D. M. Gunn, ‘The Story of King David,’
JSOTS 6 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1978).
6
The dictum of Wellhausen that a biblical document reflects the historical context
of its own formation rather than the social milieu of its explicit referents in a
more distant past1 is one that has hardly been overcome by any of the attempts to
synthesize the tradition-historical understanding of the Pentateuch and archaeo-
logical research during the past century. The Altean and Albrightean syntheses
of biblical and extra-biblical research,2 especially when viewed in the light of
the encyclopedic accomplishments of a Galling or a de Vaux,3 have only intensi-
fied the Wellhausean impasse. From another direction, the form-critical analy-
ses of the pre-history of the Pentateuch’s documentary traditions, following
the leads of Gunkel, Eissfeldt, Noth, and Nielsen,4 have substantially modified
perceptions of the historical contexts of traditions and redactions. Such analyses
have lent support particularly to the now-axiomatic assumption – strongly influ-
enced by the ‘biblical theology’ movement – that biblical traditions originated
in events.
These post-Wellhausean scholarly movements have shared a common goal
and common presuppositions. The goal was to reconstruct the history of Israel’s
1. J. Wellhausen, Prolegomena zur Geschichte Israels (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1905), 316. This
dictum played a central role in the development of his evolutionary history of Israelite
religion.
2. A. Alt, Kleine Schriften, 3 vols (Munich: Beck, 1953); W. F. Albright, From the Stone
Age to Christianity (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1940; 3rd edn,
1957).
3. K. Galling, Biblisches Reallexikon (Tübingen: Mohr, 1977); R. de Vaux, L’histoire
d’Israel I–II (Paris: Gabalda, 1971).
4. H. Gunkel, Das Märchen im alten Testament (Tübingen: Mohr, 1921); H. Gunkel,
Genesis, Altes Testament Deutsch (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1966);
O. Eissfeldt, Einleitung in das alte Testament (Tübingen: Mohr, 1965); H. Gunkel,
‘Stammessage und Novelle in den Geschichten von Jakob, und von seinen Söhnen,’
in Eucharisterion, Gunkel Festschrift I (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1923),
56–77; M. Noth, Uberlieferungsgeschichte des Pentateuchs (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer,
1948); M. Noth, Uberlieferungsgeschichtliche Studien, I (Königsberg: Niemeyer, 1943);
E. Nielsen, Oral Tradition (London: SCM Press, 1954).
72 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
that biblical texts exist in themselves or speak directly to us, having us for
their audience, is more uncritical than simply ahistorical.12 That some of these
efforts, such as ‘structuralism,’ claim to seek an objectivity of their research
compounds our problems. What is ‘objective’ is the extant text that exists apart
from any contemporary reader. Old texts hold images, meanings, and intentions
that are as historically contingent as the images, meanings, and intentions of
very specific individuals now long dead. To discover their signification is the
task of exegesis. The neo-fundamentalist rejections of historical criticism I have
mentioned, although they avoid its problems, leave little hope of understanding
texts of the sort we find in the Bible. The primary point of departure for critical
exegesis is and always remains historical context, which enables us to recreate
the conceptual world of the tradition’s authors.13
The specific manner in which we find the historical context and conceptual
world refracted by the tradition requires yet further discussion. Unfortunately,
Pentateuch scholarship, and tradition-historical literary criticism generally, are
not yet at the point at which we can reconstruct history directly from tradi-
tion. The interpretive problem involving the historical changes that moved the
people of ancient Palestine to forge a sense of ethnicity out of the political and
military disasters that overtook the indigenous states of Samaria and Jerusalem
at the hands of the Assyrians and Babylonians is one that can hardly be dealt
with apart from an understanding of the initial formulation and development of
the specific traditions and ideologies that first gave expression to this ethnic-
ity. These traditions and ideologically motivated perspectives are not so much
direct refractions of ancient Israel’s past as they are themselves intrinsically
and substantially causative forces in the development of what, in spite of our
dependence on these perceptions, we today understand as Israel.14 As Max
Miller has clearly and convincingly argued, any examination of the origins of
Israel is forced to move in lock-step with an examination of the development of
Israelite tradition.15 Apart from biblical tradition, this Israel never existed as a
12. Such a perspective is to be expected in theologically oriented exegesis and may even be
understood as legitimate in the context of homiletics. I have rather in mind such efforts
as those of R. Alter (The Art of Biblical Narrative, New York: Basic Books, 1983) on
the one hand, and D. Jobling (The Sense of Biblical Narrative, JSOTS 7, Sheffield: JSOT
Press, 1978) on the other. An interesting discussion of some of these issues is found
in R.N. Whybray, ‘On Robert Alter’s, The Art of Biblical Narrative,’ JSOT 27 (1983),
75–86, esp. 77–8, and in D. Jobling, ‘Robert Alter’s, The Art of Biblical Narrative,’ JSOT
27 (1983), 87–99.
13. Similarly, Neusner, ‘Beyond Historicism,’ 196.
14. This does not involve a judgment about the historicity of various aspects of the biblical
tradition, especially of 2 Kings, but addresses only the process by which older narratives
and historiographic sources are understood as traditions about an Israel, which, tran-
scending its pre-exilic status as the state of Samaria, takes on the contours of the Israel
of tradition (also G. Garbini, History and Ideology in Ancient Israel, J. Bowden [trans.],
New York: Crossroads, 1988).
15. Orally, at the annual convention of the Society of Biblical Literature in Chicago in 1988.
Text, context, and referent in Israelite historiography 77
one element of the tradition as more viable historically than another. Without
concrete external evidence, such selective preference is not critical. As long as
we continue to work with historical contexts that are not based on independent
evidence, plausibility and verisimilitude cannot be recognized as valid criteria
for historicity. Plausibility and verisimilitude are characteristics that are to be
attributed even more to good fiction. Reasonableness is far more a characteristic
of the fictional genre of literature than it is of history. History happens; meaning
and coherence are created.
When we are dealing with univocal traditions without extant variants, we
have precious few25 means which enable us to recognize and confirm positively
a reference to a real past26 or to measure in any significant way the manner and
extent to which the tradition reflects its own historical context. Valid negative
conclusions are many, come immediately to hand and certainly do not need
emphasis in this forum.27 Knauf’s suggestions for the analysis of the various
discrete social contexts in our tales certainly carry us in the right direction.
However, our need to situate such potentially relevant contexts geographically
and chronologically is, given the known variability and constant flux in human
societal forms, all the greater if the suggestions and methods involved are ever
to be trusted.
Moreover, the recognition and clarification of explicit and implicit referents
and conceptual contexts do not define the limits of positive contributions to be
expected from a study of the historical world of our narratives. Of equal impor-
tance is the growing realization that the redactional techniques of the compre-
hensive traditions of the Pentateuch, of the so-called deuteronomistic tradition
and of their variants in Chronicles, Ezra, and Nehemiah reflect not merely the
occasional historiography’s intentions of a redactor, but also and more frequently
the pedantic, antiquarian efforts of curiosity and preservation.28 These are not
25. This lack is rapidly diminishing in recent years, not only through the dozens of mono-
graphs and hundreds of articles that have revolutionized the history of Palestine, but
also through the recent comprehensive handbooks of H. Weippert, Palästina in vorhel-
lenistischer Zeit, Handbuch der Archäologie, Vorderasien II/1 (Munich: Beck, 1988)
and G. Ahlström, The Early History of Ancient Palestine From the Paleolithic Period to
Alexander’s Conquest (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993).
26. See Chapter 4, this volume.
27. One might note the discussions in M. Weippert, Die Landnahme der israelitischen Stämme
in Palästina (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1967); Thompson, Historicity Hayes
and Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1977);
J. A. Soggin, The History of Israel (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1984); N. P.
Lemche, Early Israel, VTS 37 (Leiden: Brill, 1985); Miller and Hayes, History of Ancient
Israel and Judah; Garbini, History and Ideology.
28. Recent comparisons of biblical narrative with Greek authors, especially Herodotus
(J. Van Seters, In Search of History, New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1983; and
R. N. Whybray, The Making of the Pentateuch, JSOTS 54, Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1987),
underscore the importance of this more detached scholarly aspect of our traditions. Such
detachment is to be contrasted to the more politically and ideologically motivated genre
of historiography. Cf. further on this, T. L. Thompson, ‘Historiography,’ ABD (1992).
80 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
only distinct from historiography but at times inimical to it. Historians ask the
question of historicity and critically distinguish and evaluate their sources. They
‘understand’ history, and therefore often slip into tendentious ideologies and
theologies – so Thucydides.29 The antiquarian, on the other hand, shares the
more ecumenically pluralistic motivations of the librarian (not without signifi-
cant discrimination and occasional critical control) classifying, associating and
arranging a cultural heritage that is greater than both the compiler and any sin-
gle historiographic explanation – so perhaps Herodotus,30 Philo of Byblos,31
29. The issue here is not one of historicity but of historiography and it pertains to the inten-
tion of the author, not his success. On this, see the interesting discussion of W. R. Connor,
‘Narrative Discourse in Thucydides,’ in W. R. Connor (ed.), The Greek Historians:
Literature and History, A. E. Raubitschek Festschrift (Saratoga, NY: Saratoga University
Press, 1985), 1–17; P. Robinson, ‘Why Do We Believe Thucydides? A Comment on W.
R. Connor’s “Narrative Discourse in Thucydides”,’ in Connor (ed.), Greek Historians,
19–23; and S. W. Hirsch, ‘1001 Iranian Nights: History and Fiction in Xenophon’s
Cyropaedia,’ in Connor (ed.), Greek Historians, 65–86.
30. For recent discussions of historiography in Herodotus: H. R. Immerwahr, Form and
Thought in Herodotus, Philological Monographs 23 (Cleveland, OH: Western Reserve
University Press, 1966); H. Fahr, Herodot und altes Testament (Frankfurt: Lang, 1985),
266; P. R. Helm, ‘Herodotus’ Medikos Logos and Median History,’ Iran 19 (1981),
85–90; K. D. Bratt, ‘Herodotus’ Oriental Monarchs and Their Counsellors’ (dissertation,
Princeton University, 1985); J. M. Balcer, Herodotus and Bisitun, Historia 49 (Stuttgart:
Steiner, 1987); H. Sancisi-Weerdenburg, ‘Decadence in the Empire or Decadence in
the Sources?,’ in H. Sancisi-Weerdenberg (ed.), Achaemenid History I (Leiden: Brill,
1987), 33–45; F. Hartog, The Mirror of Herodotus: The Representation of the Other in
the Writing of History, The New Historicism: Studies in Cultural Poetics 5 (Berkeley,
CA: University of California, 1988).
31. H. W. Attridge and R. A. Oden, Philo of Byblos: The Phoenician History, CBQMS
9 (Washington DC: Catholic Biblical Association, 1981). Other ancient Near Eastern
historiographic ethnographies and related genres might profitably be compared with
Old Testament literature and themes. See, e.g., W. W. Hallo, ‘Assyrian Historiography
Revisited,’ EI 14 (1978), l–7; W. W. Hallo, ‘Sumerian Historiography,’ in H. Tadmor and
M. Weinfeld (eds), History, Historiography, and Interpretation (Leiden: Brill, 1984),
9–20; W. W. Hallo, ‘Biblical History in its Near Eastern Setting: A Contextual Approach,’
in W. W. Hallo (ed.), Scripture in Context (Pittsburgh, PA: Pickwick Press, 1980), 1–26;
N. E. Andersen, ‘Genesis 14 in its Near Eastern Context,’ in Hallo (ed.), Scripture in
Context, 59–78; P. Veyne, Did the Greeks Believe in Their Myths? (Chicago, IL: Chicago
University Press, 1988); F. Rochberg-Halton, ‘Fate and Divination in Mesopotamia,’
ArOr 19 (1982), 363–71; M. Liverani, ‘The Ideology of the Assyrian Empire,’ in M.
T. Larsen (ed.), Power and Propaganda, Mesopotamia 7 (Copenhagen: Academisk
1979), 297–317; P. Michalowski, The Lamentation over the Destruction of Sumer and
Ur (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1989); M. Weinfeld, ‘Divine Intervention in War
in Ancient Israel and in the Ancient Near East,’ in Tadnor and Weinfeld (eds), History,
Historiography and Interpretation, 121–47; H. Tadmor, ‘Autobiographical Apology in
the Royal Assyrian Literature,’ in Tadnor and Weinfeld (eds), History, Historiography
and Interpretation, 36–57; H. Cancik, Mythische und Historische Wahrheit, SBS 48
(Stuttgart: Katholische Bibelwerk, 1970); H. Cancik, Grundzüge der Hethitischen und
alttestamentlichen Geschichtsschreibung ADPV (Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1976).
Text, context, and referent in Israelite historiography 81
32. Van Seters, In Search of History; Whybray, Making of the Pentateuch; Thompson,
Origin Tradition. For a dissenting voice on the comparison between the Pentateuch
and Herodotus, see R. E. Friedman, ‘The Prophet and the Historian: The Acquisition
of Historical Information from Literary Sources,’ in R. E. Friedman (ed.), The Past
and the Historian, HSS 26; (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University, 1983), 1–12. On
Israelite historiography: H. Schulte, Die Entstehung der Geschichtsschreibung im alten
Israel, BZAW 128 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1972); M. Weippert, ‘Fragen des israelitischen
Geschichtsbewusstseins,’ VT 23 (1973), 415–41; G. W. Trompf, ‘Notions of Historical
Recurrence in Classical Hebrew Historiography,’ in J. A. Emerton (ed.), Studies in the
Historical Books of the Old Testament, VTS 30 (Leiden: Brill, 1979), 213–29; D. I.
Block, ‘The Foundations of National Identity: A Study in Ancient Northwest Semitic
Perceptions’ (dissertation, University of Liverpool, 1981); R. Schmitt, Abschied der
Heilsgeschichte? (Frankfurt: Lang, 1982); J. A. Soggin, ‘Le Origini di Israele Problema
per lo Storiografo?’ in Le Origini di Israele (Rome: Accademia nazionale dei lincei,
1987), 5–14; B. Halpern, The First Historians (New York: Harper & Row, 1988);
Garbini, History and Ideology.
33. Garbini, History and Ideology; Knauf, Midian; and D. Jamieson-Drake, Scribes and
Schools in Monarchic Judah: A Socio-Archaeological Approach, SWBAS 9 (Sheffield;
Almond Press, 1991). For earlier studies: Rogerson, Myth in Old Testament Inter
pretation; A. Lemaire, Les écoles et la formation de la Bible dans l’Ancien Israel, OBO
39 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1981); and Halpern, First Historians.
34. That the Old Testament is a ‘collection’ or a library of literature authored by many is
commonplace in biblical studies. This description also describes the function of the
collection of traditions of Genesis–Ezra–Nehemiah as library, substantially explaining
the textual context of the works included in this collection. That there is not a normative
role in such collections or anything similar to a canon is obvious.
82 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
The collection of literature from Genesis–2 Kings was expanded in the late
Persian or early Hellenistic period with Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah and,
even later, with the Megilloth. Many of the extended traditions contained in
this library have survived because they were ‘popular’ or because they were ‘in
demand’; that is, they found echo and meaning in the lives of their possessors,
the handful of collectors and those limited few who used books for leisure. For
them, these traditions held relevance for both their political and social worlds,
often lending these fragmented worlds of experience interpretive contexts of
their own. One ought not to assume, however, that such Sitze im Leben lie im
Leben des Volkes. Rather, we are dealing only with a small handful of scholarly
bibliophiles.35 We cannot then assume that the traditions as such necessarily
reflect either indirectly or explicitly the real world of their tradents and collec-
tors. They are only meaningful to that world either in terms of contemporary
signification or of a more distant future projection. The issue of the sources for
the final compositions and collections is of critical importance in understanding
our text. It is in the context of the discrete traditions themselves being from the
past that we come to deal for the first time with the originating signification of
their historical context. Our understanding of collectors and redactors, such as
the author of the tôledôt structure of Genesis or the collector of the wilderness
variants found in the second half of Exodus and in Numbers does not supply
us with that primary context which can be understood as a historical matrix of
tradition. Nor can the world of such compilers be understood as the referent of
the tradition, that is, the situations or events which the tradition is about. Rather,
research into the historical context of such redactions, even of a ‘final’ redac-
tion, renders only a secondary usage and perspective, only a world in which our
traditions have become meaningful or useful. This world was earlier than, but
nonetheless comparable to, the much later Sitz im Leben of the traditions in one
or another canon of the early church or synagogue.
From the perspective of the world of the collectors, we do not understand the
historical referent. Nor are we able to reconstruct specific historical and socio-
political contexts that somehow (with Knauf) must be reflected in such tradi-
tions from the past, whether or not they have been fragmented and transformed
by these secondary contexts. In addition, the more the narrator or collector of
such composite traditions is convinced that the ‘realities’ of such traditions rep-
resent the distant past or more recent events, or are significant to his worldview,
the less we will be able to understand his sources in their own context and
signification. To the extent, on the other hand, that they have not been trans-
formed by their inclusion in this ‘library’ and by their association with the other
discrete works that surround them – each with its own context, referent and
intention – to that extent they become amenable to a historical-critical analysis
35. These, however, do not form a class of ‘elite.’ Uncritical assumptions such as B. Lang’s
(Monotheism and the Prophetic Minority, SWBAS 1, Sheffield: Almond Press, 1983)
seeming equation of literacy with political and economic dominance is without historical
justification.
Text, context, and referent in Israelite historiography 83
of both their originating context and their historicity. In addition, the traditions
become open to being understood in their own terms, meanings and intentions,
apart from what they have been made to mean in the accumulating, distinct
contexts of their tradents. The issue of whether or not the biblical traditions of
Genesis–2 Kings and Chronicles–Ezra–Nehemiah are literarily unified, dealing
with Israel’s past ex novo, whether they are primarily tendentious, ideological
and/or theological historiographic redactions of traditions, whether they were
originally oral or literary, or whether they are the gatherings of a bibliophile or
librarian are of immense interpretive importance. That they are traditions of
the past is the primary raison d’être for their inclusion. How past they are is a
subject of examination for each recognizably distinct tradition collected.
The nature of both the manner of composition and the tendentiousness of
historiography, however, renders it exceedingly difficult to recognize and dis-
tinguish the discrete sources of historiography. What we can know is largely
restricted to the understanding of the world and of tradition at the time of the
writing of the historiography. Even when a more ancient source is claimed by
the putative historian, our judgment regarding the veracity of such claims must
derive almost totally from the world we understand to be contemporary with the
historiography. The pursuit of a specific Traditionsgeschichte must by necessity
be limited to the analysis of changes that are specifically observable in the text,
and even such observable transitions may reflect a variety of contemporary
understandings rather than an evolutionary development that might carry us
into a pre-history of the text. The unproven assumption that the Pentateuch
tradition is historiographic and the creation of a single literary hand – perhaps
undergoing successive revisions and editions by subsequent authors36 – can
speak only to the successive secondary contexts within which the growing tra-
dition finds a home. In only a limited fashion does it speak to our tradition’s
originating matrices or its significant referents. Such historiographic traditions
must be seen as largely irrelevant to critical historical reconstruction because
any questions regarding the sources or bases of the successive author’s assump-
tions and perspectives are essentially closed to us. Also lacking is any criterion
for establishing either a relative or absolute chronology for strata within the
tradition. Indeed, we lack criteria for confirming the existence of any distinc-
tive strata at all, since the basis for the recognition of distinctive ideologies is
itself derived primarily from internal considerations without any demonstrable
relationship to any realities apart from the text, which at least prima facie is a
unit. To assume that the alleged source, referred to as J2, for example, is to be
dated to the exilic period because it is easier to interpret it within that context
is wholly inconsequential as a historical-critical evaluation. However much the
process of this tradition-formation might presumably reflect the worlds of the
redactors or collectors, each with their distinctive political, social and religious
36. I am thinking here for instance of examples such as the revisionist hypothesis of Van
Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press,
1975).
84 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
realities, it can hardly be used directly for reconstructing these worlds that are
largely unknown to us. Even less can they be used for a reconstruction of the
circumstances and events of the tradition’s past referents. The tradition, within
its field of semantic references, lives within both a real and a literary world.
Without a detailed and independent understanding of the historical contexts
within which a tradition has relevance, our ability to distinguish or even iden-
tify the historical contexts of the tradition is fleeting and sporadic. Furthermore,
both the historiographic and antiquarian concerns that sought to preserve tradi-
tions after the collapse of the old order do not pretend to present any coherent
or univocal truth about the past.37 Unlike the collections of laws at Qumran,
but comparable perhaps to the seemingly omnivorous collections of tradition
found in Greek literature or those attributed to Yavneh, the efforts at tradition
collection and preservation reflected in the Pentateuchal and deuteronomistic
corpora grew out of the collapse and destruction of the societies of Samaria and
Jerusalem. It was these disasters that gave the traditions and tradition fragments
a historical context as collection and grounded its significance as as revered tra-
dition. However, the specific content of the narratives that have been suspended
out of their own time and held as meaningful to these late pre-exilic, exilic, and
post-exilic tradents does not directly reflect either the exilic or the post-exilic
world in which the traditions had found their final form. The narratives do not
even reflect the pre-exilic world they so desperately tried to preserve. Like the
traditions of Yavneh, the biblical traditions reflect only incoherent, part-fictive
remnants of a past that the survivors of the destruction and their descendants
were able to put together and give meaning to in the radically new worlds into
which they were thrown.
It is their significance as meaningful expressions of the old order, giving
hope and direction to the new that affected these traditions’ preservation, not
their dependability in preserving past realities, so painful and ineffective as they
were. Both the form and the content of the preserved past have been strongly
affected – I hesitate to use the word determined – by the needs of the tradents.
Understandably, the realities of the referents were often perceived as having
less significance. It is indisputable that many elements of the received tradition
reflect the exigencies of the exilic and early post-exilic periods. Yet other ele-
ments refer to what has become a fictionalized or literary past. Clear examples
of a past existing in literature only are the referents of the immensely instructive
phrases in Exodus 15:26d and 23:21. The appeal to ‘Yahweh, your healer,’ in
15:26d is a blind motif within the tale episode of 15:22-26, wherein Yahweh
neither plays nor is called upon to play the role of healer. Nor does this divine
title derive from the larger context of Exodus 1-23, where Yahweh provides and
protects, guides and saves, but never heals. On the other hand, the close variant
37. One might note an analogous indifference to a thoroughgoing ideology in the efforts
made to collect the traditions of the schools of Hillel and Shammai by Hillelites after
the fall of Jerusalem in 70 ce. Cf. J. Neusner, From Politics to Piety (New York: Orbis
Books, 1979), 100.
Text, context, and referent in Israelite historiography 85
tradition found in Numbers 21:4-9 presents a deity with whom the motif of heal-
ing might be associated, and another variant in Deuteronomy 7:12-15 not only
presents Yahweh as healer, but also refers to a now lost account of an episode
in Egypt in which Israel, too, suffered disease. It is noteworthy that Yahweh’s
healing is presented as a reward for obedience to his ordinances in both Exodus
15:22-24 and Deuteronomy 7:12-15. A process of literary allusion, not historical
reference, is apparent here.
Even more striking is Yahweh’s speech to Moses in Exodus 23. In its context
of the early constitutional tradition of Exodus 23:1–24:8, the speech by Yahweh
who is sending his angel to lead Moses and his people against his enemies in
‘the place [he] has prepared’ refers to a future transgression, which Yahweh
will not forgive (v. 21). The immediate and original context (Exod. 23:1–24:8)
makes it very clear that the unforgivable transgression to which this speech
directs us is Israel’s entering into covenants with the peoples and gods of Eretz
Israel. The referent then is historiographical and external to the tradition. The
threatened punishment for this unforgivable transgression refers to the destruc-
tion of either Jerusalem or Samaria, understood theologically and ideologically
as having been caused by their own God as a result of what is here attested as
Israel’s fault. The suggested historical context of this original narration is obvi-
ously, then, the post-destruction period, either the seventh or the sixth centuries.
This context is perhaps pre-Persian since the potential transgression is under-
stood as unforgivable. Yet this must remain uncertain as the remnant ideology
of post-exilic prophetic tradition epitomizes a theological solution of Yahweh’s
mercy with the forgiveness of the unforgivable.
Within the context of the whole of the Pentateuch, our pericope of Exodus
23:20–24:8 radically alters its referent. No longer does Yahweh’s speech reflect
immediate preparations for the conquest of Palestine. Rather, it serves as an
opening to the wilderness wandering. The book of the covenant that Moses
wrote (Exod. 24:4, 7) is quickly displaced by Yahweh’s tablets (Exod. 24:12),
themselves displaced by Moses’ copy (Exod. 34:4-6, 27-29) as he runs up and
down the mountain for successive variations on the traditions of Exodus 19 and
20. Within this context, the referent is literary and internal. It is the transgression
of continued murmuring and the sins of Miriam and Aaron, and of Aaron and
Moses, in the growing conglomerate of narrative, explaining the entrance into
the Promised Land of a new generation rather than the generation addressed by
Yahweh in Exodus 23. The historical context of this literary referent is appar-
ently the post-exilic situation in which the tradition supports the hope of a new
generation in Palestine who identified with the return from the ‘wilderness’ of
exile to the Promised Land. This hope is born, or promises to find its fulfillment,
in their lives in the Persian period.
Although many primary elements of the tradition reflect the historical con-
texts of periods earlier than the received tradition’s formation, their narrative
contexts, both primary and secondary, imply a historical context associated with
the complex secondary level of the tradition. This suggests in turn that the com-
pilation of the extant tradition is, in terms of intellectual history, clearly distinct
from its sources. Such a distinction between an originating historical context
86 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
44. Most notable among these studies are Lemche, Early Israel and I. Finkelstein, The
Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement (Jerusalem: IES, 1988). The Chicago disserta-
tion of D. Edelman (The Rise of the Israelite State under Saul, 1987; see especially
her ‘Saul’s Rescue of Jabesh Gilead [1 Sam. 11:1–11]: Sorting Story from History,’
ZAW 96, 1984, 195–209; and her 1989 paper, ‘The Deuteronomist’s Story of King Saul:
Narrative Art or Editorial Product?,’ in C. Brekelmans and J. Lust (eds), Pentateuchal
and Deuteronomistic Studies, BETL 94, Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1990, 207–
20) deserves particular focus both because of its critical control of much of the recent
progress in Palestinian archaeology, but also because of its detailed concentration on the
tales of the ‘United Monarchy’ that are historically the most viable. Because of this heu-
ristic value, the following remarks have Edelman’s dissertation most in mind. The recent
‘holistic’ interpretation of the David stories by J. Flanagan (David’s Social Drama: A
Hologram of Israel’s Early Iron Age, SWBAS 7 and JSOTS 73, Sheffield: Almond Press,
1989), on the other hand, does not share Edelman’s control of the archaeological material
and takes a largely uncritical perspective of the biblical tradition. Consequently, it is of
less value for a theoretical and methodological discussion.
45. J. M. Miller, ‘The Israelite Occupation of Canaan,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite
and Judaean History, esp. 213–45.
46. Edelman, ‘Rise of the Israelite State,’ who, however, argues for a Saulide kingship, not
a chieftainship.
47. I. Finkelstein, The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration
Society, 1988)..
Text, context, and referent in Israelite historiography 89
1. Given the more recent dating of 1–2 Samuel, there exists a three-to-four-
century gap between the biblical tradition and the reconstructed events
to which the ‘primary’ traditions supposedly refer. This weakness is par-
ticularly awkward since the necessary continuity between a hypothetical
Saulide chieftainship and the royal dynasties of the state of Samaria, and,
through them, the Israel of tradition, is essentially supported by an obvi-
ously fictional or, at least, fictionalized association with the legendary
Davidic dynasty of a neighboring state.48
2. Following the line of argument developed in Israeli scholarship by B.
Mazar, Y. Aharoni and M. Kochavi, there is an assumed equation of the
sedentarization of the central hills of Iron I with the origins of the state,
which is later known in both tradition and international politics as Israel.49
Regardless of objections to a simplistic identification of the pre-Saulide
Iron I settlements as ‘Israelite’ and in spite of the lack of historical warrant
for that identification, this equation allows an association of the Saulide
chieftainship with the Iron I settlements of this region.
3. This caution is intensified by the observation that we are also lacking any
direct evidence for a process of regional centralization in the central hills
before the foundation of Samaria during Iron II. Thus, such an association
in the Iron I period remains in the realm of mere possibility.
4. To assert the existence of a historico-political entity ‘Israel’ as early as
Iron I – however small a ‘chieftainship’ or ‘kingship’ that might be –
seems to create enormous difficulties for illustrating political continuity
and unity: continuity with the state of Samaria in Iron II and unity with
the early settlements of other regions, including the Jezreel, the Upper
48. I am thinking here, for example, of the well-worn numerical motif of 40 for the number
of ‘Israelite’ kings between Saul and the Judaean exile.
49. Cf. esp. B. Mazar, Canaan and Israel (Jerusalem: Bialik, 1974); B. Mazar, ‘The Early
Israelite Settlement in the Hill Country,’ BASOR 241 (1981), 75–87; Y. Aharoni, ‘The
Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Upper Galilee’ (Hebrew University dissertation,
1957); Y. Aharoni, ‘New Aspects of the Israelite Occupation in the North,’ in J. A.
Sanders (ed.), Near Eastern Archaeology in the Twentieth Century, Glueck Festschrift
(New York: Doubleday, 1970), 254–65; Y. Aharoni, ‘Nothing Early and Nothing Late:
Rewriting Israel’s Conquest,’ BA 39 (1976), 55–67; M. Kochavi, ‘The Period of Israelite
Settlement,’ in I. Eph’al (ed.), The History of Eretz Israel II: Israel and Judah in the
Biblical Period, 19–84 (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1984); M. Kochavi,
‘The Land of Israel in the 13th–12th Centuries bce: Historical Conclusions from
Archaeological Data,’ in Eleventh Archaeological Conference in Israel 16 (Jerusalem:
Israel Exploration Society, 1985); Finkelstein, Archaeology. In his paper at the 1990 SBL
Convention in New Orleans, Finkelstein rejected the necessity of an association with
biblical Israel.
90 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
50. A. A. Milne, When We Were Very Young (London: Dutton, 1972), 83.
Text, context, and referent in Israelite historiography 91
A number of recent studies into Israel’s origins and the early history of Palestine
have taken up the difficult challenge of trying to describe the structure of ancient
Palestinian society in the light of the growing conviction since the 1950s that
emergent Israel of the Iron Age is both indigenous to Palestine and closely
associated with the new Iron I settlements of the central highlands.1 This has
brought not only a welcome clarity to Albrecht Alt’s original paradigm of the
origins of Israel in his model of transhumant Pastoralists of the Late Bronze
period,2 but also promises to resolve some long-standing misconceptions about
early Pastoralists in Palestine.3 This has been encouraging, especially for those
among us who have been influenced by such scholars as Manfred Weippert,4
1. Y. Aharoni, The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Upper Galilee (Jerusalem: Israel
Exploration Society, 1957); G. E. Mendenhall, ‘The Hebrew Conquest of Canaan,’ BA
25 (1962), 66–87; M. Kochavi, Judea, Samaria, and the Golan: Archaeological Survey
1967–1968, (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1972); J. M. Miller, ‘The Israelite
Occupation of Canaan,’ in J. H. Hayes and J. M. Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean
History (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977), 213–84; N. K. Gottwald, ‘Were the
Early Israelites Pastoral Nomads?,’ BAR 4 (1978), 2–7; N. K. Gottwald, The Tribes of
Yahweh (New York: Maryknoll, 1979); T. L. Thompson, ‘Historical Notes on Israel’s
Conquest of Palestine: A Peasants’ Rebellion,’ JSOT 7 (1978), 20–27; T. L. Thompson,
The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel I, JSOTS 55 (Sheffield: SAP, 1987), 15–40; D. C.
Hopkins, The Highlands of Canaan (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1985); N. P.
Lemche, Early Israel, VTS 37 (Leiden: Brill, 1985); G. W. Ahlström, Who Were the
Israelites? (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1986); R. B. Coote and K. W. Whitelam,
The Emergence of Early Israel in Historical Perspective (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1987); I. Finkelstein, The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement (Jerusalem:
Israel Exploration Society, 1988).
2. A. Alt, ‘Die Landnahme der Israeliten in Palästina,’ KS I (1925), 89–125; ‘Erwägungen
über die Landnahme der Israeliten in Palästina,’ KS I (1939), 126–75; M. Weippert, Die
Landnahme der israelitischen Stämme in der neueren wissenschaftlichen Diskussion,
FRLANT 92 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1967), passim.
3. See above all the discussions of C. H. J. de Geus, The Tribes of Israel (Amsterdam: Van
Gorcum, 1976); Lemche, Early Israel.
4. M. Weippert, Edom: Studien und Materialen zur Geschichte der Edomiter auf Grund
schriftlicher und archäologischer Quellen (dissertation, University of Tübingen, 1971);
M. Weippert, ‘Semitische Nomaden des zweiten Jahrtausends,’ Biblica 55 (1974),
265–80, 427–33.
94 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Max Miller,5 and Gösta Ahlström,6 and not least their effort to fragment what
had appeared to be the near-global ethnicity we used to call ‘Canaanite’ or
‘Amorite,’7 in favor of a more regional approach to Palestine’s early history.8
This new paradigm for writing the history of this region has been pre-
sented largely independently in the Chicago dissertations of Doug Esse and
Diana Edelman,9 the book-length studies of Niels Peter Lemche, Robert Coote
and Keith Whitelam, and Israel Finkelstein,10 is already presupposed in Axel
Knauf’s Midian,11 and has achieved near-normative status in Helga Weippert’s
encyclopedia of archaeology and Gösta Ahlström’s History of Palestine.12
Although the influence of the universities of Chicago and Tübingen is obvi-
ous in this historical revision, we are not dealing with any particular school of
thought so much as with the confluence of a broad range of scholarship from
biblical, archaeological, and Semitic studies and the emergence of a consensus
which our fields have not experienced for more than a generation.13
One of the major issues these scholars have attempted to clarify is the indig-
enous quality of the potentially ‘Israelite’ settlement of the central hill country
in terms of the functional character of a specifically Palestinian form of the
Mediterranean economy. In theory, the population of Palestine, in responding
to stress on the agricultural sector that is particularly noticeable in the most
marginal zones, typically undergoes a recurrent process or cycle of sedentary
collapse and resettlement, involving at times substantial demographic shifts
from a dominance of intensive agriculture and horticulture to a dominance of
grain agriculture and pastoralism. In this theory, pastoral nomadism is not seen
14. L. Geraty et al., ‘Madeba Plains Project: A Preliminary Report of the 1987 Season at Tell
el-Umeiri and Vicinity,’ BASORS 26 (1990), 59–88; S. Richards, ‘The 1987 Expedition
to Khirbet Iskander and its Vicinity: Fourth Preliminary Report,’ BASORS 26 (1990),
33–58.
15. Richards, ‘1987 Expedition,’ 56.
16. Geraty et al., ‘Madeba Plains Project,’ 59.
17. de Geus, The Tribes of Israel; Lemche, Early Israel; de Vaux, L’Histoire d’Israël I;
Thompson, Settlement of Palestine in the Bronze Age.
18. O. Röíler, ‘Verbalbau und Verbalflexion in den semitohamitischen Sprachen,’ ZDMG
100 (1950), 461–514; O. Röíler, ‘Der semitische Charakter der lybischen Sprache,’
ZA 50 (1952), 121–50; O. Röíler, ‘Ghain im Ugaritischem,’ ZA 54 (1961), 158–72;
O. Röíler, ‘Eine bisher unbekannte Tempusform im Althebräischen,’ ZDMG 111 (1961),
445–51; S. Moscati, An Introduction to the Comparative Grammar of the Semitic
Languages (Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1969), 16; I. M. Diakonoff, Semito-Hamitic
Languages (Moscow: Nauka, 1965); I. M. Diakonoff, ‘Earliest Semites in Asia,’ AOF 8
(1981), 23–74; P. Fronzaroli, ‘Le origini dei Semiti come Problema Storico,’ Academia
Nazionale dei Lincei, Rendiconti della Classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche 15
(1960), 123–44; P. Fronzaroli, ‘Studi sul Lessico Commune Semitico’ I–VI, in Academia
Nazionale dei Lincei, Rendiconti della Classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche
Series 8, vols 19–20, 23 and 24 (1964–69); also, W. Tyloch, ‘The Evidence of the Proto-
Lexikon for the Cultural Background of the Semitic Peoples,’ in J. Bynon and T. Bynon
(eds), Hamito-Semitica (The Hague: Tyloch, 1975), 55–74.
96 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
19. Especially Knauf, Ismael, 135–60 and Knauf, Midian, 64–77, but also Knauf, ‘Bedouin
and Bedouin States,’ ABD (1992).
20. For bibliography and discussion, T. L. Thompson, The Early History of the Israelite
People: From the Written and Archaeological Sources, SHANE 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1992),
215–21.
21. Knauf, ‘Bedouin.’ I am responding to questions raised by de Geus (Tribes of Israel),
Lemche (Early Israel), and H. Weippert (Die Landnahme). See also T. L. Thompson,
The Settlement of the Sinai and the Negev in the Bronze Age, BTAVO 8 (Wiesbaden: Dr.
Reichert, 1975); Thompson, ‘Historical Notes’; and Chapter 3, this volume.
22. Lemche, Early Israel.
23. Thompson, The Origin Tradition, 28–40.
Palestinian pastoralism and Israel’s origins 97
p erhaps Late Bronze II and Iron II periods. These might be understood as rep-
resentative of the ordinary economic potential of Palestine, given a historically
specific adequate climatic, political, and technological basis for growth and
expansion. Significant departures from these norms away from sedentariza-
tion and a balanced Mediterranean economy towards forms of nomadism and
a dominance of pastoralism, however cyclic they appear, call out for explana-
tion. To the extent that we can identify the causes of such depressions (which at
times border on near total collapse), to that extent we may be in a position also
to recognize the factors involved in increased sedentarization, with its varie-
ties of political consolidation and linguistic differentiation so characteristic of
ethnic formations. From at least as early as the Chalcolithic EB I period, we
find our earliest evidence for ‘pre-Bedouin’ nomadism in the Sinai existing at
a great distance from Palestine, and subsisting on metallurgy, some pastoral-
ism, hunting, and limited patch agriculture, supported by a sub-pluvial rainfall
regime.24 Similar semi-sedentary groups in much larger numbers are found in
the Early Bronze II period.25 Both the size of this early population in the Sinai
and the distance from the larger steppes, which border on the agricultural heart-
lands of Palestine, suggest a potential for the development of an independent
cultural entity, separate and distinct from that found in the sedentary regions
of Palestine. Such forms of ‘pre-Bedouin’ nomadism stand in marked contrast
to potential forms of pastoralism in the northern Negev, the southern coastal
plain and eastern Transjordan. Although these regions are undoubtedly richer in
grazing potential and can support (at least seasonally) a much larger population,
forms of pastoralism were much more likely to be of the transhumant variety,
involving seasonal migration between two different climatic zones, grazing on
the steppe during the winter and in the agricultural heartland in the summer,
while developing relationships of dependence on the villages and towns in the
close symbiotic relationship of a specialized trade. Whether this formed a dis-
tinctive society would depend on specific historical, social and political devel-
opments, but this is perhaps likely, given the large geographical range of such
pastoralism in contrast to the intense sedentarization of the agricultural heart-
land. A third form of seasonal nomadism might be defined by the inner-steppe
regions of Palestine which are most notably found throughout the lower Galilee,
the Issachar plateau, the eastern and southern slopes of the highlands, as well as
the plains of the Jordan and the valley of the Wadi al-Fari’a. Especially during
the Early Bronze sub-pluvial, the winter pastures of these regions could well
support the herds of the agricultural villages and towns. Such seasonal nomad-
ism is unlikely to form distinctive societies, but rather functions as an adjunct
to Palestinian sedentary agriculture.
24. T. L. Thompson, Settlement of the Sinai and the Negev, 29, and T. L. Thompson, Early
History. The terminology for the variety of bedouin forms follows E. A. Knauf, Ismael,
135. For some aspects of metallurgy, see H. G. Bachmann and A. Hauptmann, ‘Zur alten
Kupfergewinnung in Feinan und Hirbet en-Nahas im Wadi Arabah in Südjordanien,’
ZKKB 4 (1984), 110–23; B. Rothenberg, Timna (London: Barnes and Noble, 1972/1988).
25. Rothenberg, Timna.
98 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Extreme drought and the associated conflicts which might be expected from
a severe and long-lasting drought, which seem to have brought the Early Bronze
Age to such a disastrous close, dislocated the population in the whole of the
southern half of Palestine and the central hills, including significant numbers in
the northern hills and in Transjordan.26 The Early Bronze IV depression, with
its shift towards a dominance of pastoralism, grain and patch agriculture, and
the spread of its population along the northern slopes of the central Negev and
central Sinai (as well as the central and southern Transjordan plateau), might
be understood in terms of a drought-driven dislocation and diffusion of the
population, at first into ever larger and ever more marginal lands, establishing
sedentary homesteads and campsites where viable, but ultimately away from
Palestine: northeastwards towards the Syrian steppe, south and southeastwards
into the Negev, the Sinai, and Arabia.27 While the population of the northern
heartland of Palestine and areas of the Transjordan may have survived by a
shift to forms of transhumance, this is unlikely except in passing in the central
Negev or the Sinai, where the only marginal variations of climate hardly sup-
ported such strategies over time. The spread of pastorally dominant ecomomies
in EB IV over such large areas undoubtedly fostered continuities and coherence
in material, social, and linguistic culture as well as ethnic integration over an
immense area. With the Passing of the drought and a return to intensive seden-
tarization in the Middle Bronze II period, regional differentiation became more
marked, and continuities in the population were increasingly subject to frag-
mentation by (a) the rapid development of small centralized political structures
dominating the towns, which are both reflected in the ‘Execration Texts’ and
confirmed in excavations;28 (b) the increase of regionally oriented economic
specializations involving not only forms of pastoralism and metallurgy, but also
horticulture, timber, fishing, shipping, and other industries; and (c) the develop-
ment of both inter-regional and international trade, augmenting and supporting
both this regional specialization as well as a distinctive self-identification.29
Certainly at the height of the prosperity of MB II, we have pastoral nomadic
groups in many regions of greater Palestine, which are clearly distinguishable
from the town-dominated, agricultural and sedentary population (and we need
not depend too heavily on Egyptian texts such as Sinuhe, cuneiform references
to the šutu, or even the many references to pastoralists of the great Syrian steppe
26. See Chapter 3, this volume; also Thompson, Early History of the Israelite People.
27. Also E. A. Knauf, ‘The West Arabian Place Name Province: Its Origin and Significance,’
PSAS 18 (1988), 39–49; Knauf, Ismael, 136.
28. T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974).
29. A necessary correlate of ethnic differentiation is the interaction with other groups sepa-
rated by economic, geographical, linguistic, or other barriers: N. Buchignani, ‘Ethnic
Phenomena and Contemporary Social Theory: Their Implications for Archaeology,’ in
R. Auger, M. F. Glass, S. MacEachern and P. H. McCartney (eds), Ethnicity and Culture
(Calgary: University of Calgary, 1987), 15–24, especially 20–22.
Palestinian pastoralism and Israel’s origins 99
in the Mari letters).30 Not only do we have evidence for pre-Bedouin groups in
the Sinai in the area of Serabit al-Khadim who were supported by metallurgy,31
but the more favorable climatic conditions and the return to prosperity support
the possibilities of considerable transhumant pastoralism in the steppe-lands
of the eastern and southern Transjordan, the northern Negev and the southern
coastal region, feeding the large market towns of the coast and the overland
trade route to Egypt. Demographically, such groups are likely to have been
derivative of the more sedentary EB IV steppe dwellers who, in more favorable
climatic conditions, adjusted their subsistence strategy towards a greater spe-
cialization in pastoralism.
The economic depression at the end of the MB II period, coinciding with the
onset of an extended period of sub-normal rainfall patterns, hit the agricultur-
ally marginal zones of Palestine and its neighboring steppe zones the hardest.
Town centers in the agricultural heartland suffered a reduction of population,
and forms of intensive agriculture in many small sub-regions were abandoned
(such as in the Jezreel and the eastern coastal plain). Centralized forms of politi-
cal control established in the towns (later bolstered by Egyptian imperial rule)32
maintained the stability of many settlements in the most favorable agricultural
areas, and the protection of trade supported a limited prosperity. However,
the hill country settlements did not survive. Olive production in some areas
collapsed,33 and large areas of the highlands were given over to wilderness.34
Some of the most important of these were the Judaean highlands (except for the
Jerusalem saddle and the Ayyalon Valley), most of the hills of Samaria (apart
from the Nablus downfold), the Allonim hills, the Issachar plateau, and much of
the lower Galilee. There are indications of severe stress throughout the steppe
and desert regions of the south and southeast as well. While pre-Bedouin con-
tinue involvement in the metallurgy and turquoise industries of the extreme
south, diversification is indicated by the considerable numbers of campsites
spread across the north of Sinai, the people living in symbiosis with the coastal
trade route.
30. So: V. Matthews, Pastoral Nomadism in the Mari Letters (Cambridge, MA; Harvard
University, 1978).
31. Thompson, Settlement of Sinai and the Negev. This industry probably also involved
some skilled craftsmen from Palestine.
32. S. Ahituv, ‘Economic Factors in the Egyptian Conquest of Palestine,’ IEJ 28 (1978),
93–105; J. M. Weinstein, ‘The Egyptian Empire in Palestine: A Reassessment,’ BASOR
241 (1981), 1–28; N. Na’aman, ‘Economic Aspects of the Egyptian Occupation of
Canaan,’ IEJ 31 (1981), 172–85; R. Gonen, ‘Urban Canaan in the Late Bronze Period,’
BASOR 253 (1984), 61–73.
33. N. Lipschitz, ‘Olives in Ancient Israel in View of Dendroarchaeological Investigations,’
in M. Heltzer and D. Eitam (eds), Olive Oil in Antiquity, 139–45 (Padua: Sargon,
1988); N. Lipschitz, ‘Overview of the Dendrochronological and Dendroarchaeological
Research in Israel,’ Dendrochronologia 4 (1986), 37–58.
34. T. L. Thompson, The Settlement of Palestine in the Bronze Age, BTAVO 34 (Wiesbaden:
Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1979), 66–7.
100 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
35. P. Wapnish, ‘Camel Caravans and Camel Pastoralists at Tell Jemmeh,’ JANES 13 (1981),
101–21; M. M. Ibrahim and G. van der Kooij, ‘Excavations at Tell Deir Alla, Season
1982,’ ADAJ 27 (1983), 577–85; E. A. Knauf, ‘A Late Bronze Age Camel Caravan at
Tell Deir Alla,’ Newsletter of the Institute of Archaeology and Anthropology, Yarmouk
University 4 (1987), 7.
36. M. Weippert, The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Palestine, trans. J. Martin, SBT 21
(London: SCM Press, 1971); R. Giveon, Les Bedouins Shosou des documents Égyptiens
(Leiden: Brill, 1971); R. Giveon, ‘Schasu,’ Lexikon der Ägyptologie, fascicle 36, 53–5.
37. So Knauf, ‘Bedouin.’
38. As in Finkelstein, Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement, 338–48.
39. On the Hab/piru see now O. Loretz, Habiru-Hebräer: Eine sozio-linguistische Studie
über die Herkunft des Gentiliziums ‘ibri vom Appelativum habiru, BZAW 160 (Berlin:
de Gruyter, 1984).
40. For a general discussion of this migration, A. Nibbi, The Sea Peoples and Egypt (Park
Ridge, NJ: Noyes Publications, 1975); A. Strobel, Der spätbronzezeitliche Seevölker
sturm, BZAW 145 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1976); T. Dothan, The Philistines and Their
Material Culture (New Haven, CT, 1982); and especially H. Weippert, Die Archäologie
Palästina; and Ahlström, History of Palestine.
Palestinian pastoralism and Israel’s origins 101
new small villages and hamlets are established in the southern coastal plain and
along the seashore itself.41
In the course of the twelfth century, spurred by the ‘sea-peoples’ migrations,
by the extended duration of the drought, by the collapse of Mediterranean trade,
and by the eventual lessening of Egyptian control of the region, the lowland
population of the agricultural heartland was dispersed in large numbers of new
small villages and hamlets. This dispersal extended throughout the Jezreel
and Jordan valleys, the western coastal plain, the lower hills on the northern
fringe of the Jezreel, into the highlands of Samaria, The Ayyalon Valley and the
Jerusalem saddle, and throughout the Shephelah.42 The Š3sw established forms
of village-bound, transhumant pastoralism over large areas of the Transjordan43
and the new population of the central highlands of western Palestine established
patterns of both transhumant pastoralism (centered in grain agriculture and
herding) and transhumant agriculture (focused in intensive agriculture and ter-
race-dependent horticulture) across three, regionally distinct, ecological zones
of steppe land, intermontane terra rossa soils, and the central highland’s rug-
ged western slopes.44 The development of market towns in the northern Negev
such as Tell Mshash suggest not so much a resedentarization of nomads45 as
the continued efforts of the sedentary population (perhaps dislocated from the
coastal plain) to maintain symbiotic trade relations with the Š3sw pastoralists
and the Arabs to the south and southeast.46
Our chronology is very poor, and trans-regional coherence cannot be expect-
ed.47 However, towards the end of the eleventh or early in the tenth century, the
sedentary population begins to stabilize. The onset of Iron II is marked by the
increasing dominance of intensive agriculture and a rapid expansion of terrace-
based horticulture and farming. This supported a massive expansion of the sed-
entary population far beyond what one might expect from normal demographic
growth.48 This expansion is not only considerable within regions already estab-
lished during Iron I, such as the central hills, the lowlands and the Transjordan,
but it also extended into wilderness areas of the Lower Galilee, the Issachar pla-
teau, the hills of Judea, Edom and into many marginal sub-regions of the south-
ern coastal plain, and the Beersheva basin.49 It is during this period, especially
during the early ninth century, that I would see a movement away from pastoral
nomadism towards an intensive sedentarization of Palestine’s marginal lands,
re-establishing in these regions a Mediterranean economy.50 Perhaps Knauf is
correct that the Midianites disappear from history at this time.51 Certainly, the
development of a system of northern Negev forts or border settlements sug-
gests efforts to enforce sedentarization throughout the South.52 Any vacuum in
(1981), 61–73; V. Fritz and A. Kempinski, Ergebnisse der Ausgrabungen auf der Hirbet
el-Mšaš (Tel Masos) 1972–1975, ADPV (Wiesbaden: Harassowitz, 1983).
46. P. Parr, ‘Contacts Between Northwest Arabia and Jordan in the Bronze and Iron Ages,’
in A. Hadidi (ed.) SHAJ, (Amman: Department of Antiquities, 1982), 127–33; P. Parr,
G. L. Harding, and J. E. Dayton, ‘Preliminary Survey in N. W. Arabia 1968,’ Bulletin of
the Institute of Archaeology, University of London 8–9 (1970).
47. This is discussed in J. M. Miller, ‘Archaeology and the Israelite Conquest of Canaan:
Some Methodological Observations,’ PEQ 109 (1977), 87–93. H. Weippert’s concept:
‘Die Gleichzeitigkeit der Ungleichzeitigen’ (Archäologie Palästina) is particularly help-
ful. I. Finkelstein’s efforts to establish a chronological progression from East to West
in the early Iron I settlements in Ephraim (Israelite Settlement, 195–198) is essentially
circular.
48. Mittmann et al, Palästina: Siedlungen der Eisenzeit.
49. Ibid. Certainly Finkelstein’s argument that the settlement of the Judaean highlands is
developed from an overflow from the central hills (Israelite Settlement, 326–7) is diffi-
cult to accept. The expansion of settlement in Iron II occurs in all regions of Palestine and
there is no reason whatever to see the hills of Ephraim as the matrix for that expansion.
50. W. G. Dever, Recent Archaeological Discoveries and Biblical Research (Seattle, WA:
University of Washing Press, 1990), 97.
51. Knauf, Midian; Knauf, ‘Bedouin.’
52. R. Cohen, ‘The Iron Age Fortresses in the Central Negev,’ BASOR 236 (1979), 61–79; C.
Meyers, ‘Kadesh Barnea: Juda’s Last Outpost,’ BA 39 (1976), 145–51; Y. Aharoni, ‘The
Negev During the Israelite Period,’ in A. Schmueli and Y. Grados (eds) The Land of the
Negev (Tel Aviv, 1979), 209–25. For an analogous situation in Transjordan, see H. G.
Reventlow, ‘Das Ende der ammonitischen Grenzfestungskette,’ ZDPV 79 (1963), 127–
37; K. von Rabenau, ‘Ammonitische Verteidigungsanlagen zwischen Hirbet el‑Bishara
und el-Yadude,’ ZDPV 94 (1978), 46–55.
Palestinian pastoralism and Israel’s origins 103
the steppe created by such efforts would undoubtedly strengthen the increasing
control of the Negev and the Sinai by early Arab Bedouin.
In conclusion, a number of statements can be made. Although drought condi-
tions create severe stress on sedentary agriculturalists, forcing change, they cre-
ate even greater stress on pastoral sectors of the economy. A cyclic recurrence of
prosperity and depression is not immediately translatable into a corresponding
cyclic Pattern to and from agriculture and pastoralism, let alone sedentariza-
tion and nomadization. Subsistence strategies responding to drought and stress
move the population, whether agricultural or pastoral, into ever larger areas
of exploitation: sedentary agriculturalists into ever more marginal lands, and
nomadic pastoralists into the better watered agricultural heartland. Economic
depression, when sufficiently severe and prolonged, can create nomads out of
a sedentary population. However, prosperity creates stability in the nomadic
sector as well. In terms of ethnicity, sedentarization enhances ethnic differen-
tiation, while nomadization enhances ethnic confluence within an economic
specialization. While we have not touched directly upon the origins of biblical
Israel, some observations can be suggested: The origins of the populations of
Ephraim and Judah are substantially separate and distinct, both chronologically
and socio-economically. While the settlements in the north seem to be a result
of subsistence strategies of the sedentary agricultural population of Palestine
and are already established in Iron I, those in the Judaean highlands seem more
likely linked to a sedentarization process from steppe, with a horizon in Iron II.
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8
as the remnant of Israel, which that construction would have initiated.3 Such
arguments, however, do not establish an independent historical context for the
literature so much as they point to literary and intellectual worldviews, which
are not adequate for dating the traditions historically. At most they provide only
the earliest possible dates. Both the exilic period and the construction of the sec-
ond temple under Ezra and Nehemiah are not periods or indeed events known
from independent evidence. They are known from tradition, not history, and as
such are not entirely viable as historical contexts. It is very important to allow
evidence to dominate discussions over against any rational coherence we might
attribute to an imaginary past. In this question we do not have the luxury of the
higher road of biblical criticism. We are compelled to begin, not from theory,
but from the foundation of what is known historically about the tradition; that
is, from the contexts in which the traditions have been handed down. Only from
such secure, albeit later, contexts can the earlier periods that are implicitly more
speculative be tolerably entered. Arguments based on literary and intellectual
contexts are not destroyed by this discussion. It is only the historical anchors
and the security of what is only seemingly known that are cut loose. As Niels
Peter Lemche argued so well in a recent programmatic article, it is only the
perception of a post-exilic world that is gained from the literary world of the
Bible that marks both this and the ‘exile’ as distinctive periods in which to find a
home for the Old Testament.4 Such perceptions do not render historical context.
The Septuagint version of the Old Testament, which can reasonably be dated
to the second century bce or later, can only to a limited extent be described as a
translation of the Hebrew Bible. Many of its traditions are wholly independent
of the Hebrew Bible; many originated in Greek and yet others might be plausi-
bly described as variant traditions of the extant Hebrew tradition, which itself
betrays many characteristics of the Hellenistic period. In the Septuagint text of
2 Maccabbees 2:14, there is an interesting reference to a collection of writings,
understood as traditional, that the writer of 2 Maccabbees describes as texts
that had survived the Maccabean wars. Whether this is a plausible and accurate
depiction of a known library or is ideologically oriented rhetoric attempting to
present the collection as surviving remnants of very ancient tradition is uncer-
tain. The offer to lend books from the collection, while conceivably a fictitious
claim of historicity, nevertheless asserts the significance of ‘library’ as mean-
ingful and essential to the ideology fundamental to tradition collection. The
additional reference in 2 Maccabbees to the library of Nehemiah that was lost in
the distant past is a much more potent ideological concept. While perhaps only a
reference to a legend, it suggests that the author knows of no earlier collection of
3. T. L. Thompson, The Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written and
Archaeological Sources (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 415–23.
4. N. P. Lemche, ‘Det Gamle Testamente som en hellenistisk bog,’ DTT 55 (1992), 81–101;
updated English version: ‘The Old Testament – A Hellenistic Book?,’ SJOT 7 (1993),
163–93. This article underscores what is known about the textual evidence of the Old
Testament and, particularly, its character as a product of the Hellenistic period.
The intellectual matrix of early biblical narrative 107
written tradition that survived the Maccabean wars, but still sees Nehemiah as
meaningful in the formation of national tradition. In 2 Maccabbees 4, which is
dedicated to a recounting of the survival of past tradition, neither the traditions
of Ezra’s lawgiving nor that of Nehemiah’s library are accessible to the writer
of 2 Maccabbees 2:14; only, it is claimed, the efforts by Judas Maccabeus to
preserve a past that is now fragmented. In itself, this text offers a serious argu-
ment against understanding the final redaction of the Hebrew Bible as a whole
significantly prior to the second half of the second century bce. Moreover, the
Hebrew Bible underwent a considerable and integral redaction some time after
the so-called rededication of the Jerusalem temple in 164 bce.
This orientation of the Masoretic text to the second-century temple has been
known for more than a century and needs no further discussion here,5 except to
point out that this revision of tradition substantially affects access to earlier strata
of the tradition. The legends of Ezra and Nehemiah are centered in the national
ideology of the temple in Jerusalem, a theology that has its first and most clearly
secure context in the events surrounding the efforts by Antiochus IV to drive a
wedge between the potentially pro-Ptolemaic Jews of Jerusalem and the Jews
of Alexandria. His conflict with the Ptolemies for the control of Palestine cast
him in the role of enemy, particularly among the most Hellenized portion of the
population of Jerusalem and Yehud. The conflict led him increasingly into more
insistent demands that the Jewish form of Hellenism in Jerusalem now be led
from Antioch, the new seat of political power, rather than from Alexandria, as
it had been. In doing this, he was seen as attacking not only Jerusalem’s reli-
gious and intellectual leadership but some of what are presented as Jerusalem’s
most cherished customs as well. The highly charged intellectual movement of
nationalism, which ensued, supported and substantially altered the character of
the originally reactionary, pro-Ptolemaic Maccabean revolt. The intellectual and
cultural character of this nationalism was institutionalized in the rededication of
the temple, the event that structures internal Masoretic chronology. This renders
an a quo, not an ad quem, dating of the extant tradition. It is in the historical
context of the Maccabean state that Palestine clearly possesses, for the first time,
both the independent state structures and the national consciousness necessary
for the development of a library and of a coherent collection of tradition so
marked by self-conscious ethnicity.6 Unlike earlier periods in Palestine, there is
every reason to believe that the Hellenistic period was immensely creative and
literate. The development of tradition, an aspect of intellectual history, requires
no broad chronological spectrum. It is both synchronic and diachronic.
5. See T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974), 4–15.
6. This is not a situation involving government administrative archives that might have
been expected to exist in Jerusalem under the Persian empire or under any earlier politi-
cal state, but specifically a collection of national traditions. See further on this E. Posner,
Archives in the Ancient World (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1972) and,
more recently, K. A. D. Smelik, Converting the Past: Studies in Ancient Israelite and
Moabite Historiography, OTS 28 (Leiden: Brill, 1992).
108 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
early as the Assyrian period. Some of the best candidates preserving such early
references are parts of the Ishmael traditions, the Shem and Ham genealogies,
the Bileam legend and the Israelite dynastic data from Omri on, as well as
aspects of the destruction accounts of Samaria and Jerusalem. There are many
more, and we need to be open to even earlier possibilities, however unlikely
this may seem. Such confirmable elements of historicality in these traditions
clearly support the understanding that they reflect a representation of the past
that is not wholly fictive. The use of such materials and remnants of the past
for historical purposes, however, must proceed with great caution. Both their
fragmentary character and their displacement from their original contexts pre-
vent a reconstruction of their original significance and an identification of their
original contexts should not be confused with their later contexts, when they
become part of a meaning-bearing tradition.
Concepts and literary works commonly thought to be exilic and post-exilic have
referents recognized as adhering to the defining ideology of exile – whatever the
trope of exile’s actual historicity. In such literature, the exile is presented first
of all as an event of the mind within the intellectual world of early Judaism and
functions as a literary matrix for large portions of the Bible. This is true what-
ever events may have occurred, which could be regarded as a ‘return.’ What
are commonly designated as exilic and post-exilic texts, as well as some of the
larger composite collections of the Old Testament, whether the Septuagint or the
later Masoretic collection called the Hebrew Bible, all flow from this intellec-
tual matrix and must, therefore, be chronologically subsequent. The relationship
between purported event and perceived event is fragile and complex. So-called
exilic and post-exilic texts are datable only in terms of a relative chronology.
They were created no earlier than the onset of the ideology of exile. This central
concept, ‘exile,’ is quite distinct from historical context and is rather a mul-
tifaceted and very comprehensive interpretation of tradition, both living and
shattered.
The specific body of literature that is known as wisdom literature relates to
the collections of Torah and Prophets as hermeneutics does to tradition. That
is, specific collections of writings such as Proverbs, Qohelet and Job provide
an entry into the intellectual visions that have cast the collections that come as
Torah and Prophets. In their explicitly self-conscious understandings as works
of the intelligentsia about tradition, their visions reflect the intellectual trans-
valuation that the concept of exile brings to the traditions. It is through the
inclusive monotheistic and universalistic lenses of such a text as 2 Isaiah that
the immediate and inescapable corollary is drawn that 2 Isaiah and comparable
texts are logically prior to the perception and inclusion of such a text as 1 Isaiah
within the tradition. This is because they provide meaning for the composite
tradition. It needs to be argued that in such literary productions as Job, Qohelet
and 2 Isaiah an intellectual ferment is reflected that is fully analogous to what
110 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
god of spirit, Ahura Mazda.7 In addition, this concept corresponded with the
perceptions of the ultimately divine as understood among conquered peoples in
the distinct regions of the empire, whether as Marduk of Babylon, Sin of Harran,
Baal Shamem of Syria or their counterparts, the elohei shamayim of Palestine or
the Yahu/Elohaya of Elephantine. The intellectual associations involved in the
identification of these referents to the divine as spiritual reality are fundamental
issues of translation. Intrinsic to the evocation of such a perception of the divine
is lack of specificity. The divine is no longer perceived equivocally in terms of
gods needing names – it is only the human world that needs a defining quality,
such as a name. Rather, the existence of expressions that located the divine in
heavenly, life-giving spirit in terms of specific, regionally defined names con-
firms the validity of provincial traditions and gives them viability as specifically
human expressions about the ultimately one and true divine spirit. The use of
elohaya Shamayim by the Persian administration to designate the overlord of
the empire when addressing its subjects in Elephantine is not simply a manipu-
lative move. Nor does it arise from a difference in the perception of reality.
Rather, it reflects a worldview that distinguishes relative perceptions that are
contingent, geographically and religiously, from an assertion of ultimate reality
that is beyond human expression, perception, and understanding.8 The divine
title reflects a perception that is grounded in the religious traditions of a specific
past. This solution of the crisis of past tradition was resolved in Asia within a
conceptual framework that can be epitomized in the term ‘inclusive monothe-
ism.’ Its initial development can be observed already during the Persian Period.
In contrast to Greek historians, philosophers, and playwrights, the intellectuals
of Asia chose not to reject, but to affirm the traditions of the past as expressions
of true reality: a reality which previously had only been perceived darkly in
limited human terms. This defining concept of inclusive monotheism is one that
finds its home in efforts to maintain polytheistic and henotheistic conceptions in
universalistic terms. Inclusive monotheism is not primarily antagonistic towards
polytheism. Rather, it interprets and restructures it. In biblical tradition such a
perception is particularly clear in what most scholars would recognize as late
(i.e. Hellenistic) texts. In the citation of the Cyrus decree in Ezra 1:1-3, in con-
trast to the less nuanced citation in 2 Chronicles, elohei Shamayim, identified
with Yahweh, the ancient god of Israel, charges Cyrus to re-establish his people
9. Contra P. R. Davies, In Search of Ancient Israel, JSOTS 148 (JSOT Press: Sheffield,
1992), 78, who writes: ‘And given the centrality of Judah in the biblical literature, there
can hardly be any doubt that this is where we need to look for the origin of the literary
Israel. That may be one of the few uncontroversial statements of this book.’ Davies’s
statement reflects a thesis that presupposes the historicity of a divided monarchy, as is
indicated by his reference to a choice between Israel and Judah.
The intellectual matrix of early biblical narrative 113
10. Contra A. Alt, Der Gott der Väter, BWANT 12 (Stuttgart: W. Kohlhammer, 1929).
116 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
own purposes, not those of humanity. History (i.e., tradition) reflects his glory.
Israel, having committed unforgivable crimes, is forgiven. How else describe
the wonder of the God of mercy? The task of the prophetic audience is not to
hope, but to reflect on the tradition and to understand the task of philosophy.
In Genesis 2 and 6:1-4, life is characterized as a divine element: the breath of
yahweh ’elohim which resides only fleetingly11 in the physically delineated mul-
tiplicity of creatures. In this mortal world, the divine spirit is transient. It defines
the human. It is only a quite late development in Hellenistic thought that allows
Plato’s world and spirit dichotomy to be read through the lenses of matter and
form polarity, allowing the collusion of individuation and immortality. Yahweh
of the Pentateuchal tradition is only indirectly identified with the divine. That
is, the traditions centered in the figure of Yahweh can be understood and inter-
preted as a reflection of what is understood as truly divine through explicit and
implicit associations with ’Elohim – a concept that implicitly embodies the ’elo-
hei hashamayim, which is associated in tradition with the name of the ancient
god of Palestine’s past: Yahu. This enabled the creators of the Pentateuch to
express through the tradition their own understanding of a universal world order
under the singular and coherent concept of a universal and transcendent deity,
’Elohei Shamayim (‘the heavenly divine’). At the same time, they could pre-
serve the personal aspects of the divine which is endemic to the traditional
world of folklore in Palestine, which was, it may be assumed, expressed through
stories and myths. In terms of intellectual history, the worldview of the crea-
tors of the written tradition was expressed through the integration of a coher-
ent concept of ultimate reality and considered to be transcendent and universal
(namely, ’elohim) with the personal aspects of the divine that are characteristic
of a long established, popular and regionally oriented, religious language. This
might be described as a middle ground between the idealism of Plato, which
makes the world of the gods redundant and irrelevant, and various forms of
Hellenistic syncretism, which rationalizes that world. It expands the understand-
ing of the divine to include both the personal and the universal. This enabled
the creators of the Pentateuch to pursue their primary goal of preserving the
shattered and fragmented traditions of the past through a revision, which treats
them in a manner consonant with their new worldview. In this process, they
also transformed that worldview. The interpretive matrix of this understand-
ing of tradition can be found expressed in the figure of Yahweh ’elohim (‘the
divine Yahweh’): a hardly redundant status constructus. It identifies Yahweh as
Yahweh ’elohei Shamayim and as Yahweh ’elohei Yisra’el, whose temple is to be
rebuilt in Yehud’s Jerusalem, there to form the core of a redeemed Israel through
the self-identification as a reconstructed nation and people of God, whose origin
and identity is that of the ‘remnant saved’: returning from its exile from both tra-
dition and its God. The Semitic difficulty in understanding personal immortality
need not be taken to express a lack of philosophical worldview, nor should it be
11. In this respect, hevel of Genesis 4:2-4 should be considered, along with the contrast of
hevel and ruah in Qohelet.
The intellectual matrix of early biblical narrative 117
taken as an indication that this group resided at a lower level of intellectual evo-
lution. It is historically more sensitive to understand these metaphors to reflect
an integral part of their worldview that presents itself as substantially other than
school Platonism, not one emphasizing an understanding of the individuality
of the human spirit, but rather one that contrasts the divine world of spirit (a
metaphor derived from the experience of life, understood as ineffable and tran-
scendent) with that of this world, understood as transient, tragic and whimsical.
Reflection on this derek zedeqah (i.e., philosophy) not only promotes a salient
humility regarding the divine, as is clear in the hermeneutical rendition of Job
and Qohelet, but reflects a substantial and abiding awe and respect for life, both
human and animal, as well as an ultimate disrespect for the assured dogmatism
of religion’s answers to humanity’s impenetrable tragedies. The answer to Job’s
dilemma and challenge to the divine as justice is clear and succinct, explicit in
prophets such as Hosea, Isaiah and Micah, and pervasive in much of the earliest
writings of the Old Testament: the Divine creates and is responsible for both
good and evil, but his mercy is without end. This perception of reality is neither
paternalistic nor indifferent to suffering, but a realistic reflection on experience.
It does not so much fail to answer the hypothetical problems of suffering and
justice as it refuses to assert an answer in ignorance, as human values and hopes
collide with human experience.
12. Efforts by M. Boyce to interpret Persian texts from the perspective of a Zoroastrianism
current in the Hellenistic period share many of the weaknesses of biblically oriented tra-
dition histories (‘Persian Religion in the Achemenid Age,’ 293). Both yield a recreation
of the past based on ideology that is mistakenly thought to reflect history. Nevertheless,
her comparison between Xerxes’ intolerance for certain cults and Isaiah 45:7 is both
pertinent and illuminating. Such exclusivist religious campaigns, whether or not they
are found within a monotheistic or a polytheistic perception of the divine world, are
functionally equivalent tendencies of the universalist worldview they share in common.
It does not matter whether they are presented as a struggle between Ahura Mazda and
Daiva or, as in 2 Kings, as a struggle between Yahweh and Baal. Nevertheless, this
commonality does not support Boyce’s claim that 2 Isaiah is directly dependent on
Zoroastrianism. Rather, it marks these traditions as parallel, regionally specific intel-
lectual developments.
118 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
13. Inclusive and exclusive forms of monotheism are at most older and younger contempo-
raries of the Persian and Hellenistic worlds.
9
The two theophanies of Exodus 3 and 6 can be described with much justice
as the heart of the Pentateuch. These passages have been at the center of the
historical-critical controversies over the composition of the Pentateuch for three
quarters of a century.1 They have been used in defining the distinctiveness of
the documentary source E from J in Exodus 3 and both of these sources as radi-
cally different from the E of Exodus 6. They have been helpful as well in our
understanding of the early religious history of the Israelite people as reflected
in the Pentateuch: marking out the historically earlier and uniquely distinctive
‘god of the fathers’ and shaddai.2 They have helped distinguish the efferves-
cent but supposedly later mal’akim from the more commonly used yhwh and
’elohim. Finally, these two theophany stories with their themes of divine self
identification, covenant and promise of salvation have been pivotal passages in
every theology of the Old Testament since Ernst Sellin.3 Certainly they have
affected our understanding of the formation of the Pentateuch, of the history
of Israel and of the Old Testament’s theology. A reading of these two texts,
however, has become especially difficult in the past two decades because the
historical-critical method, which has invested so much in these two passages
has all but entirely collapsed. The Elohist has gone the way of Marvin Pope’s
El at Ugarit: remembered, but, no longer of any account.4 The Yahwist, whether
he or she still exists at all, is, nevertheless, now post-exilic, and with D (often
mistaken for Dtr) is today little more than an insider’s way of referring to one
or other comprehensive editorial structure of Genesis, Exodus or Deuteronomy.
Methodologically, however, the four sources of the Pentateuch are hardly dis-
tinct from each other or from comparable structures in Joshua, Judges, Isaiah,
or Job.
Old Testament theology has had a hard time finding itself since the col-
lapse of the Biblical Theology Movement. Beginning already in the 1970s
1. J. Skinner, The Divine Names in Genesis (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1914), 12–18.
2. A. Alt, Der Gott der Väter, BWANT 12 (Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1929).
3. E. Sellin, Alttestamentliche Theologie auf religionsgeschichtlicher Grundlage, 2 vols
(Leipzig: Deichert, 1933).
4. M. Pope, El in the Ugaritic Texts (Leiden: Brill, 1955).
120 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
and increasingly until recently with such works as those by Gösta Ahlström,
Bernhard Lang and Rainer Albertz,5 the history of Israelite religion has threat-
ened to replace Old Testament theology altogether. At least such seemed fleet-
ingly possible when we still had a history of Israel (or, one might say with
greater accuracy, an Israel to have a history of!). Given the collapse of this
tradition of scholarship, I have made an effort to read these texts once again.
Before dealing with this reading, however, I would like to describe briefly and
summarily what I believe we can say and reconstruct today about the contexts
of passages such as these in Exodus – at least their historical, intellectual and
literary contexts, free of some of the restraints that both training and prior under-
standing have given us.
Historical context
My colleague Niels Peter Lemche has taught us that the Old Testament, in both
its Greek and Hebrew variants, is a Hellenistic book.6 Here we must learn to
think not only of Daniel, the books of Maccabbees, Qohelet, Chronicles and
the like. Nor should we limit the Hellenistic contributions in the Torah and the
so-called historical books to the final fixation of the chronologies, or to a few
isolated editorial glosses and marginal changes. Rather, the bulk of the Bible’s
composition belongs to this period: its collection as tradition, its redaction, and
its commitment to written forms – what had been piously attributed by the
author of 2 Maccabbees 2:14 to the efforts of Judas Maccabeus, as an attempt
to recreate something of the legendary library of Nehemiah by preserving what
had been lost and destroyed by the wars.
Wherever there is clear evidence for dating any of the larger compositions
or traditions, we find ourselves dealing with a Hellenistic chronology. That is
where the evidence is. Nevertheless, we must also consider seriously that some
– and perhaps even many – of the literary pieces and traditions collected in this
Hellenistic book derive from a period substantially earlier than the second half
of the second century bce, though hardly from Nehemiah’s legendary library
itself. Some few small traditions or tradition motifs of the Pentateuch can be
shown to come from the Assyrian period, such as the Ishmael genealogies dated
by Ernst Axel Knauf.7 However altered by time, many royal names and ele-
ments of the political and diplomatic fortunes of ancient Jerusalem and Samaria,
the names of dynasties such as that of Bit Humri, as well as the names of gods
and states, of towns and of battles have been preserved in such works as 2 Kings
and Chronicles as well as Isaiah, Jeremiah and Amos, or even Jonah and Daniel.
However, our tradition, as a tradition identified with the remnant of Israel, does
not and could not have its historical context or referent in the Assyrian period.
There was never in that period, and there could not have been, any unifying
structure: intellectual, political, social, or economic, which could be identified
with ‘biblical Israel’: a concept that did not exist in Palestine before the mid-
fifth century at the earliest.8 That it existed already then is yet another question.
The earliest possible date is not necessarily the most likely one – even for a
sacred tradition’s beginnings. With all necessary caution about the legitimately
questioned historicity of Cyrus’s decree cited in Chronicles, Ezra and Isaiah (or
indeed of the decrees of Cyrus’ successors), it must be argued that many of the
central biblical traditions could well have had an originating context as early as
the Persian deportation to Jerusalem of West Semitic groups from Mesopotamia,
the planning of the reconstruction of the city and the efforts under the Persian
governor Nehemiah to reorganize southern Palestine and the provincial admin-
istration of Jehud around a temple in Jerusalem that was dedicated to the ancient
traditional deity yhwh of the old – now nearly three centuries, long past – state of
Israel. An a quo dating for the Bible’s composition therefore begins with Cyrus,
though we have undoubtedly better reason to think of Xerxes’ empire which
stretched from the Nile valley to the Indus.
Our ad quern dating should be placed sometime after the rededication of the
temple in 164 bce (given the complex integrity of the Masoretic chronology)
and comfortably within the second half of the second century bce. Three cen-
turies are, of course, far longer than is necessary for a composition that shares
a common intellectual and linguistic world, as the Bible seems to do. I will
return to the issue of intellectual context in a moment, but, linguistically, we
are dealing with an artificial Bildungssprache9 within a scholastic and educated
tradition that is self-consciously archaic and antiquarian. The conservatism of
this context – as of academic circles everywhere – of necessity undermined the
normal rapid changes in both language and thought. When we are considering
the range of possible development, we should allow for as long a period as
possible.10
My reluctance to follow Lemche wholeheartedly begins with what I see as a
potentially serious problem. Both our sources and the Western tradition of edu-
cation have conspired to make the world of Hellenism far more accessible to us
than that of the Persian Empire. I cannot agree with this tendency which Lemche
shares with Van Seters, to turn to the Greeks for our answers, and then argue that
because we have found what we were looking for there, we must understand
8. P. R. Davies, In Search of ‘Ancient Israel,’ JSOTS 148 (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1992);
T. L. Thompson, The Early History of the Israelite People from the Archaeological and
Written Records, SHANE 4 (Leiden: Brill, 1992).
9. E. A. Knauf, ‘War Biblisch-Hebräisch eine Sprache?’ ZAH 3 (1990), 11–23.
10. See Chapter 8, this volume.
122 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
the Greeks – or at least their world – as the originating context for our texts.
The belief in the originality and seminal influence of the classical Greek and
Hellenistic worlds may not be entirely appropriate. However justified this belief
in the Greek origins of ‘civilization’ may be, we must agree that it was one of the
more successful products of Christian librarians of a later period.
Intellectual context
When we turn to the intellectual context of our stories in Exodus and of the
Pentateuch generally, few can have any difficulty with the kind of detailed asso-
ciations with Greek tradition to which Lemche and Van Seters have directed
our attention.11 Such texts and traditions are clearly part of the milieu we need
to make reference to if we are to understand our texts. Yet the very best textual
analogies that have survived and are still available to us do not give us the kind
of specific contextual and referential coherence that would satisfy us that our
writers were talking about the same things as were the Greeks. We must build a
spectrum, a range of possibilities within which these texts and any analogous to
them, might find a place. A very interesting spectrum might be drawn out of at
least one central issue involved in the theophanies of Exodus 3 and 6; namely,
the intellectual preoccupation with divine transcendence in antiquity. The ‘clay
feet’ of the traditional gods of antiquity was no more a unique discovery of
Jeremiah than was the perception that pure form and spirit was truly divine
a peculiar product of Greek philosophy. Even the concept of ‘false gods’ was
as much the product of Artaxerxes’ Persia as of the Greek playwrights. One
should not miss the mockery in Genesis’s mixed metaphor of Yahweh’s bow as
rainbow to serve as a reminder to a viscerally violent and impulsive deity, any
more than the literary echoes in the sweet smelling variant of Noah’s sacrifice
to the fly-swarming pantheon of its Babylonian variant. Not just the Greeks,
but the whole world – from Europe to India – had trouble believing in the
old gods of stories. The monuments of pageantry and state, images and cults,
possessed a referent, claiming a power and stability that transcended them. As
states collapsed, however, and politics were reshuffled, as regional power gave
way to imperial, such traditional referents became relative and needed a new
language and renewed reflection to survive. Already beginning in the late eighth
and seventh centuries, as the Assyrians began to integrate Syria and Palestine
into their empire, the international rationalization of economics and politics,
the wholesale transportation and resettlement of population groups across the
empire, the eventual ascendance of Aramaic – first as a lingua franca and then
by the fifth century as a language of the people’s choice – undermined not
only militarily and politically resistant groups, but local languages, customs,
11. Lemche, ‘Det gamie Testamente’; J. Van Seters, Prologue to History: The Yahwist as
Historian (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox, 1992).
How Yahweh became God 123
traditions and beliefs.12 The concept of universal divine power had long taken
root in the Middle East, though the size and extent of people’s very different
worlds varied considerably. Palestine’s Phoenician mentors and the seeds of
commerce – and Palestine’s Mediterranean economy depended on trade – had
always encouraged divine competitiveness and territorialism to give way to syn-
cretism. The implicit abstraction of syncretism allowed El to be identified with
Yahweh and Ba’al with Chemosh, marking such understanding with the percep-
tion of transcendence.13 The radicalized distinction between matter and form, so
patent in the creation of humanity in both the creation and the garden stories, the
individuation implicit in material realities,14 including the perceived unreality
and transience of all that belongs to human experience, is found throughout the
pre-Socratics, as well as in much Egyptian, Babylonian and biblical wisdom lit-
erature and story. It is well known that the concept of a universal and transcend-
ent divine spirit – certainly defining the soul of monotheism, if not characteristic
of monotheism itself or of its more exclusive and polemical forms – is found in
very early texts. It is the universal and transcendental qualities that these widely
variant traditions share in common.
While the Hebrew and Greek traditions developed respectively in the direc-
tion of forms of a more or less personal monotheism, the Assyrian/Aramaic
and Babylonian traditions maintained inclusive hierarchical pyramids for their
theological metaphor. The Persians, of course, by the Hellenistic period, had
already moved in the direction of a clearly defined dualism, while the develop-
ing monotheistic traditions reduced the darker aspect of their metaphors to a less
than divine status under the influence of a rationalism that responded to the less
tolerant, exclusive forms of monotheism. Already in Assyrian period Aramaic
texts, references to Ba’al Shamem carry this transcendent and universal signifi-
cance, as does the Neo-Babylonian deity Sin and, in many texts, the Persian
deity Ahura Mazda. We find this inclusive perception in Old Testament texts
most clearly in such forms and contexts as the ’elohei Shamayim of Isaiah, the
Yahweh ’elohim of the Pentateuch, the ’elohim of Genesis 1 and especially the
’elyon of Deuteronomy 32, where Yahweh resides among the sons of ’elohim
(Deut. 32:8). While the impulse is certainly monotheistic here, it is not antago-
nistic to nor does it exclude polytheistic metaphors. It rather supports, preserves,
and interprets them. All of these expressions of the divine spirit and creator of
the world share – along with Plato’s One, ‘good, true and beautiful’ – a common
intellectual worldview, transcending local and regional language and tradition,
that by the late Persian period had a geographical spread comparable to that of
the empire. All, however, did not think alike or come to the same answers to
the central intellectual questions of the day. In tradition and language history,
the many regions of this very large area were uniquely differentiated. Nor were
ideas and thoughts simply borrowed and transferred across thousands of kil-
ometers as oil, wool and wheat were. Rather, each borrowing or transference,
each act of influence, each new question or innovative perception or rhetorical
technique, changed the ideas, stories and traditions as it transported them from
one context to another. Throughout the second half of the first millennium bce,
religious thought in most of the ancient world was involved in an intellectual
shift that was as inevitable as unavoidable, caused as it was by the increasingly
patent irrelevance of the worldview of traditional religions, cults and stories
about gods and heroes of the past.
It is one thing for clever people to make beautiful gods, but it is quite another
to understand that clever people make gods. To discover that the world one per-
ceives is neither true nor lasting invites intellectual deconstruction, undermines
that world and creates the impetus for the collapse of any religion or belief that
is reflective of that perceived world. Our context is one of widespread deterio-
ration of local traditions and belief: political, legal and indeed religious. The
intellectuals of each sub-region were each faced, individually and as a group,
with their own quite specific need to respond and give meaning to their new situ-
ation. In the self-consciously professional literature of the Bible (such as Job,
Qohelet and Jonah), one finds responses that have echoes in Greek classical and
early Hellenistic writings. Study, reflection on life and critical understanding
are the more admired forms of piety. The greatest virtue is sedaqah, ‘philoso-
phy,’ and those few precious saints who commit themselves to a life devoted
to an understanding of the tradition were the sâddiqîm, the ‘philosophers.’ It is
in the commitment to holy wisdom that one comes as close as one does to the
divine in what is understood by the reflective person after all as a god-bereft,
god-forsaken world where not only were the gods silent, but where prophets
had spoken the truth and miracles had happened only long ago in the context
of tradition and story. This is the divine for the writers of the Old Testament,
no less than for the Greeks. The Bible presents itself as distinctive – though not
unique – in the recurrent effort displayed in so many of its texts to resurrect and
preserve the past, to shape and transform Palestine’s indigenous traditions from
within the perspective of the world and understanding of collectors and authors
of tradition, supporting and enabling their self-identification as benei yisra’el
with the Israel of the perceived history that was created through the tradition’s
formation. What had been destroyed, lost, forgotten and betrayed could – at
least in terms of Torah – be preserved and made whole through repentance
and renewed commitment to the original divine plan by this remnant of Israel.
Here the greater value of the spiritual over the material has distinct advantages.
The remnant of Israel are those faithful who understood their ancestors to have
survived destruction and exile and to have returned to the promised land, and
who were committed to the spiritual renewal of that lost tradition and that for-
gotten past. Betrayal of Torah and covenant, exile, a remnant mercifully saved,
unmitigated divine wrath and a promised land are all resounding metaphors,
but such metaphors – taken out of context and apart from each other – quickly
become discordant. To understand their substance, we need to attend to the
How Yahweh became God 125
specific traditions that were collected and formed, and especially to the literary
contexts that were given these traditions and which created them as meaningful
and significant to the creators and tradents of biblical tradition.
Literary context
The old historical critics were not wrong because of their excessively detailed
form of analysis, nor even because of their ‘cut and paste’ techniques. These are
often both valid and necessary, and we all have experienced that Wellhausen
and Kuenen can still be read with great profit. Their failure rather lay in their
confidence that such analysis rendered an understanding of the tradition’s his-
torical development and, in this they have been almost complete in their lack
of critical perception. Their arrangement of individual parts and fragments of
tradition along a historical continuum that was built entirely from arbitrarily
selected samplings of the fragments themselves, has enabled German scholar-
ship – Americans have never been able to think with such subtlety – to create
out of whole cloth a historical world of an entire region. This creation included
an understanding of the Bible as a developing tradition that had responded to
and refracted this past world. However, in reality, this history existed – like
events in the land of Narnia – only within the pages of books! Efforts at
Traditionsgeschichte have given license to the pervasive habit of reconstruct-
ing a coherent past, perceived as an originating context, from the parts and
fragments of the very tradition collected. This has been at the cost of recogniz-
ing and understanding what was perceived as meaningful and important by the
collectors and tradents of the tradition, who had understood their past in fact as
lost and shattered! When we make an effort to read these narratives and tradi-
tion fragments contextually (that is, within the literary contexts that have been
given to them), and when in doing so we begin to glimpse what has been done
intellectually through this pursuit of old dead traditions, the perceptions of the
text so read are often breathtaking, not only because of the complexity and
subtle nuances of their task – and such texts should never be underestimated as
products of primitive thought – but also because of the considerable intellectual
freshness that these newly refurbished traditions are capable of.
The relationship between Exodus 3 and Exodus 6 has been central to me in
my efforts to understand the Pentateuch within more appropriate contexts than
that offered by historical criticism. When we read them with the lenses of the
documentary hypothesis and Gunkel’s Gattungsgeschichte, we find ourselves
faced with three fragments all of which are pivotal to three distinct sources.
Those of J and E are almost indecipherably jumbled together in chapter 3. To
make any sense out of these at all, one is sorely and arbitrarily pressed to make
up large parts of each tradition. With E, one is even driven to create connections
with the rest of E. Even so, one is always left with a few bits and pieces that
hardly fit any interpretation. Only P’s chapter 6 reads as a whole, even if with
only halting clarity. But even this relatively meaningful text becomes under-
standable to commentators only through the naked assertion that it embodies a
126 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
folkloric etiology that supposedly tells the reader when the name Yahweh was
first used. I suspect, however, this carries conviction only because of non-P
place-name etiologies in Genesis. The concurrence of the two passages creates
the perception among commentators, who have taken their point of departure
from issues of historicity and historical accuracy, not only that the Exodus pas-
sage offers a variant etiology, but that the two variants contradict each other.
This creates evidence for scholars that Exodus 6 – ignorant of the earlier and
contradicting etiology of Genesis – must have originally belonged to a differ-
ent source. Each source is allowed to have only one tale at a time!15 Exodus 6’s
reference to ’El shaddai connects this passage for some to a very few stories of
Genesis, and opens speculation of a potential, partially lost, cycle of ’El shaddai
patriarchal stories to which Exodus 6 retains its referent.16 Such speculation is
dangerous to the documentary hypothesis, however, as it undermines this story’s
integral relationship to P – and this is a very crucial text – which, of course, has
known God as Yahweh since the creation story brought the garden story into its
creation! By identifying perceived inconsistencies in Exodus 3 as belonging to
E, commentators find it possible to render a meaningful episode within J’s larger
story. However, not only can we not confidently identify these bits and pieces
of tradition with E, but their excision from a so-called J text derives from the
clear recognition that this central story of J is riddled with elements perceived
as conflicting with the coherence and meaning that one was used to attribute to
J. Unfortunately, our problems are not solved by dismissing the documentary
critics. The ‘final form’ of the text, so central to more modern literary critics,
is nearly impenetrable as a narration. One can hurry by the difficulties in some
leveling translations and paraphrases, but in Hebrew, we do not have a story.
The call of Moses from Exodus 3:1-7:1 has so little coherence and makes so
little sense that the question whether narrative sense was in fact intended in this
text’s composition is both immediate and patent. Why the text had been formed
is a question that must take precedence over those related to narration. How the
text is to be read is the first task of exegesis.
The problems begin with the divine characters of our narrative. In Exodus
3, we find ourselves with Moses at the mountain of ’elohim, where a mal’ak
Yahweh appears to Moses. In the very next verse, this narrative figure of our
story is referred to both as Yahweh and as ’elohim. This is not an unusual situa-
tion in biblical narrative. It brings to mind immediately the figure of the mal’ak
’elohim in the form of a cloud of Exodus 14, who, the next morning and five
verses later (verse 24), seems to be identical to Yahweh in the form of a pillar
of fire and cloud. Less confusing is the passage in Exodus 23:20–24:28. Here,
closing the so-called covenant code, a deity, speaking in the first person as
‘Yahweh your God,’ promises to send his mal’ak to attend Israel in the role of
15. Surely it is a systemic excess to assert that ancient narrative be confined to a single
etiology for any given issue.
16. Indeed, the referent to ’El shaddai in Genesis 17:1 seems to reflect an effort to substanti-
ate Exodus’s comment on patriarchal beliefs.
How Yahweh became God 127
a patron’s enforcer. This future mal’ak is clearly identified with the speaker at
the closure of the address. This is helpful, as in Exodus 3 a similar identification
seems to be taking place, where the mal’ak Yahweh/mal’ak ’elohim/Yahweh of
the theophany’s opening has explicitly identified himself with the ’elohim of
Moses’ father as well as with the possibly distinct ’elohim(s) of Abraham, of
Isaac and of Jacob. Moreover, Exodus 23:25 has ‘Yahweh, your ’elohim,’ which
might be a very interesting variant of the concept of having (possessing?) a
deity, one that also underlines our text’s syntactic distinction between the noun
’elohim and the name Yahweh. The reference to the patriarchs Abraham, Isaac
and Jacob in Exodus 3 also forces us to concern ourselves with the patriarchal
stories of Genesis 16 and 21, where some of the same patterns of narrative per-
tain. In Genesis 16, the saving mal’ak Yahweh is synonymous with Yahweh, but
also with an ’el ro’i in the closing naming etiology, who in turn is identified by
Hagar with ’elohim. The documentary hypothesis cannot rescue us here because
the child naming motif – an integral and necessary part of the saving theophany
episode – creates a pun on the child’s name ’Ishma’el (namely, ‘El has heard’)
with the etiology: ‘Yahweh has heard.’ We find a less surprising variant of the
same etiology on Ishmael’s name in Gen. 21:17: ‘For ’elohim has heard.’ This
sheds only flickering light, however, as the story in Genesis 21 begins as a
story of Yahweh’s fulfilling Genesis 18’s promise, which Yahweh had made to
Sarah, which promise, of course, ’elohim carries out in chapter 21. We find the
episode closing in verse 33, with Abraham calling on the name Yahweh, which
divinity is identified to the reader as ‘the everlasting ’elohim.’ Moreover, we
also find that just as the variant story in Genesis 16 is followed by a theophany
of ’el shaddai, so Genesis 21 is followed by the ’elohim story of Isaac’s sac-
rifice, where the mal’ak Yahweh makes an appearance from heaven to reward
Abraham for fearing ’elohim. Here, after a false closure in a Yahweh place-name
etiology, the mal’ak Yahweh again speaks from heaven, but now as a prophet,
defining Abraham’s destiny. Whatever our understanding, and whatever solu-
tions we might suggest to the variance and fluidity of the divine protagonists
in these stories of the Pentateuch, the regularity and consistency in the patterns
of usage discourage us from seeing these variations as either insignificant or
accidental. Nor is the problem easily resolved by assigning different divine
characters to different story sources, for what is striking about both the Genesis
and the Exodus analogies to the theophany stories of Exodus 3 and 6 is that the
story episodes in which the divine names are found are much more coherent
in their plots than a jumbled complex of distinct sources would be expected to
allow. Outside of the greater narration of Genesis 1 to Exodus 23, a composi-
tion, which I have elsewhere argued had been a coherent unit of tradition,17 we
do not find any comparable fluidity or confusion of divine names, even when an
equally complex source division has been posited. This supports the assumption
that this play on divine names is part of the narrative’s signification.
The inclusion of these other stories of Genesis and Exodus within the inter-
pretative literary matrix of Exodus 3 and 6 can also be argued on thematic
grounds. Not only is the pool of divine characters shared in common, and not
only are they dealt with in similar, only seemingly disjunctive ways, but all
of these stories present at the heart of their narration a common plot motif of
naming and identifying one or other traditional deity as ’elohim. Whether such
traditional deity is in fact a god of the real historical past, as Yahweh was, or
whether the deity’s name reflects only a god of story, much as ’el ro’i does, or,
perhaps ’el shaddai, is irrelevant to our effort to understand the intentions of the
formers of the tradition in the late Persian or early Hellenistic periods. The vari-
ant nuances of this identification are, however, very relevant, as they mark each
story with a unique and sometimes surprising perspective. The mal’ak ’elohim
of our stories take on divine characteristics, which are identifiable with tran-
scendent and universal ’el ’olam or ’elohei shamayim. The figure of Yahweh, on
the other hand, is not quite so easy to explain. This is clearly a god’s name with
a historical past, in contrast to ’elohim, which is a noun or epithet, a theologou-
menon, perhaps best translated as ‘a deity’ or ‘god,’ yet preserving the nuance
of its grammatical plurality, as in ‘the divine.’ It is open to a variety of linguistic
hypostases, such as Yahweh, ’el ‘olam, ’el emounah, ’el shaddai, ’elohei ha-
’avot, ’el ’elohei ’avraham and so on. If the central perception of the divine
behind the inter-related composition of these texts is the inclusive monotheistic
perception of the divine spirit, ’elohei shamayim of Isaiah, Ezra or, historically,
Elephantine, the variety of gods and names of gods in this world as well as the
variety of gods in the stories of tradition, seemingly distinct from each other
and differentiated by geography, by usage, by language and by the individuality
intrinsic to all human experience, can all be understood as capable of reference
to the one ineffable divine (as in the books of Job or Jonah) whose essence lay
beyond human perception and understanding.
There is a linguistic and thematic coherence in the stories of Exodus 3 with
the narratives of Exodus 14 and 23 that is often associated with the documen-
tary hypothesis. The figure of the mal’ak Yahweh of chapter 23, which is to be
sent to guide Israel, is functionally equivalent to Exodus 14’s mal’ak ’elohim’s
pillar of cloud as well as Yahweh’s pillars of cloud and fire. They each lead and
protect Israel as a hypostasis of divine providence. The stereotypical list of
Israel’s enemies in Exodus 3 and 23 (the plot does not have room for such a list
in chapter 14) has long been noticed, if only as a marker of source criticism’s J
source. This identification with J has been maintained with striking inconsist-
ency with the form-critical identification of Exodus 23:20–24:28 as the closure
of the hypothetical covenant code. Also important – but not so obvious – is the
complex and striking use of possessive pronouns, connecting the different pro-
tagonists of our stories. The thematic and ideological purpose of this leitmotif
is clear: to link the two variant theophanies of Exodus 3 and Exodus 6 into a
common narration. The classic and clearest formulation of this motif occurs in
How Yahweh became God 129
the speech of ’elohim in Exod. 6:7, where it is neither complex nor intrusive but
direct and integral. ‘I will take you for my people and I will be your ’elohim.’
This is the same Exodus episode in which ’elohim has identified himself with
the ’el shaddai of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob of the implied audience’s forgotten
past, which closes with the confirmation that the land that had been promised
these patriarchs would become the property of the benei yisra’el. Here, the pos-
sessiveness of the language is emphatic. Exodus 3 also shares the thesis with
Exodus 6 that ’elohim is historically justified in identifying himself as Israel’s
God, because he long ago had been Abraham, Isaac and Jacob’s deity. In this
story, however, ’elohim does not merely say that he was the same ’el shaddai
which the patriarchs used to know, but rather that he is the ’elohei ’avraham,
the ’elohei yishaq and the ’elohei ya’aqov. The comprehensive inclusiveness of
the divine concept here is striking. The first time that ’elohim identifies himself
in the Moses story comes just before this verse. The theophany story has begun
with a yet-to-be-identified Moses. He has been described as a shepherd of his
father-in-law: a Midianite priest called Jethro. This Moses is a close variant
of the Moses who had married the priest Reuel’s daughter in chapter 2. When
Moses turns aside to stare at the burning bush, the ’elohim who appears to him
identifies himself as the ’elohim of Moses’ father. This self-identification of
Moses’ family deity by the generic ‘elohim opens a plot line about who the
characters of the story are. This narrative line begins in Exodus 3:11 with the
question: ‘Who am I that I should … bring the benei yisra’el out of Egypt?’ The
question of identity continues to dominate considerable portions of chapters 4
and 5 as a leitmotif, and this question remains unanswered until we come to
Exodus 6:14-26. The text is out to show that this deity is not just any god, but
’elohim himself.
The function of this metaphor is threefold. In the story plotline, it legitimizes
and identifies the deity manifest. In its intellectual referent, however, it legiti-
mizes and identifies the gods of the patriarchal stories and of Israel’s ancestors
as truly expressive of the transcendentally divine. Finally, in bringing these
elements together, the story accomplishes the emotional task of identifying the
divine possessively: their god – the god of their forgotten tradition – is God
himself. One is no longer surprised by verse 7, when Yahweh, picking up the
motif of the people of Israel complaining of their slavery of chapter 2, refers to
‘my people.’ Moses’ task is to bring Yahweh’s people (verse 10) out of Egypt.
He is instructed to describe this saving deity as ‘the god of your fathers.’ Just
this is expressed in verses 13 and 15 in the episode where Moses asks ’elohim
his name, and is given a sound pun on the name Yahweh in reply. In this pas-
sage, the affirmation of the ’elohim of your fathers,’ which includes this or these
traditional deities as one with ’elohim, is not to be understood as a reference
to the ’elohim of Abraham or of the other patriarchs of Genesis, but, much
like that theologically very different text of Joshua 24, refers to other ancestral
deities implicit to the tradition. Here in Exodus, the traditions of these gods
are affirmed, not rejected. This specific story line, involving such complex dif-
ferentiated language about the divine, is what drives the text. It is no accident
of sources.
130 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Moses had asked that question in chapter 3 and had been given an answer with
the striking sound pun of verse 14: ’ehyeh ’asher ’ehyeh: ‘tell the people of
Israel, ’ehyeh has sent me.’ This, of course, echoes the allegorical pun of verse
12: ’ehyeh ’imak, ‘I will be with you,’ which is of singular importance in the
understanding of ’elohim’s name in the closure of chapter 23. It is interesting
that the story of chapter 3 does not interpret or translate the pun, which is itself
transparent. Verse 15, rather, carries the plot forward by answering the ques-
tion in a different way: ‘Yahweh … This is my name forever, and so I am to be
remembered from generation to generation.’
That the pun of Exodus 3:14 is a pure sound pun becomes clear when 4:15-
16 uses the same (now triple) pun both to close the episode and to answer to
the question posed by the riddle of verse 14’s pun. Rather than closing with the
still enigmatic ’ehyeh ’imak of 3:12, the closure of chapter 4 seeks transparent
clarity: ‘I will be with your mouth and with his [i.e., Aaron’s] mouth. He shall
speak for you to the people, and … [here most translations stumble seriously
by eliding the two Hebrew words, hayah and ’ehyeh, losing the pun entirely] he
shall be for you as a mouth, and you shall be for him as ’elohim.’
That is, both (a) Aaron will be as if he were Yahweh to Moses as if he were
’elohim, and (b) Aaron will function as Moses’ mouth. This is built on the anal-
ogy of Yahweh, as Israel’s ‘elohim, quite specifically understood as a mani-
festation or hypothesis of the divine. He is namely the divine for Israel. With
this passage, most of the problems of Exodus 1–23 as regards its redactional
organization fall into place and become readable. Yet a third variant of this
motif, in Exodus 7:1, drives the ideological issue that is at stake home: Yahweh
says to Moses, ‘See, I make you as ’elohim to Pharaoh and Aaron, your brother,
will be your prophet.’ Aaron is here Moses’ prophet on the analogy of Yahweh
as ’elohim’s prophet! Yahweh can be the guardian messenger of Exodus 14’s
pillars. He can also be the prophetic messenger of Exodus 23, protecting and
condemning Israel, and he is so specifically as Yahweh, ’elohim’s name.
The burden of Exodus 3 and 6 within the literary context of Exodus 1–23
is to represent the old deity of Palestine’s past, Yahweh, and the stories about
him, as a representation and expression of the truly divine, and, indeed, to find
acceptable the ancient ancestral gods of Palestine’s history and tradition as
both historically contingent and specific hypostases of the one true god, ’elo-
hei shamayim. As Ba’al is ’elohim for the Phoenicians, so Yahweh is Israel’s
’elohim. This is what Exodus 6:7 signifies when it presents Yahweh saying: ‘I
will take you for my people, and I will be your ’elohim.’ That is: ‘As Yahweh, I
am ’elohim for you.’ Here again Exodus 19 may be allowed to carry the inter-
pretative weight of our narration as ’elohim speaks to Moses as Yahweh: ‘You
shall be my own possession among all peoples, because all the earth is mine,’ a
passage that finds echoing clarification in a context as distant as Deuteronomy
32, in Moses’ song to the assembly of Israel: a passage whose theological pre-
suppositions in the LXX version have often been thought to clash with the
rest of the Pentateuch: ‘When ’El ’elyon gave the nations their inheritance and
distinguished people, he fixed nations’ borders according to the numbers of
’elohim’s messengers/or angels. So Yahweh’s part was his people, Jacob his
132 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
In the formation of the Old Testament, it is not so clear that we are dealing with
ancient traditions as that we are dealing with – from the very first compositions
that we know – traditions that have been presented and understood as ancient.
The long-standing separation of scholarship in our field between those who are
engaged in the relatively hard science of lower criticism and those in the very
soft, theologically driven speculation of higher criticism has helped us to avoid
some of the implications of this observation, and has allowed many higher critics
a security and self-confidence that is not properly ours. Transmission, as we all
know, whether oral or written, transposes. Biblical traditions, as we first know
them in the Dead Sea Scrolls, are specifically – from the historical perspective
of the Hellenistic period and from our perspective of the texts as artifacts – not
so much ancient as textual manifestations of Hellenistic and Greco-Roman lit-
erature, which relates, at best, to what is only known as a narrated or transmitted
past. The referents of these texts do not in fact carry us into a tradition earlier
than that implied by the conglomerate of the extant texts themselves.
The richness and variety found among the Qumran texts, I believe, not
only open up many alternative explanatory possibilities for biblical composi-
tion, they also present us with concrete examples of those processes that are
involved in the creation and transmission of books and other texts in this part of
the ancient world. In many ways, Qumran provides us with our field’s Serbo-
Croatian singer of tales,1 with the help of which analogy we might not only
test hypotheses from the perspective of antique patterns of composition, but
might also expand the quantity and testifiable variance of material that is now
available to higher criticism. The Qumran collection offers us our extra-biblical
and archaeological evidence: that external control that has always been absent
to biblical composition theory. With Qumran, we have an entry into the actual
world of text-making, tradition composition and transmission.
I am afraid our approach is going to have to be radical in more than one way.
Once we have begun dealing with compositional issues, involving specific texts
1. Here I refer to the Serbo-Croatian singer who was studied in the 1930s by M. Parry and
later by his student, A. B. Lord. See A. B. Lord, The Singer of Tales, Harvard Studies in
Comparative Literature 24 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1960).
134 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
that existed prior to the formation and redaction of individual biblical books,
we are going to have to deal with such materials in a very different context
than that of a hypothetical final or canonical text of any specific biblical book,
as has been the usual practice. I hope you will agree with me in the course of
this presentation that a specific book of the Bible in its so-called final form –
whether it is Isaiah (the 36- or the 66-chapter version), Genesis or Psalms – is
not a terribly productive focal point for biblical composition theory. The publi-
cation of Sinaiticus and Vaticanus – and we certainly cannot speak intelligently
about final or canonical form of any earlier text – surely are far too late to serve
as direct witnesses to issues of composition. Unlike some modern books, the
significant units of biblical tradition do not seem to have been organized along
a single trajectory. Final forms do not offer us a satisfactory vantage point for
viewing the historical process of composition. This is true whatever our theo-
logical needs might be.
The Dead Sea Scrolls make it both possible and necessary to understand our
texts from a time before the process of tradition formation had been completed.
They present us with sources, drafts and versions of what, at a much later date,
came to be recognized as biblical tradition. In themselves, however – in their
own historical contingency – they are not biblical, but independent of such a
final form and significance as the word Bible suggests. These scrolls and text
fragments reflect literary contexts both logically and empirically prior to any
academically constructed, biblical world. The implications of this seem worth
exploring, however briefly. To some extent we need to return to some of the
problems of tradition history, but we are not required to fall into the tradition-
historical trap of discussing texts we do not have. If we should find ourselves
talking about phenomena such as the wilderness tradition, we need to avoid
prejudicing our discussion by thinking too specifically from an all too familiar
perspective drawn from the canonical Exodus/Numbers tradition. In the context
of the Hellenistic world of our texts, it is not yet clear that this specific variant of
the wilderness tradition had yet taken pride of place. Before we are finished, we
will have many reasons for doubting that this particular variant of the wilderness
trope was historically primary. We also need to adopt some of the old-fashioned
strategies of formalism and comparative literature. We need to develop spectra
of techniques, metaphors and genres and approach them from at least three dis-
tinguishable perspectives: structural and technical characteristics as, for exam-
ple, beginnings, endings, transitions, inclusions, settings, the mixing of genres,
and so on; the themes and literarily referential motifs of our texts: stories out of
time, wilderness, exodus, exile, preserving the law, saving, guiding, providing,
murmuring, backsliding, fall from grace, and so on; and, finally, formalistic cri-
teria and taxonomies, both small and large. To some extent, the individual books
of the extant or final form seem to have been strikingly arbitrary products of
collection techniques – here, I think especially of Obadiah and Joel, but also of
Exodus and Isaiah – rather than the result of coherent, conceptual or ideological
productions that mark such books as offering to their implied readers an intel-
lectual matrix supporting a whole and coherent understanding. What appears to
have been present in the collective process of tradition creation seems reflected
4QTestimonia and Bible composition 135
2. It is precisely here, however, that 4QTestimonia echoes the Psalter’s well-known congru-
ence of curses and thanks related to the metaphor of walking in the path of the torah or
of righteousness.
3. J. B. Brooke, ‘Melchizedek (11Q Melch),’ A&D IV, 687–8.
4QTestimonia and Bible composition 137
derive from just such texts as 4QTestimonia? Or are we to entertain yet other
possibilities? We find problems comparable with those of 4QTestimonia in
4QFlorilegia, which plays with the Bible texts in the manner of the targumim,
but without an accompanying biblical recitation. Selected text segments are the-
matically ordered in terms of the ‘house of David’ and are markedly theological
in their signification. We should not neglect to ask whether we might far better
see in the florilegia a type of interpretive targum on texts such as 4QTestimonia!
4QFlorilegia, in the manner of 4QTestimonia, references text segments similar
to what we find in 2 Samuels 7:10, Isaiah 8:11 and especially Ezekiel 44:10,
but which are significantly different from their Masoretic variants, so that one
might better think of a type of 4QTestimonia, rather than a Bible text, as its
Grundtext. This suggests that texts like 4QTestimonia were understood as wor-
thy of interpretation.
There is a large variety of such texts among the Dead Sea scrolls. The vari-
ants at Qumran of this kind of text have a large range. Interesting are those
which have been described as ‘expansions.’4 4Q158 is particularly surprising in
that this text, although resembling the Esau–Jacob story of Genesis 32:25-33,
is a complete story, and it is the Genesis narration that breaks off uncompleted
between verses 29 and 30! Similarly, Genesis (perhaps to be understood as a
shortened form of a story like 4Q158?) speaks of a blessing, but fails to actually
give it! Should we perhaps understand the florilegia as theological traditions
comparable to those we find in the Bible? There are reasons to believe that we
should think further about the composition of biblical texts: not only concern-
ing whether one or other such text or text fragment from Qumran may well
represent an earlier witness than the text we have in the Bible, but also whether
the composition of biblical texts, including those of the Pentateuch, ought bet-
ter be understood as due to a process of composition which is also common to
these texts, specifically involving the question of tradition transmission as one
of composition’s primary functions, rather than, for example, the function of
creative narration. Compositions similar to these that I have discussed from
Qumran are also frequently found elsewhere. For example, Deuteronomy 34:10
immediately follows 18:18 not only at Qumran but in the Syriac peshitta as
well. Differences or variants in the form, as well as in the contexts of segments
of the tradition, are ubiquitous. In the Testimony of Judah, it is particularly inter-
esting to observe that the sons of Judah descend immediately from Judah’s son
Shelah and not – as in Genesis 38 and the book of Ruth – from Judah himself.
Is the Tamar story unknown? Or do we have a wholly independent tradition
reflected here?
It is clear that our biblical traditions are still undergoing significant compo-
sitional type changes at the close of the second century bce and even later. It
is also obvious that we can no longer claim that this type of text, as we have
found in the Qumran caves, is simply commentary on biblical literature. The
historiographies of Isaiah 36-39, 2 Chronicles 29-32 and 2 Kings 18:1–20:21
4. So 4Q364–5.
138 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
the motif – echoing the theology of Ezra 1:3 – that the saving grace of Israel’s
God will now come out from Jerusalem. It is clear that Micah’s collected series
of sayings holds together implicitly independent utterances, creating, as it were,
a form of text collage.
As might be expected, substantial structural variants, which are in their con-
tent and language as far apart as, for example, the Judah–Tamar story is from
Ruth, also occur frequently in poetry. Some are essentially thematic variants,
such as the utterances against Edom that we find in Obadiah 1:1-9 and Jeremiah
49:7-22. To protect us from the temptation of offering a historical explanation
of this type of variant, we should focus on the closure of the Jeremiah saying in
verses 21-22, which has a nearly verbatim variant in the very next chapter (Jer.
50:44-46), but this time presented as an oracle not against Edom but against
Babylon. In this, we have not only a brilliant integration of a single saying with
utterances both against Edom and Babylon, we also have a form of significance-
building expansion or abbreviation. In reality we are presented with two distinct
transmissions of one and the same tradition segment.
The techniques involved in the composition of wisdom literature resemble
those of poetry. In the genre of wisdom couplets, we typically find as building
blocks for Weisheitsspruche sentences and half-sentences that can both travel
and be used in a variety of variations. For example, in Proverbs 13:19 we read:
‘A desire fulfilled is sweet to the soul; but to turn away from evil is an abomina-
tion to the foolish.’ Each half of this couplet can be used in different contexts
and be paired with other tradition segments in a comparably satisfying match-
ing. Further, collections of such traditional couplets offer multiple contexts for
the very same proverb, as is the case for Proverbs 20:16 and 27:13, where a
proverb about surety for strangers is built through the parallelism of two closely
variant segments and finds itself both in a miscellaneous collection of max-
ims and in a collection of admonitions and wisdom presented as of a teacher,
reflecting a trope which reiterates the style of Amenemope. Such variants can be
complex and rich. The couplets of Proverbs 22:28 and 23:10 present us with the
opening segment: ‘Do not remove the ancient marker,’ which is completed by
two variant closures playing on the verbal motif of ‘father’: ‘which your fathers
have set’ and, alternatively, ‘or enter the fields of the fatherless,’ and in their
variance rendering radically different signification. While this opening segment
echoes a proverb of the Egyptian Amenemope’s ‘Admonitions,’ it is also found
in Deuteronomy 19:14 – in a very close variant of the Proverbs 22 couplet,
in the context of a ‘law’ of Moses: ‘Do not remove your neighbor’s marker;
which the men of old have set,’ a ‘legal’ motif, which in a poem of Hosea is
referenced as an analogue, condemning a lawless Judah: ‘The princes of Judah
have become like those who remove the marker’ (Hosea 5:10). Such economy
of composition is one of the central factors reflected in the close formal prox-
imity of biblical traditions presented as songs and those offered as wisdom. In
Job 7:17 and Psalm 8:5 we find the famous interrogatory entrance: ‘What is
a person?’ Job completes the query not merely adding the segment ‘that you
make so much of one,’ but coupling it with ‘and that you pay attention to one,’
a couplet open to a positive orientation. Job, however, expands the parallelism
4QTestimonia and Bible composition 141
with a contextualizing closure: ‘that you visit one every morning and test one
every morning.’ Psalm 8, offers a variant query: ‘that you are mindful of one,’
and closes its couplet with a matching variant: ‘or the son of man that you care
for him,’ and then – also expanding – parallels this block with the splendid: ‘Yet
you have made him a little less than ’elohim and have crowned him with glory
and honor.’ We find this tradition segment yet again in Psalm 144:3-4, with not
only a doubling interrogatory expansion comparable to Psalm 8 – ‘O Yahweh,
what is a person that you would know one, or the son of man that you would
think of him’ – but also including a responsorial expansion that closes this part
of the song by answering (and this we should mark well) an unexpanded query,
‘A person is like a breath, whose days are like a passing shadow,’ borrowed
from a Qohelet’s desk. Thematically, the segment in Job and these two tradition
blocks in the book of Psalms belong to a single literary discussion. So, too, does
the thematically similar variant in the expansive variant of Eliphaz’s speech in
Job 4:17-19 (‘Can a mortal man be righteous before God?’, etc.) as well as in
a briefer version we find in Job 15:14 (‘What is man that he can be clean, or he
that is born of a woman that he can be righteous?’) as well as the far more dis-
tant variant in Job 15:16: ‘How much less one who is abominable and corrupt,
a person who drinks iniquity like water.’
One text reflecting a type of variant often described in terms of expansion
and paraphrase is found in the tradition blocks of Job 21:14-16 and 22:17-18.
Only a half-sentence is rendered verbatim in both variants: ‘They say to God: let
us alone!’ In Job 22, this segment is completed with ‘What can the almighty do
to us,’ to form a single statement. In chapter 21, chapter 22’s statement (begin-
ning with ‘They say to God: let us alone’) is expanded with: ‘We do not want
knowledge of your ways’ – or just as easily understood as abbreviated by delet-
ing ‘What can the almighty do to us’ – to render: ‘What is the almighty that we
should serve him and what is our profit in praying to him?’ It is exactly at this
point, however, that a discussion about expansion and abbreviation explains
nothing, as at this point the seemingly obviously abbreviated tradition block in
chapter 22 now expands itself: ‘the counsel of the wicked is far from me; the
righteous see it and are glad’ and so on.
This technique of creating texts is also found, as we are all aware, in the
collections of laws and cultic regulations of the Pentateuch, entertaining a wide
range of variants. We find casuistic legal sayings, such as those we find in the
so-called covenant code of Exodus 20:22–23:33 – with a wide range of variants
in cuneiform monumental inscriptions such as the Hammurapi Code, as well as
in Plato’s nomoi: a mixture of casuistic sayings with narrative-driven apodictic
forms as in Deuteronomy 12–26, as well as in the didactic forms of blessings
and curses as in Deuteronomy 27–28. Naturally, we also have the famous story
variants of Exodus 20:1-17, Exodus 34, Leviticus 19 and Deuteronomy 5–6.
A rich store of examples is also found among the cultic regulations. We might
profitably compare Exodus 29’s treatment of priestly ordination with that of
Leviticus 8. Exodus 29:38-42’s text for the daily burnt offering has its closest
variant in Numbers, but it also shows up in a new context in Ezekiel’s variant
of 46:13-15. Exodus 23’s cultic calendar is a tradition segment that has life
142 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
also in four different contexts: once again in Exodus, in chapter 34, Leviticus
23 and Deuteronomy 16. I can hardly hope to discuss all the stories of the Old
Testament that use this composition technique, but I would like once again to
take up three illustrating examples.
6. T. L. Thompson, The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel, JSOTS 55; (Sheffield: JSOT
Press, 1987).
4QTestimonia and Bible composition 143
The priests stood at their posts; the Levites also, with the instruments
for music to the Yahweh which King David had made for giving thanks
to Yahweh – for his steadfast love endures for ever – whenever David
offers praises by their ministry: opposite them the priests sounded
trumpets, and all Israel stood. At that time Solomon held a feast …
The beyadam has been left in the Davidic period of the text segment that
had been introduced even as the context requires that the text’s audience
returns to the time of Solomon. With good sense, the Syriac eliminates
the problem by excising the offending beyadam. A comparable, but not
nearly so perfect, example is found in 2 Chronicles 1:1-4, the story in
which Solomon, reiterating the activities of David, goes up to the high
place at Gibeon, ‘for the tent of meeting … was there.’ Verse 4 then finds
it necessary to explain that David had taken the ark to ‘the place prepared’
and had pitched another tent in Jerusalem for it. I would suggest that this
gloss comes from the compositor’s own pen. Why does the tradition used
here send Solomon to Gibeon when everything has been already moved to
Jerusalem by David? That, I think, is implicit but clear. In Jewish stories,
if one sets out to prepare for temple building, whether one is a David or a
Solomon, one simply begins with the tent at Gibeon. 2 Chronicles 1 along
with its variant of 1 Kings 3 about Solomon, and 1 Chronicles 21 with
its variant in 2 Samuel 24 are simply four variant renditions of the same
tradition-segment.
3. The story variants of 1 Samuel 31, 2 Samuel 1 and 1 Chronicles 10. The
problem of these narrative variants lies at the center and climax of what is
often called the Succession Narrative, and the problem is that we do not
have a narration here. Rather, Saul’s death stops the plot entirely. Instead
of a story narration, we are treated to a series of plot segment variants,
which are collected successively while Saul’s body and armor hang in
the temple and his head rolls across the forgotten battlefield. Instead of
a narrative dealing with the transition of Saul’s kingdom to David’s, as
the scholarly world has led us to expect, we find, echoed and reiterated, a
variety of narrative segments all dominated by a motif that originally had
entered the narrative back in 1 Samuel 14 and 16: the fear about killing
144 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Saul as Yahweh’s messiah, which had first induced David to take the risk
of being faithful to his role as Saul’s son and as Yahweh’s servant. Here,
at the close of Saul’s life, this fear subdues everyone who steps onto the
scene as the narration recites successively a chain of variant segments
concerning Saul’s death. Entirely apart from the so-called David history,
we find altogether at least three and possibly five different and independ-
ent tradition segments concerning this ‘event.’ In 1 Samuel 31, we have
Saul and his armor-bearer. Both commit suicide. In 2 Samuel 1 – which
follows immediately upon the 1 Samuel’s version – Saul’s armor-bearer
becomes an Amalekite. He knows that Saul is dead, because in this nar-
ration he says that he had killed him. The story in 1 Samuel and that in
1 Chronicles are very similar insofar as they render Saul’s death, but the
difference in narration is significant in considering what happened with
the bodies, his armor and his head.
There is certainly no doubt that, with these examples, we are not playing with
history recounted. Nor are we dealing with the mixture of incomplete pieces of
tradition gathered around one or other hero, theme or motif. These biblical texts
construct a tradition of shattered shards of stories, which have been collected
and organized and ordered. Such texts are difficult simply to call literature.
They are rather traditions established to give echo to and call up a forgotten
past. However much it may help us in distinguishing and classifying texts, we
also need to get away from a concentration on ideology, with its assumption of
self-conscious Tendenz, as our primary interpretative focus. Far better, we might
concentrate rather on ideation, the formation of ideas, themes and motifs within
the ancient text, the nature of formulas and secondary verbal formations and
the questions of how they affect and shape understanding. Unless we can first
trace the process of ideation in any specific literary expression, we cannot hope
to understand its Tendenz or its ideology. The reiteration of a tradition segment
is not of itself a reiteration of the contextualized thought that once may have
governed such formulas. Nevertheless, the units of tradition – through their
formulaic character – create the perception of reflecting a reality that functions
as an ideological referent of a text as tradition. In this respect, intertextuality is
the legitimate exploration of such perceived reality. In the process of ideation,
the transcendent quality of text accesses reality in a manner unavailable to event
and history. It may well be a serious error of reading to continue to consider tales
in the form of coherent units of tradition. We have long correctly learned to read
larger units, such as the Abraham cycle, as composite – indeed, segmented –
wholes, freeing ourselves of the need for consistency and integrated resonance.
So, too, we might approach much smaller units of the tradition; for example, 2
Samuel 1. If we read the story, we find that, as we pass from story segment to
story segment, each block must be comprehended out of context, where it has
its integrity (asking the question about the ‘Amalekite’). Even in the story’s
closure, the tale escapes integration, remaining fragmented, and only in the last
scene do we gain any inference of the purpose or intention of the narrative as
constructed: underlining mimetically the sacred quality of Yahweh’s messiah.
4QTestimonia and Bible composition 145
There has been a long history of discussion about whether the biblical narrative
and, in particular, the long prose narrative from the beginning of Genesis to the
end of 2 Kings is to be compared not only to the historiography of an Herodotus
or Thucydides, but even more to the epic literature of antiquity, and especially
to Gilgamesh and, in the classical world, to the works of Homer and Virgil. This
was taken up in the debates regarding assumptions of an oral or written Vorlage
of biblical prose narrative. In Germany, the early discussion had long been dom-
inated by Hermann Gunkel and Hugo Gressmann through their formalistic work
on Gattungen within the context of comparative literature,1 which was tied to
some of the early research of the Folklore Fellows during the first quarter of the
twentieth century.2 From this perspective of the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule,
Eduard Meyer had expressed deep reservations about the use of biblical tradi-
tion for a reconstruction of the past already by the turn of the century.3
1. H. Gunkel, ‘Jakob,’ PJ 176 (1919), 339–62; H. Gressmann, ‘Sage und Geschichte in den
Patriarchenerzählungen,’ ZAW 30 (1910), 1–34; H. Gunkel, ‘Ursprung und Entwicklung
der Joseph-Sage,’ in H. Schmidt (ed.), Eucharisterion, Festschrift für H. Gunkel
(Göttingen, 1923), 1–55.
2. H. Gunkel, Schöpfung und Chaos in Urzeit und Endzeit (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &
Ruprecht, 1895); H. Gunkel, Genesis übersetzt und erklärt (Göttingen: HKAT, 1901);
H. Gressmann, Die Ursprünge der israelitischen-jüdischen Eschatologie, Forschungen
zur Religion und Literatur des alten und neuen Testaments 6 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck
& Ruprecht, 1905); A. Aarne, Verzeichnis der Märchentypen, Folklore Fellows Com
munications, FFC 3 (Helsinki: Folklore Fellows, 1910); A. Aarne, Leitfaden der verglei-
chenden Märchenforschung, FFC 13 (Helsinki: Folklore Fellows, 1913); J. Bolte and
G. Polivka, Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- und Hausmärchen der Brüder Grimm, 5 vols
(Leipzig: Dieterich’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, 1913–22); K. Krohn, Übersicht über
einige Resultate der Märchenforschung, FFC 96 (Helsinki: Folklore Fellows, 1931); S.
Thompson, Narrative Motif Analysis as a Folklore Method, FFC 161 (Helsinki: Folklore
Fellows, 1955); S. Thompson, Motif Index of Folk Literature, 6 vols (Bloomington,
IN: University of Indiana, 1955–58); S. Thompson, The Types of the Folktale: A
Classification and Bibliography, FFC 184 (Helsinki: Folklore Fellows, 1961).
3. E. Meyer, ‘Der Stamm Jakob und die Entstehung der israelitischen Stämme,’ ZAW 6
(1886), 1–16; E. Meyer, Forschungen zur alten Geschichte (Darmstadt : Wissenschaftliche
148 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Although considerable energy in the 1970s had been invested in the as yet
unresolved questions regarding oral and written composition,4 the center of the
field5 has explored the alternative possibilities of historiography as the dominant
genre of biblical studies.6 Noth himself, however, had argued for a far less crea-
tive evolution of tradition in his insistence on an oral Vorlage for the Pentateuch.7
The discovery and translation of Ugaritic poetry since 1929 and particularly the
tendency to identify one cycle of the Ras Shamra texts as ‘the Keret epic’ gave
added impetus to efforts to find epic roots for biblical prose narrative in early
West Semitic narrative poetry. Frank Cross8 and Umberto Cassuto9 both used
the Ugaritic poems in an attempt to revive Arvid Bruno’s much earlier efforts10
to find an epic predecessor of biblical prose, and – with the help of Sigmund
Mowinckel’s assertion11 of a ‘national epic’ on the basis of a liturgical under-
standing of the psalms of David – to propose the existence of a Hebrew national
epic as a direct continuation of Ugarit’s tradition. In the generation of Cross’s
students and in the United States generally12, one also – somewhat inconsist-
ently – finds discussions promoting the acceptance of an originally prose epic
tradition. Shemaryahu Talmon of the Hebrew University,13 on the other hand,
takes his departure from Umberto Cassuto’s theological assertion of a Mosaic
monotheism for the earliest of biblical literature and rejects both Cross’s and
Cassuto’s assertions of an original Hebrew epic on the basis of his understand-
ing of the epic genre’s essential roots in polytheistic myth. Talmon asks, rather,
whether Israel hadn’t developed alternative forms to fulfill the functions of the
epic in its national literature. In particular, he points to prose narrative as Israel’s
alternative to the epic genre.14
Already beginning in 1975, when John Van Seters lowered the dating of
the earliest sources of Genesis–Numbers to the sixth century,15 and especially
since 1983, when Van Seters linked tradition history’s deuteronomistic narra-
tive not to epic tradition at all but rather to Greek historiographic literature and
particularly to a near contemporary Herodotus,16 the commonly assumed dis-
tinctiveness of biblical tradition from early ancient Near Eastern ‘polytheistic’
mythology found a diachronic explanation. Van Seters’s separation of the bibli-
cal tradition from Ugarit and his reorientation of biblical narrative towards the
genre of historiography, standing in sharp contrast to the genre of epic, has left
the field deeply divided.17 There has been an especially sharp division between
the models of Cross and Cassuto’s assertion of epic roots of biblical narrative
in Ugaritic poetry on the one hand, in contrast to the tradition-historical expla-
nation expressed in Van Seters’s hypothesis of a non-epical and more direct
literary production of historiography in the manner of Herodotus on the other.
Talmon’s rejection of the genre of epic for biblical literature on theological
grounds – while superficially supporting Van Seters’s historiographical alterna-
tive – has, because of Talmon’s early dating, substantially removed any hope for
consensus in the foreseeable future.
In spite of its profit and interest, I find the debate about whether there was
once a Hebrew epic that somehow stood as the ancestor of biblical prose nar-
rative and whether biblical literature fulfills epic functions, or whether biblical
literature can be understood as a progressively redacted literary composition
fulfilling historiographic functions, a decidedly false debate, given that we have
hardly defined, save by example and the use of Homeric epitome, what an epic is
or what functions it might serve. We have not yet determined the syntax of epic
literary expression. The search for definition is quite deceptive. Gilgamesh’s
Uruk and Keret’s Ugarit are hardly national societies; their implied authors can-
not be seen as spokesmen for any very specific folk. It was not the genre of epic
as such which gave Gilgamesh, Odysseus or Aeneas their roles in folk etiologies
and origin stories. It was not the Aeneid, but its reception’s Roman tradition
that recast its hero, Aeneas, as ancestor in Roman origin stories. Nor was the
genre as such responsible for such stories’ reception as canonical texts within
the educational traditions of antiquity. It has been rather their later refractions in
the commentary and discourse of their reception, not anything implicit to their
authorial voices. Similarly, it has been the reception of their traditions which
defined their roles as rendering self-understanding for the bearers of these narra-
tives. Nor is biblical literature as such a text, rendering any national understand-
ing. Epic tradition cannot be described as a national literature any more than
early historiography can – however much scholars may have anachronistically
asserted such nationalism in their historiographies about the origins of nations.
It is after all an element of the surface plot of biblical narrative which created
the metaphor of Israel lost as our biblical entry into the world of ethné. It is this
metaphor, not something associated with any real society’s self-identity or any
biblical text’s implied author, which corresponds best with Herodotus’ idealistic
concept of ethné. The tradition’s epitome within a historical Judaism, on the
other hand, with its decidedly secondary and derivative voice of a new Israel
and a repentant remnant, found a religious – not a national – identification.
Israel, as a topos of self-identity is not among the goyim, but ever a ‘people of
17. Such division of opinion is obviously responsible for the lack of clarity in questions of
genre as, for example, reflected in S. Mandell and D. N. Freedman, The Relationship
Between Herodotus’ History and Primary History, South Florida SHJ 60 (Atlanta, GA:
Scholars Press, 1993), as well as in F. A. J. Nielsen, The Tragedy in History: Herodotus
and the Deuteronomistic History, CIS 4 (Sheffield: SAP, 1997).
Why talk about the past? 151
God.’ This identification reflects the universal rather than nationalist character
of so many figures of biblical literature – from Noah and Abraham to Saul and
David, Job and Jonah, which render it attractive across many cultures, which
variously found their more particularist tradition’s point of departure. Another
avenue of biblical research, with roots in the Religionsgeschichtliche Schule of
Gunkel and Gressmann within biblical studies, had early been supported both
by Russian formalism as reflected in the theories of Vladimar Propp and Axel
Olrik, as well as by such international and comparative literature and folklore
projects as that of James Frazer’s Golden Bough.18 It had been strongly and
positively affected by the Babel–Bibel debates as well as the ‘Myth and Ritual’
school.19 It turned to questions of composition and tradition not so much out of
a search for origins or historical roots, but as a part of comparative literature and
intellectual history. How can the literature of one region help with the under-
standing of another was ever its implicit question. In the 1950s, Cyrus Gordon
worked on parallels of literary motifs between the Bible and Homer,20 Eduard
Nielsen investigated oral tradition21 and Walter Baumgartner studied tale-
types.22 In the present generation of research, the work of Robert Culley on oral
forms,23 of Dorothy Irvin on ancient Near Eastern motifs and episode patterns,24
18. V. Propp, Morphology of the Folktale (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 1968);
A. Olrik, ‘Epische Gesetze der Volksdichtung,’ ZDA 51 (1909), 1–12; A. Olrik, Folkelige
Afhandlinger (Copenhagen, 1919); J. Frazer, Folklore in the Old Testament, 3 vols
(London, 1919); J. Frazer, The Golden Bough, 7 vols (London: Macmillan, 1913–22).
19. F. Delitsch, ‘Babel and Bible,’ lectures 1–3 (London, 1906); J. Ebach, ‘Babel und Bibel’
oder das ‘Heidnische im alten Testament,’ in R. Faber (ed.), Die Restauration der Götter:
Antike Religion und Neo-paganismus, (Würzburg: Königshausen & Neumann, 1986);
see now R. G. Lehmann, Friederich Delitsch und der Babel-Bibel Streit, OBO 133
(1994); S. H. Hooke, Myth and Ritual: Essays on the Myth and Ritual of the Hebrews
in Relation to the Culture Pattern of the Ancient Near East (London: Oxford University
Press, 1933); S. H. Hooke, The Labyrinth: Further Studies in the Relation Between Myth
and Ritual in the Ancient World (London, 1935); S. H. Hooke, The Origins of Early
Semitic Ritual, Schweich Lectures for 1935 (London, 1938).
20. C. H. Gordon, The World of the Old Testament (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1958);
C. H. Gordon, Before the Bible (London: Collins, 1962); C. H. Gordon, The Common
Background of Greek and Hebrew Civilizations (New York: Norton Library, 1965).
21. E. Nielsen, Oral Tradition: A Modern Problem in Old Testament Introduction, SBT 11
(London: SCM, 1954).
22. W. Baumgartner, Zum alten Testament und seiner Umwelt (Leiden: Brill, 1959).
23. R. Culley, Oral Formulaic Language in the Biblical Psalms, Near and Middle Eastern
Series 4 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1967); R. Culley, Studies in the Structure
of Hebrew Narrative, Semeia Supplements (Chico, CA: Scholars Press, 1976); R. Culley
(ed.), Perspectives on Old Testament Narrative, Semeia 15 (Chico, CA: Scholars Press,
1979).
24. D. Irvin and T. L. Thompson, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives,’ in J. H. Hayes and
J. M. Miller (eds) Israelite and Judaean History (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977),
147–212; D. Irvin, Mytharion: The Comparison of Tales from the Old Testament and
ancient Near East (Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1978).
152 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
and of Jack Sasson on tale types25 were all highly productive efforts of the 1970s
which took their point of departure from the field of comparative literature,
especially from the commentary of Bolte and Polivka on Grimm’s Märchen,
the field research of Parry and Lord on Serbo-Croatian oral song and the com-
prehensive analytical index of motifs of Stith Thompson.26 It is this tradition of
scholarship which is most in evidence in Copenhagen. Formalism marks our
approach to literary and comparative studies and it is that approach that informs
and structures the need to create an analytical index of the theological motifs
and motif-clusters of biblical tradition. Such a project will enable us to estab-
lish theological links not only to the early Jewish literature of the Apocrypha,
Pseudepigrapha, and Qumran, but to the New Testament as well. It is now thirty
years ago that Heike Friis and Niels Peter Lemche27 took their leave from Noth’s
tradition history and in particular from its dependence on an internal chronol-
ogy of Israelite history and Bible composition.28 There was a similar break from
the Albright tradition and the comparative method’s early tendencies at cross-
cultural harmonizing that was so essential to Cross and Cassuto’s assumption
of Ugaritic origins for biblical narrative.29 Not only do I think it important to
follow an absolute chronology in dating the formation of biblical tradition rather
than the relative chronology of Van Seters, but this is also based on textual evi-
dence rather than on an internal, evolutionary ground of tradition development.
Intellectually, biblical composition takes place within a Jewish rather than an
Israelite context.30 I had long ago objected both to Van Seters identification
of the earliest stratum in the Pentateuch as ‘oral,’ on the basis of the rules of
evidence – the texts we have are all written texts and the techniques of transmis-
sion from oral to written are essential to literary techniques – as well as to his
methodologically crippling distinction between oral and literary societies, on
socio-historical grounds – all societies are oral, even literate societies! Rejecting
both Van Seters’s historiographic compositional unity and Cross’s search for an
This reflection on the Bible as part of a literary world is supported by the many
close parallels that have been drawn between the Bible and Homer as with
Amenemope, Gilgamesh, and Ugarit. Rather, such comparisons become nec-
essary to a reading of our texts. The ‘big bow-wow’ heroes, the self-defining
heroic quest, the theme of humanity’s struggle against the gods as every theme
of tragedy, the envy of a divine eternity, story closures in self-understanding
and humble acceptance of the human condition, all cross the hardly intrinsic
geographical, linguistic, and chronological boundaries of inter-related disci-
plines. The more specifically biblical cadences of narrative rhythms, composi-
tion parallelisms, and the chain structures of story-plot find comparable features
in both Greek and cuneiform canons. These are pervasive characteristics com-
mon to high literature in antiquity, defining as much the operatic tragedy about
31. See Thompson, ‘A New Attempt to Date the Patriarchal Narratives,’ 76–84; T. L.
Thompson, The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel, JSOTS 55 (Sheffield: SAP, 1987),
61–8.
Why talk about the past? 155
Israel and its silent God in the Book of Job and the dramatic presentation of
the Oedipus legend, as it does the world that we have chosen too narrowly to
speak of as epical. The values attached to the boundaries between poetry and
prose, which played such a central role in defining what an epic was and which
had supported the seemingly interminable debate about whether there was or
had ever been a Hebrew or biblical epic, hardly seem of critical importance
any longer. Biblical narrative – the literature of first interest to the comparative
scholar of international epics – is prose. It is well defined as Kunstprosa.32 It is
recurrently marked by reiterative parallelism, density of alliteration, interpretive
word puns, lists of various sorts, and naming etiologies. It displays an ever-
intrusive, tradition oriented, implicit discourse on both narrative plot and on
theme. Leitmotifs abound and thematic reiteration structures the continuity of
a firmly linked chain of narrative. It frequently uses inspired song as interpre-
tive commentary, marking an ever-variable passage between the world of gods
and humanity. It is a philosophical dialogue, witnessed by a compositionally
motivated assembly of variants that mark plot, scene and theme, between both
the multiple implicit authors of a text and the audience of its reception. These
features of early Hebrew prose define the function of biblical story as ephem-
eral illustration and discursive refraction, not reflecting a past so much as a
transcendent reality. On the plot-driven surface of biblical narrative, gods – as
in Greek literature – are ever misunderstood by men. This marks such narration
essentially as tragic; for it is the gods that control human destiny.
Exodus 15, Deuteronomy 32, and 2 Samuel 22 all present songs as theologi-
cally motivated closures and interpreters of larger prose narratives. Exodus 15,
the ‘Song of the Sea’ interprets Israel’s crossing of the sea as a new creation,
echoing Genesis 1 and Psalm 89: a people is born through the Divine Wind’s
cosmic victory over the sea. The Egyptians are cast in the role of the ‘kings’ and
‘nations’ in uproar as in Psalm 2:1-2. Like Psalm 1:4’s chaff, they are blown
away as froth on the surface of the waters.33 Moses sings a song of thanksgiving,
reiterating the creation story of Genesis 1, not to identify a great event of Israel’s
past, but to interpret the transcendent meaning of the story as a new creation.
Similarly, Deuteronomy 32 – another song of Moses – closes the long narrative
of the Pentateuch by interpreting it, within an inclusive monotheistic frame-
work, as an origin story about Yahweh as Israel’s god and Israel as the first-born
of Yahweh’s inheritance. As one of the sons (or messengers) of El Elyon, the
old deity of Israel past is interpreted as a refraction of the truly divine. He was
the divine as Israel had known it. The function of such song within prose nar-
rative, offering a theological interpretation of the tradition’s storyline, becomes
particularly clear with the reiteration of Psalm 18 and 1 Samuel 22. David sings
this song after Yahweh had saved him from all of his enemies. Reiterating both 1
Samuel 25’s blessing of Abigail and 2 Samuel 7’s prophecy of Nathan, the song
32. Allan Petersen, The Royal God: Enthronement Festivals in Ancient Israel and Ugarit?,
CIS 5 (Sheffield: SAP, 1998).
33. See Chapter 12, this volume.
156 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
34. For several systematic examples of spectrum analysis, see T. L. Thompson, The
Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham,
BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974), 17–51; 196–297; N. P. Lemche, Early Israel:
Anthropological and Historical Studies on the Israelite Society before the Monarchy
(Leiden: Brill, 1985), 95–136; 170–84; 209–44.
Why talk about the past? 157
narrative lies both in their prose form and in what, following Flemming Nielsen,
I would prefer to call for the moment a ‘corporate narrative perspective,’35 rather
than the national self-identity that Van Seters is inclined towards. As Herodotus
speaks of the history of all Greeks, he defines Hellas in its struggle against a
world-dominating Persian ‘kingdom.’ This is defensibly historiographic since
it epitomizes a worldview which is neither mythical nor fictitious in its defin-
ing essence. The narrative surface itself reflects the self-understanding of the
historiography it supports. In both his narrative’s surface and in the causality of
his argument, Herodotus’ work thus differs markedly from Homer.36 Van Seters
defines his biblical genre on the basis of its similarities to Herodotus. He under-
stands Genesis–2 Kings to present the narrative of a people of Israel who find
self-understanding through their history of struggle against the nations. This lit-
erature, he argues, is written to support or create the national self-understanding
of an ancient Israel. Functions of material causality and factuality are presented
as vehicles of tradition collection. As historiographic functions, however, mate-
rial causality and factuality are far more at home in Hittite annals and Neo-
Babylonian chronicles than they are in Herodotus. They are, moreover, quite
rare in biblical tradition which can be seen as fully as mythical and folkloric as
Homer. The Bible’s commitment to a fictive and mythic past seems so intrinsic
to Genesis–2 Kings, that the self-understanding, which Van Seters sees as the
primary goal of the tradition’s formation, appears rather more as retrospective
reflection on an ‘Israel’ that exists idealistically: not as the origin tradition of a
nation, but as a transcendent and mythical people of God. If one must look for
Greek comparisons, such a perspective shares far more as an analogue to Plato’s
Republic than it does with either Homer or Herodotus.
also has a biting irony that rivals Don Quixote’s caricatures of the heroic
genre. Against Talmon, however, biblical literature hardly avoids associa-
tion with the figure of the hero. The riddle of the honey and the bees in
the carcass of Samson’s lion echoes pages of Stith Thompson’s catalogue
of folk motifs. The biblically more central, Israel-defining figure of Jacob
wrestling with God as night-dæmon to win his role as Israel’s eponymous
ancestor, illustrates not so much the past of a people as the tragic essence
of humanity’s epical struggle with the divine. Here, we might listen well
to the barmaid’s admonishing song to Gilgamesh as he sets out for the
land-of-far-away in his quest for eternal life. On the other hand, the his-
toriographic pedantry of Genesis 10’s geographic table of nations and of
the Chronicler’s account of lineages of return, hardly gives us confidence
in any too-easy rejection of a historiographic genre in favor of an epic.
Genesis’s more folkloric tower of Babel story is far more at home as part
of humanity’s mythic journey, seeking understanding with Gilgamesh.
2. Oral and written tradition. The debate about oral and written origins of
the Bible – like the debate between historiographical and mythical inter-
pretations of the tradition – is a debate about reading. Van Seters presents
a theory of successive revisions of a historiographic work which finally
becomes Genesis–2 Kings of the Hebrew Bible. One is led to expect inte-
gration and coherence to present itself as the historian’s causally grounded
logic unifies and harmonizes originally disparate traditions. Yet many
texts, such as Exodus 3–6, remain wholly unreadable as story. The issue
is more than the assumed original dissonance of sources surviving an
imperfect harmonization. As I have argued elsewhere, it is the theology
that has swallowed the narrative in Exodus. The text stands lamed and
fragmented with purpose. Traditions are collected instead, one on top of
the other, as the deity shows himself in the many facets of the past. He
is Yahweh of tradition future. Ehyeh ’imak: he will be with them in their
name for him just as he has been known in so many different ways of the
past: as Isaac’s god and as Abraham’s, as the god of all their fathers – even
as El Shaddai which they have forgotten. This element of fragmentation,
presenting us with a tradition destroyed and lost, is a fascinating aspect of
our traditions. The story of the death of Saul, which one would expect to
find as a critical passage in any assumed account of David’s rise to power,
defies all historiographic coherence. As many as five different accounts
tumble over each other, trying to find their place in the tradition. Who
killed Saul is my favorite exegetical question to the student of these pas-
sages. Certainly, all are afraid to kill Yahweh’s messiah, except for that
poor dumb foreigner who is executed by Saul’s enemy for his trouble! The
body of his armor bearer which lies dead on the stage at the curtain for act
two has been inadvertently removed by a stagehand by curtain time for
act three! The murder of Saul’s own sons vies for the dramatic center with
Saul’s death. Has the audience left or is their attention merely divided? At
times his sons and their bodies are with Saul, and then they are forgotten
and most awkwardly lost, much as the narrative looses Saul’s head which
Why talk about the past? 159
This brief notation of Josiah’s death in fact opens a chain of scenes about
Jerusalem’s fall, marking the long tragic narrative of old Israel’s fall from
grace which had begun in Saul’s tragic opposition to David as Yahweh’s
messiah, and reached its climax with Hezekiah preparing Jerusalem’s bed
in his invitation to the Babylonians. Also before Josiah, Saul too had been
a good king, who did all which he saw to be good for his people and his
god. For this, he was rejected.
5. Mythic interpretation of events. Comparable to Van Seters’s characteriza-
tion of historiography as centered in a narrative about a people, in contrast
to the stories about great individuals like Gilgamesh and Odysseus, is
the distinctive particularity he argues for of themes and stories, with a
surface presentation as events of the past, offered as a vehicle for moral
lessons. Van Seters is here very close to Von Rad in his understanding of
theologies of history. My assertion of reiterative history stands, however,
opposed to the implicit assumption of a causal chain capable of devel-
oping any such thematically effective linear chronology, which would
be capable of creating interpretive evolutionary structured theological
arguments such as Heilsgeschichte or a supersessionist covenant theol-
ogy with national overtones. While the causal chain of historiographic
narrative orients the events of the past progressively to the present of the
implied author, and the links of this chain are understood as determinative
even of events future to the author, a mythic or reiterative understanding
of narration accumulates an ever present past. The succession of events,
past or future, is arbitrary. Each story synchronically illustrates the one
comprehensive act of God’s creation with its ever-reiterated struggle
against the nations of chaos. That is the reality behind the tradition. The
whole of old Israel’s history is already captured in the narrative chain
of Genesis 1–11. Jerusalem falls in ruins together with Babylon’s tower.
Already in Genesis 1:2, the creative force of the divine spirit (ruach ’elo-
him) destroys for all the chaos of nothingness (tohu wa-bohu). The rest of
the story – as we learn from Jeremiah 4 – is illustration.
6. National identity. I have a quibble with Van Seters placing the people of
an ancient historical Israel at the focal center of our narrative tradition.
From the story of Abraham as the father of many nations and that of Jacob
becoming Israel’s eponymous ancestor, the reiterative past of biblical nar-
rative plays at best an ambivalent, duplicitous game with the theme of
identity. This quarrel I see potentially resolved in the recognition of the
tradition as a narration about an Israel past, an Israel lost and rejected,
insofar as the voices of the text and its implied audience stand within the
narrative’s construct of Israel’s self-understanding as Israel redivivus: an
essentially supersessionist ‘new Israel.’ This understanding of a people of
God is not of a nation like other nations. That was the ‘House of David’
built by men’s hands; that was the narrative surface of our texts. The wish
that the structures of the destiny of old Israel had led to Yahweh’s flood
story’s regret that he had created Israel, which had led to their rejection
and destruction as a nation, not to its creation, finds its self-understanding
Why talk about the past? 161
as a repentant remnant, returning from the cosmic desert of its exile from
its God. Playing on a theme of the benei Yisrael as heirs of biblical tradi-
tion, the voice of reception ever speaks with 2 Isaiah’s voice, with the
sectarian voice of Ezekiel and the Chronicler: with the voice of piety’s
new covenant, but hardly with a voice of a nation. The search for the new
Jerusalem is not an expression of national hope, but is rather an answer to
Adam’s search for all humanity’s way back to the ‘tree of life’ that stands
blocked by the flaming sword of Yahweh’s cherubim. Put simply: the Old
Testament is not an origin story of ancient Israel, but of a new Israel that
is commensurate with early Judaism. This is religious and philosophical
self-understanding, explicitly contradicting ethnicity. It has its roots in
mythic and theological, not historiographic, perspectives.
1. H. J. Lundager Jensen, ‘Historie,’ GBL (Copenhagen: Gad, 1998), 306; see also, P. Bilde,
‘Historieskrivning,’ GBL, 306.
2. T. L. Thompson, ‘Historiography: Israelite,’ ABD (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1992).
164 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
3. T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1977), 328.
4. For purposes of clarity, allow me to prescind here from John Van Seters’s excellent
discussion of ancient historiography as an essentially fictive genre of ethnography and
tradition building, especially J. Van Seters, In Search of History: Historiography in
the Ancient World and the Origins of Biblical Historiography (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 1983); J. Van Seters, Der Jahwist als Historiker (Zürich: Theologische
Studien, 1987). This is a discussion I plan to take up in another article shortly.
5. Thompson, Historicity, 52–7, 294–6, 326–30; T. L. Thompson, The Origin Tradition of
Ancient Israel (Sheffield: SAP, 1987),11–40; T. L. Thompson, The Early History of the
Israelite People, SHANE 4 (Leiden: Brill, 1992), 158–70; T. L. Thompson, The Bible
in History: How Writers Create A Past (London: Jonathan Cape, 1999; published in the
US as The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology and the Myth of Israel, New York: Basic
Books, 1999), 3–99.
Historiography in the Pentateuch 165
10. As, for example, in our perceptions of a Pentateuch, Tetrateuch, Hexateuch and
Deuteronomistic History.
11. G. Garbini, History and Ideology in Ancient Israel (New York: Crossroad, 1988), 151–2.
Historiography in the Pentateuch 167
only point to the explicit reference to the Passover seder in Exodus 12:26-27.
Implicit intrusions, however, need further argument, which this chapter hopes
to engage by example. I offer the following motif-analytical commentary on
Genesis 1:2, with special regard to certain ideological nuances of biblical theol-
ogy and composition on the themes of desert and destruction, spirit and creation,
water and land. The dominant motifs belonging to this creation topos function
paradigmatically in the development of the Bible’s narrated world. In examining
the implicit voices of the tradition’s reception, I hope to find a way of addressing
the question posed already: if such ideology is not historiographical, what is it?
The themes we confront in the very opening of the Pentateuch center on a recur-
rent metaphor of self-identification illustrated most clearly in stories of testing
and struggle, from Abraham’s sacrifice on Mount Moriah to Jacob’s struggle
with the night demon. Both the creation of the world and the creation of Israel
arise from a single transcendent struggle.
Genesis begins with creation. Where does creation begin? Is there anything
before creation? Does creation begin in the beginning or not? Within linear
time as opposed to infinity, it does so by necessity; one begins with Aristotle’s
prime mover. Creation is of its essence ex nihilo. I have no intention in opposing
the logic of such a worldview. However, our question does not in fact relate to
the world’s existence, whether or not we assume for it a beginning. It is about
how Genesis begins its story of creation. Stories in the ancient world do not
begin creation simply with nothing. The well-known Babylonian creation story
Enuma Elish begins in the world of the gods, in a mythological battle between
Marduk and Tiamat. Creation proceeds from the division of Tiamat’s corpse
by the four divine winds wielded by Marduk into the two opposed realms of
salt and sweet waters.12 While this Babylonian story has left indelible traces on
biblical myth, particularly in the pre-existent opposition of earth as tohu wa-
bohu on one hand and the divine ruah ’elohim moving over tehom on the other:
presenting the world as nothingness and the eternal spirit of God as the source
of life and creation. Hellenistic creation stories generally take up a model of
creation which we first find reflected in the Egyptian prayer to Atum already
in the pyramid texts of the third millennium’s sixth dynasty.13 Here creation of
the world begins in Heliopolis with the descendents of the children of the God
Atum, which includes the four cosmic hypostases of the divine from the second
and third generations: Shu the god of air and his spouse Tefnut the goddess of
water, Geb the god of earth with his spouse Nut the goddess of heaven. This
early mythological interpretation of the transcendental qualities of the reality
12. A. Heidel, The Babylonian Genesis, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1942).
13. J. Pritchard (ed.), ANET (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 3. Hereafter
referred to as ANET.
168 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
away.’15 Genesis 1:2’s motif of the creativity of the divine spirit is well recog-
nized and generally unproblematic and needs no further discussion here. The
lyric beauty of Job momentarily playing Adam’s role in Job 33:4 well illustrates
the theological centrality of celebrating life in biblical story: ‘I was created by
the spirit of God, the breath of the almighty gave me life.’ In contrast, the motif
of a man’s creation can also support a negative reading of the Enlightenment’s
argument that all are created equal; for all are made of clay (Job 33:6). While
one finds an ever-recurrent creative spirit playing through the Bible’s texts, it
is the motif of the divine spirit of destruction that brings out best the reitera-
tive qualities of the Bible’s narrative ideology. The creative spirit is insepara-
bly paired – as in Exodus 15 – with the darker motif of destruction and war,
much like the blessings and curses of the Pentateuch. With a direct reference
to Genesis 1’s creation story, Psalm 33:6 sees the divine breath as creative of a
heavenly army. In fact, a myth-making clustering of the motifs of God’s spirit
and destruction is so recurrent that even comic scenes – such as those in Judges
13–16, which find the divine spirit coming over Samson that he might tear apart
lions, Philistines and pagan temples like kids – must be seen as variant, illus-
trative echoes of the well-recognized narrative motif of Yahweh’s irrascibility.
Job 4:9 offers us an argument to affirm this. Anticipating Pesher Nahum’s lion
of wrath, Yahweh takes for himself the role of the Lion of Judah: ‘By the breath
of God they die; by the wind of his rage they are consumed.’ Job’s metaphor is
yet another variant of Exodus 15’s divine wind’s Janus-faced role of destruc-
tive wrath against the Egyptians, creatively protecting Israel. Isaiah 30:27-33
can also be cited as an epitomy of the creative’s spirit’s destructive power, a
text which, in its, can be understood as reiterating motifs of the Sodom story
of Genesis 19: ‘The spirit of Yahweh is as a stream of brimstone … sifting the
nations with a sieve of destruction’ (30:28, 33). This theme of destruction at the
hands of God provides a leitmotif for the Pentateuch. As soon as we move from
the creation etiologies and enter the book of ‘mankind’s toledoth’ in Genesis
5,16 we find ourselves within a thematic polarity of creation and destruction.
The complex irony of this motif is richly exploited in the flood story, as Yahweh
regrets he had created mankind and sets out to destroy it with a flood, only, after
once again smelling the sweet savor of a proper sacrifice, coming to repent the
evil he had planned against mankind (Gen. 6:5-8; 8:20-22): This highly suc-
cessful revision of the divine regret of the Mesopotamian flood story comes to
structure a dominant tale-type of the Pentateuch, which finds in the wilderness
15. The questions of allusion, illustration, and interpretation raised by these texts relate so
much to the function of biblical narrative, that a synthetic treatment of these issues must
go well beyond the more formalistic analysis I offer here.
16. Thompson, Origin Tradition, 167–72.
170 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
This theme, with its open scorn against the peoples of the Transjordan,
does not imply a chauvinistic or nationalistic hatred so much as it reflects a
radical strain within what remains a universalist voice. In their story roles,
Ammon, Moab, and Edom play the godless. In this shared function, they epito-
mize humanity as such: not the non-Israelite, historical world of Palestine, but
rather the more myth-oriented ‘nations’ of Psalm 2:1 and its many variants.
The nations are condemned to become an eternal wilderness. They stand apart
from the world of God’s creation. In a critical variation of the motif of qiryat
tohu in Jeremiah 25:9-11, Yahweh calls his servant, Nebuchadnezzar, the king
of Babylon, to turn the whole land to ruin, to empty it and make of Jerusalem
an ‘eternal desert.’ However much this poem draws on allusions we think of
as history, Jerusalem’s wasteland (like that of Malachi’s Edom and Genesis’
Sodom and Gomorrah) is the cosmic desert ad ’olam. As Yahweh regrets what
he has made, all nations fall victim to the emptying of creation. Jerusalem
becomes the desert of Nehemiah and Lamentations’ opening chapters. Yahweh
roars not from historical Jerusalem’s qiryat tohu, but rather from his ‘holy city’
(Jer. 25:30): a mythic entity standing opposed to Jerusalem’s Babel. Similarly,
Yahweh’s anger is not intent on Jerusalem’s fall to Nebuchadnezzar’s army.
That is but an illustration: a single reiteration among many. The lion of wrath
roars against ‘all who live on the earth (Jer. 25:29-30)’ from Egypt’s pharaoh to
the king of Babylon (Jer. 25:19-26). This reiterative variation of the flood story’s
destruction reverses creation; for that is the world which is turned into a desert
and empty chaos. ‘The roar reaches to the ends of the earth; Yahweh indicts all
peoples; he brings his judgement against all flesh; the godless he gives over to
the sword’ (Jer. 25:31).17
In yet another reiteration of God’s cosmic judgment on the intrinsic evil of
mankind (so Gen. 6:5), Yahweh again regrets his creation. Evoking for another
context the image of the garden story’s philosopher, the woman who ate of the
divine fruit of knowledge of good and evil, Yahweh complains of old Israel in
Jeremiah 4:22: ‘My people … do not know me … They are clever at doing
evil, but have no understanding of what it is to do good.’ It is therefore that
Jeremiah 4:23-26 renders Yahweh and the earth’s curses against Adam and
Cain in Genesis 3 and 4 complete. The earth is described as an empty-desert
chaos, having lost creation’s light. ‘I looked at the earth and behold, it was tohu
wa-bohu, and at the heavens: the light was gone!’ Yahweh’s vision ends in a
reiteration of the universal destruction of the nations of Jeremiah 25: ‘there was
no mankind … all its [the world’s] cities were laid waste’(Jer. 4:25-26). Both
the intrinsic polarity of a world standing apart from creation and the mythical
17. The Book of Job offers a refractive reiteration of this metaphor put to the service of a
discourse on divine justice. Faced with his humanity’s burden of suffering, Job responds
to the poem of the godless perishing by the breath of God: that lion’s roar. Job forms his
dreadful question, ‘Can a human be more righteous than God?’ (Job 4:9-17), a question
that introduces the trial that gives his book’s complaint its setting.
172 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
transcendent struggle which both stories reiterate. While the introduction to this
dramatic discourse on the suffering and horror involved in repentance (Jer. 4:27)
again marks the universalist non-historiographic quality of our text’s voice as
the whole of humanity is implicated in the daughter of Zion’s struggle to give
birth to a new Jerusalem. The legends of the ancestors bring out a common nar-
rative pattern as Jeremiah plays a variant of the role of Abraham in Genesis 18,
where Abraham stood before Yahweh to argue on behalf of the righteous few of
Sodom: that, for their sake, the city might be saved (Gen. 18:22-33), while, in
Jeremiah 5:1, the prophet searches all the streets of Jerusalem for not ten but a
single one who does justice and seeks truth that Yahweh might pardon her. The
advancement of proof for Sodomite perfidy in Genesis 18:21 is surpassed by
Jeremiah 5:1’s reiteration. The implicit overtones of discourse are complex. The
screams of Zion’s daughter as in labor (Jer. 4:30-31) is portrayed as a wilderness
of testing. This metaphor prepares the audience for the coming sermon of repen-
tance and salvation (Jer. 7). Jeremiah runs through the streets of the Jerusalem
who becomes a widow in Jeremiah’s Lamentations; indeed Lamentations 1:1
and 5:18-19 call the same streets an ‘empty desert.’ Yet, in the desert trial of
the daughter of Zion’s labor, the streets hold hope implicit. Just as Jeremiah’s
metaphor of the screams as of a woman in labor, which has its audience waiting
for the birth of a ‘new Jerusalem,’ gives way to the motif of a desert surviving
Jerusalem from a world turned to empty chaos, much as Genesis 20–21’s Sarah
survived her desert trial in Gerar, where she had lived in exile among strangers.
The desert not only returns humanity to the chaos and nothingness from which it
was created, it also prepares the reader for a new creation. From her wilderness
exile, in which her womb had been closed by Yahweh’s judgment, Sarah returns
to give birth to her first-born.
Ezekiel, in speaking of Israel’s return from the exile, uses a similar template.
The mountains and hills, ravines and valleys, the wasteland and desert cities of
Israel (Ezek. 36:4), like Isaiah’s more famous dead stump of Jesse, spring forth
new branches to give fruit to Yahweh’s people. The trees of this new Israel of
Ezekiel are illustrations of the theological metaphor of the fruit-bearing righ-
teous of Psalm 1:3. This is the divine spirit of Joel 3:1-6, which calls to the sur-
vivors of Jerusalem’s drought and destruction, which illustrate this same spirit’s
wrath (Joel 1:7). The close connection in the Pentateuch’s narrative ideology
between such destructive nuances of the divine spirit and the creative spirit
of Genesis 1:2 finds a parallel to Joel in Hosea 13:12-15. The fate of Ephraim
is at risk. ‘Should he be ransomed from the power of she’ol?’ The answer is
negative: ‘the east wind, the spirit of Yahweh, will come blowing out of the
desert; his source will dry up, his spring will be parched; his treasury emptied
of its treasure.’ In this disaster, it is Samaria’s fate which is sealed. The spirit
of God creates a desert. It is, however, from such a desert that Joel’s new Israel
springs. The Janus-faced role of the divine, desert-creating wind matched by
its life-giving spirit finds a recurrent variant in the stock role of the child of the
prophets and their wives in such images as Hosea’s ‘Not-my-people’ being re-
created as ‘My-people.’ This role is also found in the mocking and often ironic
illustration of divine presence and the ideal of piety as ‘fear of God,’ which the
174 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
prophetic motif of the ‘day of Yahweh’ is used to evoke (Isa. 7:11-14; 13:6; Joel
1:15; Gen. 3:8!).
In Genesis 1, the divine spirit moving over the waters is placed as a counterpoint
to the emptiness of chaos, which is first given its fourfold cosmic form by divine
command. However playful its alliteration, and however much its doubling may
be derivative of Egypt’s divine couples sharing in the creation, the biblical tohu
wa-bohu bears with it many nuances which expose a semantic field that carries
us well beyond a signification of passive formlessness or emptiness. The cos-
mic need for continuous creation, to hold chaos in check, suggests as much. In
analyzing the ideology of the narrative’s progress, such nuances are important.
Tohu wa-bohu in its nothingness – like the spirit in its fullness – is before crea-
tion and anticipates it. It is specifically in the widespread biblical reiteration of
this motif of tohu wa-bohu as creation’s point of departure that the rhetorical
function of the creation story to epitomize biblical narration is clarified. This has
already been seen in the reiterative interplay of motifs associated with Jeremiah
4:23’s use of chaos’ tohu wa-bohu as a metaphor for Jerusalem’s destruction,
offering an expectation of a new creation. Tohu wa-bohu is but one specific
example of a mirrored motif. Because of Hebrew’s penchant for parallelism and
epitomizing word-play, there are many variations of such a trope. A brief survey
of several of these well illustrates both a common intellectual climate and the
all-important, implicit intertextual discourse surrounding this motif.
Yahweh’s wind that blows during creation blows also here, and, as in
Exodus 15:10, in a destructive reversal of creation. It is Babylon, how-
ever, rather than Egypt which is marked out as Psalm 1:4’s godless and
blown away like chaff. The threshing arms of Yahweh’s cosmic messen-
gers, perpetrators of divine destruction in Jeremiah 51:2, offer an echo-
ing variant of the motif of the outstretched arms of Yahweh’s messenger
Moses in Exodus 17:8-13. The heavenly threshers, themselves, fill the
same role as the shar-tseva,’ the divine commander of Yahweh’s troops,
in Joshua 5:13-15. With a similar ambivalence as bqq’s ‘devastation’ –
with creatively fertile implications of ‘growing’ and ‘flourishing’ within
its semantic range – zarim in Jeremiah’s universalist song also bears for
its text a cryptic prophecy of hope for Babylon, offering an ‘outstretched
arm,’ not alone of the thresher, but of one who is also the ‘sower’ of new
‘seeds.’ Are these the zarim of Abraham in which all nations are to be
blessed (Gen. 17:5.9; 18:18)?
2. Shemamah u-meshammah (Ezek. 6:14): When Yahweh stretches his hand
out in destruction in Ezekiel 6:13-14, he returns the fertile land to chaos.
Like tohu wa-bohu, a punning nonsense word-pair, shemamah u-mesham-
mah is tied to evoke a transcendent, Elijah-like struggle for victory over
the godless idols and for control of fertility’s rain. At the close of Ezekiel
6’s diatribe against the highlands of Israel, Yahweh ‘desiccates’ the land,
that old Israel might acknowledge that ‘I am Yahweh.’ As in Genesis 1:2,
a spirit-parched desert stands over against the waters of creation where the
divine wind blows. It is in Ezekiel 23:32-33 that the theme, building on
motifs of fertility and scorn for godless idols, holds together most signifi-
cantly. It echoes for the modern reader the scene of Adapa being offered
the drink and food of life or death by Anu.18 Yahweh’s bride Jerusalem,
who has had intercourse with the gods of Assyria and Babylon, is forced
to drink the waters of death from Samaria’s cup. Directly evoking the
‘desert’s emptiness’ of tohu wa-bohu, this cup of shammah u-shemamah
is the cup of ‘desiccation’s desert.’ Just such a cup of destruction is offered
to Edom in Lamentations 4:21. The opposite of this desolate cup is found
in several positive variations on Genesis 3:24’s ‘tree of life’ such as Psalm
23:5’s ‘overflowing beaker’ and 116:13’s ‘cup which brings salvation.’
In Ezekiel 33:28-29, the land and Israel’s hills return to desert’s chaos
so that in Ezekiel 36:7 Yahweh can raise his hand once again that these
desiccated hills and deserted cities might flourish once again. They bear
fruit as Israel returns home, cities are re-peopled and ruins rebuilt (Ezek.
36:10). Ezekiel 36:11 underlines the cosmic significance of this return
to creative fertility in its reiteration of the flood story’s reference to all
flesh, to both men and animals, who ‘become fruitful and multiply’ once
again. However much we might be tempted to read Ezekiel as if it were a
form of historiographically significant collection representing a prophet’s
same benei ‘adam/benei ‘ish as he does in Psalm 4:3, David finds them
in Psalm 62:10 ‘fleeting’ and like ‘a breath’ (hevel). He likens mankind to
the nothingness of the lie (kazav).
4. Ha-hevel wayehvalu (Jer. 2:5): The understanding of mankind’s noth-
ingness before God as expressed by hevel, is, of course, most famously
illustrated by the figure of Abel as Genesis 4’s fleetingly eponymous hero
of our fleeting and passing existence. It is in Jeremiah 2:5 that the term
both reiterates Hosea 12’s mythological overtones and at the same time
identifies the effect of such betrayal within the ephemeral world of man-
kind. In this song of Jeremiah, one finds a description of old Israel, seek-
ing and following other gods, as betrayal. The nothingness of these gods
is contagious. Israel sought hevel and, as a result, ha-hevel wayehvalu:
they themselves become hevel. The song follows a theologically potent
logic of like to like: one is made in the image of the god one worships.
These two associated motifs, both of being created in the image of gods
and of emptying one’s existence as a result, are reexamined in Jeremiah
10. Yahweh speaks to Israel as teacher: ‘The customs of the nations are
empty’ (hevel; Jer. 10:3). ‘One cuts a tree from the forest and a workman
prepares it with an axe. One covers it with silver and gold and holds it firm
with a hammer and nail so that it doesn’t wobble …’ Verses 14-15 contrast
Yahweh to these gods, who shame the craftsmen who built them. The
gods are hevel, because they have no ru’ah in them. The creative spirit
marks the contrast between chaos’s eternal nothingness and the reality of
a true god’s creation. Like Jeremiah 2, Isaiah 44:9-20, collecting a series
of variants around this same cluster of motifs to mock the craftsman cre-
ating his Ichabod-gods of shame, makes the common logic of this stock
theme explicit. Like the gods they make, the workmen become nothing-
ness. One becomes the nothing one does. Jeremiah’s hevel is Isaiah’s
tohu! It is in such a context as Jeremiah and Isaiah present that we must
understand Qohelet 12:8’s reference to chaos’s nothingness. The doubling
intensification of hevel hevelim, ‘nothing’s nothingness’: the emptiness to
which we commit ourselves creates us in its image. This is the nothing-
ness that comes from nothing: ‘all has become hevel.’ As this closure of
Ecclesiastes carries us back to Solomon’s opening lines: hevel hevalim,
amar Qohelet, hevel hevalim, ha-kol hevel (Eccl. 1:2), we find the teacher
commenting on the whole of mankind’s efforts ‘under the sun.’ ‘Nothing
is new under the sun’ (Eccl. 1:3-10), he concludes. This is the unhappy
business that God has given the children of mankind to do. It is in the
second phrase of verse 14 that the teacher, with yet another variant of
tohu wa-bohu, captures our tradition’s ever-reiterated return to chaos’s
nothingness with yet another variant on the motif of tohu wa-bohu: ha-
kol hevel u-re’ut ru’ach. Even philosophy’s goal, seeking the spirit, finds
us chasing an empty wind and returns us to the nothingness of chaos.
Qohelet recreates the chaos/spirit dichotomy of Genesis 1:2 as a conflict
between the divine and the human, between God’s actions and human
effort. With his punning word-pair he empties the spirit of existence and
178 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
of its substance. The philosopher-king watches his own ’adam chasing its
empty wind. Even this human effort returns us to the chaos and nothing-
ness from which we come and have our being.
5. Tetivu we-tare’u and me’ayin/me’afa (Isa. 41:23-24): The collection of
wisdom we call Ecclesiastes is not alone in seeing the creation story’s
contrast of the creative divine spirit and the emptiness of chaos’s waste-
land in terms of contradiction and contrast. The dichotomous word-pair
of me’ayin and me’afa, standing in parallelism in Isaiah 41:24, express
for the prophet the philosopher-king’s dominant motif: the nothingness
and emptiness of human ambition. Such ambition stands in contrast
to our human inability to do anything, either good or evil and – as in
Genesis 3:22 – marks such ability as an exclusively divine prerogative.
Thematically echoing Qohelet’s argument, Isaiah sets his proverb within
the context of the future and the past and offers an implicit commentary
on the meaning of human history and the events of time. ‘Interpret for
us what it means: what has happened before … Tell us what is to come
that we might know you are gods. Do then good or do evil’ (Isa. 41:23).
Creation’s cosmic context is implicit, not only in the echoes of the garden
story, but in the polarity which Isaiah casts between humanity’s nothing-
ness and the divine spirit’s creative effectiveness. Jerusalem’s counsel is
Psalm 1:1’s ‘counsel of the godless.’ It stands opposed to the good news
that brings Isaiah 42’s divine servant of Yahweh to tramp the princes of
this world like a potter stamping his clay. ‘You are but nothing; your
actions nothingness’ he declares in 41:24. Isaiah’s song closes the stanza
in 41:29 with an interpretation that offers a variation on Qohelet. The
closure restresses the word-play of verse 24 and sets me’ayin in parallel
with verse 29’s qulam ’aven, in order to pair it with the negative particle
’efes: ‘All [humanity] is a bother. What they do is nothingness.’ This is not
the creative ruach ’elohim of Genesis 1:2! Rather, these gods are empty
spirits: they are ru’ach we-teho, ‘wind and emptiness.’ This defines the
meaning of mankind. As in Qohelet, Isaiah looks upon a humanity with-
out God as a refraction of chaos’s nothingness.
Balance and appropriateness, we have seen, require the theological logic that
since mankind is made in the image of God, humanity becomes what it worships.
Theologically, the worship of gods of nothingness is a rejection of creation. It
returns us to the primeval nothingness from which we came. The complex dis-
course, surrounding the word-play of chaos as tohu wa-bohu and its reiterating
variants throughout the tradition, marks the theophany at Sinai in Exodus 20:
‘You must not have other gods before me,’ as moral sermon rather than a nation’s
historiography or cultural etiology. Similarly, the clusters of motifs surrounding
the theme of Jerusalem’s emptiness is not rooted in a historiographical descrip-
tion of the past, whether real or imagined. This theme functions by defining
Historiography in the Pentateuch 179
the tradition’s reception. Its humanity is that of Jerusalem in the wilderness. The
past is cast as a future of hope. This is precisely how Hosea interprets the wilder-
ness for the tradition’s audience: Yahweh ‘will seduce her; he will bring her out
into the desert and talk to her heart; on that day you will call me “husband,” no
longer “my Ba’al”’ (Hos. 2:16-17). Rather than offering historiography, Hosea
reverses time. Genesis’s promises belong to his audience’s future. Rather than
national identity, the present’s future is utopian, standing opposed to the past of
tradition. ‘Israel will be as numerous as the sands of the sea … once “you are
not my people” now you will be called “children of the living God.”’
The implicitly theological premise that becoming the people of God is a
struggle against the creation story’s chaos is hinted at in 1 Samuel 12:20-21.
Samuel’s instruction to the people echoes Qohelet’s Solomon as the metaphor
of a cosmic tohu is mythically identified with the emptiness of the gods. ‘Serve
Yahweh with your whole heart. Do not seek after emptiness … because they
who do are chaos.’ This is a close companion of a perhaps more psychologically
comfortable saying cited in Jeremiah 2:5, where those who ‘worship emptiness
return to chaos.’ If one brings such texts together with passages such as Isaiah
44:6-17, we discover much of the personal pietism of the psalms at the center
of prophetic diatribe. Isaiah 44:7’s Yahweh asks a challenging question of Israel
that in another context and book is addressed to Job: ‘Who is like me?’ Yahweh
presents an answer with echoes from the greater tradition: ‘There is no other
rock’ (Isa. 44:8; Ps. 19:15; 28:1; 42:10; 62:3; 78:35; 95:1). Indeed, Yahweh is
the ‘rock of ’olam’ as in Isaiah 26:4. It is in Isaiah 44:9’s scornful rejection of
godless idols, however, that the question bears the full weight of the creation
story’s idolatrous humanity in its clarification of Psalm 1’s piety: ‘Those who
make images of the gods, are [themselves] nothing [tohu]; what they love does
not succeed’ (cf. Ps. 1:4, 6). It is in a desert’s context of Psalm 1’s lovers of the
torah, who are likened to a tree planted by the side of a canal, that Isaiah sets
his struggle against false gods and the godless made in their image. It is with the
psalms that Isaiah finds his saving contrast for those who seek him:
If the helpless and the poor look for water and there is none, and their tongues
dry out in thirst, I Yahweh will answer them, I the God of Israel will not
abandon them. I will let a river flow over the naked land, I will make springs
open in the valleys; I will make the desert into an oasis, the dry land into a
fountainhead.19
Job 12:23-25 and Psalm 107:33-43 both play on the theme of Yahweh’s creative
power, turning the desert into fertile land and the fertile land into desert. Job
plays this motif within the mythical theme of ‘the nations’: those long-suffering
tools and toys – so central to the Psalter’s understanding of the cosmos – that
are used to demonstrate Yahweh’s power. Yahweh ‘can make the nations great
or he can lay them waste’ (tohu: Job 12:23). Psalm 107 sets its moral sermon
in wisdom’s context of sedaqah in order to play much the same themes as does
Hannah’s song in 1 Samuel 2. One might multiply examples of such variants.
They form a common discursive voice for the tradition. The one example that
I find marks the eternal reiteration of creation’s struggle most clearly in both
cosmic and personal terms is Psalm 89’s closing address. Yahweh reverses the
fate of both his messiah and Jerusalem, while David, illustrating the virtue of
the ‘fear of God,’ sings of the refuge he seeks with Yahweh. It is Job’s voice of
old Israel which David uses to sing his lament. ‘Will you hide yourself forever?
Remember how short my time is … remember the nothingness with which you
created all the sons of mankind [bnei ’adam] …’ (Ps. 89:47-48). The theme of
moral emptiness and hopelessness with which Psalm 89 closes, finds, in its turn,
a rejoinder in Isaiah 59-60, within a long moral diatribe drawn from the only
seemingly historiographic argument that it was Israel’s sin that has separated the
nation from its God (Isa. 59:1-15). ‘Truth stumbles in the streets and righteous-
ness has no entrance; the place of truth stands empty’ (Isa. 59:14-15). It is in
such despair that Isaiah introduces his reversal, illustrating the new creation of
Israel’s return to its God. Where ‘no man was to be seen’ (Isa. 59:16) a redeemer
is announced for Zion: identifiable with Yahweh’s name and glory. This stands
against the flood of affliction which Yahweh’s creative spirit blows away (Isa.
59:19-20). The spirit of Genesis 1:2 moves against the flood of Genesis 6–9 and
creates Isaiah’s new pact. The destructive past of Yahweh’s regret is undone.
Isaiah’s god creates a new beginning and a new past. Yahweh’s glory reiterates
creation’s light that it might disperse the darkness that covers the earth (Isa.
60:1-2). This light draws Israel’s sons from afar, filled with light and (pachad)
fearing God (Isa. 60:5).
It is only on the surface of narrative plot-line that the Pentateuch’s traditions
precede the destructions of old Israel. There is no linear, historiographic time.
The tradition brings creation present reality to its reception. It is now: in the sun-
light of Yahweh’s glory, creating ‘righteousness’ and ‘fear of God.’ Hosea, for
example, deftly reverses linear perceptions of time by identifying the new Israel
with the promises to Jacob. Hosea 1:10–2:1 offers a commentary on Genesis
13:16 in which Israel’s fate is reversed and the past made present. Hosea takes
a historiographic-like perspective that is quite breathtaking in its ambition. The
Israel of Hosea’s prostitute’s children is the Israel of history past. To contrast this
old Israel of rejection with a hope-filled present, Hosea echoes Genesis’ promise
to Abraham (Gen. 13:16). This new Israel will be ‘as numerous as the sands
of the sea … where once they were named “You are not my people,” they will
now be called “children-of-the-living-God”.’ Hosea reverses time once again.
His new Israel reflects the image of the united kingdom. Yahweh’s day of wrath
and punishment becomes ‘a great day of the Jezreel.’ Jehu becomes now the
good Jehu against an evil Ahab. Hosea’s boy can now be called: ‘You-are-my-
people.’ His sister becomes ‘You-have-found-mercy.’ In few literary strokes,
Hosea gives us a picture of Yahweh as the divine master over history. The struc-
ture of our text shows itself as discourse. There are no prophecies of doom; they
illustrate rather the motif captured so well by Jonah’s divine mercy without
restriction. God rejected old Israel; with equal freedom a new Israel is accepted.
Historiography in the Pentateuch 181
Concluding remarks
It has only been possible in the space of this article to deal broadly with a few
motifs which cluster around the dramatic opening line of Genesis 1’s creation
story: an opening scene which in its reiteration throughout Israel’s tradition
gives proof to Qohelet’s dictum that there is nothing new under the sun. All
history finds its roots and meaning in the creation. Genesis 1–11 is a composi-
tion that epitomizes biblical mythology. The long historiographic narrative that
follows Genesis 1–11 is but an expansive and ephemeral illustration of this
mythical world, dramatizing the truth of the torah, as found in the songs of the
Psalter and the prophets. The analysis of motifs and motif clusters which has
been pursued in this chapter builds on methods which still require substantial
refinement and control, particularly in regard to our ability both to falsify and
to confirm results. We need both a systematic glossary of literary motifs and
motif-clusters in the Bible and early Jewish literature and an expanded analysis
of their function and theological resonance. Nevertheless, I believe it is already
clear that this method sheds needed light on at least two issues of intellectual
history and composition theory. The recurrent patterns implicit in so many of the
texts referenced by the polarity of the motifs of desert nothingness and creative
spirit suggest the possibility of a common mythological understanding that is
implicit throughout a large number of different texts. Certainly the appropriate-
ness of the metaphors of Malachi 1’s ‘eternal hatred’ with which Edom is hated,
as well as Jeremiah 25’s ‘desert of ’olam,’ to the role that tohu wa-bohu plays
in the creation story of Genesis 1, is such that one must ask whether a specifi-
cally dualistic mythology is implied in our tradition, which has determined in a
wide range of texts both language and metaphor. Similarly, the analysis of the
implicit voice of reception suggests a possible resolution of the challenge which
Lemche has raised against Van Seters’s understanding of the Bible’s relation-
ship to Greek historiography with his use of Occam’s razor for biblical chronol-
ogy. The central issue of comparative studies involved in this dispute is hardly
to be limited to the question of dating texts. It also involves genre identification
(a primary historiography in the spirit of Herodotus versus a secondary tradi-
tion of discourse). The discourse about the tradition recounted which seems
implicated in an implicit intertexuality and reiterative ideology of our narratives
places secondary tradition-creating functions as a potential focus for composi-
tion theory, rather than the authors of historiography, as Van Seters has argued.
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13
At the first Princeton Symposium on Judaism and Christian origins in 1985, the
members of the symposium unanimously endorsed the opinion that the term
‘messiah’ in the Hebrew Bible refers ‘to a present, political and religious leader
who is appointed by God, applied predominantly to a king, but also to a priest
and occasionally a prophet.’1 The statement paraphrases J. J. M. Roberts’s paper,
in which his very brief comments on the occurrences of the term messiah in the
Hebrew Bible distinguish its use as an adjective defining priests2 from its use in
a nominal form in a construct state: ‘the anointed one.’3 ‘With one exception, he
concludes, all these occurrences (of the nominal form) refer to the contemporary
Israelite king, and … seem intended to underscore the very close relationship
between Yahweh and the king whom he has chosen and installed.’4 The excep-
tion he claims is, of course, Isaiah 45:1, where Cyrus is the king referenced.5
P. D. Hanson largely concurs, and, having done so, can follow Charlesworth,6
and turn to an understanding of the Hebrew Bible in terms of history and real-
ism and of messianism as a later development within Judaism, beginning in the
‘proto-messianic’ context of Zerubbabel’s restoration in Haggai and Zechariah.7
Certainly both Hanson’s and Roberts’s essays on the messiah in the Hebrew
Bible are vulnerable to the critique of W. S. Green about scholars of Judaism:
that they assume that ‘the best way to learn about the Messiah in ancient Judaism
is to study texts in which there is none.’8 Roberts and Hanson, moreover, have
bypassed any sustained discussion of texts in the Hebrew Bible that use the
messiah of God epithet. They favor rather a historicist assertion that all such
epithets – apart from exceptions – refer to a contemporary Israelite king. This
widespread understanding is, unfortunately, unargued in spite of its unanimous
and explicit adoption by the conference members. Historically considered, the
statement is baffling as – in every case – the author of our biblical text has cast
the story or song, with its king, as part of Israel past. In many cases, the king
is not identified, and in some, he is far from this-worldly. Their summary state-
ment about the use of messiah in the Hebrew Bible seems patently false.
S. Talmon, who also shares this historicist perspective of biblical literature,
is more circumspect. He understands the epithet messiah in the Hebrew Bible
‘in reference to an actual ruling king or his immediate successor,’ distinguishing
this, as do the other members of the conference, from ‘messianism,’ which he
identifies as a substantially later development of Jewish thought with a ‘credal
and visionary dimension that transcends the original terrestrial signification of
the term.’9 Talmon argues for the implicit realism of the earliest understanding
of messiah not only by distinguishing messiah from (later) messianism, but
by his thesis that messiah is ‘an intrinsically sociopolitical notion which must
be assessed primarily in the historical setting and the conceptual context of
the biblical institution of kingship.’ The developing transference of a historical
messiah – the king – to a unique and future oriented, super-terrestrial savior, he
attributes to a ‘second temple period,’ which culminates in an idealized figure
after 70 ce.10 The Hebrew Bible is thereby structurally insulated from anach-
ronistic intrusions of later developments; and the assumption of the origins of
messianism in a later Judaism is, accordingly, secured by default. Once that has
been done, Talmon takes up the biblical idea of the messiah. He begins by read-
ing – with historical realism – Nathan’s prophecy of 2 Samuel 7, assuring for the
house of David eternal divine support. From this, ‘grew the image of the ideal
anointed king.’11 Within the future orientation of this ideal king, Talmon distin-
guishes both a ‘utopian’ and a ‘restorative’ messianism.12 The utopian passages,
associated with the Psalter and the prophets, he sees as foreshadowing idyllic
pictures of the future, while restoration forms of messianism, seen as an ‘age to
come,’ projects the past into the future.13 The structure of Talmon’s argument
present messianism as specifically Jewish in origin: ‘No equal to the messianic
idea – its essence and its diversity – can be found outside the framework of the
Judeo-Christian culture and belief systems.’ Talmon argues specifically against
the significance of ancient Near Eastern messianic figures in his developmental
history.14 In speaking of the Jewishness of messianism, Talmon does not speak
only of the quantity or intensity of such messianism, but of both the significance
and depth of specific elements, particularly of the concepts of anointed, univer-
sal salvation and cosmic peace. On this basis, he concludes that any examina-
tion of post-biblical messianism (including the New Testament) must take its
departure from the Hebrew Bible.15
Talmon’s explanatory goal is historical, oriented towards an evolutionary
development of ideas. He also seeks clarification in terms of social events in
history. So, he attributes the origin of the ‘custom of anointing’ to the Israelite
monarchy’s effort to join the charismatic leadership of a ‘time of the Judges,’
characterized by the election of one marked by the divine spirit, to the dynas-
tic government of the monarchy, ‘totally devoid of any religious or spiritual
dimension.’16 This reading of 1 Samuel 7, however, does more to falsify than
historicize our story. Talmon’s assertion that dynastic kingship is devoid of any
religious or spiritual dimension is simply mistaken in regard to all known king-
ships of the ancient world. It is, I think, significant that the effort to present a
historical evolution of the development of messianism draws primarily on the
narratives of Saul, David, and Zerubbabel, but makes no effort to establish either
a historical context or a relative chronology for the use of the messiah epithet in
these stories or elsewhere. References to the anointing of these kings are taken
as directly reflective of ‘events’ narrated; indeed as the historical origin itself of
anointing in Israel. The effort to cast the messiah epithet as a product entirely
of Israelite or Jewish history, fails, moreover, because it is ill-defined as intrin-
sically Jewish. Figures fully comparable to the messiah are well known from
both Egyptian and cuneiform literature from at least the Bronze Age.17 Already
in our earliest texts, substantially the same coherent and inter-related complex
of thematic elements that we find dominating extra-biblical Jewish messianism
is in place in both ancient Near Eastern and biblical tradition. Rather than an
outgrowth of Nathan’s prophecy of eternal divine support to David, the wide-
spread ancient Near Eastern myth of the ideal king is the intellectual foun-
dation for the stories of both covenant and eternal reign, including themes of
both restoration and an idyllic age. ‘Restorative messianism’ is a central aspect
of the motif of the power to determine destiny, expressed in stock metaphors
clustering around the trope of Shalom of the holy war theme, as well as the
blessings and curses of divine patronage, while universal messianism is itself
an implicit aspect of many imperial texts.18 Biblical texts do not simply absorb
or borrow metaphorical elements from royal ideology as Talmon asserts. They
use them specifically to transform Yahweh into a universal and imperial god
of ancient Near Eastern character, quite comparable to Asshur or Marduk. The
Bible transforms an imperial ideology for theological purpose.19 The thematic
elements cluster coherently around the messiah epithet and reflect a mythic
reiteration of early ancient Near Eastern royal ideology, with the purpose of
giving literary expression to divine immanence. ‘Messianism,’ hardly unique,
does seem to historicize the transcendental, and interprets both the biblical and
ancient Near Eastern traditions within time by casting a language of myth into
an apocalyptic future. However, historicizing is only one possible reading that
is particularly attractive to modernist interpretation. The elemental structure
of apocalypticism, so classically illustrated in the Book of Revelation, is not
entirely conducive to chronologically oriented theories of literary development.
Not only is apocalypticism not uniquely Jewish, we find it already centrally
placed within the mythology of both the ancient Near East and the Hebrew
Bible from very early times. The collusion of the utopian metaphor of peace,
expressive of the transcendent and eternal (’ad ’olam) is not only found in such
central texts as Isaiah 7:14; 9:16; 11:1-8, but a well-recognized apocalyptic
text such as Revelation 22:16 hardly does more than inter-relate themes long
17. Ibid., 87–8 for further references. I do not mean to argue that kings were not anointed
(see Heintz, ‘Royal Traits’), only that the term messiah does not immediately imply such
a custom.
18. T. L. Thompson, ‘Holy War at the Center of Biblical Theology: Shalom and the Cleansing
of Jerusalem,’ in T. L. Thompson (ed.), Jerusalem in Ancient History and Tradition, CIS
(London: T&T Clark International, 2003), 223–57; I. Hjelm and T. L. Thompson, ‘The
Victory Song of Merneptah, Israel and the People of Palestine,’ JSOT 27 (2002), 3–28.
19. See Chapters 8, 12, and 14, this volume.
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 187
be rejected. Gilboa has become a desert, for Israel’s kavod is fallen (2 Sam.
1:19; Mic. 2:9). No ‘happy day’ of a new world here; for in Saul’s death, as in
Samaria’s disaster, the singer also prophesies Jerusalem’s undoing (Mic. 1:8-
16). This is not a time of shalom, but a time of evil (Mic. 2:3); it is not the mes-
sianic time, but a foreshadowing of the exile to come: a prelude to the messiah.
In Daniel 9, the time of exile is calculated as seventy years on the basis of
Jeremiah’s calculations (Jer. 25:11; 29:10). As Chronicles 36:21 put it, until the
land has been given expiation for its Sabbaths; that is, (after Lev. 25:4) the sev-
enth year in which the land should have lain fallow. The logic of such measured
time is Holy War’s logic of retribution.29 In an expansion on the first command-
ment in Leviticus 26, Yahweh explains that if Israel obeys his commandment, he
will grant rains at their time and give them all fertility and security. He shall give
peace, and their enemies will flee from them (Lev. 26:1-13).30 He will be with
them. However, if they do not obey, then their destiny will be disastrous (Lev.
26:14-33): the land will be turned into a desert and its towns into ruins. The
land must rest and find expiation for its Sabbaths because it wasn’t able to rest
while you lived there (Lev. 26:34-35). Reciting this story, Daniel then turns in
prayer. Pointing out that because of his people’s sins Yahweh’s city has become
a laughingstock among the nations, and so he should save it for his own sake
(Dan. 9:15-19). Gabriel then tells him that the time of seventy weeks has been
set for expiation to be complete; before eternal righteousness comes, prophetic
visions sealed and the holy of holies anointed (cf. Zech. 1:12-17). Whatever the
historicization of this text, Daniel 9’s attribution to the messiah of the role of
one coming at the fullness of time to rebuild the temple, refers to a messianic
role which, in Psalm 102:13-15, is given to Yahweh, who rebuilds Jerusalem ‘in
the time for showing mercy.’ Although Isaiah, in reference to the temple decree,
casts Cyrus, Yahweh’s shepherd, in precisely this messianic role of rebuild-
ing the temple (Isa. 44:28–45:4), his song about ‘the time for showing mercy’
and the ‘day of salvation’ (Isa. 49) presents this role to a new Israel. Yahweh’s
servant, Jacob, was called from his mother’s womb (Isa. 48:20–49:3) to restore
Israel’s remnant. In this time of favor, Yahweh now answers the one, namely
Israel, who had been ‘despised, detested, a slave of rulers, who is made into a
covenant people to restore the land’ (Isa. 49:8). As mountains are turned into
roads and roads to mountains, the heavens, earth and the mountains themselves
shall shout the good news: Yahweh’s mercy to the helpless. In Isaiah 49:14-
21, it is Zion who plays this role of the messiah, complaining, like the singer
of Psalm 89:39-52, that Yahweh had betrayed his messiah and forgotten him.
Yahweh denies the charge. He is like a mother who has given birth to Zion (cf.
Ps. 2:7). The ones who will carry out the royal task of rebuilding the temple are
already hurrying on the way. This idealized, utopian view of a messianic time,
marking God’s rule on earth, stands in contrast to the time oriented story, and is
expressed as a fullness of the reiterative cycle of the past: scattered from para-
dise and destroyed by the return of the waters of chaos, God’s new creation is
once again scattered from Babylon, led back to Zion with Abraham, only again
to be sent out among the nations and brought back to the promised land under
Joshua, ever searching for the new Israel, which, with a pure heart, can find its
return to the paradise of heaven’s Zion. In this implicitly utopian search of every
generation for a pure heart, our literature’s secondary use of the metaphors of
the ‘day of wrath’ and of the ‘happy day’ of his mercy are reiterative techniques,
casting a single theme in its many manifestations in time.
The ruling principle of messianic sacred time can be epitomized with the
help of Qohelet’s axiom that nothing is new under the sun. All that happens has
been established at the creation. Its function in literature can be expressed in a
threefold schema:
31. This is discussed with reference to Egyptian texts and the Enuma elish in Chapter 14,
this volume, and Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Merneptah.’
32. See also, M. Liverani, ‘Guerra santa e Guerra giusta nel Vicino Oriente antico (ca.
1600–600 a-C.)’ in M. Liverani (ed.), SS 3 (2002), 633–59.
33. On such exegesis, see the interesting discussion of Sadik J. al-Azm, Islamic Fund
amentalism Reconsidered: A Critical Outline of Problems, Ideas and Approaches, SAB,
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 191
Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East (Durham, NC: Duke
University, 1995), 40–41.
34. For a discussion of this principle, see Thompson, ‘Holy War.’
35. On the poor man’s song, see below and Chapter 14, this volume; also the implicit dis-
course in Jn 1:19–34 and Mt. 3:1–17, interpreting John the Baptist as the one preparing
the way for the messiah and Mt. 11:1–15 and Lk. 7:18–35, which, like the ‘sermon on
the mount’ of Mt. 5:3–11, reiterates the trope of ‘the poor man’s song.’ See further, T. L.
Thompson, The Bible in History: How Writers Create a Past (London: Jonathan Cape,
1999), 238–44.
192 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
priest will likewise make expiation for them and they will be forgiven. This
central text on the theme of corporate guilt clearly marks the role of the messiah
as representative and mediator of the people before God. It also prepares the
reader for the role of the messiah as both cause and the one who himself suffers
divine wrath.36 The mediation, which the role of priest entails, also involves
mediation of the divine for the people. The reiteration of Leviticus 2 in chapter
6:7-16 is particularly helpful in that it transposes Leviticus 2’s instruction for
a meal offering, so that it can function in the anointing of Aaron and his sons.
That is, this reuse of tradition, should be understood as an origin story of the
anointing of the high priest and as an etiology of the high priest as messiah.
In Leviticus 6:11-12, the instruction for the eating of the remainder of the
offering by the high priest is revised to fit the day of his anointing. It is: håq-
’olam ledoroteichem me’ashei yahweh ‘their transcendent portion of Yahweh’s
holocaust for all their generations.’ The statement concludes ambiguously: kål
’asher-yiga’ bahem yiqdash ‘anyone (or anything) that touches them shall be
holy.’ My quibble about ambiguity is not easily dismissed. Leviticus 2:3, for
instance, had used the phrase qodesh qadashim me’ishei Yahweh to say some-
thing comparable. However, this ‘most holy part of the holocaust’ is already
implied by Leviticus 6:11’s håq-’olam: a portion, which makes what touches it
holy; namely, the high priest. Here, I suggest, is our etiological tale for some of
the messiah’s transcendent qualities. The understanding of the messiah as holy
is confirmed in a variant etiology: the story of the making of Aaron’s medallion,
in Exodus 28:36-41, to be placed on his forehead. The inscription on the medal-
lion reads: qodesh layahweh. At the end of this description of the high-priest’s
clothing, we are also informed that Aaron’s priesthood is ‘eternal’ or, perhaps
better, ‘transcendent’: qohat ’olam. Leviticus 8:10-12, similarly, makes Aaron,
the altar, and the altar utensils holy by anointing them, explaining quite literally
how Yahweh’s messiah can be spoken of as among Yahweh’s holy ones, as well
as why the altar can be a place of refuge. In these etiological tales, the messiah
is presented as one dedicated to Yahweh, much as Samuel is in 1 Samuel 1:11
and who, like Samson, becomes closely associated with the somewhat legen-
dary Nazarene tradition. Sirach 45:6-17 paraphrases Exodus and explains the
messiah’s function as bound by eternal covenant to offer sacrifice, make atone-
ment, exercise authority and judgment, teach the testimonies, and enlighten
with the law. He is like Moses (Sir. 45:1-5) and equal to the holy ones. The
role of the messiah as mediating with the divine has a wonderful illustration
in the narrative of 1 Samuel 12:1-5, which, in describing Samuel’s deathbed
declaration of his life’s innocence, echoes ancient Near Eastern oath and treaty
formulae which call upon the divine to act as guarantors of a solemn declaration
36. E.g., Ps. 89. On David’s role as representative of the pious, see T. L. Thompson, ‘Historie
og Teologi i overskrifterne til Davids salmer,’ CBÅ (1997), 88–102; T. L. Thompson,
‘Salmernes bogs “enten-eller” spørgsmål,’ in T. Jørgensen and P. K. Westergaard (eds),
Teologien i samfundet: Festskrift til Jens Glebe-Møller (Frederiksberg: Anis, 1998),
289–308.
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 193
made in their presence. The biblical roots of this story are clearly exposed as
not only Yahweh, but also his messiah exercise their function as guarantors of
Samuel’s oath. The coherence of the symbol system implied in our narratives
is perhaps best made clear by reference to Exodus 30:22-38, where we have
the recipe for making the oil that makes one holy (Exod. 30:22-25). No one
may make the like again or use the oil on any other person. A reiterating gloss
assigns the task of making the magic oil to Bezalel (Exod. 31:1-11), because
he uses God’s knowledge to make the oil and is filled with the ruah ’elohim,
creating an etiology for the messiah’s (and the Nazarene’s) association with
such creative power.37
The use of the motif of the anointed in biblical literature is dominated by asso-
ciation with the figure of the high priest in the Pentateuch and by the king in
the so-called ‘Deuteronomistic History’ and in the Psalter, but is not restricted
to these roles. The anointed seems rather to identify a figure through whom
the divine presence is effected, much as it is through the prophets, as is sug-
gested in Psalm 105:15 (cf. 1 Chronicles 16:22 and 2 Chronicles 6:40-42). A
more universal function of this role as associated with ruah ’elohim can be
seen in Isaiah 61:1 and especially Joel 3:1. The anointed is associated with
holy war in Psalm 2’s ‘nations in uproar against Yahweh and his anointed,’
as it is in 1 Kings 19:15-18 where an Aramean Hazael fights Yahweh’s war
for him. Similarly, Isaiah 45:1 has a Persian messiah inaugurate shalom. So
too, the Assyrian king, Nebuchadnezzar, seems to play the messianic figure of
one who understands God’s ways, as does Samson, who, son of God and filled
with the holy spirit, plays the divine-like role of the heroes of old, from which
the Damascus Covenant 2:12 might well derive its very pertinent derivative
phrase in referring to ‘those anointed with his holy spirit.’38 The central thematic
elements of the transcendent and eternal roles of the messiah are intrinsic parts
of the roles of both the priest and the king in the ancient Near East. They are also
well-known parts of both the priestly and the kingly profile of the messiah in the
37. Exod. 40:1-16 is a close variant of Exod. 30–31, but Aaron’s sons are anointed generally
(not just the high-priest) with the purpose of serving in the function of priest, thus linking
the transcendence expressly to the durative. Num. 3:1-4, deals similarly with Aaron’s
sons anointed in order to serve as priests.
38. F. G. Martinez, The Dead Sea Scrolls Translated: The Qumran Scrolls in English
(Leiden: Brill, 1994), 34. Such messiahs are recounted in CD 3; they are the men of
renown on God’s side! CD 6:1 has ‘the holy anointed ones’ to refer to prophets. This is
rather comparable to the messiahs in 2.12; namely ‘the men of renown,’ and here such
men who played a role comparable to Moses in their time: referring to the leaders of
Israel’s story (L. H. Shiffman, ‘Messianic Figures and Ideas in the Qumran Scrolls,’ in
Charlesworth (ed.), The Messiah, 116–129 [117]).
194 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Bible. Both strains of the tradition struggle constantly to maintain ’olam’s role
as doorway between the transcendent and the ephemeral. At the very opening of
1 Samuel, in the story of succession from Eli to Samuel, within the context of
an oracle from a man of god, Yahweh regrets his eternal promise to the house of
Eli (1 Samuel 2:30). Playing relentlessly on the ambiguity of ’olam in its rela-
tionship to the house of the messiah, this story sets one of the central plot-lines
of the Saul–David story. Because of the evil of Eli’s sons – as of Aaron’s sons
in the past and Samuel’s in the future – Yahweh chooses Samuel to be faithful
priest. He is a figure dedicated to Yahweh from before his birth, his mother hav-
ing been filled with the holy spirit. He is himself called by God and answers that
call in the manner of Abraham before him (1 Sam. 1–2).39 Samuel certainly fits
the role of one who, unlike Saul, is ‘given over to Yahweh’ and who will ‘do
all that Yahweh wishes and intends … walking before his messiah’ all his days’
(1 Sam. 2:35). This story of Samuel’s supersession over Eli effectively creates a
harmonic bridge through a chain of supersession from the Pentateuch stories of
the high priest as messiah to the Deuteronomistic History’s narrative of the royal
messiah and David’s supersession over the house of Saul. As Eli’s house is con-
demned to eternal punishment (1 Sam. 3:13), so Hannah sings of the messiah’s
power over the fate of She’ol in 1 Samuel 2:6 in order to set the stage for Saul’s
(sha’ul) fall from grace. Within the context of Hannah’s victory song (1 Sam.
2:1-10) are a cluster of motifs attributed to Yahweh, which refer to the destruc-
tion of heroes and their weapons (including a variation of the ‘poor man’s song’;
see further below); namely, Yahweh’s power to determine destiny (including the
power to send one down to or raise one up from She’ol), the protection of the
pious faithful and punishment of the wicked who trust in human strength, as
well as the destruction of Yahweh’s enemies and the universal judgment of the
world. All such divine attributes are given to ‘his king’ as his representative on
earth. The primary sign of this divine power is the fertility which brings order
over chaos, a symbol for which is recurrently expressed by the phallic imagery
of the rising of his Messiah’s horn.40
As the priest both represented God to the people and stood in the place of
the people before God, one of the central roles that David plays in the Psalter
is also an everyman role, pedagogically enabling an Imitatio Christi. In the
illustrative story of the anointing of David in 1 Samuel 16:1-13, the central
theme of the messiah as a guide to biblical piety is perhaps best given focus.
Samuel, coming to anoint the messiah of Yahweh’s choice, expects to find a
second Saul, someone a head taller than everyone else. And so he guesses …
it must be Eliab. But Yahweh explains: don’t pay attention to his height, for
God does not judge like a man, but rather sees into men’s hearts. Samuel, like a
Cinderella’s prince searching for his bride among the step-sisters, must search
among David’s seven brothers for the true messiah. He too is not among the
sons Jesse presents to Samuel. He, like Idrimi and Esarhaddon before him, is
39. See my paraphrase of this story and its variants in The Bible in History, 337–52.
40. On this motif, see Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Merneptah.’
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 195
one chosen by God himself. The reuse of this little folktale motif gives voice to
the Psalter’s quest for purity of heart, which is the theological matrix of David’s
role as everyman.41
In his role as messiah, Saul had been a client of Yahweh.42 As such, he
belonged to the deity and was therefore under his protection (1 Sam. 24:7, 11),
so much so, that David, when his men put Saul’s life in his hands, rebukes his
men and refuses to allow them to kill Saul. To understand why David reproaches
himself for having cut off Saul’s ‘fringe’ (1 Sam. 24:6: berit et-kanaf: ‘emas-
culate’), the scene needs to be glossed with reference to the Egyptian military
practice of marking enemy dead by cutting off a hand of those who had been
circumcised (i.e., dedicated to a deity), rather than their penises as they did with
uncircumcised enemy dead.43 David cannot treat the messiah as an enemy. The
close doublet of this first tale of Saul and David (1 Sam. 26) has David warn
Abishai that no one can harm the messiah with impunity (1 Sam. 26:9, 11).
Yahweh is his patron and, therefore, Yahweh alone can kill Saul. The interpreta-
tion leans on a logic that has already been drawn in the related story of Yahweh’s
liquidation of Nabal in 1 Samuel 25:38-39, which, in its turn, points ahead to 2
Samuel 1:14, where David executes the Amalekite for having killed ‘Yahweh’s
anointed.’ A rhetorical logic of retribution governs the punishment. As with the
fate of the parable’s dimwitted and ugly Nabal with his wise and beautiful wife,
the evil of the Amalekite ‘falls on his own head’ (1 Samuel 25:39; 2 Samuel
1:16). In accord with such logic, the lack or presence of protection (1 Sam.
26:16) and respect (1 Sam. 26:23) for the life of the messiah have an appropriate
punishment or reward. A related logic is found in the tale of Shimei’s ‘happy
day’ when he avoids death for having cursed the messiah David, because he
had repented and prayed for forgiveness on the day of shalom when the mes-
siah returned to his kingdom (2 Sam. 19:16-24). David’s song of lament over
the death of Saul (2 Sam. 1:19-27) uses balanced rhetoric to mark the story of
Saul’s death with messianic themes. Contrasting Saul’s death with the potency
of a living messiah’s horn, ever raised to bring fertility to his land, David calls
on the hills of Gilboa to create drought because the anointed one lays dead. In a
contrasting discourse with David’s song, Lamentation 4:20 presents Yahweh’s
messiah as cause of life’s breath, in much the same manner that Merneptah and
other pharaohs before him had brought the breath of life to the nations under
their patronage. In David’s song, Saul’s protection is gone, to be likened to an
unoiled shield. Other themes cluster: rather than announcing the good news of
victory over Saul, as, for example, the good news of victory over chaos had been
broadcast throughout the world at Ramses IV’s birth, Saul’s death must not be
mentioned at all, lest the Philistines (Ps. 2:2’s ‘nations’) – those not dedicated to
41. See the discussion of 2 Sam. 15 in T. L. Thompson, ‘If David had not Climbed the
Mount of Olives,’ in J. C. Exum (ed.), Virtual History and the Bible (Leiden: Brill, 2000),
42–58.
42. For the following, see Thompson, The Bible in History, 45–52.
43. Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Merneptah.’
196 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
In the colophon of David’s last song (2 Sam. 23:1-7), a song that is structur-
ally parallel to Moses’ last song to the tribes of Jacob (Deut. 33) as well as to
Jacob’s own last song to his sons (Gen. 49),46 David is identified as ‘the messiah
of Jacob’s God, whom the Most High raised up.’ He is interestingly identified
as the darling of Israel’s songs, through whom the spirit of Yahweh speaks and
finds voice. The continuation of the song attributes to David metaphors that
richly cluster around the motif of the messiah in the songs of the Psalter, just as
they do around the figure of the Babylonian king in the ritual of the Akitu festi-
val and of the pharaohs in their hymns.47 Like both Solomon and Hammurapi,
David rules over men in righteousness. Like that of his Babylonian counter-
part, David’s rule is carried out with humility. As in Psalm 110:3 and in the
hymns about the pharaohs of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, David
is likened to the dawn. His rule is transcendent, with an eternal dynasty whose
covenant is established in transcendence (Ps. 89:20-38). Also like the pharaoh,
44. See I. Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty in History and Tradition, CIS (London:
T&T Clark, 2004).
45. Heintz, ‘Royal Traits,’ 63. For this type of metaphor, particularly involving the analogy
of the roar of thunder, bulls, and lions, see also Num. 23:24; 24:8-9; Deut. 33:17; Ps.
18:14; 22:13-14; 29:3-9; Job 16:9-10 and Amos 3:8.12; a perhaps competitive use of the
lion as a metaphor for Judah is in Gen. 49:9.
46. Thompson, ‘Holy War.’
47. Ibid.; Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Merneptah.’
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 197
he is responsible both for fertility and the determination of fate: the discernment
between what grows green and what is cast away as brambles (Ps. 1:3-4). If one
considers the themes which meaningfully cluster within a psalm, or a song’s
function as an expression of specific intellectual tropes, Psalm 104 unquestion-
ably needs to be considered in the classification of the Bible’s most messianic
psalms,48 though it has neither a messiah nor a David as its protagonist. This
classic messianic cluster of themes, reflecting divine presence in this world, is
rather associated directly with Yahweh, much as its predecessor, the Egyptian
hymn to the sun god, had associated these same thematic elements with the Aten
rather than with his king, Akhenaten.
A similar association of motifs, centering on Yahweh’s messiah, identifies
Psalm 2 in its role with Psalm 1 as introduction to the Psalter, and, as such, as
a Psalm of David.49 The setting which opens Psalm 2, of the nations in uproar
and the kings of the earth in a conspiracy against Yahweh and his messiah to
break the chains that bind them, is a classic of a great king at war.50 A victory
stele of Seti I at Beth Shan opens the narrative of the war with a description
of a conspiracy gathered at Hamath and allied with Pella.51 A similar opening
describing the enemy in uproar introduces Seti I’s victory against the Shasu, who
were ‘plotting rebellion’: ‘Their tribal chiefs are gathered in one place, waiting
on the mountain ranges of Kharu.’52 Similarly, in the annals of Shalmaneser
III, the description of the recurrent campaigns against Syria and Palestine are
frequently introduced with the stock rebellion of the ‘12 kings of Hatti’53 and
Sargon II offers us many well-known examples of rebellion as a stereotypical
casus belli against the powers of chaos.54 These inscriptions hold implicit the
king’s role as servant of the universal God and, as such, patron over all nations.
A nation at war with the great king is, ipso facto, a nation in rebellion against
the divine. One might well argue that the role of the nations in inscriptions is to
go into conspiracy and rebellion, so that the king, in trampling on them in battle,
might use them as examples for his messianic role of setting chaos in order and
creating a new world.55 Psalm 2:3’s use of the metaphor of chains to describe the
bonds of Yahweh’s patronage, as the messiah’s advice to the kings of the earth to
learn the fear of Yahweh and to submit to him with trembling, are stereotypical
motifs of holy war. The short song of Jer 5:4-6 turns these same motifs against
Jerusalem, whose great men have similarly broken from Yahweh’s patronage.56
The role of his anointed as enforcer of Yahweh’s patronage is essential to an
understanding of the messiah. As in Psalm 2, it is well captured in the irony of
Yahweh’s laughing scorn and anger expressed in this passage of Jeremiah. This
king enthroned on Zion finds perhaps its richest ironic illustration in the story of
the disaster which overcomes Sennacherib’s general and his troops because of
laughing scorn in Isaiah 37–38, when Hezekiah, in his tears and prayer, fills the
role of Yahweh’s suffering and repenting messiah. Having scorned Hezekiah’s
fear of Yahweh, the Assyrians suffer retribution for their hubris, while Hezekiah
– in his role as messianic model of humility – prays for Jerusalem’s remnant
in the temple. The Assyrian army is struck down by Yahweh overnight, and
Sennacherib himself dies in the retributive logic of his own temple prayer (Isa.
37:38).57 Isaiah 38:3-5’s reiteration of Hezekiah’s prayer in the temple and mes-
sage to Isaiah in 37:1-5, illustrates the child’s voice which protects one in Psalm
8:3. The messianic child of a new Jerusalem which did not have strength to be
born in Isaiah 37 has his prayer heard and his tears seen in Isaiah 38:5-6. Like
the great kings of the Babylonian Akitu and Egyptian Sed festivals, Hezekiah is
given another fifteen years of life and his city finds peace in his day.58 Another
thematic element of major importance in Psalm 2’s use of the messiah is the
divine declaration or decree that he is Yahweh’s son, born on that day by God
(Ps. 2:7). This is comparable to the official publication of cosmic joy and good
news at the accession to the throne of Ramses IV: ‘O happy day! Heaven and
earth are in joy, for you are the great lord of Egypt.’59 Similar to the messianic
son of Yahweh of Psalm 2:7, Ramses IV is the son of Re. As Horus, Ramses,
like Akhenaten before him, takes the throne of his father ‘who sent him forth.’60
Similar to Ramses rule and protection over all nations, Psalm 2’s king and
messiah governs Yahweh’s kingdom: the nations are in his patronage, which
embraces the entire world. Like Merneptah, who banishes wrong at his acces-
sion and causes evildoers to fall on their face, Psalm 2’s messiah is given the
55. See especially M. Liverani, Prestige and Interest, 126–34; Hjelm and Thompson,
‘Merneptah’ and Thompson, ‘Holy War.’
56. For a discussion of the role of Israel and Judah as primary targets for the Bible’s theme
of holy war, see Thompson, ‘Holy War.’
57. On the Hezekiah story, see Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty.
58. See Chapters 14 and 15, this volume. Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty, also draws
on the reverse implications of the child as Assyria’s destiny, without strength for birth as
defining this ‘day of need, punishment and shame’ (Isa. 37:3).
59. See J. Wilson in ANET, 378–9; also the similar text regarding Merneptah’s accession to
the throne in ANET, 378.
60. On the motif of Yahweh giving birth to the messiah, see Chapter 14, this volume.
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 199
power to shatter and crush the nations. Finally, Psalm 2 closes with the phrase:
‘happy are those who seek refuge in him,’ a verse which reiterates the beatitudes
of Psalm 1’s eightfold contrast between the way of righteousness and the way of
the ungodly. The announcement of Ramses IV’s accession presents a similarly
structured ninefold version of this poor man’s song in order to describe the
‘happy day’ for those who come under the king’s divine patronage, a trope that
plays a central role in the Bible’s messianic tradition:
They who were fled have come back to their towns; they who were hidden
have come forth again.
They who were hungry are sated and gay; they who were thirsty are drunken.
They who were naked are clothed in find linen; they who were dirty are clad
in white.
They who were in prison are set free; they who were fettered are in joy.
But troublemakers have become peaceful.61
This song marks the messiah with the power to determine destiny. The thematic
gap between the positive cadences of Ramses IV’s song and Psalm 1’s sectarian
contrasts are easily and explicitly linked through the variant in Hannah’s song
in 1 Samuel 2:4-9, which similarly has eight parallel segments and a ninth cap-
ping the closure:
The bows of heroes are broken; but the weak are strapped in strength.
Those who were filled must sell themselves for bread; but the hungry are no
longer in need.
The barren bear seven; but the mother of many is left alone.
Yahweh kills and he brings to life; he sends down to She’ol; and he brings
back.
Yahweh makes poor and he makes rich; he humiliates and gives pride.
He raises the poor from the dust and lifts the needy from the dunghill;
he sets them among nobility and gives them seats of honor.
The pillars of the earth belong to Yahweh; he has set the world on them.
He protects the steps of the pious; but the godless die in darkness
For it is not by strength that men prevail.
Comparable cadences can be recognized not only in the teaching of the beati-
tudes, but in the response that Luke has his Jesus give to the disciples of John
who ask whether he is ‘the one who it to come, or are we to look for another…
Go and tell John what you have seen and heard’:
61. ANET, 379. The very close association between songs of blessings and curses and the
poor man’s song is argued systematically in T. L. Thompson, The Messiah Myth: The
Ancient Near Eastern Roots of Jesus and David (New York: Basic Books, 2005).
200 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
As Hezekiah sought refuge with Yahweh, and as the humility of his prayers and
tears became the turning point of his story, creating a narrative imitatio illustrat-
ing the messianic tropes of Psalms 2:12 and 8:3, the songs within the narratives
of 1–2 Samuel also reflect a similar pedagogical purpose, interpreting the role of
the messiah as representative of piety. As Hannah’s ‘poor man’s song’ goes over
into a citation of Psalm 1:6 (= 1 Sam. 2:9ab), it supports not only a teacher’s
statement of universal value (1 Sam. 2:9c: ‘It is not by strength that men pre-
vail’), but an interpretation that provides a key to understanding the Saul–David
narrative as illustrating messianic virtues.63 The song of 2 Samuel 22 (= Ps. 18),
whose placement under Yahweh’s protection ‘from all his enemies’ reiterates
1 Samuel 7’s evocation of God’s eternal kingdom, closes the David story with
a similar secondary voice. It paraphrases David’s significance as illustrator of
piety and offers an interpretive key for its narrative. In the Psalter, Psalm 18
takes its place among the small group of thirteen psalms which have been given
an illustrative and dramatizing setting within the events of the David tradition.64
The Psalm itself, however, is not limited to this context as part of the David
narrative. Like Psalm 89, it is sung within the greater biblical tradition of the
messiah. Not only does the heading avoid identifying Saul as among David’s
enemies, it seems unaware of an equally anointed Absalom. By placing the
song at the end of his mortal days, the heading makes specific and transient life
a universal and representative role for all those seeking refuge with Yahweh
(Ps. 89:3). Furthermore, verse 7 has Yahweh hear his messiah’s voice in the
Psalter’s temple, much in the manner that Yahweh heard Hezekiah’s voice in
Isaiah 37, even though the David story has no temple. It is especially in the final
verses of the song within its setting in 2 Samuel 22, which gives a key to the
narratives which follow, that the song takes on more universal overtones. As in
Psalm 89, the theme of Yahweh’s eternal hesed given to the messiah, is attrib-
uted to David’s successors. It is, in fact, not David, himself, which is the focus of
the song sung in 2 Samuel 22, but rather a mythic messiah and his role in Israel.
62. See Lk. 7:18-23; also Mt. 11:2-6. One might consider just a few of some of the many
variants of this in the wide range of this trope in biblical texts: so Ps. 107:33-38; 113:7-9;
Isa. 29:18-20; 35:5-7; 41:18-20; 61:1-3; Mt. 5:3-12; Lk. 4:18-19; 6:20-26.
63. Compare the strength of Saul in 1 Sam. 15 with the David of 2 Sam. 15 who, weeping,
goes to the mount of olives to pray. See, further, Thompson, ‘If David had not Climbed.’
64. Thompson, ‘Historie og Teologi.’
The messiah epithet in the Hebrew Bible 201
This song reiterates Psalm 132’s reference to the memory of David who had
sought a home for Yahweh. This Ba’al-like, homeless deity has chosen David’s
Zion as the place where the ark can finally find its rest. Psalm 132 is itself set,
in the form of a dedicatory prayer in Solomon’s mouth in 2 Chronicles 6:40-41,
as a prayer for Jerusalem’s acceptance: a prayer for the new Jerusalem as heir
to Yahweh’s promise to David. Yahweh’s acceptance of Zion finds its earthly
realization in his acceptance of the new Jerusalem; for it is that Jerusalem which
is the anointed in the Chronicles’ context. Psalm 89, whose closing stanza is
echoed in 2 Chronicles’ citation, is a song about the eternal transcendence of
Yahweh’s hesed as it is to be announced in every generation (Ps. 89:2) and as it
is expressed through the covenant which similarly confirms David’s throne in all
generations (Ps. 89: 2-5). The song’s progress can be sketched simply: Yahweh
is the transcendent creator, incomparable among the gods, whose rule is based in
righteousness and grace (Ps. 89: 6-15). Happy are all who know the holy one of
Israel (Ps. 89:16-19). Yahweh announces that he has chosen and anointed a hero
as his servant, namely David, to control chaos; namely, the sea and the kings of
this world (Ps. 89: 20-28). This faithfulness will endure even if his sons abandon
his laws. Yahweh will punish them but he, himself, will be true (Ps. 89:29-37).
The singer challenges the truth of such promise, because, in fact, Yahweh has
shortened his life and covered the messiah with shame (Ps. 89:38-46). While so
central to the understanding of the king’s role as divine servant in the ancient
Near East is the virtue of humility or fear of God – the recognition of the limita-
tions of our humanity and the contrasting reality of the divine65 – the Psalmist
here, like Job, accuses Yahweh of a comparable limitation in his understanding
of us. Has he forgotten how fleetingly fragile the life of every human that, in
fact, belongs to she’ol (Ps. 89:47-49)? Psalm 89’s closing expression of horror
so encompasses the virtue of tzedaka that the closing reference to Yahweh’s
enemies scorning the footsteps of the messiah (Ps. 89:50-51), exposes the asso-
ciative transference of the singer’s messianic role. This messiah is, in fact, the
singer – or just as equally – those for whom he sings. Such is the identifying
transfer which closes Psalm 18, marking not so much David or one of his sons
as the messiah singing to his people, but marking Israel itself, speaking from its
exile to ‘the God of my deliverance’ (Ps. 18:47-51). The David story takes its
closing context in the exile, from which Yahweh’s praises are sung among the
nations. This is the significance of its variation in Psalm 28:8: ‘Yahweh’s is the
pillar of his people,66 and the fortress of his messiah’s deliverance.’ The implicit
function of the first person voice of the messiah – with a self-identification as the
new Israel – is made explicit. Just such an ideology of identification with piety’s
values is similarly implicit in Psalm 45:8’s second person song to the anointed
king. The ‘love of righteousness and the hatred of evil’ is the reason that God
has anointed the king ‘with an oil of gladness.’ Transference becomes even more
explicit in a perspective reflected in Psalm 20. The opening stanza addresses the
pious with an everyman’s world of trouble. The singer prays that help will come
to him from Zion and that those who sing this song will rejoice in the victories
of the pious, that his every wish be fulfilled (Ps. 20:2-6). This simple conceit
is, however, linked with a second stanza which functions as mythic paradigm,
confirming its truth. A credal statement opens the stanza: ‘Yahweh gives vic-
tory to his messiah,’ and, given this confession, an appropriately corresponding
prayer closes and binds the two stanzas with a single meaning: ‘Yahweh, save
the king; answer us when we call’ (Ps. 20:10). The pious who sing such song
themselves take on messianic identity. The divine is made present in them. It is
with similar judgment that the reference to the messiah in Psalm 84:10 is to be
read. The life of piety is mythically transposed in the language of holy war as
Yahweh’s messiah, in the role of warrior against chaos, is tied to Jerusalem’s
temple as the location for holy war’s shalom. The singer identifies Yahweh’s
anointed with a shield, not the un-oiled shield of Saul which protects no one,
but a shield for those who live without blame and trust in God rather than men.
They find their happiness living in the mythic peace of his temple.
(cf. Ps. 110:5), which clusters with Isaiah’s previous song’s epithet for Cyrus as
‘my shepherd,’ the one who carries out Yahweh’s will in rebuilding the temple.
An identification of Yahweh’s people and his messiah is also found in a first-
person song in Habakkuk 3, which is structured much in the manner of a hymn
of the messiah in the Psalter (Hab. 3:1b, 19d), illustrating the cosmic war theme
of Psalm 2. Yahweh is described with the metaphors of the divine warrior who
brings terror to all the cosmic powers, using motifs of the sun and moon, earth
quake and the leveling of mountains, the storm and the sea. Yahweh’s arrow and
spear are likened to lightning, as he strides the earth in his wrath. The nations
are trampled while Yahweh’s people are saved (Hab. 3:12-13). This last theme
reiterates a retributive contrast between the destruction of the nations and the
salvation of Yahweh’s people that is central to the debate about holy war and the
new Israel in Ezra and Nehemiah.68 In Habakkuk, the salvation of the messiah
is used to echo Israel’s salvation, as Yahweh is given the epithets of divine war-
rior. In fact, the first person voice of the song imitates a David’s voice from the
Psalter, marking this late69 final chapter of Habakkuk and, in particular, its use
of the messianic figure with an implicitly reiterating function. It is the messiah
who speaks in Habakkuk’s song, addressing Yahweh. In crushing the nations,
the warrior Yahweh destroys the house of Psalm 1:1, 6’s ‘ungodly.’ Implicit to
such sectarian strife70 is pietism’s life and death struggle between the leader of
the ungodly and the leader of the forces of good (Hab. 3:12-15), defining an
eschatological role for the messiah comparable to what we find in the Dead Sea
scrolls. The messianic ‘I’ offers the plaint of the suffering pious (Hab. 3:16),
longing now for a day of wrath – as a day of salvation – turned towards the
impious.
Introduction
This article continues the discussion I began in my article on the Pentateuch and
reiterative history writing in my contribution to the last Copenhagen Forum,1
a study which dealt with the ideological polarity of the mythological motifs of
creation and destruction in a discussion of the motif ‘cosmic desert’ as it has
been used in the narratives of biblical story. It became clear that the syntax of
motifs in polarity, such as that of creation and destruction as expressed in the
contrast of Genesis 1:2’s tohu wa-bohu to ruah ’elohim, first becomes clear in
the many variants of tohu wa-bohu that are used in the stories about old Israel
in the Pentateuch and the Prophets. In pursuing what I defined as the biblical
genre of reiterative narrative collected within a secondary use of tradition and
viewed as an alternative to historiographical composition, it became clear that
defining the function of motifs – and not merely their significance – was essen-
tial. In furthering this goal, I examined how stories recounting the destruction
of Jerusalem past had been used to illustrate an intellectual discourse, which
evokes a mythical perception of a repentant and reborn Israel within the func-
tional ‘symbol system’ accessed through biblical literature.2 Its past, in turn, is
recounted as reflective of a recurrent and transcendent struggle, leading to the
violence, destruction, and nothingness from which this ‘new Israel’ was cre-
ated. In this reading, the need to identify dominant themes and their structural
inter-relationships was central to analysis and interpretation. Why a particular
story is told, and the ideological association it refracts, became decisive in defin-
ing the clustering and patterning of the motifs essential to early Jewish self-
identification.3 This exegetical effort is continued in the present article. While
my earlier article had proposed a perspective that questioned our understanding
of the Pentateuch as historiographic, it identified a number of basic motifs that
are continued in the Bible’s representation of Jewish identity. The present effort
attempts to challenge a different assumption of the historical critical method: the
historical-ideological role we associate with a text’s context: that texts reflect
the times and ideologies of their composition.4 Given the secondary nature of
our traditions,5 the meaning-bearing capacity of our texts in fact far exceeds the
capacity of the biblical authors or indeed the culture they strove to represent.
When one considers the implications of the reuse of tradition – and indeed every
act of authorship involves such – one must consider that as writers we write
what we do not entirely intend: our souls are not entirely our own. The process
of identity creation involved in tradition building is not merely creative (and
certainly does not involve creatio ex nihilo), but is itself created by the tradition
it reinterprets and uses once again. This leads me in the present article to take up
the implicit association of some of our biblical motifs which are at home within
ancient Near Eastern origin myths.
The motif of violence associated with creation mythology is considered
in this chapter from the perspective of the pedagogical function of the motif:
‘wrath of God,’ understood thematically and in terms of function as a divine
anger promoting understanding. Within Genesis’s story of creation, motifs of
divine anger and destruction are found delayed and first enter the narrative in
the garden story and in the motifs that follow, especially in the flood narrative.6
The recognition of such a specific function implied in the association of nar-
rated threats or actions of divine violence – with corresponding responses of
humility or repentance – involves an exploration of a mythological context
that will carry us beyond both the geographical and chronological boundaries
of biblical literature and attempt to include a variety of secondary variations
of any specific tradition’s literary reception.7 An analysis of literary motifs
the Written and the Archaeological Sources (Leiden: Brill, 1994), 358–66; Thompson,
The Bible in History.
8. As discussed, for example, in H. Friis, ‘Eksilet og den israelitiske historieopfattelse,’ DTT
38 (1975), 1–16 and substantially implied in N. P. Lemche’s later discussions: ‘Salme
2 – midt imellem fortid og fremtid,’ FBE 4 (Museum Tusculanum: Copenhagen, 1993),
57–78; N. P. Lemche, ‘Indledningen til Davids salmer: nye betragtninger vedrørende
Salme 2,’ FBE 7 (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1996), 142–51.
9. Notice, for example, the interesting prologue in 2 Macc. 1:18–2:32, including the ref-
erences – legendary or not – to the library of Nehemiah and the collection of Judas
Maccabeus in 2 Macc. 2:13-15.
10. See Chapter 8, this volume; also H. Niehr, Der Höchste Gott, BZAW 190 (Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1990).
11. Here I disagree strongly with the traditional-historical arguments dealing with cultural
borrowing in respect to royal ideology in the study of A. Laato, A Star is Rising: The
208 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Creation stories
While the Bible’s creation ideology is both limited and highly equivocal in its
range of expression and explicit coherence,14 it shares both theme and syntax
with many ancient Near Eastern traditions. Most fundamental in ancient Near
Eastern tradition generally is the association of creation with motifs of violence
and destruction.15 Nowhere is the association of creation and violence more
Historical Development of the Old Testament Royal Ideology and the Rise of Jewish
Messianic Expectations, USFISFCJ (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1997).
12. See Chapter 11, this volume.
13. Thompson, The Bible in History, 5.
14. Gen. 1 and Ps. 104 are among the most developed of the primary ‘creation’ texts in the
Bible, but there are a large number of secondary texts which refer to such ideology (so
e.g., Gen. 2; Ps. 24; Ps. 89; Job 40–41; Jn 1 and many more).
15. See Chapter 12, this volume.
Kingship and the wrath of God 209
clearly recognized than in the Babylonian ‘creation story,’ the Enuma Elish,
where creation follows from Marduk’s conquest of primeval waters in the form
of the gods, Kingu and Tiamat.16 The Enuma Elish, moreover, has long been
profitably compared to the creation narrative of Genesis17 and may well serve
us now as a template for this particular association of motifs. Like Genesis’s
creation story, the Enuma Elish is also well described as a ‘secondary tradition
that has undergone a considerable history of reinterpretation.’18 Not only is the
Enuma Elish used as a dramatic reading within the Akitu – or ‘New Year’ fes-
tival, celebrating the reinvigoration of the monarchy through themes of a new
creation – during the whole of the first millennium bce, but the text as it has
come to us since as early as the Old Babylonian period shares an intellectual
and mythological world as expressed in its dominant themes and motifs with a
considerable range of ancient traditions. In the latest versions of this tradition
we possess, we find it mixed together with elements reflecting the ancient story
of Atrahasis. This is found in the mildly demythologized and reinterpreted para-
phrases of the Hellenistic epitomizer Berossus which can be found in Eusebius
and Josephus.19 Creation begins when all was darkness and water. Monstrous
creatures were created from the water and were ruled over by a female named
Thalath or Thalassa (‘the sea’). In one version, the god Bel divides the woman
in two. Half of her was used to create heaven and the other half the earth. This,
however, is interpreted by Berossus allegorically: that all existence had its ori-
gins in liquid. So too humanity is created from the death and blood of a god.
This origin reflects the evaluation of human understanding as sharing in divine
wisdom. An alternative version likewise interprets the tradition allegorically,
bringing together the motifs of light and air as synonyms. Heaven and earth
were created within darkness, but when the god Bel saw that the land, without
light, was a barren wilderness, he commanded one of the gods to mix his blood
with the ground, that a humanity might be created that could tolerate the air.
This particular version shares much of the biblical anthropology.
The Enuma Elish itself has much in common with the Sumerian and
Akkadian versions of the creation story of Ninurta and Anzu,20 where Ninurta
is the one who conquers the chaos-monster and secures the tablets of destiny,
a role that Marduk plays with royal overtones in the Enuma Elish. While the
conflict among the gods in the Enuma Elish ensues as a result of the need for
divine rest in the face of the noise of the lesser gods – whose fulfillment as a
need for a Sabbath rest becomes the goal of the creation in Genesis 1 and its
absence an offense that defines the human in the Old Babylonian Atrahasis ver-
sion of the flood story21 – the Ninurta story’s cosmic conflict begins in a theft of
the tablets of destiny perpetrated by the Anzu-bird while Enlil was bathing. This
scene itself finds an echo in the Gilgamesh story where the plant which would
renew Gilgamesh’s youth and kingdom is stolen beside the well of his bath by a
serpent.22 In the legend of the Anzu-bird, it is Ninurta who plays Marduk’s role
in the battle against chaos and, similarly, it is the proclamation of her names
that closes this legend. The similarities are also found in detail. The four winds
and cosmic bow and arrow are the hero’s weapons in both stories. Not only
the duel fought against the chaos-monster, but also the subordinate struggles
against eleven monsters not only play in both creation narratives, but this cos-
mos ordering function, so significant to royal ideology in the ancient world,
continues to find a role in the ancient literary world in battle inscriptions of the
Assyrian period, where it shows itself lightly in the stereotypical and reiterated
description of the twelve enemy kings of Hatti-land.23 Like Ninurta and Marduk
before them, the king plays the role of creator in his eternal war against chaos.
The central theme of the Enuma Elish, the war against the sea or primeval deep,
whose biblical echoes have been well recognized in Genesis 1:2, Exodus 15:10
and Psalm 89:10 is also known in early West Semitic texts from Mari to Ugarit
20. Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 175–6, who assumes direct borrowing and dependence. See, also
W. G. Lambert, ‘Ninurta Mythology in the Babylonian Epic of Creation,’ in K. Hecker
and W. Sommerfeld (eds), Keilinschriftliche Literaturen (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1986),
55–60; T. Jacobsen, ‘The Battle Between Marduk and Tiamat,’ JAOS 88 (1968), 104–8;
T. Jacobsen, The Treasures of Darkness (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1976),
167–90. For texts in English, see A. K. Grayson, ‘The Myth of Zu,’ ANET, 514–17; and
W. W. Hallo, ‘The Eridu Genesis,’ in W. W. Hallo, The Context of Scripture I: Canonical
Compositions from the Biblical World (Leiden: Brill, 1997), 513–15.
21. ANET, 104, ll. 2–4. For biblical echoes of this motif, see below. The Atrahasis story also
includes the closely related motif of humanity being created from the blood of gods in
order to free the gods from their work (Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 176).
22. Which as ‘earth-lion’ bears possible overtones of the chaos monster: see Gilgamesh
Tablet XI, ll. 290–96: ANET, 96; cf. Westenholz, Gilgamesh, Tablet XI, ll. 298–314,
134–5.
23. For example, the reiterated motif of twelve enemy kings in the inscriptions from the
reigns of Shalmaneser II and Shalmaneser III in ANET, 276–81, but also the allusions
to the plant of life and cosmic battle that is engaged in the description of Adadnirari
III’s campaign against Palestine (ANET, 281), as well as the nearly ubiquitous self-
description of Assyrian kings as usum gal, ‘the Great Dragon,’ a description which first
appears on the Hammurapi stele (ANET, 276).
Kingship and the wrath of God 211
24. Following Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 176–8; see also Jean-Marie Dunand, ‘Le Myth
ologème du combat entre le dieu de l’orage et la mer en Mésopotamie,’ Mari VII (1993),
44; cf. also the struggle between the deities Yam and Mot in the Ugaritic texts (esp.
KTU 1.5), in which Mot plays a polar role of drought (see J. H. Grønbæk, ‘Baal’s Battle
with Yam – A Canaanite Creation Fight,’ JSOT 33, 1985, 27–44) and – as an example of
reused tradition – 1.83, in which there appears to be an effort to overcome the dragon by
binding him at the mountain (of God?). The motif of battle of cosmic desert and sea is
replayed in Egypt in the Seth-Astarte legends (ANET, 17–18).
25. See Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 185–95; see further W. G. Lambert, ‘The Great Battle of
the Mesopotamian Religious Year: The Conflict in the Akitu House,’ Iraq 25 (1963),
189–90; T. Jacobsen, ‘Religious Drama in Ancient Mesopotamia,’ in H. Goedicke and
J. J. M. Roberts (eds) Unity and Diversity, (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1975), 65–97; also J. A. Black, ‘The New Year Ceremonies in Ancient Babylon:
“Taking Bel by the Hand” and a Cultic Picnic,’ Religion 11 (1981), 39–59.
26. Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 188–9.
27. Cf. the motifs of David as ruler in connection with the motifs of the fear of god, the
limit of the sea and source of light and destiny in for example, Pss. 2:10-11; 4:7; 16:5-6;
22:19; 27:1; 28:9; 36:10; 37:18; 38:11; 61:6; 68:10; 89:7-8,16; 125:3; 139:11; 1 Sam.
10;1; 14:42; 26:19; 2 Sam. 15:25-26; 21:17; 22:29; 23:4.
212 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
this ceremony after the cleaning of the temple in the final stages of the ritual, as
the king is led into the temple Esangil, the high priest first removes the king’s
scepter, ring and mace. He removes the royal crown from the king and lays them
on a chair before Marduk.28 He then goes back to the king and, striking him on
the cheek, leads him before Marduk. Pulling him by the ear he makes him kneel
on the floor. The king then recites a prayer of humility, declaring his innocence
of crime and constant commitment to good government (including not hitting or
humiliating his ministers).29 When the king’s prayer is completed, the priest tells
him ‘Do not fear … the Lord has heard your prayer.’ He will establish the king’s
rule ‘for ever; he will scatter the king’s enemies; destroy those who hate him.’30
The priest then restores the king’s role and returns to him the scepter, ring and
mace. He brings out the crown and, giving them to the king, slaps his face once
again. The text of the ritual comments upon itself: ‘When the king is struck, if
his tears flow, the Lord will be merciful.31 If, however, his tears do not flow, the
Lord will be angry with him, his enemy will attack him and bring him down.’32
While the remainder of our text is missing, it is particularly clear that a central
purpose of the Akitu festival is to re-establish the king’s rule in humility. The
New Year festival establishes a new creation, and the central battle against the
chaos-dragon holds the kingdom in existence in the context of a divinely given
eternal covenant with a king, who is himself capable of repentance and mercy.
Implicit in both the Akitu festival’s use of the Enuma Elish and in much
comparable ancient Near Eastern literature is that compassion is expressive of
the divine while the corresponding human virtue is humility:33 a virtue required
of kings and sons of god, guarding them against hubris. While, the dramatic
representation of violence and threat of violence in close association with both
a creation mythology of cosmic struggle and an implicit theory of kingship
finds many echoes in both the Davidic psalms and 1–2 Samuel, which can be
34. Fish survive the destruction; perhaps, for the sake of a flood story’s logic.
35. This motif is also found in the Eridu and Gilgamesh stories of the flood. For a convenient
table comparing the central motifs of ancient flood stories, see J. M. Sasson (ed.), CANE
IV (New York: Scribners, 1995), 2346–7.
36. ANET, 10–11.
37. I do not find the narrative of this text either corrupt or confused (contra Wilson, ANET,
10). Identifying this story as a doublet-tale – with its essentially contrasting function –
seems the best way of understanding the seeming dissonance created by the narrative’s
secondary composition from variants. Perhaps, the clearest example of a ‘doublet-story,’
functioning much as does a diptych in painting, is the story of Moses killing the Egyptian
and then being treated as a threat by the Israelites in the double tale sketched in Exodus
2:11-15. See T. L. Thompson, The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel: The Literary
214 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
of Hathor. It is Re, himself, who mixes the ochre with beer to disarm Hathor’s
fury and give her the restful sleep the gods had sought. While in the Bible the
motif of Yahweh learning compassion functions to introduce a variant etiology
to the play on the rainbow with Ishtar’s necklace in Gilgamesh: the motif of
the warrior god’s bow set in the sky to remind him of the lesson he has been
taught about the nature of mankind,38 it does not lead to a restoration or to the
re-establishment of human rule over the world (Gen. 1:26-28). Nor does it lead
to the peace out of destruction that Genesis 5:28 had intimated and Yahweh’s
wrath had sought. In the Enuma Elish,39 Apsu’s expressed wish to destroy man-
kind is disputed among the gods and in a first scene of the destruction theme,
it is Tiamat who introduces the motif of repentance,40 setting in motion a reit-
erative delay within the story’s plot.41 Apsu’s threatened wrath strikes such
fear among the gods that they are paralyzed. The ensuing silence has Apsu fall
asleep. Ea then, playing the role of priest in the Akitu festival, removes all of the
symbols of royal office from Apsu, kills him and puts the royal adviser Mummu
in chains. Ea builds a temple over Apsu and lives there with his bride, Damkina.
A child is born to them ‘in the heart of Apsu.’ This savior is described as the
son of the sun god; indeed, himself, ‘the sun of the gods.’ He is Marduk, with
a double portion of divinity. Anu creates the four winds and gives them to the
child Marduk as his toys. The plot thereby enters a reiteration of the motif of
noise that finds Tiamat sleepless from the noise of the baby and soon ready to
stand at the head of the gods’ rebellion. It is in this struggle with and final defeat
of the forces of darkness that Marduk, the son of the sun god, takes up the power
of kingship among the gods.
With a comparable reiteration of plot as its goal, Genesis 9:2 predicts a world
after the flood ruled by ‘bitterness and terror.’ Such is the nature of human
governance. The function of reiteration in both of our stories needs to be under-
stood heuristically: establishing both the inevitability of the conflict as well as
of the destiny of the world created from such conflict. It is also plot orientated:
both delaying the resolution of the conflict and building to a crescendo to the
climax in, respectively, Marduk’s battle with Tiamat and Yahweh’s destruction
of Israel in the desert. This wilderness destruction, in which Israel is marked
as a surviving remnant, allows the development of a never-ending story, to be
expanded throughout the biblical narrative to the fall of Jerusalem and beyond.
As in Genesis 9:2, concerning the role of humanity in this world, motifs associ-
Formation of Genesis and Exodus 1–23 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987),
135.
38. See the discussion in N. P. Lemche, ‘Are We Europeans Really Good Readers of Biblical
Texts and Interpreters of Biblical History?,’ JNSL 25/1 (1999), 185–99.
39. As in the speech of Apsu in Tablet 1, ll. 39–40: ‘I will destroy them and put an end to
their uproar, let peace be reestablished that we might have rest.’
40. Tablet I, ll. 45–6: she declares: ‘shall we wipe out our descendents: even though they
bare themselves terribly, let us accept this with patience.’
41. Tablet I, ll. 55–125. Similarly, in the flood story of Gilgamesh, Ea revolts and gives the
secret of the gods to Utnapishtim asleep in his reed hut.
Kingship and the wrath of God 215
ated with the powers of the sea are aligned against creation, rather than with an
ideal king’s just and humble rule of the world. The reiterated battle with the sea
is intimated in Exodus 15:23’s entrance to the wilderness chain of narrative with
the use of the motif ‘waters of bitterness,’ which are made sweet after Yahweh’s
victory over the sea (also Num. 5:18-19, 23-24). The other half of Genesis 9:2’s
motif-couplet finds a similar reiteration in 1 Samuel 2:4, rendering none other
than ‘fearful troops’ made harmless by the promised birth of Hannah’s divine
son that opens a cycle of stories with its center in the rule of David (who in the
Psalter takes up a role comparable to Marduk’s divine sonship) to fight the battle
against chaos’ forces.42 In a plot-oriented context, threatened violence followed
by repentance finds a double rendition in the Moses–Yahweh debates of the wil-
derness narrative about the golden calf. It is the people’s noise when they ‘rise
up to play’ (Exod. 32:6) that leads to Yahweh’s wrath and his threat to destroy
them (Exod. 32:10). Moses objects and asks Yahweh to repent of the evil he
wishes against his people, if only that Yahweh not give the Egyptians cause for
scorn (Exod. 32:12). Yahweh’s repentance, however, leads to a doubling of the
scene. As Moses brings the tables of testimony down the mountain, ‘Joshua
hears the noise of the people as they shouted.’ It is now Moses’ turn to be angry,
while Yahweh reserves his punishment for yet another occasion (Exod. 32:34).
While this threat from ‘the noise of the people’ ultimately will resolve itself in
the destruction of the entire wilderness generation, the expectation of future
conflict and future wrath is reiterated as a leitmotif of Exodus’s plot (Exod.
23:20-21; 32:34; 33:3).
While most of Old Testament narrative uses such reiterated tales of old Israel
as its epitome for rebellion against the divine,43 Psalm 2:1-2 is closer to Genesis
9:2’s more universalist imagery of human rebelliousness. It is especially in
Psalm 65:8’s ‘noise of nations’ that the Enuma Elish’s rebellious noise finds
its closest echo. Likened to the ‘roaring of the sea,’ it is stilled by Yahweh and
turned into ‘shouts of joy’ (Ps. 65:9). National epitome is combined with univer-
salist imagery in a reiteration of Psalm 65’s war against chaos in an expansive
addition to Isaiah 17’s oracle of Damascus illustrating ‘that day’ of Yahweh’s
coming wrath. ‘Oh, the noise of many nations … the peoples roar like the roar
of the sea’ (Isa. 17:12-13). This is an uproar that evokes divine wrath: ‘Behold in
the evening: terror; and in the morning: they are nothing’ (Isa. 17:14a). The text
adds an interesting peshering gloss: ‘This is the fate of those who plunder us, the
lot of those who despoil us’ (Isa. 17:14b). Isaiah 17’s gloss is allowed cryptically
to point ahead to the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem of the Hezekiah narrative in
2 Kings 18–20, from Isaiah 36–37.44 Not only do we have common plot motifs
such as the plundering of the gold from Yahweh’s temple (2 Kgs 18:15-16), the
rebuking of the Assyrians for their noise (2 Kgs 19:22; Isa. 37:24) and the night-
time visitation of Yahweh’s plague, destroying the Assyrian army (2 Kgs 19:35;
Isa. 37:36), but the language of 2 Kings 19:28 (Isa. 37:29) ‘because you have
raged against me’ echoes Psalm 2:1’s ‘people in uproar’: a psalm that celebrates
Yahweh’s victory over the nations with the enthronement of his son as king on
Zion, much in the manner of the story of Marduk who is born in the house of
Apsu in the first tablet of the Enuma Elish. That both Psalm 2 and Isaiah 37
offer related refractions of a larger discourse, related to royal creation ideol-
ogy and including the Hezekiah story, can also be argued from the markedly
similar language and structures of Isaiah 37:22-23 (compare Isaiah’s phrasing
with that of Psalm 2:5-6. Similarly, Psalm 2:4’s scorn for kings who make noise
is a converse echo of the Rabshakeh speech of scorn for Yahweh in 2 Kings 18
(see esp. 18:22).45 Nor should the two mildly variant accounts of Hezekiah’s
tears of repentance go unnoticed in this discussion. In 2 Kings 20 and Isaiah 38,
Yahweh rejects Hezekiah in his anger and tells him to die. In response, the scene
of Hezekiah’s prayer (Isa. 38:3; 2 Kings 20:3) both illustrates and echoes not
only Psalm 6, but the most central virtues of one who seeks refuge with Yahweh
(Ps. 2:12c);46 namely, to walk in Yahweh’s path (Ps. 1:2, etc.) in truth (Pss. 15:2;
51:8; 86:11) and with a pure heart (Pss. 15:2; 17:3; 24:4; 27:8; 37:31; 51:12;
84:6; 86:11; 119:10; 138:1) and ‘to do what is good in Yahweh’s eyes.’47 It is
in Yahweh’s response to Hezekiah, however, that the story not only lends itself
to the greater structure of Kings and as introduction to the story of Jerusalem’s
fall, but, in doing so, comes closest to the royal ideology of the Enuma Elish’s
Akitu festival: ‘I have heard your prayer; I have seen your tears. Behold, I will
add fifteen years to your life’ (Isa. 38:5; 2 Kgs 20:6)! The underlying motif is
that of rebirth: the New Year brings new life and vigor to the king, who, having
demonstrated his understanding, and, having come to the tears of repentance
and humility, is allowed to take up his role of king anew.
A comparable narrative discourse in 2 Chronicles 12:1-1648 stresses the
decisive and central function of testing the king’s humility that we saw in the
Akitu festival. The story begins within the significant festival-oriented motif of
the strengthening and establishment of Rehoboam’s reign (2 Chron. 12:1). As
soon as his rule is confirmed, he ‘abandons Yahweh’s law’ (2 Chron. 12:1b).
45. Both Ps. 22:9 and 37:5-6 variously offer reflective commentary to 2 Kgs’ tale.
46. On the integral character of the virtues related to the ‘theology of the way’ cf. T.
L. Thompson ‘Historie og teologi i overskrifterne til Davids salmer,’ CBÅ 1997
(Copenhagen, 1998), 88–102; Thompson, ‘Salmernes bogs “enten-eller” spørgsmål.’
47. On this virtue that plays as a leitmotif of the David story in 1–2 Samuel, beginning with
Eli’s definition of Yahweh in 1 Sam. 3:18, see T. L. Thompson, ‘Das alte Testament
als theologische Disziplin,’ Religionsgeschichtliche Israels oder Theologie des Alten
Testaments, JBTh 10 (1995), 157–73.
48. A variant of a story found in 1 Kgs 14:21–31. The association of the Hezekiah story
with 2 Chronicles’ story of Rehoboam’s humbling himself, is discussed in I. Hjelm,
The Samaritans and Early Judaism: A Literary Analysis, CIS 7 (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 2000).
Kingship and the wrath of God 217
As the father had admonished ‘his son’ in Proverbs 4:2, 4 and, especially, 7:2 –
‘do not abandon my torah’; ‘keep my commandments and live; keep my torah
…’ – so his betrayal, like that of Hezekiah’s, will cost Rehoboam his life. The
punishment is appropriate. As he had abandoned Yahweh’s torah, he will now
be abandoned into Shisak’s hand (2 Chron. 12:5). Here too, the Akitu festival
– with its test of the king’s humility – holds well as a template for our story.
Rehoboam, facing death, now repents, ‘humbling himself.’ When Yahweh sees
that he has humbled himself, Rehoboam is allowed to take up his rule once
again. ‘The princes of Israel and the king have humbled themselves… They
have humbled themselves and therefore I will not destroy them … my anger
will not be poured out over Jerusalem by Shishak’s hand’ (2 Chron. 12:7).49
Other related texts also play on these same motifs of destruction, noise, rebel-
lion, and the enthronement of the king. Psalm 89:9-10, for example, contrasts
interestingly with Psalm 65:8 in that, while reiterating 65:8a-b’s conquest over
the ‘roaring sea’ (within a creation ideology that echoes Marduk’s destruction of
Tiamat), it does not include the ‘noise of the nations’ in the final phrase of 65:8c.
In contrast to Psalm 2 – entirely centered in the theme of an all-too-assured
victory over the ‘rebellion of the nations’ that finds the enthronement of the
divine son as messiah centered within the pietism of its introductory role to the
Psalter50 – the much more complex Psalm 89 sets itself before that victory. The
first half of the psalm begins with expressions of piety (Ps. 89:1-2) and presents
recurrent allusions to the enthronement or confirmation of Yahweh’s son and
his messianic rule (Ps. 89:3b-5, 20-25, 27-30). It expands its creation ideology
to establish Yahweh as king over both heaven and earth (Ps 89:6-9, 12-19) with
motifs drawn from the battle with the sea (Ps. 89:10-11, 26). From verse 31 on,
however, the psalm turns to a debate over the theme of Yahweh’s betrayal of
his messiah. Accordingly, it is here that we meet the motifs of noise and angry
scorn (Ps. 89:39, 40, 42, 43, 46) to the very close of the psalm (Ps. 89:51-52)
where it is the nations’ and the enemies’ scorn and ridicule that is emphasized
and held at the psalm’s closure. Psalm 89 – much in the spirit of the Book of
Job51 – interprets its messianic king’s role as an allegory of Jerusalem’s own
history. The psalmist lends his voice to an ever implicit reiteration of verse 47’s
question to Job’s silent deity: ‘How long, Yahweh, will you hide yourself?’52
49. So David (2 Sam. 15:30-31) who, with his men barefoot and his head covered, climbs
the Mount of Olives weeping to pray to Yahweh and have his kingship renewed.
50. For Psalm 2’s integral connection to Psalm 1 and its role as introduction, see N. P.
Lemche, ‘Indledningen til Davids Salmer.’
51. Hjelm, The Samaritans.
52. The continued vitality of these motifs within the Psalter can be seen in Ps. 93:3-4’s
reiteration of Ps. 89:10 and 65:8a-b, apart from the motifs of messiah or divine son. The
shouting in Psalm 93 is not in rebellion. The voices of the rivers are raised in praise and
affirmation: ‘greater than the deep and the waves of the sea.’ Cf. also Ps. 72:1-4; 96:10;
97:1-8.
218 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
In the discussion above, while the link between the Old Testament narrative of
creation with the tradition in the Enuma Elish of the divine conquest and bind-
ing of the sea – perceived as a force of emptiness and evil53 – is clearly marked
and echoed in many biblical texts, the connection between the early narratives
of Genesis and the power or re-establishment of kingship is dealt with in the
relatively minor roles of the human as ruler of the world in Genesis 1:26 and
9:2. The specific creation ideology of kingship in the Old Testament, whether
of Yahweh or of David as his anointed, engages us with a much wider range
and variety of texts than the creation poem of Genesis 1 or the flood story of
Genesis 6–9. Especially the Davidic psalms and the stories of the monarchy
echo and allude to this mythology. The assembly of motifs, for example, in
such songs as Exodus 15, Psalm 68 or Psalm 89 argue for an at least implicit
association between the flood story and other less explicitly cosmic stories of
destruction in terms of maintaining established order through the binding of the
deep. A variant of Genesis 1:2’s cosmic wind hovering over tehom has long been
recognized in the Enuma Elish’s winds that Marduk uses as weapons to control
Tiamat and establish the order of creation. Elements of such association with
creation can be found not only in ubiquitous associations of storm and wind
with the creative power of the divine that demands humility in human response
(Job 38, 39:37-38), they can also be found within its syntax of polarity with
divine wrath, reflecting the divine power of ‘binding’ and ‘loosing’ that is typi-
cally linked to kingship (Ps. 89:26). While in ancient Near Eastern literature this
recurrent and ubiquitous theme is found, for example, in texts ranging from a
ideologically very similar mythically oriented Egyptian text of ‘The Repulsing
of the Dragon’54 and the wonderful parody, with its motif of the essence of
humanity as humble tears of Re, in the story of Hathor competing with Ishtar
in drunken thirst for the blood of men,55 and in Assyrian royal inscriptions that
wa-bohu: see Chapter 12, this volume. Instead, Hathor is asked to destroy mankind.
Working a motif that is played with equal comic irony in Exodus 1:10, Re is determined
that his rule over humanity is best accomplished by diminishing them, a theme which is
dominant in both the garden and tower of Babel stories of Genesis. The second half of
the text deals with Re’s regret and wish to save mankind from Hathor. Mixing red ochre
with beer, he floods the fields of the impending slaughter with this sleeping draught that
Hathor might find peace from humanity’s uproar. Hathor, Narcissus-like, admires her
beautiful face in the beer, drinks and finds peace.
56. The binding of enemy kings in chains, placing a king under the Assyrian yoke, using
enemies as a footrest, having them prostrate before him as slaves, as well as the Assyrian
emperor’s power of binding and loosing nations under his patronage are all literary and
pictographic variations of motifs of royal authority (ANET, 275–87).
57. Hjelm observes (‘Tabte drømme’) that the comprehensive structure of the Book of
Psalms – beginning in Psalms 1–2 and closing in Psalms 149–150 – throws emphasis on
the contrast between the binding of the kings of the earth and piety’s joy on Zion.
58. Thompson, The Bible in History, 285–8; Thompson, ‘Salmernes Bogs “enten-eller”
spørgsmål.’
59. See Lemche, ‘Indledningen til Davids Salmer’; Thompson, ‘Salmernes Bogs “enten-
eller” spørgsmål.’
60. As we find, in the language of pietism, in Jeremiah 2:20.
61. A connection between Psalm 2 and possible Egyptian contexts has been taken up in
Lemche’s studies: ‘Salme 2’ and ‘Indledningen til Davids Salmer.’
62. Tablet I, ll. 80–84; Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 198.
220 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
a new cycle of ‘noise’ and violence caused by Marduk’s playing and the gods
demanding rest. This leads to Tiamat’s rebellion against which Marduk takes up
the reins of a renewed kingship, creating a new order through his battle against
the waters of chaos. The festival is a festival for the king; it centers itself in the
theme of new birth and resurrection: a new year for his kingdom. Thematically,
Psalm 2 belongs to David, forming, together with Psalm 1, an introduction to the
Psalter, by uniting the theme of dedication to Yahweh’s Torah with the interpre-
tation of David as Yahweh’s messiah and representative of Israel in its cosmic
‘struggle against the nations.’63 Although neither the David story of Samuel nor
Chronicles gives David a birth within the ancient genre of ‘the birth of a hero,’
1 Samuel does begin with such a tale-type; namely, the classical ‘birth of a
savior’ narrative, describing the birth of Samuel by Hannah in 1 Samuel 1–2, a
story that reiterates the Sargon of Akkad and Oedipus birth stories.64 1 Samuel
16:4-13’s narrative of David’s call as messiah, moreover, pivots on the related
‘youngest son’ and ‘Cinderella’ motifs that evoke expectations of ‘success from
unpromising beginnings,’ as in the Idrimi story.65 One could well argue, formal-
istically, that the birth story of David is to be found in the Book of Ruth (esp.
Ruth 4:16-22), where primary emphasis has been placed on the divine grace of
the promised child who – in an interesting variation of the more typical render-
ing of this motif – reverses the hopeless future of virtuous but childless Ruth: a
central motif in such variants of the ‘birth of a hero’ as in the stories of Sarah’s
conception of Isaac in Genesis 18, Hannah in 1 Samuel 1–2, and Zachariah and
Elisabeth in Luke 1–2. It is in Psalm 2 that we come closest to the Enuma Elish’s
‘birth of a hero’ for David. In fact, there appear to be two variants discernible.
In Psalm 89:20-38, David is chosen to be Yahweh’s servant (Ps. 89:4-5). He is
a Marduk-like warrior–hero, given power (Ps. 89:20). Yahweh supports him,
63. So it can be compared thematically with the David Ps. 8; Ps. 110 and especially Ps.
89:27-30. For the ties with Psalm 1, see Lemche, ‘Indledingen til Davids Salmer’; and,
for the role of David, Thompson, ‘Historie og Teologi i overskriftene.’
64. T. L. Thompson and D. Irvin, ‘The Joseph and Moses Narratives,’ in J. H. Hayes and J.
M. Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977),
181–209; Thompson, The Bible in History, 337–52. Among the biblical stories fitting
this classical ancient Near Eastern genre of the ‘birth of a hero’ are the episodes of
the birth of Cain, Ishmael, Isaac, Moses, Samson, Samuel, Jesus, and John. Echoes of
the story genre can also be seen in the references to the birth of Seth, Jacob/Esau and
Jacob’s sons. Influence of the tale type can also be seen in the birth of a child to the wife
of Yahweh or of his prophets in Hosea, Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel (see The Bible in
History, 361–71. The Sargon birth story, which has long been associated with the story
of Moses’ birth story in Exodus, can be found in both Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian
versions and is in Pritchard, ANET, 119. For the story of Oedipus, the central figure in
the Theban cycle of sagas, see the LCL edition of Sophocles by F. Storr, Sophocles: With
an English Translation, LCL 20–21 (London: Heinemann, 1912).
65. ANET, 557–8. Note the flight from his kingdom and the later return in triumph, as well as
Idrimi’s seven years in the wilderness among the Habiru: important motifs that are also
found variably in Sargon’s, Moses’, and Oedipus’ stories. Idrimi’s success as a soldier
of fortune is also echoed in both the David story and in Abraham’s story of Genesis 14.
Kingship and the wrath of God 221
and it is in Yahweh’s name that the king’s fertility-bringing horn is raised (Ps.
89:18.25). The motif ‘to raise a horn’ has an interesting metaphorical variation
in this psalm. ‘Raising the horn’ of Yahweh’s messiah in Psalm 89:25 has David
exercise divine power under Yahweh’s patronage, and signifies royal or divine
‘power,’ reiterating verse 15’s divine ‘grace and loyalty.’ Psalm 89:18’s use of
the metaphor, however, has Yahweh raise his people’s horn on the strength of
the king as their protection. This suggests the maintenance of the metaphori-
cal imagery with its implications of fertility. In 1 Samuel 2:1b, Hannah sings
‘my horn is lifted in Yahweh.’ However euphemistically the metaphor might
be received, the meaning of qrn in this instance not only corresponds well, but
shares the same cluster of messianic motifs, with the more explicitly phallic
motif of Psalm 112:9: ‘He gives lavishly to the poor; his righteousness stands;
his horn is raised in glory.’ Psalm 132 typically reiterates a cluster of motifs
belonging to royal ideology, praising Yahweh’s support for David, his messiah,
including the growth of his horn (Ps. 132:17), the betrayal of the messiah (Ps.
132:10), the eternal and conditional support of his throne (Ps. 132:11-12), the
humiliation of his enemies (Ps. 132:18), the enthronement of the king on Zion
as Yahweh’s temple (Ps. 132:12-14), the ‘poor man’s song’ (Ps. 132:15) and a
context within the piety of the ‘theology of the way’ (Ps. 132:9, 12). Yahweh’s
chosen one is given power over the sea and rules the waves (Ps. 89:26). He hum-
bly fulfills the goal of Psalm 2:12’s ideal of piety, seeking his refuge in Yahweh.
Calling to Yahweh as his father, he becomes his first-born (Ps. 89:27‑29). This
psalm – in which emphasis is centered in David’s role as ‘chosen of Yahweh’
and as ‘Yahweh’s first-born’ – is closely in accord with the David story as ren-
dered in 1–2 Samuel. There are close ties to Psalm 89’s motif of humility in
the recognition of Yahweh as father in prophetic stories of a child born,66 a
motif that shows itself most emphatically in the mutual recognition of Saul and
David. King Saul, confronted by David’s address to him, calling him ‘father’
and declaring his innocence (1 Sam. 24:12), humbles himself in tears and finally
recognizes David as his ‘son’ (1 Sam. 24:17). The importance of the motif of
David as ‘chosen’ and as ‘son’ is emphasized through the threefold reiteration
of Saul’s blessing of David as his ‘son’ in 1 Samuel 26:17, 21, 25.
Psalm 110 remains difficult to reconstruct satisfactorily. Translations of the
Hebrew of Psalm 110:3 are generally awkward, and influenced by the implica-
tion of such texts as Micah 5:6, which uses the metaphor of dew from Yahweh
in connection with ‘the children of mankind,’ and consistent with the enthrone-
ment ideology of Psalm 89:27-30. This renders something like ‘when the dew
of your youth, from the womb of the dawn was on you.’ That is, it is the dawn
that gives birth, rendering an enthronement or renewal67 as of a king in his
youth. Alternatively, the Greek version of Psalm 110:3, while sharing most
of the motifs of cosmic war and transcendent kingship with Psalm 89,68 lays
emphasis on the birth of the king, itself. It is Yahweh that gives birth. Such
a transcendent birth of a divine king is set in a cosmic context and seems to
reflect an independent solar metaphor of the king likened to dew at dawn, born
on Zion’s hill (Ps. 110:2): ‘On the holy mount I have given birth to you like
dew from the dawn’s womb,’ a fully consonant variant of the Zion ideology and
metaphor of Yahweh giving birth in Psalm 2:6-7. It is particularly the independ-
ent variance of this solar metaphor of the dawn in Psalm 110:3 that supports the
Greek interpretive reading comparable to what we have in Psalm 2. Whether
or not an ‘original’ Psalm 110:3 is to be salvaged, both the solar imagery of
enthronement on Sinai at the dawn in this verse and the implications of Yahweh
himself giving birth in the text of Psalm 2, are important theological issues in
need of some confirmation.
Such confirmation has indeed been found in the Enuma Elish’s portrayal of
Marduk as the divine son born to Ea and his wife Damkina on Apsu’s holy hill
on which Ea had built his temple. There is also a very interesting Mari proph-
ecy that relates a variation of the metaphor of Psalm 2, which includes three
central motifs of royal ideology: of the god as father to the king, of renewing
his kingship and of patronage, and, as in Samuel–Kings, building a house for
the king: ‘Am I not Adad, lord of Kallassu, who reared him between my loins
and restored him to the throne of his father’s house? After I restored him to
the throne of his father’s house, I have again given him a residence.’69 Its most
striking confirmation, however comes in the Egyptian Heb-sed festival, whose
function was to renew the divine pharaoh’s strength and vitality in his role as
the son of Re. The Sed festival is a Jubilee celebration, with origins in the Old
Kingdom and traditionally (but not exclusively) associated with the thirtieth
year of a king’s reign. On a small limestone relief at the Fitzwilliam Museum in
Cambridge, Pharaoh Akhenaten is represented in Jubilee cloak, worshipping the
sun.70 The relief is a diptych, a narrative representation in two scenes read suc-
cessively. In the first, the king is presented with his hands raised in an attitude
not only associating David with Yahweh as the implied author’s ‘shield of protection,’
but also identifying the king as belonging to the heavenly world: ‘Our king is among the
holy ones of Israel.’
69. For text, see B. Lafont, ‘Le Roi de Mari et les prophètes du dieu Adad,’ RA 78 (1984),
7–18. For a discussion of the biblical parallel, see A. Malamat, ‘A Mari Prophecy and
Nathan’s Dynastic Oracle,’ Prophecy: Essays Presented to G. Fohrer, BZAW 150
(Berlin: De Gruyter, 1980), 68–82. A. Laato (A Star is Rising, 41–2) associates this text
with an earlier Eshnunna ‘prophecy’ from the nineteenth century bce. In this inscription,
the goddess Kititum functions as conduit for the secrets of the gods to the king and
supports the king in his rule by securing the prosperity of the land. Kititim establishes a
protective spirit to watch over the king much like the messenger of Yahweh in Exodus
23:20-26.
70. Seen at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston on November 16, 1999, in a display entitled:
Pharaohs of the Sun: Akhenaten, Nefertiti Tutankhamen, cat. no. 25: catalogue edited by
R. E. Freed, Y. J. Markowitz, and S. H. D’Auria (Boston: Bulfinch Press, 1999), 56–8,
208–9.
Kingship and the wrath of God 223
of prayer pointing up towards the rays of the sun.71 Offerings are laid out on a
table and the king carries a flail, his sign of office, over his right shoulder. In the
second scene of the narrative, representing the outcome of his prayer – and, by
implication, the Heb-sed festival – Akhenaten, walks upright in procession, his
body bathed in the rays of the sun, bearing propitious ankh and was signs, rep-
resenting life and governance.72 He is flanked by two priests bowing low in his
presence, one bearing sandals and the other a papyrus role. What is, however,
most striking is that the theme of the drawing centers on the person of Pharaoh
in an advanced stage of pregnancy (sic!). He is moreover received by his priests
as the object of worship and celebration. The relief reflects with great success
the function of the festival: to effect the rebirth and renewal of the monarchy.73
It is informative and useful to understand this scene in Akhenaten’s Sed festi-
val as an Egyptian variant of the description of Marduk in the Enuma Elish: ‘the
son of the sun god’; indeed, himself, ‘the sun of the gods.’ Yet, the most appro-
priate passage for interpreting the festival scene (and Akhenaten’s relationship
to the sun god) is one that, as a variant, is much closer to Psalm 2:7’s motif of
Yahweh giving birth to the king than it is to the Enuma Elish. It is found in the
famous ‘Hymn to the Sun-God,’ a central text involved in the long standing and
concerted political effort of the Amarna pharaohs to reorient the Egyptian king-
dom within its new context of empire. Ideologically, this festival is quite similar
to the royal ideology of the Babylonian Marduk’s Akitu festival,74 identifying
71. The representation of the sun’s rays surrounding Akhenaten is quite dramatic and similar
to other representations of Akhenaten or his family blessed by the sun god (e.g. Freed et
al., Pharaohs of the Sun, cat. no. 53, 72).
72. Freed et al., Pharaohs of the Sun, 208.
73. A similar interpretation is given to the earlier Heb-sed festival of Akhenaten’s father
Amenhotep III, two years before his death. In a pair of basalt torsos carved in full relief,
Amenhotep is portrayed ‘with his abdomen distended like that of a pregnant woman.’
Embodying both Min, the god of fertility, and Taweret, the goddess of birth and fecundity,
‘the king can create himself by himself’ (Freed et al, Pharaohs of the Sun, 204, cat. no. 12).
74. While many of the elements of the Enuma Elish have roots in literary compositions of
the Sumerian and Old Babylonian periods, the development of the tradition as centered
on Marduk seems to have originated ca. 1600–1400 bce (Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 174).
It should be noticed, however, that Sennacherib established an Assyrian version of the
Euma Elish with the god Assur as its hero. The politically oriented Akitu New Year’s
festival – establishing the destiny for the coming year – which gave to the Enuma Elish
a cultic context for nearly a millennium, long antedates the Enuma Elish (Westenholz,
Gilgamesh, 185–6). The enduring purpose associated with the annual Akitu festival over-
laps considerably with the more occasional Egyptian Sed festival: reaffirming the king in
his life, reign, and fertility, securing the defeat of enemies and determining the destiny
of the state. Westenholz points to the Jewish holidays of Rosh Hashana and Yom Kippur
continuing elements of this tradition, citing the reiterated prayer: ‘On Rosh Hashana it
will be determined and on Yom Kippur it will be confirmed: who will live and who will
die, who will be raised up and who brought low, who shall die by the sword and who
of plague … However, prayer, repentance and a contrite heart can change the severe
judgment’ (Westenholz, Gilgamesh, 195).
224 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
kingship with both the creative and governing roles of the transcendent.75 In the
introduction to the hymn, the song is identified as a song of praise to the Sun
offered by Akhenaten himself.76 Identifying the role of the rays of the sun –
throughout all the countries of the world – as an army of divine forces fighting
against those who resist the subjugation of these countries to the pharaoh, the
sun deity’s beloved son. Metaphorically, the dawn driving away darkness illus-
trates divine support for the pharaoh’s imperial conquest and rule (lines 2–4).
The song is universal in scope and involves the whole of creation. It identifies
the sun explicitly with the rule of the Egyptian empire over Syria and Nubia,
controlling the destinies of all and bringing the Nile to them that they might live
(lines 7–10). The rule of the sun is the source of all fertility, of breath and life
itself (lines 5–6). In the closing stanza, the song addresses its royal ideology in
a paraphrase of a story that places the destiny of creation in the pharaoh’s hands.
Akhenaten, as divine son ‘holding the sun in his heart,’ is recognized as the sole
source of divine knowledge and strength – the sole mediator between the divine
sun and humanity. The power over human destiny expressed by the burning rays
of the sun on earth is the power over life and death: ‘At your dawn, they live; in
your setting, they die… . Since you created the earth, you bring them to life for
your son who [himself] came forth from your body of fire, … Akhenaten, living
and youthful for ever and ever.’
In its closure, the song not only offers a striking parallel to the reinvigora-
tion of the king and royal governance of the Akitu festival, it also presents a
textual variant of the pictorial metaphor in Akenaten’s diptych, celebrating the
pharaoh’s renewed fertility during the Sed festival. In the hymn, it is the sun’s
rays themselves which form that ‘body of fire’ giving birth to its son the king.
In the diptych, the flames become marks of fertility and of divine grace, as it
is the pharaoh himself who prepares to give birth. In the more distant biblical
variation on this motif in Psalm 2, it is a heavenly Yahweh who gives birth to
his son the king and who enthrones him on his holy mountain. The rising of
75. The ‘Hymn to the Sun-God’ is also called the ‘Great Hymn to Aten.’ The song is pre-
served in five variants from tombs of the period, the best of which comes from the tomb
of Ay, the Commander of Akhenaten’s chariotry during Akhenaten’s reign and also pha-
raoh from 1322–1319, after the death of Tutankhamen (Freed et al., Pharaohs of the Sun,
26 and 99. English translations can be found in J. H. Breasted, The Dawn of Conscience
(New York: Doubleday, 1933), 281–6; ANET, 369–71; and M. Lichtheim, ‘The Great
Hymn to the Aten,’ in W. W. Hallo (ed.), The Context of Scripture (Leiden: Brill, 1997),
44–6. For the chronology, see W. J. Murnane, ‘The History of Ancient Egypt,’ in J. M.
Sasson (ed.), CANE 2 (New York: Doubleday, 1995), 712–14.
76. The attribution of this hymn to Akhenaten reflects a well-known literary trope. (Cf. the
opening lines of The Instruction of King Amenemhet – ANET, 418–19 – which speak
of the instruction which the king gave to his son.) The hymn to the Sun God should be
understood to reflect the ideology of his successors. In the tradition of posthumous attri-
bution, the hymn is described on the walls of Ay’s tomb as representing and following
the teaching of Akhenaten, arguing that this king himself gave instruction for it (Freed
et al., Pharaohs of the Sun, 99).
Kingship and the wrath of God 225
the kings of the earth – like the lions rising in the darkness against Akhenaten’s
sun – rise in the Bible’s song against Yahweh and his messiah who hold them
imprisoned and bound in chains. The messiah – like Akhenaten – is a divine
mediator and determiner of the world’s destiny. He rules over all the peoples of
the world. Although the Amarna Sed festival and its closely associated ‘Hymn
to the Sun God’ help considerably in recognizing that the divine son-ship of
the messiah is reflected in two variant representations, in Psalm 2 and Psalm
89, the biblical evocation of ancient Near Eastern tradition is not limited to the
motif of divine childbirth or to the representation of the king as son of God and
mediator between God and this world. The motifs of both ‘cosmic war’ and
‘new creation’ create close thematic associations between the ‘Hymn to the
Sun’ and the Bible – associations which have had a profound effect on biblical
poetry, especially with Psalm 104.77 Psalm 104, itself, is a universalist creation
hymn, dedicated to the divine Yahweh as the sun. While many direct parallels
can be easily established between the motifs of Psalm 104 and the much earlier
Egyptian song, the extensive influence of such motifs and metaphors throughout
biblical poetry and mythology supports the usefulness of the Enuma Elish as
a guide or template for our comparative survey. It so affirms the multiple con-
nections of creation and royal ideologies in both the Enuma Elish with its Akitu
festival and the Egyptian traditions that one might well borrow our Egyptian
hymn’s underground Nile waters to forward an hypothesis of an inter-related
literary stream in antiquity, which waters many intellectual worlds, separated
though they are linguistically, geographically, and chronologically.
Viewing the biblical tradition from the perspective of Akhenaten’s hymn,
one not only finds a similar solar imagery in Psalm 104:2’s identification of
Yahweh with the sun, but the metaphor of the Nile – which in Egypt flows
through the underworld – that it might rise and provide rain from the heav-
ens for the fields and the towns of the ‘distant foreign countries’ of Asia, finds
echoes in the separation of the waters above and below the earth in Genesis
1:6-7. So one might also argue that this universalist metaphor of the Nile going
underground that it might rise once again in Asia is a close functional vari-
ant of the river which waters the garden in Eden, and in leaving the garden,
becomes the four rivers watering the entire world (Gen. 2:10-14). This motif of
the Nile finds reiteration again in Psalm 104:6’s more distant, Mesopotamian-
oriented, creation metaphor of Yahweh controlling the deep, which imagery
itself is echoed in the motifs of the mountains covered and uncovered in the
flood story. Yahweh not only binds the sea, but determines its destiny as a life
giving function of the creation. Variously, this same function of the Egyptian
motif is reiterated in Psalm 104:10’s metaphor of springs arising in the rivers
flowing between the mountains, providing drink and food for animals, birds and
man (Ps. 110:11‑14). This motif of life-bringing water itself has its parallel in
77. The connection with Ps. 104 is well recognized, pointed out long ago by J. Breasted, The
Dawn of Conscience, 366–70. See also P. Auffret, Hymn d’Egypte et d’Israel: Etudes de
structure litteraires, OBO 34 (Freiburg: Universitätsverlag, 1981).
226 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
the Hymn to the Sun’s motif of life from the rising of the sun, creating fertility
in women and men, maintaining and nursing a child in the womb of his mother
(cf. Gen. 4:1), and particularly in the strikingly beautiful springtime motif of
the sun creating breath to sustain us all. The contrast in the hymn’s third stanza,
between the land in darkness (likened to death) and the sun’s light, can be com-
pared to the Bible’s variant contrast between Genesis 1:2’s tohu wa-bohu and
ruah ’elohim, as well as in the implicit role which ’or plays in the Bible’s crea-
tion narrative.78 Similarly, the control of the world through light and darkness
– while only intimated in Genesis 1’s naming and ordering of days and nights
and in the lights that are placed in the firmament to distinguish and rule over the
day and night and establish the calendar – is directly echoed in Psalm 104:20-
21, including the sub-motif of a lion who comes out to hunt for prey. The reuse
of what is an old Egyptian motif in Akhenaten’s Hymn to the Sun of praising
the appearance of the dawn with upraised hands – as illustrated in the diptych of
the Sed festival – is found in Psalm 104 in the contrast between the behavior of
the prowling of the lions of the night and the work of men in the day, controlled
by the coming of the dawn (Ps. 104:22-23). Psalm 104:24, which has Yahweh
create the world with wisdom,79 contrasts most interestingly to the sun god’s
creation ‘while you were alone.’ A most interesting variation of motif for tradi-
tion history is found in line 6, when the Hymn to the Sun expresses the praise of
the birds at the sun’s dawn, the phrase ‘the ships are sailing north and south as
well’ follows somewhat incoherently, while the next line refers to ‘fish darting’
as the sun’s rays strike the water. Psalm 104:25-27 offers a more functional,
yet still mildly displaced metaphor. Beginning with the sea swarming with sea
creatures without number and Leviathan – echoing the creation story’s swarm-
ing creatures of the sea in Genesis 1:21, which is followed by the blessing of
fertility and feeding – our psalm adds the ships that sail on the sea, and then
opens the motif of feeding (giving a context for ‘fish darting’ in the Egyptian
hymn). When we attend to some of the differences between Psalm 104 and the
Hymn to the Sun, we find Psalm 104, while reiterating most of the themes of
the Egyptian hymn, also echoes imagery central to the Enuma Elish. The psalm,
for example, has not only positive motifs such as life-giving water, but an even
greater emphasis on Yahweh controlling the sea, which flees from his thunder
like Tiamat did from Marduk’s winds. Yahweh sets borders for the sea so that it
will not cover the earth.80 Psalm 104:10-28 present a creation which functions
efficiently. It presents a tamed sea which Yahweh created (Ps. 104:25) and the
psalm centers on the continued control of it. A central passage of Psalm 104 –
echoing Genesis 3:19 and 6:3 – offers a variation of both the Enuma Elish’s and
the Egyptian hymn’s central motif of the king’s control over destinies: ‘You take
away your breath and they return to dust; you send your spirit and you renew the
surface of the earth’ (Ps. 104:29-30), wonderfully expressing the primary cultic
function of both the Akitu and Sed festivals. Psalm 104 does not merely reflect
a late rendering of a borrowed cultural artifact from Egypt. Nor does it reflect a
direct inheritance from the Hymn to the Sun. It is an essential part of the biblical
expression of a much larger tradition held in common with Egypt.
In a hymn of another eighteenth-dynasty Pharaoh, Thutmosis III, the ‘son
of Amon-Re,’ is – like his successor Akhenaten – identified as ‘begotten by
Amon-Re.’81 There is more; in a first person address to Thutmosis, the supreme
god describes this famous king with many of the characteristics which we later
find in Psalm 2 and in related descriptions of the Psalter’s presentation of David.
This can be seen in the motifs clustered within the Thutmosis hymn. This first
David, Thutmosis, is his father’s ‘avenger’ (Ps. 2:2, 12). Because of Re, he is
victorious over (Ps. 2:8-9) and feared by foreign countries (Ps. 2; 11), ‘as far
as the four supports of heaven’ (Ps. 65:9). Re ‘binds’ the foreign countries’ (Ps.
2:3) and causes the king’s enemies to ‘fall beneath his sandals’ (Ps. 110:1) and
those in revolt to be crushed (Ps. 2:9). He gives the king the world as his domin-
ion (Ps. 2:8). Moreover, Re’s heart is glad at Thutmosis’ entrance into the temple
(Ps. 23:5-6; cf. Ps. 84:4) and gives him life (Ps. 21:5). The king is enthroned in
Re’s dwelling-place (Ps. 2:6); he gives the king his protection (Ps. 89:21-23)
and then – much like Akhenaten of the Sed festival – Amon-Re calls him ‘my
son, my beloved’ (Ps. 2:7; 89:28), ‘whom I begot in the divine body’ (Ps. 2:7).
The hymn closes with the declaration: ‘I have established you upon the throne
of Horus for millions of years’ (Ps. 61:7-8; 89:5).82
81. English translation: J. A. Wilson, ‘The Hymn of Victory of Thutmosis III,’ ANET, 373–5.
This rather ubiquitous epithet, rendering Pharaoh’s rule divine is found in the inscriptions
of most rulers of the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, for example, Amenhotep III
(ANET, 375), Merneptah (in the ‘Israel stele,’ ANET, 376–8; also ‘Joy at the Accession
of Merneptah,’ 378) and Ramses IV (ANET, 379). A better parallel to the Akhenaten
dyptich – and the hymn to the sun god in Ay’s tomb – can be found in an inscription
at Karnak in which Thutmosis is described in the first person, ‘I am his (Amon’s) son,
who came forth out of him …’ (ANET, 446–7). Similarly, the name Thutmosis itself can
be translated: ‘Thoth has given birth,’ reflecting Thutmosis’ divine parentage (ANET,
447n16). At Luxor, one finds a text in which Ammon speaks of ‘my son of my body,
my beloved King Ramses (II) … whom I brought up from the womb … whom I have
begotten in the fashion of my own limbs to celebrate the going forth of my ka’; J. H.
Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt: Historical Documents, vol. III, (New York: Russell
and Russell, 1906), §511 [218]. Similarly, an oracle from the temple in Memphis also
states of Ramses II: ‘Thou art my son, the heir who came forth from my limbs’ (Breasted,
Ancient Records of Egypt, §534, 225).
82. Given the long-standing awareness of such variants of the biblical tradition of David, com-
bined with the equally long-standing neglect of any effort to integrate them into our exegesis
and interpretation, we might expect some current fashions in ‘comparative’ Near Eastern
studies to expand on the fringes of critical research, even as such efforts are ignored and
dismissed for a seeming lack of seriousness (see, for example, G. Greenberg, The Moses
Mystery: The African Origins of the Jewish People, Secaucus, NJ: Carol, 1996; A. Osman,
228 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Central to the royal ideology of the Egyptian hymns is the king’s support for
the downtrodden. This is related to the motif of the king’s demonstration of
tears and humility in the Akitu festival. This is often expressed through a poem
on the theme of a saving reversal of destinies brought about by the king, with
a frequent leitmotif of resurrection. One might well describe the most common
rendition of this often sentimentally expressed motif as the ‘poor man’s song.’
At times it appears but briefly in a single line or so. However, the motif can
expand to dominate an entire song. In the eighteenth-dynasty Papyrus Boulaq
17, we find a hymn addressed to Amon-Re that contains many of the themes of
creation expressed within royal ideology.83 In the fourth stanza, immediately
following the destruction of the chaos serpent,84 the trinity of Re–Khepri–Atum
creates the gods and people. In this creation account, Atum is described as the
one ‘who hears the prayers of those in captivity. He is gracious of heart in the
face of an appeal to him; saving the fearful from the terrible of heart; judging the
weak and the injured … When he comes, people live.’85 Similarly, in the other-
wise famous ‘Israel Stele,’ Merneptah is described as the one who establishes
justice ‘that he might protect his people.’ He is the one ‘… who causes goods
to flow to the righteous man; there is no cheat who retains his plunder. He who
gathers the fat of wickedness and [takes away] the strength of others shall have
no children… Ptah said about the enemy of Rebu: gather together all his crimes
returned upon his own head.’86
This establishment of destinies is itself a creation motif. It is immediately
followed by a description of Merneptah – like Ammon-Re – forcing the chaos
dragon to disgorge his prey. The orientation of this kind of song to both crea-
tion and coronation is marked. Coronation hymns are particularly rich in such
motifs, as can be noticed, for example, in the very brief hymn of Merneptah’s
succession,87 which has the singular function of celebration for the prosperity
established by the king’s enthronement. This hymn closes with the praise: ‘All
you righteous, come that you might see: Right has banished wrong [or “Truth
drives out lying”]; evildoers have fallen on their faces; all the rapacious are
ignored.’ With Ramses IV, our ‘poor man’s song’ takes over nearly the entire
celebration with its announcement of the ‘Good News’ of his accession to the
throne:
Out of Egypt: The Roots of Chrisitianity Revealed, London: Century, 1998; K. Salibi, The
Historicity of Biblical Israel: Studies in 1 & 2 Samuel, London: Nabu, 1998; and J. Brook,
Our Rock Who Art in Heaven; Hallowed Be Thy Name, Putney, KY: Sinclair, 1999).
83. First translated by E. Grébaut, Hymne á Ammon-Ra (Paris: Garibalda, 1874); English in
ANET, 365–7.
84. ‘It is his eye that overthrows the rebels, that sends its spear into him that sucks up Nun
(primeval waters) and makes the fiend disgorge what he has swallowed.’ ANET, 365–6.
85. Ibid., 366.
86. Ibid., 377.
87. Ibid., 378.
Kingship and the wrath of God 229
A happy day! Heaven and earth are in joy for you are the great lord of Egypt!
They who were fled have come back to their towns; they who were hidden,
have come forth again. They who were hungry are sated and gay; they who
were thirsty are drunken. They who were naked are clothed in fine linen; they
who were dirty are clad in white. They who were in prison are set free, they
who were fettered are in joy. The troublemakers in this land have become
peaceful … the homes of the widows are open again … male children are born
again… Thou ruler … thou art for eternity!88
In the Old Testament tradition, the best representative of the ‘poor man’s song’
is the well-known song of Hannah in 1 Samuel 2:1-10, which, centered on
themes of the king as Yahweh’s messiah, is used to introduce the Saul and David
story, and finds itself reused in two songs of the story of Jesus’ birth in Luke
1–2. This theme is well known89 and need hardly be emphasized here. Hannah
sings a mythic song of fertility, interpreting the coming story and introducing its
theme as the salvation to be brought about through Yahweh’s messiah. The king
fights Yahweh’s wars and establishes his power in the world. Echoing the related
Psalm 132, Hannah’s song celebrates messianic potency and identifies him as
the one through whom the whole world is judged. A very important variant to
some of the central themes of Hannah’s song is found in Isaiah 58:6-8, which,
in reiterating the motifs of the breaking of chains and feeding the hungry, places
them within the life-bearing context of the rising of the dawn.
Related to the ‘poor man’s song’ is the well-known theme expressed in many
first-person laments centered on suffering innocence: songs which petition the
savior or king for relief.90 This intimate connection of personal piety to both
royal ideology and creation myth is particularly clear in the markedly universal-
ist Neo-Babylonian ‘Prayer of Lamentation to Ishtar,’ where both the themes
of ‘reversal of destiny’ and a Job-like ‘innocent suffering’ are combined within
the text’s own discourse.91 Line 39 begins the theme of the saving reversal of
destinies in an introduction that marks Ishtar as a universal ruler over human-
ity: ‘O Deity of men, goddess of women, whose designs no one can conceive,
where thou dost look, one who is dead lives; one who is sick, rises up; the erring
one who sees your face goes aright.’92 This is followed by a suffering servant’s
song of lament:
I have cried to thee, suffering, wearied and distressed, as thy servant. See
me, O My Lady, accept my prayers; faithfully look upon me and hear my
supplication; promise my forgiveness and let thy spirit be appeased. Pity for
my wretched body which is full of confusion and trouble. Pity for my sick-
ened heart which is full of tears and suffering. Pity for my wretched intes-
tines (which are full of) confusion and trouble. Pity for my wretched house
which mourns bitterly. Pity for my feelings which are satiated with tears and
suffering.
92. This last pedagogical note being amply illustrated in biblical literature, as, for example,
in Job 42:5–6.
93. That is, the singer’s plight is so hopeless that even the crippled and weak are a threat
to him. This motif is brought into the biblical tradition – along with considerable disso-
nance among its biblical variants – in the story of David’s siege of Jerusalem in scornful
repartee in 2 Sam. 5:6-8. David offers reward to whoever ‘kills the lame and the blind
who are hated of David’s soul!’
94. ANET, 384.
95. Ibid.; compare Job 1:13–19, after Yahweh turns and follows Satan’s counsel.
Kingship and the wrath of God 231
Conclusions
The motif of divine wrath within the ‘symbol system’ of the world of the ancient
Near East with which we opened this article, as it is linked with the motif cluster
96. For this particular form of royal lament, see especially Ps 28 (throughout), as well as Ps.
142:1, 6-7 and Ps. 143:7.
97. This motif is illustrated in 2 Kgs 18:22’s speech of Rabshakah as in Isa. 49:7 and Ps. 8:7.
Similar motifs are brought forward in Ps. 69:7-8; Isa. 53:1-3 and Job 42:6 and Ps. 59:7-9,
where it is connected with the solar motif of sunset.
98. Similarly, Ps. 35:22 and 38:22.
99. Here the reference to the ‘Bulls of Bashan’ – paralleling Amos 1:4’s ‘Cows of Bashan,’
who in their crushing of the poor, reverse the messiah’s rule on earth – is aimed directly
at the self-understanding of the Samaritans as shomronim: see Hjelm, The Samaritans.
100. Job 16:9-10’s variant of this verse is most interesting as not only are his enemies por-
trayed as wild animals baring their teeth and threatening him, but also – like the priest in
the Akitu festival – slap his cheek.
232 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
of ‘cosmic war’ that the messiah fights with Yahweh and which plays such a
large role in the Book of the Psalms, is found in many biblical texts. Within the
Christian canon, this theme finds its closure in a marvelous rendition of the myth
in the Book of Revelation 19:11-21. The royal king, God’s word, as messenger
to the heavenly army rides a white horse, the first of the four of the Apocalypse,
while the heavenly army follows him into battle against the nations, whom he
destroys with the rage of the lamb. Their leader, the false prophet – in a reitera-
tion of Genesis 19 – is thrown and burnt in the Dead Sea’s lake of brimstone.101
The metaphor is dense and complex. The four horses of the apocalypse bring
the kingdom of death to the world. The white horse – reiterating the wind in
the western corner of the world – brings exile to the west (just as the black
horse, the symbol of the north wind, had carried Jerusalem to exile in Babylon).
The horses are stopped by God’s angels until God’s servants are – like Cain102
– sealed against the lamb’s divine rage. In this reiteration of the greater tradi-
tion, the heavenly messenger of Revelation peshers Zechariah’s Old Testament
vision of horses of destruction, which themselves have been transposed from the
Enuma Elish’s four winds that Marduk sends against Tiamat.103
The role of David in the Psalms as king and, as such, as representative of
the people, and the function of the attribution of the motifs of suffering and
humility to David as messianic divine son and first-born, enables a metaphorical
transference in the Psalter’s reception. The implied listener to the song – in self-
identification with the nation of Israel – becomes an implicit participant in the
Psalter’s use of the role of the suffering king as representative of the individual.
This threefold role of David as referent in the Psalter: as transcendent king and
son of god, as having sung the psalms within the narrative adventures of tradi-
tion past104 and as singer of a pious reflective discourse of prayer, is comparable
to the functional interplay of the ancient Near Eastern creation mythology with
royal ideology. This represents a reality that is both transcendent and political,
as it does one reflective of a personal piety’s ideals. These three levels corre-
spond to the fields of reference within the ancient Near East’s intellectual world:
namely, the transcendent world of myth, the narrative world of tradition, and the
wisdom-oriented piety of reception. Perceived within the context of the Psalter,
this literary world finds its reference to David expressed formally. The headings
of the individual psalms, and occasionally – as in Psalm 89 – elements within a
psalm itself, set the scene of the song as sung by David within a storied-world
of tradition past, while the body of the psalm presents the transcendent David of
mythology interpreted by the singer as an ideal expression of the path of right-
eousness. The pedagogical message of such texts is never far from the surface.
The polarity of a ‘theology of the way,’ presents us with an only seemingly
This chapter is exploratory and analytical. I have chosen the complex metaphor
used in Psalm 8: ‘from the mouths of babes and infants, a strength,’ because
I find a challenge in its explicit riddle. If this challenge can be met, we might
learn some of the ways in which a less directed exegesis can discover and follow
associative paths that are implicit in antique evocations of meaning that are so
commonplace in the Bible. This text, of course, is very famously interpreted in
Matthew 21:16, in the third of three reiterative episodes. Matthew’s reading of
Psalm 8:3 connects the metaphor of children’s voices with both the entry into
Jerusalem and the cleansing of the temple, and interprets all within the theme
of the proper form of prayer. The psalm’s ‘strength’ which comes from the
mouth of babes – thematically connected with both the son of David and the
236 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
salvation he brings by making present the divine name (echoing Mt. 21:9) – is
unequivocally defined by Matthew as the ideal song of praise. Matthew draws
his interpretation by way of the song of Isaiah 26:1-7, which contrasts ‘our city
of strength’: a righteous nation keeping faith, with the merely ‘secure city’ that
has been humbled. Matthew’s story of Jesus’ entrance into Jerusalem is centered
in the episode of the cleansing of the temple and takes up the discourse on the
theme of the ‘cleansing of Jerusalem,’ which is central to a discourse that Ezra
10 has with Nehemiah 9–10 against 1 Esdras 8–9, dealing with the question of
how Jerusalem can serve God with a pure heart.1 In Matthew, Jesus reiterates
the role of David, epitomizing the righteous nation, for whom Jerusalem opens
its gates (Isa. 26:2). The moneychangers are given the ‘holy war’ role of those
trampled underfoot ‘by the feet of the needy and the soles of the poor’ (cf. Mt.
21:13-14 with Isa. 26:5-6). If my associative reading is on the mark, I think it is
important to recognize that the ‘high priests and the scribes’ also play a dramatic
role: specifically, the generic wisdom role of those who do not understand. They
think the shouting children identify Jesus as David’s son, awakening a righteous
anger at a potentially blasphemous hubris. Jesus’ answer doubles the stakes of
the Psalter’s riddle, which the wise-of-this-world do not understand: ‘Haven’t
you read that it is from the mouth of babes from which the praise of God
comes?’ This, I read, as signifying that Matthew is not talking about Jesus and
the high priests so much as about their competitive interpretations of Jerusalem:
Matthew sets in opposition two views of Jerusalem, drawing on Isaiah’s ironic
contrast: the ‘secure city’ of the moneychangers against a, for Matthew, implicit
‘city of strength’ of Isaiah’s righteous nation; a victorious poor and needy over-
turning the secure. Yet further questions arise. Although Isaiah’s image of the
poor and needy trampling the secure of this world underfoot is not precisely an
evocation of the storming of the bastille, it is not far from it, thematically speak-
ing. It deals with both political philosophy and oppressed humanity’s universal
hope for justice by joining two metaphors. The first presents the reversal of
fortune, which, as a sign of God’s presence in this world, belongs to royal ideol-
ogy’s ‘poor man’s song’2 as, for example, Hannah and Mary sang in 1 Samuel
2:1-10 and Luke 1:46-55. The second brings us the role of the messiah as ruler
over the nations as in Psalm 110:1, which role, in both Isaiah and Matthew, is
identified with a new Israel, likened to the babes singing Psalm 8’s strength-
defining song of praise. If this reading of Matthew is appropriate, implications
of reader-identification become significant, as the metaphors of strength and
refuge, coming from the mouths of children, offer reversals of destiny. It is
marked by humility, as is true of Isaiah’s poor and needy, who are described as
themselves kings with a new world under their feet in a utopian vision of the
new Jerusalem. Depending on the degree to which the whole of Psalm 8 is taken
1. This discourse is analyzed in my article: ‘Holy War at the Center of Biblical Theology:
Shalom and the Cleansing of Jerusalem,’ in T. L. Thompson (ed.), Jerusalem in Ancient
History and Tradition, CIS (London: T&T Clark, 2003), 223–57.
2. See Chapters 13 and 14, this volume.
From the mouth of babes, strength 237
up in Matthew’s citation, Jesus does not play the role of protective humility’s
strength itself, but of what is voiced by the children, which reverses Jerusalem’s
destiny. In Matthew, this is epitomized as ‘Salvation from David’s son; blessed
is he who comes in the name of the Lord’ (Mt. 21:9, 15), and in Psalm 8, this
newborn’s voice is given context within a hymn of praise to Yahweh’s name (Ps.
8:2). However much Matthew sees Jesus as ‘coming in Yahweh’s name,’ and
understands the ideal song of praise from children as residing in that recogni-
tion, it is in the protective strength – that which comes from the mouths of the
babes themselves and from which a new Jerusalem’s salvation derives – that the
riddle finds its pedagogical strength. Understanding Matthew’s text rests in the
implicit recognition of his reading Psalm 8 in the light of Isaiah.
The solution of a riddle is often best recognized with the help of other related rid-
dles. Psalm 8’s epitome of Isaiah’s theme finds a hardly distant echo in the Akitu
festival’s associative commentary on the Enuma Elish, which I have elsewhere
argued offers a template for biblical royal ideology and messianic metaphor.3
Two scenes stand in implicit interpretive discourse: one from the festival itself
and the other belonging to the transcendent myth it mirrors and interprets.4 The
implicit degree of refraction is our immediate interest. Implicit in this discourse
is a world of interpretation. One attends the festival and affirms its realization
of the world of the gods in drama. On the ninth day, the king has his crown and
scepter taken from him. The king has his face slapped by the high priest and is
required to respond – if the festival is to succeed – by crying, with tears, which
mark him as worthy of ruling Babylon. It is such humility that is proper to
humanity, much in line with the ancient Egyptian etiology of mankind (romet)
as deriving from the ‘tears’ of Re (remet).5 This scene of the Akitu festival finds
its counterpart in the festival’s recitation of the Enuma Elish in a scene in which
the newborn child, Marduk, plays with toys which will later be used as weapons
against chaos’s uproar. Anu creates the four winds and gives them to the child
Marduk. The chaos-dragon, Tiamat, however, suffers from insomnia because of
the happy cries of the baby at play. She rebels against Anu’s reign – a thematic
element reiterated in the Bible when Moses and Yahweh became enraged by the
rebellious noise of the people at play in the wilderness – a rage which led to the
first breaking of the tablets of Moses’ torah. Tiamat’s rebellion is put down by a
warrior Marduk with his childhood’s winds become ravaging weapons of war.
It is through this famous battle of Marduk against Tiamat and her defeat that
Marduk, the son of the sun-god, takes up the power of kingship among the gods.
It is in the cries of the child at play with the divine winds that the gods found
their strength and refuge. In a variable rendition of this metaphor, Psalm 8’s
‘strength’ that comes from a newborn’s mouth is reflective of the use of the child
Marduk’s toys, become a warrior-god’s divine winds against chaos in uproar.
This threat, in the liturgical world of the Akitu festival, is guarded against by the
ritual act of a king’s tears of humility.
In my reading of Psalm 8’s presentation of the thematic element of humility,
as of the wilderness story’s noisy refraction of this element in myth, three dis-
tinct perspectives in ancient literature seem to have their role to play. The world
of the gods presents the dominant paradigm for reality in which the world of
men is to be understood as a reflection. A world of kings and the traditions of
the past develop a heroic world of failed imitation and pedagogically oriented
examples of the human. Finally we are presented with the implied voice of bibli-
cal literature: the world of the pious and a world that could be: the world of the
implicit reader, which reflect on the text.6 Two lines of Psalm 8 are implicated in
Matthew’s interpretation and echo the psalm’s Babylonian template. They bring
together and epitomize in evocative association two of the Bible’s most central
metaphors. Verse 3’s metaphor of the child and his voice, pregnant with a grown
man’s tears of humility, is reiterated rhetorically in verses 5-7: ‘What is a man
that you remember him; or the child of a man that you give him attention, made
him a little less than God and crowned him with kavod and honor, making him
ruler over the work of your hands.’7 These two metaphors in Psalm 8 find an
implicit context together of unparalleled creativity. Not only do they define the
patronage of Yahweh as Lord of creation (Ps. 8:2), they also forward a question
about the beginning of ancient wisdom: What is a man? This Asian counterpart
of Plato’s ‘know yourself’ is closely linked to the ancient world’s understand-
ing of our human world as a valley of tears. We must expect that the joy of the
happy Marduk-child and of the Bible’s epitomizing children’s voices needs to
be tempered in their joy by tears of humility if they are to express humanity’s
lot. The gospel’s competitive discourse with Jesus’ debate with the ‘high priests
and scribes’ takes part in a wide-ranging discourse that stretches well beyond
the Bible. The surface of this interpretation in its striving for epitome touches a
pedagogical critique of sophistication’s foolishness that it might contrast with
the wisdom of innocence as a symbol of divine wisdom. Yet, the whole of the
pericope’s resonance in world literature implies a much greater commentary
for understanding a new Jerusalem’s meaning than we find in this single theme.
Psalm 8’s reiterative praise of Yahweh’s name (Ps. 8:2, 10) sets the metaphor of
the strength that comes from a child’s mouth as an enveloping and transposing
answer to the rhetorical question of human nothingness: stilling the uproar of
creation’s enemies and establishing the divine patron’s rule on earth (Ps. 8:3, 7).
6. On both the reiterative and secondary qualities of biblical metaphor, see Chapter 12, this
volume.
7. See Chapter 10, this volume.
From the mouth of babes, strength 239
Neither the close association of these two great lines of verse, nor their use as
paradigm for understanding the relationship between the divine and the human
in the Bible, is limited to Psalm 8. Nor are they limited to the particular trope
of the child’s strength as sign of the humility proper to humanity’s tearful role
in this world. Nevertheless, this nexus of the tradition is particularly useful
in exploring the mythic implications of texts; for the cryptic qualities of rid-
dle, which each of our lines evoke, protect us from reducing a myth’s symbol
system to a particular author’s intention. Psalm 8:5’s ‘What is a man that you
are mindful of him?’ offers one of our Psalm’s keys, by way of intertextual
reference to Genesis 4:26; namely, to Adam’s grandchild, Enosh, when man-
kind first began to call on Yahweh’s name. This not only echoes Psalm 8’s
genre-determining envelope of praise, but identifies the ‘strength’ that comes
from children’s mouths, which the Syriac of verse 3 appropriately interprets as
‘your glory.’8 The key to line 3’s riddle encourages me to attend to the Bible’s
reiterative use of the thematic element of calling on Yahweh’s name, causing
Yahweh to remember and care for his humanity. Yahweh always hears the cry
of the child. He hears Ishmael’s’ cry in the desert (Gen. 21:16-17) and Esau’s
tears to his father Isaac (Gen. 27:38-40). The Abraham story-chain’s dramatic
and saving climax is reached in Genesis 22:7 when the child Isaac discloses his
story’s enigma with an innocent question: ‘Father, where is the sacrifice?’ Those
who understand, will find in Abraham’s answer to the child: ‘God will provide’
a paradigm for humanity’s suffering and a leitmotif of biblical narrative. One
does well to continue through the Pentateuch in this stream of allusion with the
scenes of Joseph’s tears (Gen. 45:2, 14-15), with the Egyptians’ seventy days of
tears for Israel, just as his seventy children enter their exile in Egypt (Gen. 50:3).
There they suffer until a cry of children in distress once again causes Yahweh to
remember them (Exod. 2:23-24).
Although one might continue tracing this well-known reiteration of the children
of Israel calling on Yahweh’s name throughout the wilderness story and into
the Book of Judges, I restrict myself as best I can to the interplay of a thematic
cluster of elements in Psalm 8 with a comparable cluster of metaphors in Isaiah.
Psalm 8 can be read as a theological epitome of Isaiah’s mythic world. It is
particularly in the servant song of Isaiah 49, announcing the good news9 of
redemption from exile (Isa. 48:20), that I find an effective key to the enigma of
strength coming from the mouth of babes. Jacob plays the role of a new human-
ity. In a first-person song, he speaks of God remembering him, returning to a
thematic element that had first been introduced in the songs of Isaiah 1–12 as a
motif which belonged to the Bible’s ‘son of God’ motif-cluster.10 In the Enuma
Elish, this motif is identified as belonging to then recognized tale-type: ‘Marduk
was born in the house of Apsu; his father Ea created him; his mother Damkina
gave birth to him; his was the birth of a hero.’11 In Isaiah, Jacob speaks of a
time before his birth: ‘Yahweh called me before I was born; from my mother’s
womb, he remembered my name’ (Isa. 49:1.5). A variant of this motif is found
in the call of Jeremiah, who – like Samson and Samuel in the wombs of their
mothers (Judg. 13; 1 Sam. 2) – is chosen and consecrated as ‘a prophet to the
nations’ (Jer. 1:4-5) before he was born. Isaiah, giving his suffering servant
Jacob a collective first-person voice to speak for the restored survivors of Israel,
takes on a comparable role of a prophet called. He is addressed by Yahweh:
appointed ‘as a light to the nations’ (Isa. 49:6).12 It is in the reiteration of Isaiah
6’s story of Isaiah’s call that we most clearly turn to the themes of the open-
ing chapters in the servant song of chapter 49. This song helps us identify the
‘strength’ which comes from the mouth of a child as it makes that mouth a
sharp sword (Isa. 49:2), concealed in the shadow of Yahweh’s hand like an
arrow hidden in its quiver. Just as Isaiah 1’s stupid children, who offer the fat
of unwanted offerings, are reiterated in the people of Isaiah 6, whose hearts are
covered with fat that they not understand, stand in implicit contrast to the com-
ing remnant which does understand, so too the mouth of Isaiah’s call burnt by
glowing coals – circumcising his lips – is countered by the contrasting motif
of the child’s mouth become sword in the hands of those who do understand.
In this cluster of metaphors, the innocent, which babes and children epitomize,
bear the innocence of the remnant’s understanding. The question of Psalm 8:5:
‘What is a man, and the son of man that you remember him?’ is a question that
is answered by the child when Yahweh’s word comes to him. So, in Jeremiah
1:4-16, the child is known before he was in the womb, consecrated and named
as ‘a prophet to the nations’ (Jer. 1:5). It is now Jeremiah’s mouth that is touched
by Yahweh and given power to determine destiny and a messiah’s authority ‘to
shore up and to tear down; to destroy and to level; to build and to plant.’ Behind
this brief recitation lies the ‘poor man’s song,’ which in Hannah’s mouth, is used
not only to deride her enemies but to express the strength of Yahweh’s king,
the power of his messiah (1 Sam. 2:1-10).13 So, in Psalm 17:14, the retribu-
tive logic of Isaiah 49, brings this very weapon of strength from the mouth of
Isaiah’s servant, as a sword, which will destroy the children of the godless (cf.
Ps. 7:13-14). Another aid in understanding this cluster of motifs can be seen,
10. So for example, Judges 13:5; T. L. Thompson, The Bible in History: How Writers Create
A Past (London: Jonathan Cape, 1999); published in the US as The Mythic Past: Biblical
Archaeology and the Myth of Israel (New York: Basic Books, 1999), 323–74.
11. Tablet I, 80–84.
12. A similar function of the first person voice is found in Lam. 3, which transposes Psalm
23’s ‘I’ to a first person voice for Jerusalem: see P. J. P. van Hecke, ‘Lamentations 3:1–6:
an Anti-Psalm 23,’ SJOT (forthcoming).
13. On the ‘poor man’s song,’ see Chapter 14, this volume.
From the mouth of babes, strength 241
in a negative form, in Hosea, which, with echoes of the Hezekiah story, speaks
of sealing Ephraim’s guilt: ‘… pains of childbirth come – he a child without
understanding – for the time is not one of surviving the birth of children’ (Hos.
13:13). The density of the metaphor is apparent through its implicit overtones.
In Hosea 13:15, for example, the motif of the ‘child without understanding’
finds its subtle reiteration in the metaphor of Ephraim as a child attacked by the
exile-bringing winds of Yahweh, ‘though he flourishes among the reeds’: with
a brilliantly ironic, threefold intertextual play. This is made most clear through
the evocation of two scenes of the Pentateuch. Hosea 13:1a has already deftly
evoked the Joseph story: ‘as Ephraim spoke – trembling – he was raised up in
Israel,’ alluding to the scene in Joseph’s dream of his being fruitful among the
symbolic reeds of his family (Gen. 37:7). Hosea uses this allusion to prophesy
Ephraim’s coming loss of fertility and death (Hos. 13:1b-3). Ephraim is one
with Psalm 8:5. He is a child of Adam, who has lost the fertility of Joseph’s
reeds and become Psalm 1’s chaff, blown by Yahweh’s wind from the threshing
floor (cf. Hos. 13:3c and Ps. 1:4).14 Similarly, Hosea 13:15’s ‘though he flour-
ishes among the reeds’ evokes a contrasting scene of the child Moses, protected
among the reeds on the bank of the Nile (Exod. 2:3): one who is saved by the
Pharaoh’s daughter when he cried (Exod. 2:6). Even more ambitiously, Hosea
assimilates his metaphor to the mocking blasphemy of Assyria’s Rabshakeh in
the message he delivers to Hezekiah before the walls of Jerusalem (Isa. 36:4-
10). In whom shall Hezekiah trust in his uproar against Assyria? Does he hide
behind Egypt’s broken reed (one that will not protect him)? Tear a prisoner’s
hole in his hand! That is what happens to those who trust in the pharaoh; or does
he trust in Yahweh, whose own altars he destroyed? (Isa. 36:4-7). The story of
Hezekiah’s remnant Jerusalem under siege is an introductory narrative iteration
of the suffering servant songs in which the newborn child has Yahweh’s ruah
protecting him ‘bringing judgment to the nations’ (Isa. 42:1; cf. 49:1). Such
true judgment that he brings (Isa. 42:3-4), for which Yahweh, in the creation,
had called his servant to be the light of the world (Isa. 42:5-6), is not a teach-
ing that is understood by any man, one shouted in the streets. Nor is it one that
is established by violent warfare in which a bruised reed will be broken (Isa.
42:3). To express the peacefulness of this torah judgment, which Israel brings
to enlighten the world, Isaiah draws on the classic trope of royal ideology in a
brief rendition of the ‘poor man’s song,’ which we saw in Jeremiah. It is now
expressive of a victory of peace which ‘gives people their breath to breathe’
(Isa. 42:5): ‘opening the eyes of the blind; rescuing prisoners from prison and
from the dungeon of darkness’ (Isa. 42:7). The metaphorical circle of Israel as
bruised but unbroken reed is closed in the final of Isaiah’s servant songs where
Isaiah raises the image of the servant with Israel’s exile-evoking, reed-pierced
hands of the exile (Isa. 53:5). The integration of the servant songs with Isaiah’s
14. Following the associations argued by Ingrid Hjelm. For a further discussion of this motif
in Hosea, see I. Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty in History and Tradition, CIS
(London: T&T Clark, 2004), 30–92.
242 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
remnant theology closely ties the metaphors of creation with the wisdom of the
child that we find in both Isaiah and Psalm 8, standing in contrast to old Israel’s
men without understanding (Isa. 6:9). In identifying the suffering servant as
Yahweh’s children and evoking Israel’s remnant, Isaiah 45:11 brings together
Psalm 8’s cluster of motifs. ‘You asked me about my children, and you will
question me on the works of my hands.’ Isaiah 45:13 then links – in reiterative
identity – a messianic king with Psalm 8:5’s ben ’adam, whom Yahweh remem-
bers and cares for, ‘rousing him in justice, leveling all roads and rebuilding my
city. This not only stands within an enveloping parallelism to Isaiah 45:2’s ‘I
will march before you and level the hills,’ but it also dehistoricizes the reference
to the Persian Cyrus with a cryptic pun: ‘whose right hand I have grasped,’ iden-
tifying the conquering messiah of Psalm 110 as Hezekiah, the hero of Isaiah’s
central example story (Isa. 36–39).
The Retribution of God: he comes to save you. The eyes of the blind will be
opened; the ears of the deaf unlocked. The lame will spring like the gazelle,
and the tongue of the dumb shout; for water will spring from the desert and a
stream in the wilderness; the baked earth will become a pool and the dry earth
a fountain. Where jackals lived will become a marsh: a home to reeds and
rushes. There a way will appear that will be called: the holy way…
(Isa. 35:4-8).
Along that holy way, those whom Yahweh has ransomed return home, their
sorrow and sighs also reversed to a child’s noises of joy and gladness (Isa.
35:10; cf. 51:11).16 In contrast to the interpretive function that such songs as
Exodus 15, Deuteronomy 32–33 and 2 Samuel 22–23 provide for their respec-
tive narratives,17 the Hezekiah narrative about the king’s rebellion against
Sennacherib, told as a tale of the nations in rebellion against Yahweh, gives a dra-
matic illustration of Isaiah’s servant songs. While much of Old Testament narra-
tive uses either stereotyped variations of Genesis 10’s twelve nations of Canaan18
15. For the identification of the Hezekiah story as belonging to Isaiah, see Hjelm, Jerusalem’s
Rise to Sovereignty, chapter 2.
16. See also the new heaven and the new earth reflecting a similar reversal of fortune in Isa.
65:17-19.
17. Regarding this discursive technique in relation to Joshua 24: see Thompson, ‘Holy War.’
18. Gen. 10:15-20; 1 Chron. 1:13-16.
From the mouth of babes, strength 243
or stories of old Israel to epitomize rebellion against the divine,19 Psalm 8, like
Psalm 2:1-2, stands closer to Genesis 9:2’s more universal imagery of human
rebelliousness. It is especially in Psalm 65:8’s ‘noise of the nations’ that the
Enuma Elish’s rebellious noise finds its closest echo. Likened to the ‘roaring
of the sea,’ it is stilled by Yahweh and turned into ‘shouts of joy’ (Ps. 65:9),
much like the destruction of the Egyptians in Moses’s song of the sea leads to
the dance and song of Miriam and the women in Exodus 15. National epitome
is combined with universal imagery in a reiteration of Psalm 65’s war against
chaos, through an expansive addition to Isaiah 17’s oracle against Damascus,
echoing the Sennacherib story and illustrating ‘that day’ of Yahweh’s wrath.
‘Oh, the noise of many nations … the peoples roar like the roar of the sea’ (Isa.
17:12-13). This is also an uproar, evoking divine retribution: ‘Behold in the
evening: terror; and in the morning: they are nothing’ (Isa. 17:14a). The text
adds an interesting pesher-like gloss: ‘This is the fate of those who plunder us,
the lot of those who despoil us’ (Isa. 17:14b). Isaiah 17’s gloss is allowed to
point ahead cryptically to the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem of the Hezekiah nar-
rative in Isaiah 36–37. Not only do we have common plot motifs, such as the
plundering of the gold from Yahweh’s temple (2 Kgs 18:15-16 only), the rebuk-
ing of the Assyrians for their noise (Isa. 37:24) and the night-time visitation of
Yahweh’s plague, destroying the Assyrian army before morning (Isa. 37:36),
but the language of Isaiah 37:29 (‘because you have raged against me’ echoes
Psalm 2:1’s ‘people in uproar.’ This psalm celebrates Yahweh’s victory over the
nations, with the enthronement of his son as king on Zion, much in the manner
of the story of Marduk, born in the house of Apsu, in the first tablet of the Enuma
Elish. That both Psalm 2 and Isaiah 37 offer related refractions of a larger dis-
course, related to royal creation ideology and including the Hezekiah story, can
also be argued for on the basis of the contrasting contradictions of the mark-
edly similar phrasing of language and structure which is found both in Isaiah
37:22-23: ‘This is the word Yahweh has spoken about him … the holy one of
Israel’ and in Psalm 2:5-6: ‘So he spoke to them in his anger … on Zion his holy
mountain.’ Similarly, Psalm 2:4’s scorn for kings who make noise is a converse
echo of the Rabshakeh speech of scorn for Yahweh (see esp. Isa. 37:22).20 The
two mildly variant accounts of Hezekiah’s tears of repentance should not go
unnoticed in this discussion. In 2 Kings 20 and in Isaiah 38, Yahweh rejects
Hezekiah in his anger and tells him to die. In response, the scene of Hezekiah’s
prayer (Isa. 38:3; 2 Kings 20:3) illustrates and echoes both the weeping of Psalm
6 and the righteous search for refuge in Yahweh of Psalm 7 (also Ps. 2:12c).
Hezekiah walks in Yahweh’s path (Ps. 1), in truth (Ps. 15:2; 51:8; 86:11) and
with a pure heart (Ps. 15:2; 17:3; 24:4; 27:8; 37:31; 51:12; 84:6; 86:11; 119:10;
138:1). He ‘does what is good in Yahweh’s eyes.’21 It is in Yahweh’s response
to Hezekiah, however, that the story lends itself to the greater structure of Isaiah
as introduction to the suffering servant songs. In doing so, it comes closest to
Psalm 8 and the motif of new birth in royal ideology, as in Akhenaten’s Sed and
the Enuma Elish’s Akitu festivals. ‘I have heard your prayer; I have seen your
tears. Behold, I will add fifteen years to your life’ (Isa. 38:5; 2 Kgs 20:6). Both
the Sed festival and the New Year re-inauguration of the king likewise cause a
rebirth of the king’s reign.
Though Chronicles does not include this trope or cluster of motifs in its
paraphrastic version of the Hezekiah story, the theme can be seen in the nar-
rative discourse of 2 Chronicles 12:1-16,22 which similarly stresses the deci-
sive and central function of testing the king’s humility. The story begins within
the significant festival-oriented motif of the strengthening and establishing of
Rehoboam’s reign (2 Chron. 12:1). As soon as his rule is confirmed, he ‘aban-
dons Yahweh’s law’ (2 Chron. 12:1b). As the father had admonished ‘his son’ in
Proverbs 4:2, 4, and especially 7:2’s ‘do not abandon my torah … keep my com-
mandments and live; keep my torah,’ so his betrayal, like that of Hezekiah’s,
will cost Rehoboam his life. The punishment is appropriate. As he had aban-
doned Yahweh’s torah, he will now be abandoned into Shisak’s hand (2 Chron.
12:5). Here too the Akitu festival – with its test of the king’s humility – holds
well as template for our story. Rehoboam, facing death, now repents, ‘humbling
himself.’ When Yahweh sees that he has humbled himself, Rehoboam is allowed
to take up his rule once again. ‘The princes of Israel and the king have humbled
themselves … They have humbled themselves and therefore I will not destroy
them … my anger will not be poured out over Jerusalem by Shishak’s hand’
(2 Chron. 12:7).23 Isaiah, having demonstrated Hezekiah’s understanding and
having brought him to tears of humility, lifts Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem,
as Hezekiah is once again allowed to take up his role as king.
While Isaiah 36:1 began its Hezekiah narrative by placing Sennacherib’s
invasion in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah’s reign,24 creating mild havoc
with the Iron Age chronology of biblical scholars,25 the final scene of the story
opens with the ironic death of Sennacherib in the temple of his hapless God in
Nineveh: cut down with a sword (Isa. 37:38), which I am tempted to identify
with Jacob’s mouth: a sword of retribution, which comes before the child is
born and restores Israel to himself (Isa. 49:2-6). This motif is also reflected
by the sword wielded by Samuel against Agag, the king of the Amalekites,
whose own mother is to be childless in retribution for the childless mothers
of Israel (1 Sam. 15:32-33). The motif also finds echo in the Passover story of
Exodus 11–12’s angel of death, who ‘struck down the Egyptians but spared our
houses’ (Exod. 12:27). In Hezekiah’s tale, the sword of retribution cuts down
the Assyrian king in imitation of the angel’s vengeance, which had destroyed the
Assyrian army,26 but brought life to Jerusalem and its king. Having dispatched
Sennacherib in the closure’s opening scene, Yahweh turns to Hezekiah in the
second scene to determine his fate through his prophet: ‘put your house in order
for you will die and not live’ (Isa. 38:1). Hezekiah responds by asking Yahweh
‘to remember that he has walked before God in truth and with a pure heart.
Hezekiah wept greatly’ (Isa. 38:3; cf. Ps. 34, esp. 34:1, 12, 16, 18). Yahweh
hears Hezekiah’s prayer and sees his tears. Therefore, he reverses Hezekiah’s
fate, rolling time backwards. Like an Akhenaten, pregnant with himself in the
Sed festival,27 Hezekiah’s child that had not the strength during Jerusalem’s
siege, has now renewed life. Hezekiah begins his reign once again. ‘I add fifteen
years to your life’ (Isa. 38:5). Yahweh assures Hezekiah that this time he will
protect Jerusalem. Such an interpretation is consistent with the closure’s third
scene: the sign that Yahweh gives to show that he can do what he has promised.
Offering an improvement on the motif in the story of Joshua at Gibeon when
the sun stood still (Josh. 10:12-14), Yahweh turns back the clock on the sun-dial
steps.
The closure of the Sennacherib story plays with a ‘blind motif’ that was
enigmatically lodged in the message of Hezekiah to Isaiah when he goes to
in Hezekiah’s fourteenth year in direct connection with the attack on Judah. Otherwise,
2 Kings follows Isaiah rather closely. 2 Chron. 29–31 presents a story of the cleansing
and reform of the temple by Hezekiah and the celebration of Passover, beginning in the
first year of his reign. In 2 Chron. 32, Sennacherib invades Judah without reference to
a specific year of Hezekiah’s reign. When Sennacherib lays siege to Judah’s fortified
towns, Hezekiah sees the danger to Jerusalem, closes the springs that are outside the
city and rebuilds its walls. Sennacherib then sends his men up to Jerusalem to address
Hezekiah as Chronicles tells a shorter variation of the story we find in Isaiah and Kings.
It also paraphrases the story of Hezekiah’s sickness unto death in a single verse (2
Chron. 32:24) and closes with an interpretation of the siege story as a story of God
testing Hezekiah (2 Chron. 32:31), while referring his readers further to the narratives
in Isaiah and (possibly) Kings. Hezekiah’s cure is described as a miracle and nothing is
made of the renewal of his kingdom, which survives only in a single phrase of verse 22
that Yahweh ‘gave them peace on all sides.’ 2 Chronicles does follow Isaiah in having
Hezekiah reign twenty-nine years (2 Chron. 29:1), but nothing is made of the motif of
invasion in his fourteenth year or the renewal of his reign for fifteen years.
26. This motif reiterates the angel of death of the Passover story of Exod. 12.
27. See Chapter 14, this volume.
246 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
the temple with his clothes torn in mourning, because of the Assyrian blas-
phemy (Isa. 37:1), creating a ‘day of need, of rebuke and disgrace.’ The motif of
Jerusalem’s affliction under the siege is seemingly resolved by the destruction
of the Assyrian army overnight, in an ironic story of the murder of Sennacherib
when he, like Hezekiah, prays to his god. This day of peace is also Israel’s day
of need, rebuke and disgrace. The singular, seemingly blind motif of the child
ready, but without the strength to be born (Isa. 37:3) reiterates the similarly mys-
terious affliction in the Abraham story of the wife and women of Abimelek’s
household, whose wombs had been closed because of Sarah. They are opened
– together with Sarah’s own womb, when she returns from her desert exile for
the birth of her happy child of laughter (Gen. 20:17–21:2). Abimelek’s submis-
sion to Yahweh, which had marked his happy day, stands in striking contrast
to Sennacherib’s day of disgrace, which itself stands as a sign of Jerusalem’s
incomplete suffering that awaits – like Hezekiah in Isaiah 39:2 – the arrival of
the Babylonians. The patterns of the Hezekiah story are open to yet a further
variation; the particular motif of the king’s tears of suffering, which offers a
self-sufficient variant of Psalm 8’s strength that comes from the mouth of chil-
dren. This motif of tears can be found in two variant streams of tradition: one
which, as in the Hezekiah story, stays within the metaphor of suffering inno-
cence and expands – especially in the Davidic psalms – to many variable forms
of innocence. The other stream interprets the tears as tears of repentance. It is
this stream which is used to transform Isaiah’s – and Hezekiah’s Jerusalem’s –
remnant into a Jeremiah-like repentant remnant: a return-from-exile variation
of a common trope.28
The story’s happy closure on the peace of Hezekiah’s new reign and in the con-
trasting fates of Sennacherib and Hezekiah is delayed by the suffering of Isaiah
37:3’s women of Gerar who cannot give birth. The suffering of the unborn
babes without strength for a new life is a theme that Isaiah readdresses in the
servant songs. The theme opens with the comfort of Isaiah 40, announced to
Jerusalem now that her time as servant is over (Isa. 40:1-2). The song of Zion in
Isaiah 49:14-21 marks this theme with a complex intertextual discourse. First,
by responding to the reiteration of comfort and return to Yahweh her husband,
the Job-like woman’s voice of Zion complains that Yahweh has rejected her and
forgotten her, a theme, that is reiterated in Psalm 89’s closure of the third book
of the Psalter to identify a Hezekiah-like Davidic messiah as Yahweh’s suffering
servant, rejected and betrayed by his God (Ps. 89:39-52). In Isaiah 49:15-16,
Yahweh responds to both the Psalmist’s and the woman’s plaint rhetorically. It
is with a woman’s own metaphor that Isaiah calls to mind Psalm 8’s strength
that comes from the mouth of the newborn: ‘Does a woman forget her suckling
child; does she abandon that which she carried under her heart?’ Isaiah draws
out the conclusion of his rhetoric with considerable bite in his presentation of
Yahweh’s know-all competitiveness. Yahweh boasts to his Zion’s child bride:
‘Even if you could, I will never forget you; your walls are ever before me.’ We,
as commentators, must look to the implicit reference, which might bear such
scornful, superior knowledge.
I have two candidates. The first understands Isaiah’s irony and metaphorical
play as a variant of what we find in the complex songs of restoration, especially
in Jeremiah 31:15-22. Here it is Rachel that resists comfort, and, like Hagar in
Ishmael’s desert (Gen. 21:16), exchanges her voice for those of her children:
refusing to be comforted because they are no more (Jer. 31:15). Yahweh hears
this lament, but responds as to the cry of a woman in labor, whose child – as in
Hezekiah’s metaphor – has not the strength for the birth. ‘There is gain from
your labor; your children shall return to their land’ (Jer. 31:16-17). Now the
child, Ephraim, cries and begs to be allowed to return, repenting of the sins of
his youth (Jer. 31:18-19). Excepting the child as his son, Yahweh turns to speak
to the resisting Rachel: a virgin Israel in rebellion, reversing Psalm 89’s plain-
tive ‘how long?’ Jeremiah 31:22’s closing sarcastic gloss – ‘Yahweh has created
something new in this world: a woman protecting a man’ – is itself a competitive
response to the woman’s love for her children in both Jeremiah 31 and Isaiah 49.
If Yahweh is willing to welcome the child to life again, why should his no longer
rejected spouse, his new Jerusalem bride ‘protect him’ from a Hosea-like mar-
riage, a theme taken up in Isaiah 50? The new creation that Yahweh has made
is also the new Israel: a repentant Ephraim, that rebellious child that Yahweh
will bring back to Zion (Jer. 3:14, 22). It is also a kingdom in which destinies
are reversed: as in Jeremiah 30:6’s vision of terror where young men hold their
bellies like women in labor; so now – as in the good news of the poor man’s
song – all roles are reversed in Yahweh’s new creation.
My second candidate for Yahweh’s reference in his rhetorical question of
Isaiah 49:15: ‘Does a woman forget her suckling child; does she abandon that
which she carried under her heart?’ is less difficult and follows the poem’s own
competitive and retributive logic of reversal. The unexpected answer is explic-
itly positive: ‘Even if a woman might forget her baby, Yahweh will not for-
get.’ The song’s rhetoric finds its function as a response to the Job-like plaint
of Yahweh’s betrayal. Yahweh will not forget. He points to the children who
are coming that, though unrecognized by Jerusalem, are like jewels which will
crown her like a bride. Isaiah 49:8-19’s unremembered children gives us the first
iteration of chapter 54’s ‘song of the barren’ and anticipates Abraham’s nations,
the children of both Zion and her enemies, which, in returning to Zion, mark
Yahweh’s presence in Isaiah 60. The theme of the new Jerusalem’s reversal of
fortune overtakes the song (Isa. 49:19-23): the ruined and deserted land now
overflows with fertility. Not only is the empty land crowded with settlers, but
those that ravaged Jerusalem are gone. A reiteration of 49:15’s competitive satire
is used to close the song with the stanza of Isaiah 49:20-26: ‘Can spoil be taken
from a warrior; or captives from a victor?’ And the unexpected answer is again
248 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
explicitly positive. Yahweh raises his hand against the nations (Isa. 49:22). We
are living in a holy war’s shalom:29 a new Jerusalem’s happy reversal of fates.
However, not only will this newly crowned bride’s children be released because
Yahweh has not forgotten them, but Jerusalem’s oppressors will be made to
eat their own flesh and get drunk on their own blood (Isa. 49:26). In this poor
man’s retributive logic, the evil, which Jerusalem had suffered, is now to be
borne by her enemies: ‘So will all mankind know that it is I that have saved
you.’ The implied reference is interesting as it underlines the quality of the text’s
references, which are far more generically motif-oriented than either specific or
historical. While the Assyrian siege of Jerusalem under Hezekiah is a referent
fitting to the poem’s place and purpose, there the threat of starvation is only just
that, a threat. Far better is the Elijah tale we find in 2 Kings 6:24-31, where Ben
Hadad lays siege to Samaria. A woman asks the king to help her, who, help-
less, answers her rhetorically: ‘If Yahweh can not help you, how can I?’ In a
biblical story, this rhetorical gambit should not be ignored. Can Yahweh help?
The woman speaks again; she has haplessly been drawn into an agreement with
another woman with child. They are first to eat her child and then, thereafter, the
other’s. In this story of a siege’s starvation leading to cannibalism, we have a
crime fit for retribution, and we have mothers forgetful enough of their children
to eat their own! The story has a happy fault: one mother is creative in her for-
getfulness and hides her child from them both for Yahweh to remember (2 Kgs
6:29). Indeed, she knows, as Isaiah 49:15 has argued, even if a nursing mother
should forget, Yahweh will remember his suffering children.
The Pentateuch text of Leviticus 26 lingers behind these tropes as Isaiah’s
Yahweh remembers and turns his terror to joy. ‘If you follow my command-
ments … I will establish peace in the land … I will walk among you to be your
god and you my people’ (Lev. 26:3-12). This promise is governed by the law
of retribution, which, in due time, will be used to set the stage for the peace of
a new Jerusalem and the poor man’s song’s reversal of Jerusalem’s fate: ‘But
if you will not obey me, … terror … your enemies will rule over you … the
land will not give its harvest… you will be childless.’ Four times they will be
struck with sevenfold terror. Images of siege and starvation, including the hor-
ror of eating of their own children, the destruction of towns and land turned to
desert close with the prophecy of Israel’s deportation among the nations. The
leitmotif of sevenfold punishment is locked in the logic of retributive justice as
the list reaches its goal and rests when the land finally receives compensation
for its Sabbaths unrecognized (Lev. 26:14-35; cf. 25:4). The goal of Leviticus’s
wilderness text, however, is not the destruction to come – neither Israel’s nor
Jerusalem’s, but the repentant remnant in exile (Lev. 26:36). If, as in Numbers
13:32, they had been afraid of ‘a land that eats its inhabitants,’ this land of their
enemies will devour them (Lev. 26:38). Then shall they repent their sin and
that of their fathers; their uncircumcised hearts will be humbled; they will pay
29. See I. Hjelm and T. L. Thompson, ‘The Victory Song of Merneptah, Israel and the People
of Palestine,’ JSOT 27 (2002), 3–18.
From the mouth of babes, strength 249
for their guilt. Yahweh will remember them (Lev. 26:40-41 = Isa. 40:1-2). It
is through suffering that understanding and a renewal of life come. The ritual
logic and patterned trope of humble tears leading to renewal belongs also to the
note struck in Isaiah 54, in which variations on the theme of women giving and
not giving birth are used to create irony, that forms of despair and shame might
become portents of hope. The song opens with Isaiah 37 on the day of shame
and distress, offering an all-knowing rebuke to 1 Samuel 2’s Hannah for her
tears. Rather, happy the barren who can not give birth. With echoes of the songs
of Hosea 1–3, the children of rejected wives will come to outnumber those of the
faithful (Isa. 49:20). Isaiah’s ‘Song of the barren’ again reiterates Hanna’s ‘poor
man’s song,’ which, with its reversals of fortune, transforms Isaiah 37’s and
Genesis 20’s closed wombs and women in suffering into Sarah- and Hannah-
like servants of Yahweh (Isa. 54:17b): happy mothers of a new Jerusalem.
In these great reversals of Isaiah’s ‘New Jerusalem,’ not only will there be
no children born but to die, nor will there be screams and tears of children,
as both gray-beards and infants live their full lives out (Isa. 65:17-20). These
children will call and Yahweh will answer. Even while they speak, Yahweh
will hear (Isa. 65:24 = Ps. 34:5, 7). It is this Hosea-like Yahweh who will never
call Jerusalem ‘forsaken,’ nor her land ‘desert.’ Her name will be ‘my delight’
and her land ‘the betrothed’ (Isa. 62:4). In this world of reversals, it is Yahweh
himself who must be given the primary role as the Bible’s Marduk-child of
Psalm 8:3. It is his, whose mouth is like Enosh’s, ‘issuing righteousness, a word
invincible’ (Isa. 45:22). In Isaiah’s world, it is only through Yahweh, that he can
find ‘righteousness and strength’ and in whom all the world’s children are saved
(Isa. 45:24). At the very end of the Book of Isaiah, in the song of Isaiah 66:5-
14, Isaiah turns from the world of myth and legend and addresses his audience
directly. He speaks to those who are concerned about the word, hated by their
brothers and scorned because of Yahweh’s name: mockingly challenged that
they let manifest Yahweh’s glory that they might witness their joy (Isa. 66:5;
cf. Lk. 6:22-23;30 Mt. 5:11). In a few, deft lines, Isaiah speaks to those who do
understand and interprets his metaphor with them in the role of Yahweh’s suf-
fering servant. Jerusalem’s rebirth when Zion goes into labor will be easier than
the births of the daughters of Israel in the stories the midwives told Pharaoh (Isa.
66:7-8; Exod. 1:19). Isaiah 66:9’s commentary on the Hezekiah story (Isa. 37:3)
appeals to that story’s implications: would Yahweh ‘have allowed the birth to
begin and stopped it?’ (Isa. 66:9). The Hezekiah story of Jerusalem’s remnant
begins the birth of the ‘New Jerusalem.’ Yahweh is the mother who comforts her
child (Isa. 66:13 = Isa. 40:1). Like Luke, Isaiah undermines those who scorn,
by calling on his listeners to let their hearts be glad at the sight; for his hand is
with his servants, as is his anger with his enemies (Isa. 66:14; cf. 66:5 = 40:5).
30. Note that Luke will have the disciples spring and hop, ironically demonstrating the joy
at Yahweh’s glory that the mockers demand to see in Isaiah.
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16
The purpose of this chapter is to clarify some of the central thematic elements
used in Job 29:1-20’s nostalgic reflection on Job’s role at the city gate ‘when
God was with him’: all stereotypical thematic elements, which are frequently
associated with ‘messianic’ figures, supporting the pedagogical function of
identity creation, through which the pious are attracted to a figure’s imitatio.
That the development of such figures is hardly restricted by the presence of an
anointed figure or even kingship, is already clear in the Book of Psalms.1
In a recent study, Antoinette Clarke Wire has attempted to relate the develop-
ment of heroic stories by examining the oral character of early Jewish narratives
and relating the elements so defined within an assumption of oral tradition.2
Much influenced by the studies of M. Parry and A. Lord’s research into Serbo-
Croatian oral tradition in relationship to Homer,3 as well as by some of the early
1. See Chapters 13–15, this volume; also T. L. Thompson, ‘Historie og teologi i overskrift-
erne til Davids salmer, CBÅ (1997), 88–102; T. L. Thompson, ‘Jerusalem in the City of
God’s Kingdom: Common Tropes in the Bible and the ancient Near East,’ IS 40 (2001),
631–47; T. L. Thompson, The Messiah Myth: The Ancient Near Eastern Roots of Jesus
and David (New York: Basic Books, 2005); I. Hjelm and T. L. Thompson, ‘The Victory
Song of Merneptah: Israel and the People of Palestine,’ JSOT 27 (2002), 3–18.
2. A. Clarke Wire, Holy Lives, Holy Deaths: A Close Hearing of Jewish Story Tellers,
Studies in Biblical Literature 1 (Atlanta, GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2002).
3. M. Parry and A. Lord, Serbocroatian Heroic Songs, 2 vols (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1960); A. Lord, The Singer of Tales (Cambridge, MA: Harvard
University Press, 1960); J. M. Foley, The Theory of Oral Composition Theory: History
and Methodology (Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press, 1988); J. M. Foley,
Immanent Art: From Structure to Meaning in Traditional Oral Epic (Bloomington, IN:
Indiana University Press, 1991).
252 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
4. A. Jolles, Einfache Formen: Legende, Saga, Mythe, Rätsel, Spruch, Kasus, Memorabile,
Märchen, Witz (Halle: Niemeyer, 1929).
5. D. E. Bynum, Daemon in the Wood: A Story of Oral Narrative Patterns (Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1978).
6. Clarke Wire, Holy Lives, 10–11.
7. A. Dundes, ‘Text, Texture and Context,’ SFQ 20 (1963), 251–61; D. Ben-Amos,
Narrative Forms in Hagadah: Structural Analysis, (dissertation, University of Indiana,
1967); D. Ben-Amos, ‘Toward a Definition of Folklore in Context,’ in D. Ben-Amos,
Folklore in Context: Essays (New Delhi: South Asian, 1982), 38–85.
8. Clarke Wire, Holy Lives, 6.
9. D. M. Gunn, The Story of King David: Genre and Interpretation, JSOTS 6 (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1978); D. M. Gunn, The Fate of King Saul, JSOTS 14
(Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1980); D. Irvin, Mytharion: The Comparison
of Tales from the Old Testament and the Ancient Near East, AOAT 32 (Neukirchen:
Neukirchner Verlag, 1978).
10. T. L. Thompson and D. Irvin, ‘The Joseph and Moses Stories,’ in J. H. Hayes and J. M.
Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster, 1977),
147–212; T. L. Thompson, ‘A New Attempt to Date the Patriarchal Narratives,’ JAOS
98 (1978), 76–84.
Job 29 253
first century.11 The critical issue is rather whether we can identify some of the
sayings and narratives as having a direct connection to a historical Jesus’ life
and teaching. Discussions about an oral quality of the narratives, unfortunately,
do not bring us any earlier than the form of the actually written narratives we
have: those which Clarke Wire claims are ‘recording’ oral traditions, current at
the time our written narratives were first fixed; that is, at the time in which Mark
or Matthew were written, but not earlier. It is only the oral traditions of that time
that our texts could access, if they in fact did. They reach no further back into
the traditions’ pre-history.
The alleged oral qualities of Luke’s rhetoric hardly support the burden of
proof laid on it. Clarke Wire’s treatment of the dramatic story of Mary’s visit to
Elisabeth in the opening chapter of Luke, is fairly representative (Lk. 1:39-56)
of the unsupported claims about oral traditions and its use in explaining a text.
Her explanation is addressed to some very well-known dramatic qualities of a
highly polished, literary work. It may or may not have been comparable to the
undoubtedly many unknown oral traditions of the period. Three central aspects
of Mary’s speech to Elisabeth are stressed to support her argument:
However reasonable this effort may seem to be within Biblical studies’ assump-
tions about the role of oral traditions in biblical composition, it is not a reading
or a reflection rooted in the analytical methods of formalism or comparative lit-
erature.13 When comparative literature is considered in an analysis of the Lucan
11. T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the
Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de Gruyter, 1974), 311–14; T. L. Thompson,
The Origin Tradition of Ancient Israel (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1987),
41–50; T. L. Thompson, ‘At sette det guddommelige I verden,’ Bibl 3 (2002), 45–59.
12. Clarke Wire, Holy Lives, 84–5.
13. Motifs and thematic elements are not to be identified through the arbitrary guesswork
of an anachronistic reader response. They are identifiable through their distinct literary
254 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
tale Clarke Wire stresses in her examples, the rhetorical techniques used, evok-
ing the atmosphere and dramatic characteristics of the scene, in fact, mark this
story as reiterating a long and very well-attested written tradition, epitomizing
the values of the good king as understood within ancient Near Eastern royal
ideology. The tradition is hardly ‘folk,’ and even less an identifiable favorite
among women’s lore. The scene and the tradition it reflects is thoroughly elitist,
centered in the male values of warriors and imperial politics. (1) The direct and
dramatic singing quality of Mary’s announcement rewrites a song that Hannah
sang in 1 Samuel 2:1-10 on the comparable occasion of her conceiving one of
Israel’s saviors. (2) The dominance of women in the scene, the motifs of child-
birth and pregnancy and the homey qualities of the narration are rooted not so
much in the hearth as in the ancient literary tale-type of the ‘birth of a hero.’ Just
such clusters of thematic elements occur, for example, in the narrative of Moses’
birth, which is replete with midwives, birthing-stools and an ironic search for a
nurse, which returns the child to his mother’s love (Exod. 1:15–2:10). The story
of Samson’s birth, whose opening lines are full of the mother’s infertility, secret
meetings and erotically naive responses to her ‘man of God,’ is a tale which
gives attention to the intimately comic potential of razors not used in the womb
before the child’s birth and to the – intertextually dramatic – naming of the child
with the divine epithet, ‘Wonderful’ (Judges 13:1-18; cf. Isa. 9:5). Stereotypical
scenes of the home are central to this tale-type. They are there with purpose.
Rather than a reflection of the folklore of the countryside or of women, they are
among the most effective tools of high literature in court and temple. The story
shares the genre, which the Babylonian Enuma Elish refers to as ‘the birth of
a hero.’14 In the tale of Marduk’s birth, recounted in the Enuma Elish – a story
performed within the royal Akitu festival – comparable thematic elements of a
child at play, of the distress created by its laughter and of the sleepnessness suf-
fered by the adult gods as a result, all attract literary echoes of the same story’s
chaos-dragon in uproar.15 Within the greater narrative, they call the hero from
his very birth to a king’s task at the creation. (3) Finally, the highly stereotyped
list of reversals of the fortunes of the poor and oppressed, whose character
and function within ancient Near Eastern royal ideology I have identified as
‘the poor man’s song,’ have their roots within this same literary world of royal
and imperial propaganda. It goes back in literary tradition to at least the sixth
dynasty and is found in many more than a hundred written versions within the
Old Testament alone. Such stereotypical lists of reversals of fate are stable ele-
ments of the myth of the good king, with its apocalyptic overtones of divine
judgment.16 Luke’s many variations on this trope show him to be a far more
frequent visitor of the library than of the local coffee house.
The never-ending quest for biblical historicity, which has supported such
theories of oral tradition behind the composition of biblical texts, has also
played a central explanatory role in regard to most synoptic problems within
the rationalistic paraphrases of historical criticism’s composition theory. This
is so, whether we are dealing with the comparability or reiteration of particular
story patterns, discourses, and figures, reflected in the numerous doublet and
triplet stories of the Pentateuch or within similar reiterations identifiable within
Wisdom literature, the Psalter and the Prophets.17 The methodologically perni-
cious influence of such dislocating quests in regard to a comparison of larger
compositions, such as is commonplace in research on Kings and Chronicles,
Ezra, Nehemiah and 1 Esdras,18 First to Fourth Maccabbees19 and in the all
too tendentious dogmas of composition theory related to both the reiterations
within the synoptic gospels and the derivative necessity of a so-called Q,20 is
well known. Concern for method within comparative literature also distances
itself from some of the earlier efforts of identifying specific historical contexts
or direct historical dependence between traditional compositions,21 such as we
know in the Bible, and narrative literature known from ancient Near Eastern
inscriptions, even as our interest in the developmental process of such genres
as biography and parable present theories of dependence and borrowing in as
seductive a light as do theories of origins in oral tradition.22 It is not so much
dependence that needs to be doubted as our ability to trace such.
The parable of Job and his suffering, for example, provides us with a very use-
ful entry into the production of life stories in the Bible, not least because Job’s
role as stranger in Old Testament theology’s torah epitomes protected him from
fundamentalist passions for historicity. Nevertheless, this same role of stranger
has exposed Job all the more to interpretive assumptions about borrowing and
for historical dependence and a direct relationship is not only more than we can
know, it ignores common as well as unique qualities which need consideration,
and which are well beyond issues of a single work’s chronological precedence
or intellectual indebtedness. The comparability of technique, rhetoric, function,
and sentiment goes well beyond the sharing of motifs and themes, or even entire
segments of story, song, and philosophy. It reflects an intellectual world that
was shared. The Bible is the result of some quite specific compositions, which
Samaritan, Jewish and other Palestinian scribes produced and contributed as
their share in transmitting that intellectual and cultural world, much as each
of the ancient works we draw into our comparison were formed by a com-
mon stream of tradition and open their readers to a comparable worldview.
Comparative literature, with its roots in Russian formalism, as it developed in
Scandinavia and the United States,33 has long demonstrated that the intertextual
influence of texts is, geographically and chronologically, so widespread and
so unrestricted by language, social context or genre that to restrict our efforts
to trace the development of specific themes and figures within but a single,
linguistically or culturally identifiable body of literature is extremely tenuous.
To identify direct dependence or borrowing between any two or three known
works, especially when our knowledge is limited to a few surviving examples,
can hardly convince. Our knowledge of the literature of antiquity is always
fragmentary and restricted to but a handful of remnants. Indeed, the inter-related
texts and oral traditions which we are aware had detailed influence on ancient
literature, whenever we have comparative evidence surviving, underlines the
ignorance we suffer under when such remnants are absent. One can assert,
quite simply that, if one knows only two or three variants of a story or saying,
one may be tempted to speak of borrowing or historical dependency of one
in relation to the other. The strength of such temptation, however, is directly
proportionate to the ignorance which feeds it. If one has a more adequate repre-
sentation of such tales or sayings, reflecting a broad geographical and linguistic
spectrum, issues of borrowing and dependence – and with them issues of origins
– become irrelevant through the sheer quantity of examples and possibilities
demanding consideration. The much beloved exercise among biblical schol-
ars of reconstructing the sources behind our texts and of tracing the history of
its subsequent redaction across centuries and, occasionally, millennia, is ever
thought theoretically possible as long as adequate sources remain unavailable.
While many still today pursue such theoretical possibilities and maintain the
appearance of astonishing precision and conviction,34 the method had lost its
33. A. Olrik, Folkelige Afhandlinger (Copenhagen: FFC, 1919); J. Bolte and G. Polivka,
Anmerkungen zu den Kinder und HausMärchen der Brüder Grimm (Leipzig: Topelmann,
1930); M. Parry, L’épithete traditionelle dans Homère (Paris: Gabalda, 1953); S.
Thompson, Motif-Index to Folk Literature I–VI (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University
Press, 1955–58); Parry and Lord, Serbocroation Heroic Songs.
34. The most sophisticated of such reconstructions frequently support the literary analysis
with archaelogically oriented arguments related to place names and chronological ele-
ments thought implicit to the tales: D. Jericke, Abraham in Mamre: Historische und
258 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
exegetische Studien zur Region von Hebron und zu Genesis 11:27–19:38, CHANE 17
(Leiden: Brill, 2003). A recent study of J. Van Seters, on the other hand, makes a clear and
decisive break with biblical criticism’s nearly century-long effort to trace the redaction
history of the traditions in the Pentateuch: J. Van Seters, A Law Book for the Diaspora:
Revision in the Study of the Covenant Code (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003);
J. Van Seters, ‘The Redactor in Biblical Studies: A Nineteenth Century Anachronism,’
JNSL 29 (2003), 1–19.
35. W. Anderson, Kaiser und Abt, FFC 42 (Helsinki: FCC, 1923).
36. S. Thompson, Narrative Motif Analysis as a Folktale Method, FFC 161 (Helsinki:
Folklore Fellows, 1955); S. Thompson, Motif Index of Folk Literature, 6 vols
(Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana, 1955–58).
37. T. L. Thompson, Origin Tradition, 43–4.
Job 29 259
within the greater tradition even as the same or comparable saying is associated
with another figure.38 Knud Jeppesen,39 for example, has argued convincingly
that the collection of oracles in the seven chapters of the Book of Micah uses
contrasting curses and blessings over Jerusalem to create a broad but coherent
discourse over the fate of that city. These oracles of divine judgment range from
Yahweh’s curse, determining the city’s destruction (Mic. 3:12), to prophecies
about the city’s future destiny as city of peace and spiritual center of all the
nations of the world. While many of the oracles – and their associated themes –
have a close affinity with oracles and poetic elements in the book of Isaiah (cf.
Mic. 4:1-3 with Isa. 2:2-4), the most striking characteristic of this book is the
way the intellectual progression of the collection runs away with the figure of
its prophet, so that the prophet must be maintained by the greater tradition for
the sake of his message. It is indeed as likely as it is relevant that all that ever
existed of Micah from the town of Moreshet is presented in the stereotyped
entry that he had had a vision when Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah were kings
in Judah (Mic. 1:1; cf. Isa. 1:1). One might worry that the length of this vision
– extending through three reigns – hardly fits its rather myopic perspective.
Micah’s pesher-like heading, however, casting his poems into an event of the
past as it does, belongs far more to the structuring of the greater tradition, set-
ting various books and larger segments of tradition – in this case the twelvefold
collection of the Minor Prophets – within the theologically relevant context of
Israel and Judah past.40 The prophet as a creature of the collection relates to a
strata of the tradition far greater than Micah’s little book.
Figures associated with such narrative settings in the Bible provide both
dramatic qualities of narrative to sayings collected within a given work and
an identifiable person, through whom the collection can fulfill its pedagogical
function through processes of psychological transference and imitation.41 In
Micah – as in Isaiah – the prophetic curses, determining Jerusalem’s destruction
within known stories of the past, has led Israel into a suffering, through which
wisdom and a universal peace of Yahweh’s divine rule in a future Jerusalem is
to be achieved. The stereotypical patterns of such projection are particularly
instructive for the creation of a more substantial personality, in which heroic
figure and saying interact to create parable, such as we find in the discourse
aspects of both Job and Ahiqar. The process can also be seen by considering the
effect on the reader of the transformation between a song of David – such as
Psalm 18 – collected within the Psalter, and that same song read in ‘its’ context
in 2 Samuel 22. Moreover, once a figure has successfully taken on the substance
of his work’s discourse, only an introductory narrative is needed to turn parable
into biography. Ahiqar echoes characteristics shared by such figures of wise
men like Joseph, Daniel, Zerubbabel, and Job. Nevertheless, Job also attracts to
his figure more obvious royal and messianic themes. In this, he resembles the
Jeremiah figure which one encounters in Jeremiah’s opening chapter. Opening
with a very elaborate variation on the kind of heading we find for Micah, the
author has tied the ‘coming of Yahweh’s word’ with the kings of Judah, much
as Micah has done. Jeremiah’s author, however, provides the precision of a
story-teller, imitating the annals of a king: ‘in the 13th year of Josiah’s reign.’
He deepens this by associating his collection of sayings and episodes with the
theme of Jerusalem’s deportation and exile (‘in the 5th month of the 11th year of
Zedekiah’s reign’). We hear a first person account of the revelation to Jeremiah:
‘Yahweh’s word came to me’ (Jer. 1:4), even as the message itself takes over
the personality of the messenger from the start. The prophet’s individuality is
diminished by the author’s use of stock thematic elements to support the role
through which the themes of deportation and exile are transformed as acts of
divine will. The dramatic presentation of the opening verses is startlingly ambi-
tious as it draws its figure of Jeremiah in competition with the great prophets
of the biblical story-world. Yahweh’s opening word (Jer. 1:5) competes with
an Isaac (known before Yahweh had formed him in the womb: Gen. 18:10), a
Samuel (consecrated to God before he was born: 1 Sam. 1:11), and an Isaiah
(called as a prophet before his birth: Isa. 49:1). Jeremiah responds with similarly
stereotypical language: ‘Ah, God Yahweh, I do not know how to speak, for I am
but a young man’ (Jer. 1:6). The first part of this response reiterates the language
of a stammering Moses (Exod. 4:10); he is one ‘with uncircumcised lips,’ so
that neither Israel nor the pharaoh will listen to him (Exod. 6:12, 30). This same
Jeremiah reiterates Isaiah, who in similar humility at his first encounter with the
divine has unclean lips as he must speak to a people with unclean lips (Isa. 6:5).
That Jeremiah is but a young man parallels the truth-telling Elihu, who, in his
response to wisdom’s old man, Job, echoes the Psalter’s reversal of the motif of
the wisdom of the elders (Ps. 119:99-100) and allows his young man’s truth to
speak with the intoxicating spirit of a new wine (Job 32:6-8, 19).
Biblical narrative often sets its figures speaking or singing. What they say can
involve either a single example or a substantial collection of traditional sayings
or songs, as well as debates, cultic regulations, laws, or oracles of various kinds.
The narrative and its figure can provide a context for such material, in which
any particular saying may or may not contribute to its interpretation (cf. Gen.
2:24 and Exod. 20:1-17). Both etiological (e.g., Gen. 16:13-14) and thematic
(e.g., Exod. 23:3, 6) association are commonly recognized methods for linking
such material into a coherent collection, enhanced by being given to particular
Job 29 261
characters for their stories, much as stories themselves are often linked together
to build more substantial chain narratives and – as in the cases of Abraham and
Jacob – biographies of figures, bearing considerable impact on the tradition as a
whole.42 The figure of Isaac might be considered a counterpoint: as an example
of episodic tales – associated with both the Abraham and Jacob chains – but,
like the stories of Ishmael and Esau, lacking a coherent self-sufficiency, which
might have supported a comparable biography (Gen. 24; 26). The ‘origins’ of
the sayings and songs in traditional narrative are particularly difficult to link to
any particular figure or narrative context, however we might evaluate the nar-
rative’s specific historicizing attributions, as in the proverbs of Solomon (e.g.,
Prov. 1:1), the oracles of Isaiah (e.g., Isa. 19:1a), or any of the songs of Moses
(e.g., Exod. 15:1,13-17; Deut. 31:30) or David (e.g., 2 Sam. 22:1; Ps. 51:1).43
The much used figure of biblical story rarely speaks with a single mind, any
more than an Abraham, Moses or a David are given a single life to live.44 I find
it increasingly difficult to accept the rarely argued assumption that either figure
or speech in the Bible can be understood as originating through oral tradition,
transmitting the figure or speech of any historical person of the past. The narra-
tive settings and the choice of speaker to whom the sayings and songs are given
are not only stereotypical, they frequently imply a collector’s strategy within
their present biblical context. Stereotypical reiterations of individual sayings
and song segments can vary greatly in the size of the element reiterated (cf. Gen.
10:16 and Exod. 23:23, as well as Gen. 5; 10:2-31 and its rewritten variant in
Gen. 11:10-26 with 1 Chron. 1:1-27 and Ezek. 27:13-22). They may be verbatim
or nearly verbatim (cf. Gen. 1:27 with 5:1b-2; Ps. 18 with 2 Sam. 22), or they
may involve interpretively related variations of a common theme (cf. Ps. 1:3
with Jer. 17:8). As in the well-known narrative reiterations of episodes or plot-
lines,45 the reiteration of themes, whether in prose or poetry, are often marked
with substantial nuance and even implicit debate related to their story context
(cf. Exod. 4:24-26 and Josh. 5:13-15 in context of Josh. 5:2-12) or protagonist
(cf. Ps. 8:5-6 and Job 7:17-19). While the range of new meaning, which differ-
ent contexts or figures can contribute to their themes is very broad, the freedom
46. Perhaps useful is an earlier discussion of such composition technique: Chapter 10, this
volume.
47. M. Müller, Kommentar til Matthæusevangeliet, DKNT 3(Aarhus: Aarhus Universitets
forlag, 2000), 275–7.
48. Kloppenborg, Excavating Q, 104–7; Mack, The Lost Gospel, 83 (QS 8) and 86 (QS 86);
Crossan, Historical Jesus, 270–74.
Job 29 263
of the ‘poor man’s song’49 creates a reiterating chain, whose brightest cluster is
the eightfold presentation of apocalyptic blessings and curses in his sermon on
the plain. Impressive as it is as a narrative construction, it is hardly the first such
effort to build a figure on the basis of this profile. Among several biblical figures
playing the same or a similar role, a close and striking parallel to Luke’s reitera-
tive techniques can be found in Job 29’s revisionist variation on 2 Samuel 22, a
song itself borrowed from the Psalter (Ps. 18) to draw out David’s transcendent
potential as messiah, a song which is placed with narrative obviousness and
implicit theological irony at the end of David’s life’s story, ‘after Yahweh had
saved him from all his enemies’ (Ps. 18:1; 2 Sam. 22:1), a stereotypical ancient
Near Eastern rhetorical trope, expressing the transcendental fullness of a given
king’s divine support. This same thematic element is used, for example, as a
sign of the messianic kingdom in the closely related Psalm 20:5-6. Its role, as
a sign of a utopian and eternal shalom, is rooted in ancient Near Eastern royal
ideology and has a long history of reiteration in monumental inscriptions pre-
senting biographies of the ‘Good King.’50
The last stanza of the song that closes David’s story (2 Sam. 22:44-50)
offers us a quite interesting description of this utopian vision of peace, not least
because of its sharp contrast with the murderous ‘holy war’ rhetoric of the pre-
vious stanza (2 Sam. 22:38-43), where David’s enemies are pursued relent-
lessly and crushed. Unable to rise, they call to Yahweh for help, but he does
not answer. They are dust to be blown away by Psalm 1’s threshing floor’s
wind, of no more worth than ofal in the street. The transition to the song’s
final stanza expands on a theme from Psalm 2, where the kings of nations in
uproar against Yahweh and his messiah are addressed by the king’s reflective
advice to the nations to serve Yahweh in fear (Ps. 2:10-11). In 2 Samuel 22,
these same nations in uproar, defeated and destroyed, accept the advice David
has given them. As one absorbs the theological implications of the motif of the
enemy’s unanswered call to Yahweh for help, the ground under the song’s rheto-
ric shifts. David presents himself above the storm and is no longer threatened.
He has become the victorious ruler over the nations and foreigners. No longer
his enemy, they now serve him, submitting to his rule with the humility of every
good client. The panic-filled trembling of their surrender in 2 Samuel 22:46
is transformed in 22:47 into Psalm 2’s pious fear of God, which is expressed
through their shout of allegiance: ‘Live Yahweh!’ (2 Sam. 22:47): rendering a
quite remarkable scene of transformation from death to resurrection, whereby
David’s defeated enemies and foreigners become loyal subjects of God’s king-
dom. The use of this theme of the nations of the world submitting themselves
to David as messiah is, however, less plot oriented than the song’s placement
at the end of his life might lead us to believe. The association rather seems
to be intertextual and reiterative than an aspect of the plot in the narrative of
49. This common trope of both ancient Near Eastern and biblical literature is defined and
illustrated with some 200 variations in Appendix A of Thompson, Messiah Myth.
50. Thompson, ‘Testimony.’
264 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
When Job 29:25 sums up Job’s nostalgic reflection on his life ‘in the old days,
when Yahweh had protected him, and had let the divine lamp light up his life’
(Job 29:2-3), Job describes himself in this ‘good life’ as ‘like a king.’ While this
summation itself comes within the simile of a king sitting among his soldiers,
comforting them in their losses, a comparative reading of this king-like figure’s
nostalgic reflection, shows Job’s life when Yahweh had not yet been tempted
by Satan. The presentation is given in the classic form of the tale-type of the
Job as foreigner
Like Satan his ‘opponent,’ Job also bears a cue name.55 In the book of Job as
a whole, the most immediate resonance of antiquity’s royal ideology comes
through reverse echoes. Job is ironically presented not so much as king but as
foreign king and as the enemy implied through his name: representative of the
‘nations in uproar’ against Yahweh. As foreign enemy, Job personifies a theme
shared with Jonah’s King of Nineveh. Job not only responds to Yahweh’s brkh
which has struck both him and his family by imitating Nineveh’s king, whose
city had been similarly cursed, by taking off his robe to sit in his ashes (Jonah
3:6; Job 1:20; 2:8), but the author’s presentation of Job as ‘the greatest among
all of the sons of Qedem’ (Job 1:3) clothes him with parallel royalty: as Qedem’s
king of Babylon. The debates among these sons of Qedem are also tireless
– in both language, with its fullness of Arabic nuance, and in its metaphors –
underlining the debate’s all-dominating motif of alienation. Not only Job, but
his book becomes a stranger and an enemy in uproar against the tradition.
Job as messiah
Job as philosopher-king
In Job 29:7-11, Job remembers the honor showed him when he presented him-
self at the city gate. Young and old gave place: princes and rulers were silent
when he took up his role as judge at the city gate and spoke. The sign of humility
is classic. When the great men lay their hands on their mouths (Job 29:9), their
humility marks Job’s role to them with the same recognition as Job’s humility
finally offers to Yahweh (Job 40:4)! That is, the messianic role of representing
the divine, which Moses played for Aaron (Exod. 4:16) and Psalm 2:10 and
110’s king has for the world’s princes, Job, himself, held before his princes.
Even as Solomon with his wisdom was great, much as Israel was to be great in
number as the sands of the seashore, Job’s philosopher role before his people
at the gate is similarly given overtones of the infinite, greater as he was than
all the sons of Qedem (1 Kgs 3:8, 28; Job 1:3), Job, too, was the philosopher
king in his wisdom, evoking in his people awe: playing a role of God for his
people (Job 29:8-9; cf. Prov. 30:32; Job 21:5). It is with a fulsome irony that
Job, having spoken once (sic!), humbly lays his hand over his mouth in Job
40:1-5. Again, Job’s narrative offers a mirrored image of Israel’s story, offering
a nearly comic variation of Isaiah’s humility, one which demands his burning
coals, removing his guilt before he will speak at all (Isa. 6:4-8). The idyllic
Job 29 267
p icture of Job’s philosopher’s role of king and judge of his people, evoked by
the humility of his princes, is brought forward again in 29:11, with reverse ech-
oes of Isaiah’s Israel; as Job’s people see and hear with understanding, whereas
Isaiah’s Israel is without understanding, their ears kept heavy and their eyes
closed by Yahweh’s prophet (Isa. 6:9-10). The intensity of this contrast between
Job’s role as a foreign Solomon in Job 29’s vision of the kingdom of God,
mirroring the stinging presentation of Isaiah’s Israel is such, that one must ask
whether there is not a signifying function taken up by Job’s author to illustrate
Ecclesiastes’ ‘Jerusalem’s king’s’ envious reflections on the stranger who enjoys
the wealth, possession, and honor given to oneself by God (Eccl. 6:1-6).
When the ears and eyes of Job’s understanding and enlightened princes finally
give voice to their silent and hushed respect, it is with looks of approval that
they call him ‘blessed’ (Job 29:10-11), a motif which Elizabeth of Luke’s gospel
comes to reiterate (Lk. 1:42) as Mary re-sings Hannah’s song from 1 Samuel,
celebrating the messianic reversals of destiny and announcing the good news
to the poor which inaugurates the kingdom of God.56 A variant of such signs
of the kingdom of peace, celebrating the victory of ancient Near Eastern ‘holy
war’57 immediately follows in Job 29:12-13, 15-16, an eightfold version of the
classic ancient Near Eastern trope, epitomizing the good king.58 The good king
in the kingdom of God’s shalom announces ‘the day of joy’ to end war (cf.
Num. 10:9 and 10:10 with Isa. 40:9). Job’s caring support on their day of need
has protected the poor, the orphan, the crippled, and the widow; the blind, the
lame, the helpless, and the stranger.59 The reversal of the destiny of such classic
representations of the suffering of this world provides signs of the kingdom in
Isaiah (see esp. Isa. 35:1-10; 58:1-11), as well as of an apocalyptic judgment
(Exod. 22:19-23; Zach. 7:9-14; Jer. 5:27-29; 7:5-6; 22:3-5). When Job closes his
eightfold list with the stranger, does he intend to evoke the final stanza of Psalm
18, whose apocalyptic reversal of Psalm 2’s nations in uproar transforms David
into a universal king, also over foreigners he does not know, so essential in giv-
ing David’s biography its universal messianic character (esp. 2 Sam. 22:44-46)?
Job’s role in his care for the poor is that of an ideal, transcendent king. It is Job
29:14, placed at the center of this eightfold list, that arbitrates the song’s center
in terms of judgment. ‘Righteousness clothed me as a judge’s cap’ is a figure
that is developed positively in the joyful saving role of Psalm 132:9’s mes-
siah, evoking joy among the pious, given to Solomon at prayer in 2 Chronicles
56. Cf. Lk. 1:46–56; 1 Sam. 2:1–10; ANET, 378–9; Thompson, ‘Jerusalem.’
57. Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Victory Song’; M. Liverani, ‘Guerra santa e guerra giusta nel
vicino Oriente antico, SS 3 (2002), 639–60; ANET, 378–9.
58. See Chapter 14, this volume; Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Victory Song’; Thompson,
‘Testimony’; Thompson, Messiah Myth.
59. Thompson, Messiah Myth.
268 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Who extends his arms to him he loves, while his enemy is consumed by a
flame. It is his Eye that overthrows the rebel and sends its spear into him that
sucks up Nun and makes the fiend disgorge what he has swallowed. Hail to
you, O Re, lord of truth, whose shrine is hidden, the Lord of the Gods, … who
hears the prayer of him who is in captivity. Gracious of heart in the face of an
appeal to him, saving the fearful from the terrible of heart, judging the weak
and the injured … When he comes, the people live. He who gives scope to
every eye that may be made in Nun, whose loveliness has created the light. In
whose beauty the gods rejoice; their hearts live when they see him.62
The theme is reiterated in stanzas ix–x, in which the crew of the sun-barque
rejoices as the sun continues its course unhindered:
The crew is in joy when they see the overthrow of the rebel, his body licked
up by the knife. Fire has devoured him; his soul is more consumed than his
body. That dragon: his power of motion is taken away; the gods are in joy;
the crew of Re is in satisfaction; Heliopolis is in joy; for the enemies of Atum
are overthrown.63
The reuse of these themes in the Merneptah stele, which is itself dominated by
the tropes of the ‘poor man’s song,’64 not only attaches the myth of the defeat of
the dragon to the victory over all of Pharaoh’s enemies, it also draws on the spe-
cific thematic element of the evil one, which Job forced to give up its prey from
between its teeth, and places that element within a similar logic of retribution
and compares the monster to a crocodile: ‘Ptah said about the enemy of Rebu:
gather together all his crimes and return them on his (own) head. Give them into
the hand of Merneptah-hotep-hiv-Maat, that he may make him disgorge what he
has swallowed like a crocodile.’
One is forced to entertain the question whether the conquest over the mon-
ster – whose fangs are crushed and whose prey is ripped from between its teeth
– a victory, accomplished through the eightfold compassion expressed in this
version of the ‘poor man’s song,’ is not itself a parallel to Yahweh’s Leviathan,
who is described in Job 40:25–41:36 as a fire-breathing crocodile who spreads
terror even among the gods. The crocodile’s description as ‘king over all the
children of pride’ ties it to the poor man’s song’s inexorable opposition between
the perpetrator of evil’s pride and the humility of both the oppressed and their
savior. Humility overcomes terror itself.65
Job closes his reflection on his former life by likening it to that of the king and
chief of his people. He returns to his opening theme. As God had watched over
him, he too is the good shepherd of Psalm 23, choosing their way for them
(Job 29:25; cf. 29:2). As king and shepherd of his people, his story becomes
parable. Similarly, Psalm 78 presents itself as a maskil, and Israel’s story as
parable, through which the reader – like the reader of Isaiah – might learn from
the history told. Job 29’s list of reversals of fate marking him with the figure
of the good king is similarly oriented towards imitatio. The literary strategy is
well represented. Like Psalm 78, the story reflects all mankind’s journey along
the path of life – necessarily failing while the gods sleep – or, as in Job’s case,
ceases to watch over him (Job 29:2). The test of Job, set by Yahweh and Satan
for Qedem’s king, implies the same role Psalm 78 gives to David, the royal
shepherd: to watch his flock with the integrity of his heart (Ps. 78:72). This role
is again expressed in his reflections opening considerations of the time ‘when
God’s candle shown on my head; when, with his light, I walked in darkness’
(Job 29:3; var 2 Sam. 22:29: ‘you will light my candle’). Job was the people’s
light, mediating the divine (Job 29:3, 24-25). Reiterating Adam passing on his
imago dei to his son (Gen. 5:3), Job passes his light to his people that the light
of his face might shine in their darkness (Job 29:24-25). This interesting refer-
ence to Genesis’s reflection on humanity as imago dei (Gen. 1:26; 5:1; 9:2) is
greatly expanded in the fresh new wine of Elihu’s interpretation of Job 29:14:
‘I put on righteousness and it clothed me.’ Drawing on Job’s reflections on his
life as the divine spirit giving him life (Job 33:4), Elihu reminds Job that if God
withdrew this life, all would die (Job 34:14-15). So too is it with righteousness:
Elihu can know that God is righteous because Job is and that righteousness is
God’s (Job 35:5-8). In Elihu’s argument, Job becomes piety’s legitimation. True
to the theme of the king as God’s reflection on earth, all arguments about human
identity have their corresponding reality in the divine.
Job as a parabolic figure in chapter 29 epitomizes the values the tradition
presents to the pious for imitation. A comparable figure of Job as a reiteration
of the Abraham story of Yahweh testing his faithful servant can be recognized
in the structural relationship of the envelope story of the death and resurrection
of Job’s family (Job 1–2; 42) to the book’s dramatic presentation of testing Job
through suffering, a testing of the king whose goal is all mankind’s enlighten-
ment (Job 33:23-30; 34:21-30; 36:16-21; 37:21-23a). Job as a biblical figure for
imitatio echoes Isaiah’s similar figure of Yahweh’s suffering servant, refracting
the story of the story of Israel’s test through the exile’s desert.
17
1. A. Lemaire, ‘The Mesha Stele and the Omri Dynasty,’ in L. L. Grabbe (ed.), Ahab
Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty, ESHM 6 (London: T&T Clark, 2007),
135–44. This understanding of the genre of the Mesha stele follows the analyses of J. D.
Davis (‘The Moabite Stone and the Hebrew Records,’ Hebraica 7, 1891, 178–82), J. M.
Miller, ‘The Moabite Stone as a Memorial Stela,’ PEQ 106 (1974), 9–18 and J. Drinkard,
‘The Literary Genre of the Mesha Inscription,’ in J. A. Dearman (ed.), Studies in the
Mesha Inscription (Atlanta, GA: Scholars, 1989), 131–54.
2. Lemaire, ‘Mesha Stele,’ 136, with reference to 321–2 of T. L. Thompson, ‘Problems of
Genre and Historicity with Palestine’s Inscriptions,’ in A. Lemaire and M. Sæbø (eds),
Congress Volume: Oslo 1998 (Leiden: Brill, 2000), 321–6.
3. Thompson, ‘Problems of Genre,’ 322, paraphrasing T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of
the Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham (Berlin: de Gruyter,
1974; Harrisburg: Trinity International, 2002), 328.
4. Thompson, ‘Problems of Genre,’ 323.
5. Ibid., 324.
272 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
‘How Historians Create a Past.’13 Differences in our understanding lie first of all
in the assumption, shared by Liverani and Grabbe, that the Bible’s ‘invented his-
tory’ addresses the same kind of perceived past, which we construct in modern
constructions of ‘normal history,’ whereas I argue that stories, in talking about a
past, use that construction allegorically: as parable or epitomizing ideal, related
to the story’s implied present and future. Identifying the function of such fictive
‘invented history’ was one of the goals of my comparative literary analysis of
the Mesha Inscription.14 I would also disagree with the many judgments regard-
ing the understanding of biblical narratives as belonging to ‘normal history,’
when this has not been shown to be plausible on literary grounds.15 Plausibility
and probability need to be shown on the basis of the expectations implicit within
ancient literature, rather than on the basis of modern historicist assumptions and
expectations.16
In my comparative analysis of the Mesha story, I had argued that this inscrip-
tion centers on a summary presentation of the king’s reign in order to repre-
sent him as exemplar of ancient Near Eastern literature’s ‘good king.’ Mesha’s
story speaks from within an intellectual context of ‘royal ideology.’ I compared
Mesha’s narrative with twenty similar narratives on monumental and dedicatory
inscriptions that reflect such an ideology. The purpose of such comparison was
to identify stereotypical thematic elements and to classify how they function
within their narrative: how they further that narrative’s goals and how they
affect the symbol system in which they had been read and understood in antiqui-
ty.17 Basing myself on an earlier study of twelve thematic elements that reflected
the royal ideology of two New Kingdom Egyptian hymns,18 I compared twenty-
one royal dedicatory or memorial inscriptions in the hope of identifying and
defining their rhetorical patterns, episodic arrangements (i.e., their plot pro-
gression) and topoi. Establishing that the narratives of these inscriptions shared
considerable common ground in their use of metaphor, dramatic expression,
and social language, I concluded that they should be understood as belonging
13. See T. L. Thompson, The Bible in History: How Writers Create A Past (London: Jonathan
Cape, 1999; published in the USA as The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology and the
Myth of Israel, New York: Basic Books, 1999), 3–99 and 103–225, respectively.
14. Thompson, ‘Testimony’; similarly, Chapter 14, this volume; I. Hjelm and T. L.
Thompson, ‘The Victory Song of Merneptah: Israel and the People of Palestine,’ JSOT
27 (2002), 3–18.
15. Relevant to this issue is the discussion about ‘thick’ and ‘thin’ histories at the 1989 SBL
national meeting between J. M. Miller, ‘Is it Possible to Write a History of Israel without
Relying on the Hebrew Bible?’ in D. Edelman (ed.), The Fabric of History: Text, Artifact
and Israel’s Past, JSOTS 127 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991), 93–102, and
T. L. Thompson, ‘Text, Context and Referent in Israelite Historiography,’ 65–92 in the
same volume (included in the present volume as Chapter 6).
16. As argued in T. L. Thompson, The Historicity, 326–30, and further in Chapter 12, this
volume.
17. Thompson, ‘Testimony,’ 241–2.
18. See Chapter 14, this volume; also Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Victory Song.’
274 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
his enemies and from Saul’s hand,’ this theme regarding the fullness of David’s
victory over all his enemies merely finds its most appropriate place at the end
of his life. This is, however, the third of a threefold chain of reiterated motifs.
Such universal success was prophesied in 2 Samuel 7:9 and already in 2 Samuel
8:14 it is confirmed in David’s victory ‘wherever he went.’ Transcendence is the
issue, not chronology. At the very opening of Mesha’s story, this thematic ele-
ment sets the dedication of the sanctuary in the context of a transcendent peace
that Mesha’s reign has brought to Moab. The second Nabonidus inscription23
uses this trope in a very similar way, marking the fullness of the king’s reign
in order to present his rule as a divinely willed kingdom of peace. The gods
not only give him victory over all his enemies; they break the weapons of his
eternal foes (cf. 1 Sam. 2:4; 2 Sam. 22:22). Like Solomon, all the kings of the
world send him messages of friendship (1 Kgs 10:1, 24). Like Mesha’s inscrip-
tion, the Nabonidus text might well be set late in that king’s reign. It may even
be understood as posthumous, since it, like the Hadad inscription, closes with
instructions to Nabonidus’ successors. In contrast, his first inscription closes
with a prayer for the blessing of a long rule to come.24 The dedicatory function
supports the text’s theology of unlimited divine patronage, rather than a chrono-
logical setting within the king’s life.
The opening lines of the Mesha inscription describe Mesha as the son and
successor of the king of Moab, Chemosh-X (probably Chemosh-yatti),25 the
Dibonite.26 Among the texts I used in my comparative analysis, there are three
strategies used in legitimizing a king’s reign.27 Most of these inscriptions, like
Mesha’s, express the king’s legitimacy by identifying him as the son or son and
grandson of his predecessor. A number claim their legitimacy by referring to the
patronage of great kings, who had supported them or their fathers. Bar-Rakib,
for example, identifies himself as the son of Panamuwa, king of Sam’al, client
of Tiglath-Pileser. A third method is to present the king as divinely chosen by a
god, who has a patronage like that of a great king. Zakkur, for example, claims
to have been made king of Hazrach by Ba’al Shamem and, similarly, in the
first of the Nabonidus inscriptions, the king is made ‘by the rule of Marduk.’
The thirty years given for the reign of Mesha’s father is doubtfully a ‘rounded
number’ as suggested by Emerton and Lemaire.28 The comparative analysis
rather suggests that the use of thirty years for the reign of Mesha’s father is to
be understood within the context of thematically significant numbers (see, also,
below).29 This number does not signify chronology at all, but rather attributes
a divinely intended fullness to his father’s reign: one which bears the impli-
cation that Mesha’s succession must be seen as part of Chemosh’s plan for
Moab. Apart from such numbers, the thematic element of legitimation has a
relatively high potential for historicity. In some cases, as in the stories of Mursili
II, Suppiluliuma, and Panamuwa, this potential is supported by a posthumous
addition to the inscription, which identifies the deceased with the narrative’s
central figure. Similarly, the Yahdun-Lim and Xerxes’ inscriptions are explicitly
commissioned by the king, whose narratives are recounted. In ten of the inscrip-
tions analyzed, including Mesha’s, mythic elements of a divinely determined
fullness in the king’s reign are introduced and mark the story’s self-presentation
of the king with a fictive quality that undermines its historicity. The historicity
of the implied dynastic succession adhering to some examples of this element,
nevertheless, is high. Occasionally, the rhetoric of dynastic succession is not to
be read literally. In the first of the Nabonidus narratives, for example, Nabonidus
is presented as the successor of Nebuchadnezzar and Neriglissar. In his moth-
er’s inscription, however, Awel-Marduk is listed between Nebuchadnezzar and
Neriglissar.30 In Mesha’s case, the stele can be understood as giving witness
to Mesha as king of Moab at the time of or shortly before the stele was made.
Although the inscription itself does not preserve the full name of Mesha’s father,
it does identify his father as former king of Moab. Both his father’s name and
his position are confirmed by an inscription from Kerak. 31
28. J. Emerton, ‘The Moabite Stone,’ 486–7; Lemaire, ‘The Mesha Stele,’ 137.
29. This well-known literary strategy is discussed most recently in N. P. Lemche, ‘Prægnant
tid i Det gamle Testamente,’ in G. Hallbäck and N. P. Lemche (eds), Tiden i bibelsk
belysning, FBE 11 (Frederiksberg: Museum Tusculanum, 2001), 29–47.
30. T. Longman III, ‘The Adad-Guppi Autobiography,’ in W. W. Hallo, The Context of
Scripture I: Canonical Compositions from the Biblical World (Leiden: Brill, 1997),
477–8.
31. W. L. Reed and F. V. Winnett, ‘A Fragment of an Early Moabite Inscription from Kerak,’
BASOR 172 (1963), 1–9.
Mesha and questions of historicity 277
bearing the implication that the choice of the king is an aspect of the divine
plan related to the blessing and protection of his people.32 The divine patron
is the king’s protector; he leads him in battle, listens to his prayers, entrusts
his kingdom to him, turns the hearts of the people towards him and saves him
from past suffering. Kings are the favorites, the beloved of the gods. Sargon
is Ishtar’s lover and her father’s gardener, while Zakkur has been personally
raised by Ba’al Shamem. In Bar-Rakib’s story, such transcendent patronage is
the gift of the great king, Tiglath Pileser. This thematic function of patronage
is particularly rich in theological instruction. It presents the king and his god
in the ideal roles of humble servant and compassionate patron. On the Mesha
stele, Chemosh’s patronage is the single and most central dramatic element in
the king’s story. The declaration that Chemosh ‘delivered me from all kings’ and
‘made me look down on all my enemies’33 (cf. 2 Sam. 22:1) sets the stage for the
first opening movement of the narrative and explains the dedication of the shrine
to Chemosh. That story begins in past suffering, when Chemosh had abandoned
Moab. He now returns to his land. The second movement of the story presents
a narrative of this reversal of fates through a holy war which Mesha fought
against Israel. The story is told in three parts, describing victories over Ataroth,
Nebo and Jahaz. The victories won, the enemies defeated and Chemosh returned
to his land, the narrative presents the third movement in recounting a similarly
threefold building campaign. A fourth movement apparently describes the con-
quest of new territories, as suggested by the opening of a campaign against
Horonaim. The remainder of the text, however, has been destroyed. A possible
short, fifth movement, closing the story and involving the thematic elements
of prayers, blessings or curses might be surmised from the comparative texts.
In the opening of Mesha’s narrative, Omri’s presence in Moab is attributed
to the evil times when Chemosh had been angry and had decided to abandon
his land. Omri is the tool of this divine anger. Omri’s son, however, also wished
to oppress Moab for himself. Therefore, Chemosh ‘looked down on him and
his house’ and brought it to ‘eternal ruin.’34 The reversal is stereotypical ethi-
cal parable, moving from pride to fall (cf. 1 Sam. 2:7b and esp. 2 Kgs 19:4-7)
and standing in strong contrast to Mesha’s role as humble and obedient servant
(cf. 2 Kgs 18:5, 7a). The defeated enemy’s ‘eternal ruin’ can be compared to
Psalm 9:6-8’s comparably eternal erasure of the names of the godless, whose
cities are turned into deserts and their memory lost. However, it also marks the
story with the motif of the return of Chemosh’s patronage. Such descriptions of
decisive and lasting destruction of evil echo the Merneptah stele’s description
of the assertion of Pharaoh’s patronage over the nine bows, which is set within
an ideal order of shalom, a mythic state which Merneptah’s victory over the
Libyans had created. The rhetoric of Merneptah’s assertion of patronage over
the land of Hurru personifies the region of Palestine through its eponym as a
woman. Hurru has become a widow ‘because of Egypt.’ This is paired to the
related, eponymous personification of the people of the land by the figure of
Israel (marked by the determinative ‘people’), who plays the role of Hurru’s
former husband, ‘whose seed is no more.’35 In Mesha’s stele, just such figura-
tive and even eponymous language arises in the portrayal of the enemy with the
name Omri used as a figurative representation of Israel (= Bit Humri?). Having
‘taken possession of the whole land of Madeba,’ Omri (as the land’s patron) –
like Chemosh before him – lived there not as an individual, but ‘[in] his days
and half of the days of his son,36 forty years.’37 Omri’s patronage over Moab,
oppressing Moab and ‘dwelling in Madeba,’ is reversed as Chemosh returns
to dwell himself as patron over the land in Mesha’s time. Central to the theme
of Chemosh’s return to his patronage, is Mesha’s placing the towns of Ataroth
and Nebo under ban, offering their entire populations in sacrifice to Chemosh
and resettling Ataroth with men from two Moabite towns. In addition, what
Smelik translates as ‘the fire-hearth of his Uncle’ (?: dwdh), apparently some
cultic item, is taken from Ataroth and placed in the sanctuary of Chemosh. From
Nebo, there is also taken what Smelik reconstructs as ‘th[e ves]sels of YHWH,’
and this too is placed before Chemosh. Mesha notes that the ‘men of Gath’ (a
tribe of Israel in biblical tradition) had lived in the land of Ataroth since ancient
times. Furthermore, this section of the narrative is introduced by the clarifica-
tion that the whole land of Madeba had been in the possession of Omri. The
subsequent narrative describes how it has been restored to Chemosh’s patron-
age. The population of both Ataroth and Madeba seem to have been clients of
Israel: Gadites or Israelites with a cult foreign to Chemosh. By eliminating and
offering their populations in sacrifice, Mesha returns the land to Chemosh, while
the divine Yahweh and dwdh are placed under Chemosh’s patronage.
The rhetoric of the thematic element of patronage, contrasting Chemosh to
Omri and his house, weakens the assumption that the text refers directly to spe-
cific Israelite kings and not more figuratively to Israel or to Israel’s patronage.
As in the Merneptah stele, such language of divine patronage – and not least
the language of cleansing the land, with all the absoluteness of its theological
necessity – substantially undermines its narrative’s historicity. While the plac-
ing of foreign cultic elements in the sanctuary of Chemosh is a good candidate
for historicity, both the human sacrifices offered at Nebo and the use of the ban
35. For this part of the inscription, see J. K. Hoffmeier, ‘The (Israel) Stela of Merneptah,’
in Hallo (ed.), The Context of Scripture II, 40–41. For a literary analysis, see Hjelm and
Thompson, ‘Victory Song’, 3–18.
36. On this, see Thompson, ‘Testimony,’ 258–9; the translation follows Smelik, ‘Inscription
of King Mesa,’ 137. It is possible to translate bnh as a plural here, with Lemaire (‘The
Mesha Stele,’ 137–9). However, the text already uses bnh in the singular in line 6: ‘his
son succeeded him.’ Nevertheless, Lemaire sees an advantage in the plural as it allows
a reading of the 40 years – ‘referring to the entire Omride dynasty’ – as an actual or
‘rounded’ number.
37. Similarly, Lemaire (‘The Mesha Stele,’ 139) points out this rhetorical element and argues
that Omri did not himself live in Moab but plays a representative role for Israel.
Mesha and questions of historicity 279
at both Ataroth and Nebo seem more motivated by the totalitarian ideology of
holy war than historical considerations. The cleansing of the land requires that
all that is alien be removed and the slaughter of 7000 seems to carry conviction
through the completeness of its magnitude.
The declaration of the king’s piety deals with the king’s role as recipient of his
god’s patronage as well as with his self-understanding as client, servant, and
supporter of his god’s cult.38 Other elements describing the king’s virtues are
also of interest to questions of historical construction and historicity. Specifically
kingly deeds and virtues are the norm. While Sargon presents himself as mythic
gardener for Ishtar’s father (cf. Gen. 2:15), Yahdun-Lim digs canals, builds
buildings, and provides for his people. Many, like Esarhaddon, present them-
selves as wise and righteous rulers, who bring peace to their people. Some, like
Xerxes, present themselves as teachers, or – more personally – as family to
their people. Esarhaddon and Nabonidus show themselves to be humble, claim-
ing not to have sought the power, which the gods had thrust on them. While
Nabonidus expresses his piety by mourning the departure of the gods, others
fear even enemy gods and follow their instructions. A common trope is the fig-
ure of the judicious king, who seeks divine guidance for his decisions (cf. 1 Kgs
3:7-9). Assurbanipal speaks the truth in his inscriptions. The thematic element
of piety in Mesha’s story is so theologically subordinate to the theme of patron-
age, that the presentation of Mesha as Chemosh’s dutiful servant is recurrently
implicit in his actions. Only in the dedication of captives in sacrifice to Chemosh
does it show itself explicitly – offering a striking literary and theological parallel
to 1 Samuel 15’s story of Saul and Agag. Unlike the presentation of Saul in 1
Samuel, Mesha’s story presents the king as the ideal and faithful servant of the
true king, the divine Chemosh. Limited though the historicity of the elements
furthering this theme is by both hyperbole and propaganda, they offer much
insight into the values which support and define a king’s role.
While themes of patronage and piety present the context and rhetoric within
which the story develops, its narrative plot typically opens on the theme of past
suffering, establishing the need or problem which the narrative overcomes.39
Sargon’s story, in which he is set adrift in a basket of rushes on the Euphrates
and his fate is to be raised by the laborer who saved him, prepares the reader
for a story of a true king’s return to his land, a thematic function which is also
shared by the abandoned child motif in the Oedipus and Moses legends and
which is common to many folktales. The element of past suffering has the pur-
pose of directing the narrative towards a saving reversal of fortune. The most
dramatic finds variations in the Idrimi, Panamuwa, and Nabonidus inscriptions
in a stereotyped plot development that is also found in the Egyptian tale of
Sinuhe.40 In Idrimi’s story, hostile acts in Aleppo cause his family to flee to
Emar. Idrimi, himself, goes to the desert to live among the Hapiru for seven
years of hardship and adventure. This seven year motif is reiterated with seven
years during which the Hurrian king, his family’s patron, was hostile to him.
Panamuwa, in his story, survives the assassination of his father and seventy
brothers by escaping with his chariot, while the usurper creates a desert of his
city. Evil in Babylon was so great in the Nabonidus story that the god Sin deci-
mated the city and forced Nabonidus to leave the city to wander in the desert
for ten years until the appointed time for his return. All three are protected and
helped by the gods during their flight and exile; all make friends and win the
support of the people and all are ultimately placed on their thrones, which the
gods had intended for them. The motif of foreign occupation during his father’s
reign, which the Mesha story uses for its opening on the theme of past suffer-
ing, can also be compared to the long pre-history of rebellions and conspiracies,
which dominate the opening of Mursili II’s narrative and culminate in the mur-
der of his son. As in Mursili II and Mesha, several of our narratives find their
theme of past suffering, not in recent events of the king’s own life, but in a more
distant past. Kalamuwa refers to former times ‘when people lived like dogs,’
while Cyrus overcomes the ravages of the godlessness of Babylon’s former
king, Nabonidus, to return the gods from their exile. In Mesha’s story itself,
Chemosh had been angry at the land during his father’s reign. The deity had left
the land and had used Omri to punish his people, whose son’s hubris challenged
Chemosh’s role as patron of Moab and provided Mesha with his role as savior.
The historicity of elements illustrating past suffering is very problematic as
the specific information of such former situations of suffering are frequently
obviously fictive.41 Such events are also placed in the past, before the king had
been chosen by the gods to save his people. While Mesha’s narrative relates
an implied antagonism between Israel and Moab and an occupation of Moab
by Israel in that somewhat distant past, it is also possible that Mesha’s (or the
inscription’s) perspective of Israelite–Moabite conflict reflects his own com-
peting territorial claims over specific patronages. Rebellions, assassinations,
plots and foreign occupation are hardly events that are absent from histories of
events. Nevertheless, both the historical distance from the specific events and
the stereotypical dramatic tendencies of this thematic element’s rhetoric stand in
the way of a judgment in favor of historicity. The presentation of this theme in
three associated inscriptions seems to support this. The first is the inscription of
40. See further on this, T. L. Thompson, ‘Archaeology and the Bible Revisited: A Review
Article,’ SJOT 20/2 (2006), 286–313.
41. Ibid.
Mesha and questions of historicity 281
Adad-Guppi,42 Nabonidus’ mother. The other two are the inscriptions attributed
to Nabonidus I that were used in my comparative analysis. Adad-Guppi illus-
trates the theme of past suffering with a story about the anger of the god Sin at
Babylon. Much like Chemosh in the Mesha stele, Sin punished the city by aban-
doning Babylon in the sixteenth year of Nabopolassar (626–605 bce). He had
been the founder of the Neo-Babylonian dynasty and had died some 60 years
before Nabonidus came to power. In the first inscription of Nabonidus (556–539
bce), the theme of past suffering is also illustrated by the anger of a god. Marduk
is angry at the Assyrian Sennacherib (704–681 bce) and causes him to be killed
by his own sons, a famous story well-enough known, but still some 150 years
in the past. The resulting suffering is highlighted by the Mandeans who had
destroyed the temples of Assyria. In contrast to such impiety, the Babylonian
kings are declared innocent and mourn the destruction, until finally Marduk
shows his people compassion by choosing Nabonidus to be king. In the second
of the Nabonidus inscriptions, and my third example, the theme of past suffering
comes as a result of Sin’s anger. He is not angry at foreigners, as Marduk was.
Rather, he, like Chemosh in his land, abandoned Babylon because of the evil of
both the people and its rulers, while Nabonidus himself (556–539 bce) is forced
to suffer ten years exile in the desert, a motif, as we have seen, which is shared
by Sinuhe, Idrimi, Panamuwa, and other more literary heroes. Both Adad-Guppi
and Nabonidus, in the first of his inscriptions, draw on figures of the distant past
to set this thematic element. Nabonidus’ second inscription, however, abandons
this strategy, even while maintaining the motif of divine anger against Babylon.
Sketching Sin’s rejection of the city ten years before he is called from exile,
instead of a more distant past, provides the plot an occasion for his own flight to
the desert, a motif that bears heroic dimensions. Mesha’s theme of past suffering
is placed – as in Adad-Gubbi’s inscription – in an earlier generation. The longer
and more arduous the suffering, the greater the wonder of its reversal through
the pious king who answers the call from his god. Rather than a summary of
Moabite history as Lemaire would suggest for lines 2–7,43 this description of
the past has the very specific function of opening the narrative’s plot. The story
celebrates Chemosh and his servant Mesha as savior and restorer of Moab. All
of the inscription’s narrative events are oriented towards thanking Chemosh for
the reversal of this suffering and the passing of his anger.
While the plot-role of Chemosh as ‘lord of history’ finds itself in a recurrent iter-
ation of his involvement in events, other elements also point to this theme with a
clear, stereotypical function.44 This role is not present in all of our inscriptions.
For some, the role of the divine patron is a passive one, while the gods are
not mentioned at all in Bar-Rakib’s inscription. However, far more typical is
Shamash, who listens to Yahdun-Lim and Marduk, orders the restoration of
Babylon, and calls Esarhaddon to the throne. Assurbanipal and Nabonidus are
chosen by their gods to become king. The gods also involve themselves in inci-
dental events: Nebuchadnezzar is sent to cut timber by Marduk. This theme
of the god’s control over history is at home primarily in the context of motifs
of holy war, expressing a divine judgment in terms of blessing and curse: the
god’s anger and his punishment or, alternatively, his mercy and protection. In
Nabonidus’ story, Marduk had ordered Sennacherib to destroy Babylon, but
he had also caused Sennacherib to be assassinated by his sons because of his
crimes against Babylon. Cyrus too is ordered by Marduk to attack this city,
where, however, the people, abandoned by their god, had already become like
the living dead. In Nabonidus’ second narrative, the gods’ withdrawal turns the
land into a desert. In the reversal, Marduk decrees that Cyrus, Persian though he
is, be welcomed by the people, a love of the enemy which marks a divine mercy.
Ahuramazda helps Xerxes put down rebellion and, like Yahweh before Joshua’s
army, the gods march in front of Suppiluliuma’s forces, while the enemies die en
masse. Such divine control of history is especially stressed in Nabonidus’ story.
After Sin had turned Babylon into a desert, he appointed gods to watch over
Nabonidus in exile. They do: Nergal breaks the weapons of his eternal enemies
in Arabia; Ishtar causes enemy kings to seek friendship with him and Shamash
causes the hearts of the people to return to him.
In Mesha’s narrative, Chemosh is involved in scenes of holy war. Not only
was he responsible for punishing Moab by leaving the land and causing Omri
to oppress it, but when he returns in mercy, he restores Nebo, instructing Mesha
to take the city. He drives the enemy from Jehaz and sends the king against
Horonaim. The role that Chemosh plays, though less effective than the role the
gods play in Nabonidus’ story, can be compared to Yahweh’s role in the stories
of Joshua’s conquest of Jericho, Ai, and Gibeon (Josh. 6–10). The reiterative
progression of the chain of battles, including the story of Mesha, setting Nebo
under ban while Chemosh assures his battle’s victorious outcome, is, in fact,
very similar to the reiterations in Joshua 10:28-43, where Yahweh leads and
instructs Joshua’s conquest of Judah. The battles for individual towns are used
as examples for the campaign as a whole. In considering the historicity of such
narratives, the theologically oriented function of the motif of divine guidance
does not support the historicity of any of the specific campaigns themselves –
other than the implicit but important assumption that the text understands Moab
to be free of Israelite dominance. The historicity of specific battles seems pos-
sible, but needs confirmation from other sources.
While the celebration of specific historic victories has been found in monumen-
tal inscriptions, as, for example, the celebration of Merneptah’s victory over
Mesha and questions of historicity 283
the Libyans on the Great Karnak Stele,45 military campaigns which function
as episodes within stories of the good king, such as is presented on the Mesha
stele, celebrate a more comprehensive victory.46 We have seen in considering
the dedicatory function that Chemosh had delivered Mesha ‘from all kings [?]
and caused him comprehensively to look down on all his enemies.’ The three-
fold structure of Mesha’s victorious military campaign serves to illustrate this
dedicatory introduction and marks the campaign as a divinely determined vic-
tory over evil. With a comparable hint at the transcendent, military victories
eliminated ‘war and slander’ in the Hadad inscription, while the Panamuwa
inscription uses a more decidedly mythic rhetoric in describing victory: he ‘kills
the stone of destruction.’ The potential for historicity, which accounts of specific
battles and victories hold, should not be ignored. Yet, their function within their
stories is other than historiographic. For example, Suppiluliuma’s threefold vic-
tory over ships at sea before he comes ashore on Cyprus, where large numbers
of enemies attack him and are defeated, is not merely generic. It uses the same
stereotypical tripling rhetoric as the narratives of Merneptah, Suppiluliuma and
Mesha do, with the specific function of marking the comprehensive complete-
ness of a divinely guided victory.47 Similarly, the reiterative cadence of vic-
tories and reversals in Suppiluliuma’s long chain-narrative about the Kashka
campaign, which culminates in a successful siege of Carchemish, also betrays
an allegorical function. When the story-line is delayed by an Egyptian plot to
destroy the peace by assassinating Suppiluliuma’s son, the king turns to the gods
in prayer in his lament for his son’s death. They are brought over to the side of
the king by this demonstration of humility, whereby he is enabled to re-enter
his campaign with a series of victories, which appropriately culminate in his
victory over the town of Timuhala, the ‘place of pride.’ Timuhala’s destiny is
reversed as this ‘place of pride’ is forced to humble itself, as the town submits to
the patronage of Hatti.48 The story thus functions as a ‘living parable’ of humil-
ity’s victory over pride.49 In the Idrimi inscription, a strikingly coherent and
dramatically cumulative chain of success marks the theme of victory over evil.
Having survived seven years of exile, Idrimi discovers that Adad had turned
once again to him with favor. This change of fortune brings about the reversal
of his past suffering and opens the road to victory and the inauguration of his
kingdom. He builds ships, takes on soldiers and travels north, makes treaties
with allies, overcomes the hostility of his overlord and swears an oath of alle-
giance to him as king of Alalakh. He defeats kings to the right and the left. He
puts an end to their warfare, attacks Hatti and a chain of its cities, takes booty
and finally returns with prisoners in the final victorious entrance to his kingdom.
In Mesha’s story, victory over past suffering also comes as a result of a
reversal, marked by the returning of divine favor. The military campaign is even
more coherent and comprehensive. Chemosh returns to his land, puts a final end
to Israel and replaces the oppressive patronage of Omri and his son(s). ‘I looked
down on him and on his house, and Israel has gone to ruin; yes, Israel has gone
to ruin forever.’50 Chemosh is now compassionate patron of Mesha’s Moab,
while Israel’s patronage, the earlier instrument of Chemosh’s divine wrath, is
gone forever. The ensuing story, presenting a campaign which returns the land
to Chemosh, follows from this victorious reversal, as Mesha takes on the role
of savior. As in the stories of Suppiluliuma and Idrimi, divine victory is decisive
from the campaign’s opening, as the ensuing campaign functions as illustration.
Chemosh gave Mesha ‘victory, everywhere that he engaged [the enemy]’ (cf.
2 Sam. 8:14). This transcendent victory is illustrated through specific battles.
Three towns are named as proud examples of fertile Dhiban’s hundred towns:
Ataroth, Nebo, and Jahaz. The story of Nebo’s conquest is dramatic. This illus-
tration of holy war offers a literary parallel to 1 Samuel 15. In the battle for Nebo,
specifically mythic language enters the narrative as the successful onslaught is
compared with the rising sun’s victory over darkness, reaching its zenith at high
noon: ‘I went in the night and fought against it [Nebo] from the break of dawn
until noon and I took it.’ The great Karnak inscription presents Merneptah’s vic-
tory over the Libyans in the same way: a six-hour battle, beginning with the first
dawn, after a march through the night.51 Both Merneptah’s and Mesha’s story
reflect the myth of the morning star,52 with the sun’s victory over the Apophis
dragon closing its passage through the night. As with the theme of Chemosh’s
divine control over history, the mythic rhetoric of this thematic function limits
the historical value of the campaign account, so long as its details stand without
corroborating evidence from other sources. Nevertheless, the conquest of Nebo
is a likely choice in any attempt to use archaeology to confirm aspects of the
historicity of Mesha’s campaign.
50. Smelik, ‘Inscription of King Mesa,’ 137. In his interpretation of this line, Smelik (137,
n8) mistakenly reads this as referring to a ‘decline’ of Israel’s military strength and reads
the ‘forever’ as hyperbole rather than as a mythic trope. For a comparison with a similar
thematic element in the Merneptah stele, presenting Hurru as widow, and Israel as one
whose ‘seed is no more,’ see the discussion above about divine patronage: Thompson,
‘A Testimony,’ 265–6.
51. J. H. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt III (New York: Russell and Russell, 1906),
§ 583, pp. 245–6; Hjelm and Thompson, ‘Victory Song,’ 6–7.
52. See Chapter 16, this volume.
Mesha and questions of historicity 285
The thematic element of the ‘reversal of destiny’ illustrates divine control over
human fate. It typically marks the re-establishment of the just world the gods
had created. Such reversal brings the kingdom once again in line with divine
will.53 This element stands in contrast to and reverses the thematic element
of ‘past suffering.’ Such reversals are central to this type of story’s dominant
ideology of divine patronage and they support the king’s fitness for his role
in maintaining creation and marking the world with the divine will.54 In all of
the larger inscriptions compared, this thematic element is basic to the narra-
tive plot. Its mythic qualities bear the implicit promise of salvation in terms
of divine blessing and new beginnings. In the Hadad inscription, for example,
Panamuwa presents this function in the restoration of his land’s fertility and
prosperity. In other inscriptions – and explicitly in Esarhaddon’s story – it is
found in the return of divine love and mercy. It illustrates divine compassion.
The gods return or are returned to their temples; abandoned ruins are resettled;
the rebellious now submit to a just rule, while those who had been in prison are
set free. Security replaces insecurity. Idrimi causes nomads to live in houses,
while Xerxes, more simply, makes all that was bad good. In an interesting vari-
ation on this theme, Nebuchadnezzar presents himself as Lebanon’s savior, one
who returns its people, who had once been scattered and in exile, to their homes
that they might henceforth live in safety. Nebuchadnezzar’s role, in biblical
stories, is given to Cyrus (cf. Isa. 44:38; 2 Chron. 36:22-23; Ezra 1:1-3). In his
own story, Cyrus not only reverses his peoples’ suffering, but raises them from
the dead. In Mesha’s narrative, Chemosh’s return to his land opens the story’s
theme of reversals. It is illustrated by Mesha’s campaign of cleansing and recon-
quest. Towns destroyed and in ruins are rebuilt. The cult of Chemosh is restored,
while that of Yahweh is expelled. The former people of Ataroth, who had been
offered in sacrifice to Chemosh, are replaced with men from the Moabite towns
of Sharon and Maharith. Both the plot-line as such and the intensive mythic
orientation of this theme prevent any too ready acceptance of the historicity of
the events used to illustrate this reversal of destiny. While the story of Mesha
as a whole is unquestionably anti-Israelite, the reversals described should not
be too readily accepted as historical events, without adequate and independent
confirmation from other sources.
Establishing a name
The function of establishing a name and bringing fame to the king is ever closely
linked to themes of piety and patronage. The theme is, of course, implicit to the
Yahdun Lim is described as a mighty king and famous hero, as are Assurbanipal
and Suppiluliuma. Others speak of the recognition given them by nations and
kings, while Suppiluliuma speaks of enemies who fear him. Cyrus calls Marduk
his friend, while Sargon claims Ishtar as his lover. Some assert transcendent
qualities of fame: Nebuchadnezzar is ‘eternal king,’ Azatiwada ‘blessed’ and
Cyrus ‘righteous.’
In Mesha’s narrative, this function is implicit in most thematic elements
of piety and patronage, especially those projected by the rhetoric of humil-
ity. Mesha’s story’s dedication to the glory of Chemosh’s name is everywhere
implicit. An association with humility and piety is also found in the first
Nabonidus inscription, in which the king’s every wish is to carry out the will of
the gods. So too, his ‘enduring throne’ is requested under a condition illustrat-
ing the king’s humility: that Marduk wish it (cf. 2 Sam. 15:26-27). In his second
inscription, Nabonidus insists that he, on his part, did not seek the kingship,
but was himself alone in the world. He presents himself much in the way that
Nabopolassar does in calling himself the ‘son of a nobody.’ Mesha too presents
himself as one who understands the humility that is proper to a king,58 whose
function is to represent the true ruler of his people; namely, Chemosh. The exist-
ence of the stele itself confirms and assures Mesha’s fame. On the other hand,
the easy association of this trope in all of our inscriptions with common exag-
gerations and the lies of political propaganda support a scepticism regarding
the historicity of the many particular claims used in illustration. Although the
This relatively specific thematic function marks elements in the story as being
in accord with a divine plan. Elements supporting this function are usually sub-
ordinate to the theme of transcendent peace, which is the ultimate goal of the
king’s reign, though this function is also used as a mark of divine favor and is
often positioned as a turning point in the narrative’s plot-line. It is often pre-
sented in the form of divinely significant numbers.60 In Esarhaddon’s story, the
theme of past suffering is due to Marduk in his anger having determined sev-
enty years of desolation for Babylon. However, after a stereotypical ten years
of exile, Marduk’s compassion overturns the city’s fate by declaring Babylon’s
restoration in the eleventh year, the year he chose Esarhaddon – as Yahweh
chose David – from among his older brothers. This saving ‘chronology’ is sup-
ported by a calculation that follows a play on the single vertical wedge used in
cuneiform to signify both 60 and 1. When the 60 + 10 are reversed by Marduk
as a sign for the reversal of Babylon’s fate, they serendipitously render 10 + 1!61
Marduk’s choice of Nabonidus as Babylon’s savior is also supported by a cal-
endrical calculation, which complete his years of exile. ‘When the term of ten
years had arrived, it happened on the very day that the king of the gods, the
Divine Crescent, had predicted it; that is, on the 17th day of Tashritu, of which
it is said: it is a day on which Sin is gracious.’62 Signifying numbers mark
completeness and divine accord. Assurbanipal has forty (?) varieties of trees
in his ‘garden of happiness’; Xerxes has thirty regions in his empire; Idrimi,
who lived among the Hapiru for seven years, was also chosen from among
seven brothers and endured his overlord’s rejection for seven years to rule for
thirty years. Panamuwa’s seventy brothers are assassinated, while Suppiluliuma
lays siege to Carchemish for seven days and captures 3330 prisoners. Hardly
a number escapes this trope. This thematic element permeates Mesha’s story.
His narrative is built on three movements, each with a threefold complement
of deeds or events. Like Idrimi in his story, Mesha’s father reigned for thirty
years. Similarly, the evil presence of Omri in the land during his own reign and
the reign of his son is rendered by the similarly divinely significant forty. Such
significant numbers can determine both a divine curse, bringing suffering or a
When my generation of exegetes first left the university, Old Testament studies
was understood as a historical-critical discipline, with but a limited and mostly
traditional connection to theology. Today – a generation later – this dominance
of historical-critical research is collapsing on all fronts. One no longer speaks,
for example, of a historically implicit ‘Sitz im Leben des Volkes,’ but rather
about the implicit symbol system of a text’s contemporary intellectual world.
It is time once again to question the relationship of exegesis to theology.1 To
further such a discussion, I would like to take up today the issue of the narra-
tive figure of Yahweh as God, which is so problematic a representation of truth
within the Pentateuch’s discourse.
In my inaugural lecture to the faculty in Copenhagen more than fifteen
years ago, I addressed the question of the concept of God in the Pentateuch on
the basis of Exodus 3:12’s presentation of Yahweh’s self-understanding in the
phrase, ’ehjeh ’imak, ‘I will be with you’ – a presentation, which is reiterated in
Isaiah’s ‘Immanuel’ discourse and reused in the Gospel of Matthew (Isa. 7:14;
8:8, 10; Mt. 1:23).2 In the scene of his revelation to Moses at the burning bush in
Exodus 3, Yahweh understands himself as the god, who is with Israel; namely,
God as Israel comes to experience and understand during the course of the story:
the god, which is known from tradition (cf. Deut. 32:7-9). Yahweh is presented
not merely as he who brought his people up from Egypt. His self-identification
as ’ehjeh ’imak in the story of Moses at the burning bush bears with it an echo
of Job’s confession that his dispute with Yahweh was in fact rooted in a distorted
understanding of God. Throughout his entire book, Job has spoken about what
he hardly understood, as he had only known God from rumors about him (Job
42:1-6) – from what one hears about God. Exodus 3’s ’ehjeh ’imak, ‘I will be
with you,’ presents a concept of God which closely resembles that in Job’s con-
fession. Yahweh as Immanuel – God as he is with Israel; as Israel knew him – a
god known from memory and rumor; namely, a figure in a story. Whether the
revelation scene at the burning bush veils or unveils this concept of God is a
decisive issue for our reading of the narrative plot throughout the Pentateuch
– not least, the divine plan to drive the peoples of Canaan from the land which
flows with milk and honey (Exod. 3:8-9). The motif of Immanuel is always an
ambiguous motif. The reader is always presented with two perspectives about
having God ‘with’ Israel. Yahweh is a Janus figure of a God: he curses and
he blesses; he punishes and he saves. This topos on God’s presence in and as
associated with Israel implies simultaneously a discourse on the distance and
absence of the divine, presenting us with a Yahweh who also breaks his eternal
covenant and destroys Israel.
In Exodus 3:14, Yahweh offers yet another definition of himself: one which
builds on a folk-etiology of the divine name: ’ehyeh ’asher ’ehyeh: a royal self
identification: ‘I am who I am …’ or, even better, ‘I will be whom I will.’ This
claim plays repeatedly with the scenes, in which, through the course of the story,
it is in fact not Yahweh himself, nor his independence, which controls what he
does or his role in the narrative, but rather Moses or Yahweh’s vanity which
determines his fate! Outside of the Pentateuch, this saying of Yahweh is reiter-
ated by the priest, Eli, when he explains who Yahweh is to the boy Samuel: ‘He
is Yahweh; he does what he will’ (1 Sam. 3:18). It is also found in Psalm 115’s
confession: ‘Our God is in heaven; he does whatever he wants’ (Ps. 115:3). It
is, moreover, this scene in Exodus, where Yahweh presents himself so ambigu-
ously, that sets the story of Israel’s creation on its way (Exod. 3:15-22). One seg-
ment resembles the scene of Isaiah’s call quite closely (Exod. 4:10-17; cf. Isa.
6:5-10). Yahweh is in the process of instructing Moses about how he is to get
both Pharaoh and the Israelites to agree to Yahweh’s plan for Israel’s emancipa-
tion. Moses interrupts Yahweh, complaining that he isn’t very good at speaking.
And it doesn’t make it any better now that Yahweh has explained to him what
he must come to say! Yahweh responds with irritation, giving the author the
chance to play with Yahweh’s own self-conception as one who has power and
gets things done: ‘Who makes dumb or deaf, seeing or blind?’ Yahweh, him-
self, will be with Moses’ mouth! As Moses protests further and asks Yahweh
to send someone else, Yahweh’s anger ‘became enflamed against Moses.’ Yet,
his hot temper doesn’t affect Moses’ firm inability to carry out the role Yahweh
wants of him and the debate closes with Yahweh’s new suggestion that Moses’
brother Aaron might be used to resolve their conflict: ‘He will be a mouth for
you and you will be God for him (Exod. 4:16). The story’s bold rhetoric is
especially striking in its reiteration a bit later, when Moses protests that Pharaoh
will hardly listen to him, because he, Moses, has ‘uncircumcized’ – that is,
inexperienced – lips. In the story of Isaiah’s call, the prophet’s ‘unclean lips’
are circumcised by a Seraph’s burning coal, but, in Exodus, Yahweh’s answer
to Moses’ humble complaint is yet bolder: Yahweh will make Moses into God
for Pharaoh and Aaron will be Moses’ prophet (Exod. 6:29–7:1)! This direct
comparison of Moses with God is the key to their relationship throughout the
entire wilderness story in Exodus and Numbers.
When Yahweh is with Moses later on at Sinai in the story of the golden calf
(Exod. 32), their complementary roles are striking. In Moses’ absence from the
Imago dei 293
people for 40 days, they demand of Aaron that he make a god for them, ‘who
can go before us,’ because they do not know ‘what has become of that Moses
who had brought them up from Egypt’ (Exod. 32:1) – reusing a stereotypi-
cal confession of Yahweh’s presence throughout Exodus and Numbers. With
this statement, for example, Moses presents Yahweh in the first law-giving
scene on Sinai, where the people’s fear of God is tested to prevent them from
sinning (Exod. 20:2, 20). In Exodus 32 it is because of Moses’ long absence
that the people become impatient and Aaron casts a statue of a calf in gold,
announcing a feast for Yahweh: ‘Here is your God, Israel, who brought you up
from Egypt’ (Exod. 32:3-6)! The calf now represents Israel’s savior and makes
Yahweh present! Yet, Yahweh responds in anger and regrets that he had ever
created Israel. He will destroy his people in his anger and make Moses into his
new people! Moses, however, pleads with Yahweh for them; ‘Why must your
anger be so enflamed against your own people? … Turn from your glowing
fury and repent the evil you wish to bring on this people’ (Exod. 32:7-14)!
Just as Yahweh’s violent fury, the flaming anger of the god from the burning
bush, is subdued, the evil, with which he had threatened his people, is itself
repented. Moses then goes down the mountain to see the golden calf as it is
time for him to take up his role as God for Aaron! Like Yahweh’s, his anger
becomes inflamed and he breaks the stone tablets with the Ten Commandments
by throwing them to the ground. Aaron, true to expectations, plays Moses’
prophet by taking over the role of pleading for the people to Moses: ‘You must
not be angry, my lord!’ Moses judges Israel with a divine punishment. Levites
are chosen to kill three thousands ‘brothers, friends and neighbors’ with the
sword. It is also in the image of Yahweh that Moses turns immediately to his
other Janus-role of blessing, as he rewards the Levites for their actions (Exod.
32:15-29). One must ask: Who plays the role of whom? In a third and deci-
sive, concluding segment of the story, Moses goes up to Yahweh in an effort
to reconcile him with the people’s terrible sin. ‘If you will not forgive them,
so erase also me from the book you keep!’ Moses’ demand forces Yahweh to
give in and Yahweh’s ‘final solution’ for Israel is put off for a time. He calms
down and limits his wrath to punishing only the guilty, who had sinned against
him. These he eliminates with a plague (Exod. 32:30-35). Afterwards, Yahweh
reiterates his plan to drive the nations of Canaan from the land, which flows
with milk and honey (Exod. 33:1-6; cf. Exod. 3:8-9; Num. 13). However, he
now decides to change his plan. Instead of himself being with Israel, he will
send an angel in his stead. He no longer wants to be the god who is ‘with
Israel’! He fears that his glowing fury will destroy the people (Exod. 33:1-6).
Moses reproaches Yahweh for having given him the task of leading the people
up from Egypt without telling him whom he will send with them and without
pointing out the way in advance. Moses is adamant, insisting that the people do
not belong to Moses. They belong to Yahweh! ‘If you won’t go up with them
yourself, then you will not lead us from here at all (Exod. 33:15)!’ Once again,
Yahweh gives in to Moses’ intercession and, grumbling, accepts the necessity
of his destiny as god ‘with’ Israel. Yet, he is not humbled; nor has he learned
anything from this story, but insists that it is he who decides, and it is he who
294 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
shows mercy towards whom he will and will have compassion over whomever
he will (Exod. 33:19-20).
The story continues: not least to make new tablets for the Ten Commandments
to replace those which had been destroyed. It is interesting that the narrative
presents a scenario in which the tablets written with Yahweh’s finger are crushed
just as easily as Aaron’s golden calf. The historian in me rises in protest against
the tablets’ fragility, because the tablets, with the divine fingerprint that wrote
them – the evidence for the story – are gone! In compensation, the scene creates
a bold and brilliant subtext to the story. The Israelites have only what Moses,
himself, wrote and the reader must accept that it is Moses who has written of
the image of God the text speaks of! So too, it is not Yahweh’s, but Moses’ role
as intermediary, standing between God and the people, encouraging Yahweh to
control himself and remain true to his many promises, which must be under-
stood. The role Moses plays presents an intensified echo of the role Abraham
played in Genesis 18, pleading for mercy for a whole city. This role, as such,
raises a central, critical philosophical question in the face of Yahweh’s trouble-
some tendency and desire to kill those who are innocent and righteous; namely,
Abraham’s question about whether the divine judge of the world must himself
be just (Gen. 18:22-27)! The author of Exodus presents us with a figure of the
divine that is similarly comparable to that offered in the Book of Job and it is well
worth thinking through. In Exodus 32, the people of Israel worship the golden
calf as the god which had brought them up from Egypt. The casting of the image
of the calf is understood by Yahweh as a breach of the covenant as well as of the
Ten Commandments’ prohibition against images of God (Exod. 20:4), even as
the Ten Commandments themselves are introduced with Yahweh’s stereotyped
self-identification: ‘I am Yahweh, your God, who brought you up out of Egypt’
(Exod. 20:2). As the calf is presented by Aaron and understood by the people,
in Yahweh’s absence, as a figure of Him in his most self-defining act, it awak-
ens divine wrath! It is also instructive that the smashing of the stone tablets of
the law introduces the scene of a parallel destruction of the golden calf (Exod.
32:15-20). The creation of the calf is a breach of covenant. Not so obvious a
breach, however, are the prohibited images itself. The calf is, after all, a figure
of Yahweh, specifically in his own self-defining role of leading Israel out from
Egypt’s enslavement. Why is a representation of Yahweh forbidden? What is
it about a golden calf that awakens Yahweh’s fury? A considerable number of
biblical texts involve well-known parodies of foreign idols,3 for example:
Their idols are silver and gold, made by human hands. They have mouths, but
cannot speak; eyes, but cannot see; they have ears, but cannot hear; nostrils,
but cannot smell; with their hands, they cannot feel; with their feet, they can-
not walk, and no sound comes from their throats. Their makers become like
them, and so do all who put their trust in them. (Ps. 115:4-8)
3. Isa. 40:19-20; 41:6-7; 42:17; 45:16-17; 44:9-20; 45:16-17, 20; 46:1-7; 48:5; Jer. 10:1-16;
Hab. 2:18-19; Ps. 115:3-8; 135:15-18.
Imago dei 295
The function of ridicule in such a parody points out what is unmistakable about
divine figures and statues; namely, that they are only images. Psalm 115 also
ridicules the piety of foreigners, in their efforts to imitate their gods! There are
some dozen variations of this trope in Isaiah, which are used as the cause of
Yahweh’s angry rejection of Israel. Isaiah’s generation is scorned for their lack
of understanding. This trope has close parallels in Exodus–Numbers, not least in
the creation of a lost generation by recreating the people of Israel in the image
of idols much as caricatured in Psalm 115. They hear, but do not understand;
see, but do not perceive. Their hearts are covered with fat; so that they cannot
repent that they might be healed (Isa. 6:9-10)! When Isaiah asks Yahweh how
long the people are to be kept deaf and blind, he answers: ‘Until the land is
in ruins and deserted’ – a threatening reference to the coming destruction of
Samaria and Jerusalem. Fundamental to this trope in Isaiah as in Exodus is a
deep, ironic balance, which is ever implicit to the logic of retribution. A person
becomes the image of the god he worships. Just as the people of Isaiah’s Israel,
the generation lost in the desert of Exodus and Numbers’ story, are on their
way towards destruction in Yahweh’s ‘final solution.’ Although one must read
through 44 chapters before Israel finally breaks camp to leave Mount Sinai in
Numbers 10:11, it is important to the understanding of the story of the desert
wandering that the plot of this chain-narrative proceeds immediately from the
story of the golden calf. Yahweh’s reluctant decision to be with Israel has been
maintained as Israel begins its journey towards the promised land, flowing with
milk and honey. The discipline of the march caricatures a military march, as we
watch a scene of the ridiculous rag-tag army of Yahweh marching out to battle.
Every time they set out, Moses shouted: ‘Arise, Yahweh. May your enemies
be scattered; may your enemies flee before you!’ And every time they stopped,
he shouted: ‘Turn down, Yahweh, you of the countless thousands of Israel’
(Num. 10:35-36)! Yahweh is ‘with Israel’ in this storming march towards the
land he has promised them. Yet, throughout the march, his burning fury hovers
ever on the edge of outburst. ‘Once, the people complained to Yahweh of their
hardships!’ When Yahweh heard of it, ‘his raging anger flamed up!’ Yahweh’s
explosive fire scorches the borders of the camp until, in terror, the people call
for Moses to plead with Yahweh and subdue this dangerously irascible God
(Num. 11:1-3)! This continuously dangerous discord grows as ‘greedy tramps
and camp-followers’ encourage the people to complain over their food. The
mannah (literally: ‘what is that?’), with which Yahweh has fed them throughout
their journey through the desert – Yahweh’s miracle-food – has become boring!
The people want to eat meat, fish, Egypt’s wonderful cucumbers, watermelons
and onions (Num. 11:4-9). When Moses hears the peoples’ complaint and sees
Yahweh’s terrible fury once again, he has had enough! He scolds Yahweh for
treating him, a faithful servant, so shabbily. It wasn’t Moses who put this whole
nation on earth! Why should it be he who must always be the one who has the
job of step-father and babysitter? The burden is too much! It was Yahweh, him-
self, after all, who had promised this land to their fathers. ‘Kill rather me, so that
I can escape from all this misery!’ pleads Moses. The motif of the overburdened,
exhausted Moses now forces a furious Yahweh to find his own solution. He
296 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
will send them food for an entire month: ‘until it comes out your noses and you
become sick of it’ (Num. 11:20)! Moses, however, recognizes that Yahweh’s
solution is not, after all, very bright and hardly deals with realities. So he puts
my colleague, Niels Peter Lemche’s critical ‘historical’ questions to Yahweh:
‘Can you butcher so many sheep and cattle that there will be enough? If you
caught all the fish in the sea, will it be enough? (Num. 11:22-23). Unmoved by
Moses’ greater understanding, Yahweh, in his fury, sends a storm of quail over
the camp. And, just as the people get the meat between their teeth, ‘Yahweh’s
glowing wrath exploded and he killed a large number of them’ (Num. 11:31-34).
The third link in this chain-narrative is a story – in Numbers 13–14 – which
reiterates many of the elements of the tale of the golden calf. Moses sends
twelve spies out to report on the enemy, who are gone for forty days. When
the spies return, they describe a land, which has rivers which flow not with
water, but with milk and honey. The land is so fertile that it takes two men to
bear a single bunch of grapes. Rumors spread quickly, however: the land eats
its own people! The spies saw giants there and they, themselves, felt that they
were grasshoppers in their eyes (Num. 13:30-33)! When Joshua and Caleb, two
of the spies that had been sent out, begin to prepare the people for the planned
attack, they find their ‘army’ terrified and rebellious. Their terror is so great that
they refuse to attack. The two spies, however, mockingly ridicule the giants as
creatures whose very shadows have abandoned them. ‘Yahweh is with Israel.
You will eat them’ (Num. 14:9)! They press the people to turn their terror into
the fear of God, but without success, so great is the fear.
The sin which brings about an entire generation’s destruction is their ter-
ror: their lack of fear of God. Their fear of giants paralyzes them in the face
of Yahweh’s command that they go to war against such terrifying creatures.
Yahweh’s response to the Israelites’ terror parallels his actions in the story of the
golden calf closely. He strikes them with plague and regrets that he had created
them. He now wishes to destroy them and create a new people with Moses. No
longer will he be their God; no longer will he be with them (Num. 14:12)! Just
as in Exodus 32 and Numbers 11, Moses takes his turn to plead for the people
with Yahweh, objecting with all his strength and integrity to Yahweh’s plan to
murder his own people. Rather must Yahweh forgive them! Indeed, he must do
so for his own sake. The Egyptians well know, explains Moses, that Yahweh
is the god who is with this people and who leads them. If the Egyptians tell
the people living in the land of Israel’s destruction, they will scorn and laugh
at Yahweh, thinking him unable to bring them into the land. Moses reinter-
prets Yahweh’s greatness, using Yahweh’s own self-understanding against him:
‘Long-suffering, ever faithful, a god who forgives sin and rebellion, but does not
let the guilty go unpunished.’ Though he is a god who can punish the guilty to
the fourth generation, Moses asks him to forgive his people now, just as he has
always forgiven them since they had first left Egypt (Num. 14:13-22).
Once again, Yahweh regrets the evil that he planned to do to his people and
gives in to Moses’ demands. Once again, in spite of his humiliation, Yahweh
insists, all the same, that he, Yahweh, is the one who makes the decisions!
Imago dei 297
older part of the Pentateuch and Genesis to the younger.4 As in so many texts,
the introduction of the Pentateuch is written in response to the narrative of the
main text, and attempts to interpret it. An explicit treatment of the particular
motif of humanity as created in God’s image is found in the threefold, progres-
sive leitmotif paraphrasing humanity’s creation in Genesis 1:26; 5:1-3 and 9:1-7.
When mankind was created in Genesis 1, God said: ‘Let us create human-
ity in our image, that they be like us.’ He created them in his image, male and
female, and he blessed them. They became so numerous that they could fill the
earth and subject it that they might rule over all life on earth. He gave them all
of the plants and fruit for food and completed his work, seeing that all that he
had made was good. Finally, he rests on the seventh day (Gen. 2:2-3). Psalm 8
is sung on a similar note: ‘God has made mankind a little less than God … to
rule over the work of his hands’ (Ps. 8:6-7). Genesis 1’s creation is an idealistic
presentation – at least as it is often interpreted with reference to similarities with
Isaiah 65, where vegetarianism becomes the first sign of an end to the world’s
violence. This reference to Isaiah’s utopia should not, however, be engaged too
quickly to create a problem-free rendering of the story of creation. We need first
to ask whether God actually has created a world and a humanity that is as good
as he sees it in the story of Genesis 1. This creation narrative opens a larger
story that is first and foremost tragic, if not tragi-comic, in its essence! We must
ask from the perspective of this greater whole, whether his work of creation
really was so well done. The whole of the Old Testament narrative, from the
creation on, is a painful story of never-ending failure. One must first come to
the closure of Isaiah to meet his utopia’s new heaven and new earth: a new crea-
tion, where the wolf eats grass with the sheep and one no longer finds evil and
destruction on ‘Yahweh’s holy mountain’ (Isa. 65:17-25). First here, after the
story has closed and prophets speak of an unknown future, does the story offer
a view of a world that is good. It needs to be recognized: the old world we know
won’t do! The divine claim that it was good that humanity was created in God’s
image and as his representative: to rule over the world, that God might rest in
his heaven, is something which, in the light of Old Testament theology, illus-
trates only the ever-implicit, but ill-reflected arrogance of a stereotypical royal
ideology. In relation to the Old Testament as a whole, humanity’s role as king is
questionable (Deut. 17:14-20; 1 Sam. 8:1-18)! When Psalm 115 describes the
world comprehensively – ‘The heavens are Yahweh’s heaven, but the earth he
gave to humanity’ – it is to point to a future hope. The saying quoted functions
as confessional commentary to this psalm’s parody of the gods. It creates irony
and contrast between an ideal Jerusalem’s God, the living Yahweh of piety who
does all that he chooses to do on the one hand, and the dumb and blind images
of gods which are made by men and cannot do anything (cf. 1 Kgs 18).
The second creation story in the Bible is a narrative allegory on the theme of
Paradise Lost, structured as a narrative illustration of the creation as set within
in the opening of the following story, when Eve gives birth to her first child: ‘I
have created a man with Yahweh,’ she declares (Gen. 4:1)! The text’s accept-
ance of Eve’s proud perception of parity with Yahweh is a central motif of the
story’s plot. As the story turns from Abel’s birth to murder, Eve’s first-born,
Cain, becomes a man who takes what his mother has created. Together, they
can challenge what is ever a divine prerogative. Only at the very close of the
Pentateuch, does Deuteronomy expose their pretentions when Moses writes that
there is no other God than Yahweh. He alone kills and lets live (Deut. 32:39).
Cain’s story moves quickly. Its language is simple, but chosen carefully that
it might bear the weight of the story’s allegory. Cain’s head hangs in anger
because Yahweh has accepted Abel’s offering, but not Cain’s. Yahweh asks him
about this ‘burning anger’ and advises him that if he wishes to do what is good,
he should hold his head high and control his anger. Cain, however, like Eve
before him, decides for himself what seems to him to be good. His head no
longer hangs; rather, he raises and lifts himself up to kill his brother (Gen. 4:8)!
After Abel dies, Yahweh asks Cain where his brother is, but Cain’s answer
opens what becomes the central core of the story’s allegory with a counter-ques-
tion: ‘Am I the keeper [shomer] of my brother?’ The story reiterates Adam’s
failure, in the previous story segment, where he had the roles of the garden’s
‘servant and keeper’ (Gen. 4:9; cf. 2:15). Cain, the ‘servant of the soil’ asks of
his brother’s role: ‘the keeper of sheep.’ The irony is striking, especially when
one considers the divine preference in the ancient Near East for meat! The trag-
edy of Abel’s death opens as Cain now takes up his role as representative of this
world’s lost sheep (cf. the reiteration in Num 27:17!). Cain’s question, ‘Am I the
keeper of my brother?,’ exposes not pride, but self-recognition and incapacity.
As Cain’s uncertain fate as fugitive, in exile from his land and his God, an easy
victim of anyone he should meet (Gen. 4:12-14), forces him to protest, Yahweh,
himself, is forced to take over – now in Abel’s image – the role of mankind’s
shomer! As Cain is marked with the sign of Yahweh’s protecting patronage (so
also Num. 6:23-27), Cain’s life is protected by Yahweh’s promise of a sevenfold
vengeance against anyone who should seek to kill him (Gen. 4:15). The story’s
allegorical mirror turns immediately and brutally away from the Janus-faced
Yahweh in his mercy, to expose the vengeance-eager protector of mankind,
even as murderer. The story closes on the theme of the human tendency to cre-
ate oneself in the image of God, as the rhythms of Cain’s great-great-grandson,
Lamech’s, overtrumping song of vengeance is brought to dominate the story’s
previous subtlety: ‘I can kill a man for a cut, a child for a scratch. If Cain is to
be revenged 7 times, Lamech will be 77 times avenged!’ (Gen. 4:23-24).
As the story spirals downward on its way to the flood story with a human-
ity which plans and seeks only what is evil (Gen. 6:5), the explicit literary
play on Cain’s hanging and upraised head, his burning fury and the assault on
Abel, draws the reader’s attention to the manner with which Cain has killed
his brother. We must ask whether the course of the action is merely rhetorical
or whether we are dealing with an important, even central, motif of the narra-
tive’s plot and development. Nothing stands in the way of the parallel to Eve’s
behavior in the garden story: she who is created in the image of God and, in that
Imago dei 301
5. On this central motif of the Pentateuch’s understanding of Yahweh, see H.-J. Lundager
Jensen, Den fortærende ild (Aarhus: Aarhus Universitetsforlag, 2004).
6. Literally: ‘creating a folly’; P. Guillaume and M. Schunk, ‘Job’s Intercession: Antidote
to Divine Folly,’ Bb 88 (2007), 457–72.
302 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
story’s famous echo of the opening words and title of the Enuma Elish, the
Babylonian creation story: beyom ’asot yahweh ’elohim ’eretz weshamayim,
‘On the day that God’s Yahweh created heaven and earth’ (Gen. 2:4). The first
words of the book of Adam’s toledoth consciously reiterate Genesis 1:26s:
beyom bero’ ’elohim ’adam, bidmot ’elohim ’asah ’oto. ‘On the day that God
created humanity, he created it in his image’ (Gen. 5:1). With this reiteration the
integrity and coherence of the Bible’s first chapters are confirmed. Here too, the
expression that humanity is created as male and female and in the likeness of
God is stressed, but there is no suggestion at all that humanity should rule over
the world as we find in Genesis 1:26-29. Rather, it is an alternative metaphor of
royal ideology which is used: reflecting the relationship between father and son.
When Adam has a son, that son is created in Adam’s image and likeness. The
list of fathers and sons moves dynastically over ten generations to Noah and the
flood story. In the New Testament, when Luke’s gospel describes this genealogy
in reverse order in the service of his Jesus story, he closes the list of ancestors
with ‘son of Seth, son of Adam, son of God,’ confirming and clarifying thereby
Genesis’s metaphor of being created in God’s image. The line of development
we find in the genealogy of Genesis 5 is clearly dynastic, as it moves from eld-
est son to eldest son (Adam, Seth, Enosh, etc.), until one comes to Noah. Here,
other interests are taken up and another pattern is used to encompass Noah’s
three sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth (Gen. 5:32), in order to parallel Terah’s
three sons in the closing of Shem’s genealogy: Abram, Nahor, and Haran (Gen.
11:26). Inheritance of the divine image follows royal ideology in its direct line,
while other sons and daughters are born in each generation. This is reiterated
at the narrative’s conclusion: ‘When humans began to be numerous on earth
and had daughters, the sons of God saw that the daughters of men were beauti-
ful and so they took for themselves any they wanted’ (Gen. 6:1-2). This short
description of the royal sons of God and their power to take whatever women
they wished, forming the final segment of the creation narrative in Genesis, is
a motif which also opens the epic of Gilgamesh as the king of Uruk, young and
brave, but – in his recklessness, beating the young men and raping the young
women of Uruk – an irresponsible tyrant. In the Bible, just such reprehensible
behavior of kings is hinted at in Genesis 6, when such royal ‘sons of god’ reck-
lessly take whichever women they found beautiful – regardless of whose wife or
daughter they might be. This text stands together with the dire warnings which
Deuteronomy and especially 1 Samuel give concerning the nature of a king’s
tyranny (Deut. 17:14-17; 1 Sam. 8:13); it is also used to describe the action of
David, which Yahweh saw as evil, namely, the murder of his faithful servant
and one of the heroes of old, Uriah the Hittite, when David himself had stayed
home, away from the war and found Uriah’s wife so very beautiful that he took
her and made her pregnant (1 Sam. 11:1-27).
In Genesis, the brief segment of chapter 6:1-4’s reference to ‘sons of god’
does not seem to deal with the legend of the morning star, Lucifer, and the
fallen angels, as, for example, Enoch and the Book of Jubilees had understood.
Genesis’s treatment of the Lucifer legend is better seen first after the flood, in
the narrative segment dealing with the tower of Babel (Gen. 11:1-9), which,
Imago dei 303
with the revised genealogy of Shem (Gen. 11:10-26) opens the patriarchal sto-
ries. The story of Babel carries a powerful allegorical echo of Jeremiah’s great
closing diatribe against Babylon, the destruction of which great city introduces
the return from exile and the inauguration of Jeremiah’s new and eternal cove-
nant. The spreading of Babylon’s people over the whole world (Gen. 11:9), with
which Jeremiah marks heaven’s victory over Lucifer’s assault, is reiterated in
Genesis as a bridge story, introducing the chain-narrative of Abram as ger (Gen.
11:1-9; Jer. 50:1–51:58). In Jeremiah’s song, Israel comes home from exile
to Bashan and to Carmel, in Gilead and in Ephraim, while the Judeans come
together with Israel in their search for Zion (Jer. 50:4-5, 17-19). Similarly, in
Abram’s story, Abram comes from the ‘city of Chaldea’; namely, Babylon. He
is also described as coming from Harran (the place of Israel’s exile in Samaritan
tradition). Similarly, his story is tied to Moreh of Shechem (= Samaria) as well
as Jerusalem’s Moriah (Gen. 11:26–12:3, 6; 15:7; 22:14).
In the beginning of Genesis’s revision of Gilgamesh’s and Atrahasis’ flood
story, as Yahweh realized humanity’s great evil, he regrets that he had created
the world, much as he regretted that he had created Israel in the stories of the
golden calf, the quail, and the twelve spies in the wilderness narrative. He
wishes to rid himself of the whole of mankind and, beginning with the pious
Noah as a new Adam, to create a new humanity. After the flood, when Noah –
like Utnapishtim and Atrahasis before him – comes out of the ark, he builds an
altar and offers a burnt offering to Yahweh. Yahweh breathes in and, like the
gods in Gilgamesh, smells the pleasing odor of the offering and regrets the evil
that he has brought over the world. In Gilgamesh, the queen of heaven, Belet-illi
lifted her lapis necklace and swore that she will never forget the day on which
Enlil so unreasonably destroyed mankind. The god of justice, Ea, then decreed
that, for the future, collective punishment was to be banned: only the sinner was
to be punished: only the criminal must answer for his crime.7 This first prin-
ciple of righteousness is left out of the corresponding scene in Genesis, when
Yahweh regrets the evil he has done in sending the flood. This central question
is rather taken up rather in the parallel story about the destruction of Sodom and
Gomorrah in Genesis 18–19 and, in the threefold regret stories in Exodus and
Numbers’ stories that we have already discussed.
Genesis brings its story towards a new beginning for mankind – a devel-
opment that is implied by, but which is not a part of either the Gilgamesh or
Atrahasis stories. Mankind is blessed with fertility and encouraged to fill the
earth, as it had been in Genesis 1’s creation story. Then, reiterating the central
episode of the garden story, a new test is presented. Just as with the garden
story’s assurance that the fruit from all of the trees of the garden could be eaten,
save one, the creation of Genesis 9’s new world presents a new mankind, which
is given all that moves for food. Only a single thing is forbidden: meat with its
life, its blood, in it, echoing Leviticus’s cult of sacrifice (Lev. 3:17; 17:10-14;
Deut. 12:16) in order to stress the theme that humanity is brought into accord
with the cult’s image of God, one who enjoys the pleasant smell of an offering.
The reiteration of the garden story’s test, on the other hand, hardly encourages
the reader to have any expectation that this test and covenant will succeed bet-
ter than that of the garden story. Nor does the story’s anthropology awaken
confidence in the future. Human beings are no longer Genesis 1’s or Psalm
115’s peaceful rulers of the world, giving their creator the opportunity to rest
on the Sabbath. Rather, all the animals of the earth and all the fish in the sea
now face the terror which mankind’s god-imitating desire for meat presents
for them, while Yahweh is given back the task of ruling the world, maintaining
order through the calendar and cycles of this earth (Gen. 8:22). In his need to
control the uncontrollable human wilfullness, Yahweh takes up the role of Ares,
the Greek god of war, hanging his war-bow in the sky as a remembrance. The
new mankind are in his image – they will be like Ares’ two sons, Deimos and
Foibos – ‘Fear’ and ‘Terror’ (the moons of the god Mars in Roman myth; Gen.
9:2). Genesis’s story of the flood hardly closes peacefully, as the Akkadian story
does with Belet-Illi’s necklace, a reminder and a promise of divine regret for the
evil they did in the flood. The Bible has rather Yahweh’s ambiguous bow: the
sign of the covenant, reminding him not to destroy all that lives (Gen. 9:12-17).
Yahweh’s seeming promise of a rainbow’s protection, at the same time, marks
also ancient Near Eastern myth’s great alternatives to the flood’s power to limit
mankind: famine, plague, and the sword! Yahweh, our Hebrew Ares, ‘the most
disgusting of all the Greek gods’ and mankind, in his image as Ares’ sons, will
together be prepared to spread war over the face of the earth. They are the fig-
ures which project the Pentateuch’s narrative of holy war which will open when
Yahweh meets Moses at the burning bush (Exod. 3).
The narrative plot which Genesis 1–10 introduces is long and complex: a plot
that opens in Abram’s journey from the city of the Chaldeans and from Harran:
an ominous allegory introducing a story of a future loss and destruction, pre-
senting an unmistakable evocation of Samaria and Jerusalem’s repentant return
from exile in the story’s far distant future: a future that proceeds from holy
war’s retributive destruction of Babylon’s pride, celebrated in Genesis’s parable
of Babel’s tower – the fall of the proud and haughty, which spreads its people
into exile and serves to open the story of Abraham. Abraham’s is an origin story
which takes its point of departure in a prophetic pantomime of the story’s tearful
closure: Israel’s surviving, repentant remnant, a utopia, offering not Ares’ bow
of war, nor the fear and terror of old Israel’s covenant, but a new covenant for a
new Israel: a god-fearing people with insight, who see and hear and understand.
However we might think of Babylon’s fall, Israel’s destiny or piety’s fear of
God, the Pentateuch’s ironic allegory of Yahweh’s self-understanding, created
in the image of Moses, is firmly placed within a narrative world’s cabinet of
mirrors.
19
Since the mid-1970s, the conviction among scholars has steadily grown that
the biblical archaeological agenda of creating a historical synthesis of the bibli-
cal narrative with archaeological results is no longer viable. A convergence of
the biblical tradition with historical and archaeological remains is very limited,
and progress in historical reconstruction follows closely our ability to develop
historical questions, which are independent of the allegorical world of biblical
narrative. The problems of reading the Bible as a history of Palestine’s past
are today well known. Nevertheless, there are still many biblical scholars and
archaeologists who unfortunately continue to work within the biblical archaeo-
logical agenda in their efforts to develop what Megan Bishop Moore insists on
calling ‘a critical history of ancient Israel,’ but which is rather an essentially
tendentious biblical history that has at best been rationalized rather than cor-
rected and confirmed through extra-biblical sources.1 The agenda itself is no
better than that furthered in the work of William Foxwell Albright throughout
the 1940s and 1950s.2 Indeed, most of the efforts to develop what is often called
a ‘middle ground’ in the current debate about Palestine’s history – in recent
books such as those by Mario Liverani,3 Nadav Na’aman,4 Israel Finkelstein,5
1. See M. Bishop Moore, Philosophy and Practice in Writing a History of Ancient Israel,
LHB OTS 435 (London: T&T Clark, 2006). For a critique, see I. Hjelm, ‘Samaritans’
History and Tradition in Relationship to Jews, Christians and Muslims: Problems in
Writing a Monograph,’ paper given at the conference of the SÉS in Papa, Hungary in
July, 2008; see also her review of Bishop Moore’s book in SJOT 22/1 (2008), 150–54
and, the shortened version, in CBQ (2008), 579–80.
2. For a systematic critique of this method, see T. L. Thompson, The Historicity of the
Patriarchal Narratives: The Quest for the Historical Abraham, BZAW 133 (Berlin: de
Gruyter, 1974); J. Van Seters, Abraham in History and Tradition (New Haven, CT: Yale
University Press, 1975).
3. M. Liverani, Israel’s History and the History of Israel (London: Equinox, 2005), esp.
128–42.
4. N. Na’aman, Ancient Israel and its Neighbors: Interaction and Counteraction (Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005).
5. I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology’s New Vision
of Ancient Israel and the Origin of its Sacred Texts (New York: Free Press, 2001); I.
Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible’s Sacred
306 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Amihai Mazar6 and others7 – share the goal of creating a synthesis of historical
and biblical studies by correcting the Bible’s story, but, nevertheless, make little
effort to understand the biblical discourse from within its own context. It seems
worthwhile, therefore, to use the first part of my chapter to discuss how perspec-
tives on the history of Israel have changed since the 1950s so as to undermine
any such synthesis.
By the 1950s and early 1960s, there had developed three influential agendas
for writing the ancient history of the South Levant and its peoples. The first
of these was a historicizing paraphrase of the biblical narrative from Genesis
to 2 Kings. Integrating insights from form and tradition history of the Bible
with a rich understanding of Palestine’s geography, archaeological remains, and
inscriptions from the Bronze and Iron Ages, Albrecht Alt developed a scenario
to explain the transition in Palestine’s history from the Late Bronze period to
the Iron Age with the help of a variety of analogies drawn from anthropological
theory, religion, and law. Central to this reconstruction was his effort to describe
the transition from a system of Canaanite city-states under the Egyptian empire
in the Late Bronze Age to a political culture in the highlands, dominated by
independent, national, regional states during the Iron Age, of which Israel, with
origins in steppe pastoralism, was seen as one of the most dominant. Alt, fol-
lowing primarily Max Weber, proposed an abstract and stereotyped dichotomy
between an indigenous agrarian society of Canaanites, who, having a polythe-
istic fertility religion and a literature and legal traditions which were influenced
by Mesopotamia, were located primarily in the lowland towns of Palestine on
Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition (New York: Free Press, 2006); I. Finkelstein
and A. Mazar with B. B. Schmidt (ed.), The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating
Archaeology and the History of Early Israel, ABS 17 (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2007).
6. A. Mazar, ‘Remarks on Biblical Traditions and Archaeological Evidence Concerning
Early Israel,’ in W. G. Dever and S. Gitin (eds), Symbiosis, Symbolism and the Power of
the Past: Canaan (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2002), 85–98; Finkelstein and Mazar,
The Quest.
7. E.g., D. Edelman, The Origins of the ‘Second Temple’: Persian Imperial Policy and
the Rebuilding of Jerusalem (London: Equinox, 2005); O. Lipschitz, The Fall and
Rise of Jerusalem (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2005). For broader discussions, see
especially the series of volumes that have been published by the ESHM on its annual
meetings from 1996 to the present and edited by L. L. Grabbe; see also the proceedings
from a symposium in Rome in 2003 edited by M. Liverani and G. Garbini, Recenti ten-
denze nella ricostruzione della storia antica d’Israele (Rome: Accadamia Nazionale dei
Lincei, 2005); see also the proceedings of a symposium in 2001at Trinity International
University, in J. K. Hoffmeier and A. Millard (eds), The Future of Biblical Archaeology:
Reassessing Methodologies and Assumptions (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmanns, 2004) and
the POOTS from January 2001 to June 2003 in J. Day (ed.), In Search of Pre-Exilic Israel
(London: T&T Clark: 2004).
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 307
the one hand and Israelites, whom he understood to have originated in a coali-
tion of what were described as ‘semi-nomadic’ sheep and goat herders,8 who
were also described as having had a monotheistic religion, centered in a tradi-
tion of divinely revealed, ‘apodictic’ law and an ancestor cult of the ‘God of
their fathers.’ Israel, he proposed, had first immigrated into greater Palestine in
the course of the Late Bronze Age, while gradually and peacefully settling in
the highlands from the beginning of the Iron Age. Not only was Alt’s proposed
transition from the Late Bronze period to the Iron Age a subtle allegorizing
of Genesis’ dichotomy between the twelve tribes of the cursed Canaan (Gen.
9:25-27; 10:15-19) and the twelve tribes of the chosen Israel (Gen. 32:27-30;
35:23-26), it allowed Alt to resolve a central problem in Palestine’s history –
the apparent dislocation of the population of Palestine during the Late Bronze
transition to the Iron Age – with the help of the Bible’s narrated past. Of course,
one needed to look away from the conquest tales of Joshua and reinterpret the
narrative of failed conquest one meets in Judges and see evidence of peaceful
immigration! Closely linked to Alt’s revision of the biblical story was a socio-
logically oriented analogy of a tribal federation, or ‘amphictyony.’ This concept
was essential to Alt’s understanding of the unity of the tribes which created an
Israel as well as to his interpretation of the biblical and theological motif of
covenant as a social contract among Greater Palestine’s pastoralists. He used
his amphictyonic covenant to explain the creation of early Israel as a federation
of twelve tribes. The evidence which supported his hypothesis, however, was
a very general, Greek and Italian inspired analogy of tribal federation around
a central sanctuary in the Hellenistic period.9 This fragile argument from anal-
ogy had hardly the structure of a critical, historical argument one could propose
outside of biblical studies. Its ability to historicize the Bible was both its pri-
mary strength and greatest weakness. Rather than a historical synthesis of evi-
dence drawn from both biblical studies and archaeology, it was a typologically
based, harmonizing revision of Joshua and Judges.10 Alt, however, understood
8. The term ‘semi-nomadic’ is a vague and somewhat misleading term which has been used
to distinguish primarily forms of transhumant shepherds from what was considered the
‘full nomadism’ of the camel-breeding Arabs, who dominated trade in the Iron Age. For
a description and discussion of nomadism and its relationship to pastoralism, see, above
all, N. P. Lemche, Early Israel: Anthropological and Historical Studies on the Israelite
Society Before the Monarchy (Leiden: Brill, 1985); following Lemche on the issue of
pastoralism in Palestine, see also Chapter 7, this volume; I. Finkelstein, ‘Arabian Trade
and Socio-Political Conditions in the Negev in the Twelfth-Eleventh Centuries, bce,’
JNES 47 (1988), 241–52; see also T. L. Thompson, The Settlement of Sinai and the
Negev in the Bronze Age, BTAVO 8 (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1975), esp. 5–30.
9. A. Alt, ‘Ein Reich von Lydda,’ ZDPV 47 (1924), 169–85; A. Alt, Die Landnahme der
Israeliten in Palästina: Reformationsprogramm der Universität Leipzig (Leipzig, 1925);
A. Alt, ‘Erwägungen über die Landnahme der Israeliten in Palästina,’ Palästina Jahrbuch
35 (1939), 8–63 and esp. M. Noth, Das System der zwölf Stämme Israels, BWANT IV/I
(Stuttgart: Niemeyer, 1930).
10. See Thompson, Historicity; Van Seters, Abraham; also A. Alt, Der Gott der Väter
(1929), reprinted in Kleine Schriften zur Geschichte des Volkes Israel I (Munich:
308 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
h istorically, there had been quite different numbers of tribes (from 7 to 23) in
the known Italian and Greek amphictyonies! That such federations were, more
over, unknown before the Hellenistic period also created difficulties for any
who would place such a biblical amphictyony in the Late Bronze and early Iron
Age. Moreover, no central sanctuary, related to all of Israel’s tribes – including
Judah – is known in the Bible. Nor can the tribal nature of any Old Testament
covenant be supported and a national role of the Judges is nowhere apparent in
the stories. Alt and Noth’s theory of a twelve-tribe amphictyony lacked even a
storied substance.
On the other hand, two of the dichotomies sketched by Alt – the Canaanite/
Israelite polarity and the marked, geographic differences in settlement patterns
reflected in archaeological surveys of the highlands and lowlands of Palestine –
continued to play a role in scholarly debates. Both dichotomies played a central
role in the ‘social revolution model’ of Israelite origins, which had been pre-
sented by George Mendenhall in 1962 and fully developed by Norman Gottwald
in the course of the 1970s.14 Rooted in Mendenhall’s effort to affirm the his-
toricity of both the Mosaic covenant and monotheism on the basis of simi-
larities with ‘contemporary’ fourteenth-century Hittite treaties, and asserting an
Alt-like dichotomy within Late Bronze Canaan between impoverished peasants
and oppressive overlords, Gottwald argued for Israel’s origins in a Vietnam
inspired social revolution, which had been triggered by the arrival in Palestine
of a ‘Moses group’ from Egypt, bearing the good news of a revolutionary reli-
gion. Although this argument draws on analogies from sociological models, its
success was due to its usefulness for theology: not history. Its reception among
historians in biblical studies, beginning already with Manfred Weippert’s exten-
sive review in 1967, was, nevertheless, astonishingly positive.15 Although this
acceptance certainly reflected the theological poverty of this branch of bibli-
cal studies, the key to the success of Mendenhall and Gottwald’s thesis was
its recognition that it was first of all ideology which separated ‘Canaanites’
and ‘Israelites;’ that, indeed, the ‘Israelites’ had been indigenous to the land. It
was with Niels Peter Lemche’s doctoral disputation, which systematically set
Mendenhall and Gottwald’s use of sociology and anthropology under critique in
14. G. E. Mendenhall, ‘Law and Covenant in Israel and the Ancient Near East,’ and
‘Covenant Forms in Israelite Tradition,’ BA 17 (1954), 26–46, 50–76; G. E. Mendenhall,
‘The Hebrew Conquest of Palestine,’ BA 25 (1962), 66–87; G. E. Mendenhall, ‘Between
Theology and Archaeology,’ JSOT 7 (1978), 28–34; G. E. Mendenhall, ‘Ancient Israel’s
Hyphenated History,’ in D. N. Freedman and D. F. Graf (eds), Palestine in Transition:
The Emergence of Ancient Israel, SWBAS 2 (Sheffield: SAP, 1983), 91–103; N. K.
Gottwald, ‘Domain Assumptions and Societal Models in the Study of Pre-Monarchic
Israel,’ VTS 28 (1975), 89–100; N. K. Gottwald, The Tribes of Yahweh: A Sociology of
the Religion of Liberated Israel 1250–1050 bce (Maryknoll, 1979).
15. M. Weippert, Die Landnahme; cf., however, T. L. Thompson, ‘The Joseph and Moses
Narratives 1–2,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History, 149–80; and
Chapter 2, this volume.
310 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
198516 – a critique, which also maintained the indigenous quality of early Iron
I settlements in the highlands – that the ‘social revolution model’ of Israel’s
origins began to lose influence. The dichotomy implicit in Alt’s lowland/high-
land opposition, however, continued to mark a sharp geographical distinction
between ‘Canaanites’ and ‘Israelites,’ and continued to play a decisive role in
the biblically oriented analysis and interpretation of archaeological surveys of
the West Bank, which had followed in the wake of the Six-Day war.17 My related
study of the Late Bronze settlement history of the highlands showed that the
scarcity of Late Bronze settlement in both the highlands of Judea and the cen-
tral hills (apart from the Nablus syncline) contrasted sharply with the patterns
of settlement in the highlands during both the Middle Bronze II and the Iron
Age II periods:18 observations that eventually drew archaeologists away from
Alt’s Canaanite–Israelite dichotomy, to embrace – with Lemche, Mendenhall,
and Gottwald – the indigenous character of settlements in the highlands of the
early Iron Age.
Biblical archaeology
22. For this and the following, see Thompson, Historicity, 316–17.
23. Correcting my reading in Thompson, Historicity, 58–66, where I had wrongly argued that
the name could not be associated with the biblical Benjamin. See, rather, A. Malamat,
‘Aspects of Tribal Societies in Mari and Israel,’ RAI 15 (1967), 129–38.
24. See, for example, The Pottery of Palestine in the EBIV/MB I Period, ca. 2150–1850 BC
(unpublished dissertation, Harvard University, 1966).
25. W. F. Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine and the Bible (1932), 236.
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 313
earliest came in the late 1950s.26 Most biblical scholars, however, seemed to
agree with H. H. Rowley’s summation:27
The basic facts included such items as the movements of the patriarchs, their
occupations, their relations with their neighbors, and their marriages and
deaths. There is every reason for the modern scientific historian to accept the
basic family history, which served as the foundation for the [Genesis] author’s
religious history. The sciences of ancient Near Eastern history and especially
of archaeology have shown that the underlying social, judicial, political, geo-
graphical and religious conditions in Genesis are precisely those of the second
millennium and could not have been invented by an author living in a much
later period.28
Only in the 1970s, with the systematic critiques of John Van Seters and the
present writer,29 was there a systematic challenge made regarding how biblical
scholars did history. Once the texts and evidence for the biblical archaeologi-
cal synthesis which Albright and his colleagues had constructed were exam-
ined separately and independently, the synthesis collapsed. None of the ‘facts’
held. Although the Nuzi tablets provided us with one of the most coherent,
single-period collections of family contracts, they illustrate the practice of social
customs in the mid-fifteenth century bce. They appear as part of a common
tradition, which began already before the end of the third millennium and con-
tinued until at least the Byzantine period. Rather than giving evidence of a
centuries-long mass migration of semi-nomadic Amorites that threatened the
ancient Near East for nearly a half millennium, the designation ‘Amurru’ is
neither to be understood as ethnic nor indicative of nomadism. It identified indi-
viduals as ‘westerners’; namely, those who came from west of the Euphrates.
Ur III and Old Babylonian inscriptions illustrated an integration of originally
Sumerian, Akkadian and West Semitic speakers at all levels of the society. The
26. J. J. Finkelstein, ‘The Bible, Archaeology and History,’ Commentary 27 (1959), 341–9;
M. Noth, ‘Der Beitrag der Archäologie zur Geschichte Israels,’ VTS 7 (1960), 262–82;
G. von Rad, ‘History and the Patriarchs,’ ET 72 (1960/1961), 213–16; W. Stählin,
Auch Darin hat die Bibel Recht (1964); M. Smith, ‘The Present State of Old Testament
Studies,’ JBL 88 (1969), 19–35; B. Mazar, ‘The Historical Background of the Book of
Genesis,’ JNES 28 (1969), 73–83.
27. Of course, the two very important challenges of J. Van Seters to the interpretation of the
Nuzi tablets were the exception: ‘The Problem of Childlessness in Near Eastern Law and
the Patriarchs of Israel’ and ‘Jacob’s Marriages and Ancient Near Eastern Customs: A
Reexamination,’ both in J. Van Seters, Changing Perspectives I: Studies in the History,
Literature and Religion of Biblical Israel, CIS (London: Equinox, 2011), 31–38 and
39–54, respectively. These were written in 1968 and 1969 in preparation for his major
comprehensive critique of 1975: Abraham in Tradition and History (New Haven, CT:
Yale University Press, 1975).
28. H. H. Rowley, Worship in Ancient Israel (1967), 5–7.
29. Thompson, Historicity, 1974; Van Seters, Abraham.
314 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
Mari letters clearly showed evidence of tribally organized groups in the Mari
area, living at various levels of integration with the town dwellers of Mari,
whose homeland could be identified as Jebel Bishri in the Syrian steppe. Rather
than an invasion of semi-nomads from Mesopotamia, Palestine’s Middle
Bronze I period reflected an indigenous, impoverished, agrarian settlement with
a larger than normal investment in sheep and goat herding. This was in response
to long term drought conditions, following the Early Bronze sub-pluvial. The
Execration Texts had been both misdated and misinterpreted. They list per-
manent towns and rulers of the late nineteenth and early eighteenth centuries;
that is, the Middle Bronze II period. The term ’Amw of Egyptian inscriptions
is wholly unrelated to the Accadian word Amurru and referred to indigenous
Semitic speaking peoples of Egypt’s delta and eastern desert.30 The synthesis
of biblical archaeology, based on an assumption that biblical stories must have
originated in historical events, reflect a systematic distortion of history. Three
principles can be drawn from these critiques:
30. Thompson, Historicity, 1975, passim; Van Seters, Abraham, 1975, Part I.
31. Paraphrasing W. Malcolm Clark, ‘The Patriarchal Traditions,’ §2: ‘The Biblical
Traditions,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History, 120–48; see also
Thompson, Historicity, 2–4, 52–7, 315–26.
32. Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History.
33. J. A. Soggin, The Davidic-Solomonic Kingdom,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite and
Judaean History, 332–80.
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 315
the Abraham stories of Genesis to the David stories of 1–2 Samuel was chal-
lenged within this same volume. Not only was the historical relevance of the
David and Solomon stories of the Bible unattested, but their literary function
was ahistorical. The ‘guiding motivations of their construction are fundamen-
tally disruptive of historical categories.’34 Within just three years, the field as a
whole had shifted from an unchallenged confidence in Biblical archaeology’s
projection of the historicity of the patriarchal narratives and biblical origin sto-
ries in general to an emphatic rejection of any historical relevance.35 Although
a few archaeologists attempted to maintain a historical patriarchal period and
identify it with the Middle Bronze II period,36 few could support the historic-
ity of Genesis to Judges. In less than a decade, two monographs solidified the
conclusions about historicity from the 1970s and paved the way for writing a
history of Palestine and Israel independently of biblical perspectives. John Van
Seters’s In Search of History of 198337 placed biblical historiography within its
ancient literary context and clearly described its fictional function. Niels Peter
Lemche’s Early Israel 38 of 1985 not only reviewed the historicity of the Bible’s
origin stories, involving a systematic refutation of Mendenhall and Gottwald’s
revolution hypothesis, it proposed a method, based in sociological and anthro-
pological theory, of analyzing the large and growing spectra of archaeological
and historical data becoming available to us. The confrontation which came a
few years later, in the 1990s, was inevitable.
The third major program which had influenced the way the history of Israel
and the South Levant was to be written was an effort to read the biblical myth
of exile and return39 to support a nationalist Zionist agenda, which interpreted
the ancient history of the region through its transformation of the understanding
of Judaism as a religion into a national and ethnic identity. The historical influ-
ence of Zionist nationalist understanding of Judaism on the study of Palestine’s
ancient history has strongly affected both Israeli archaeology and biblical stud-
ies up through the early 1990s. Today, this project has met such extensive criti-
cism within Israeli scholarship that it is no longer clear that it defines the agenda
of Israeli archaeology as a whole. However, it continues to play a considerably
disruptive role in scholarly debates. The nation-building functions of the his-
tory of the ancient past introduce extensive distortions in the construction of
Israeli heritage, affecting national identity. The ‘cultural-historical paradigm’
of linking Jewish heritage with an ancient Israelite ethnicity on the basis of an
methodologically mistaken tie to material remains of the early Iron Age is today
recognized by many as bad history.44 In the words of Terje Oestigaard, ‘The
archaeologist is not a disinterested observer, but part of the process, whereby
certain parts of the past are given importance. The academic debate may deny
a political engagement with the past, as in the case of the Palestinians, but the
problems persist.’45
The strategy of biblical archaeology since Albright had been to bring archaeol-
ogy into harmony with a corrected biblical narrative. With the support of analo-
gies, the Bible was read as an account of historical events. Certainly, the use of
circular arguments to support the assumption that one can identify a particular
biblical story as a context for the composition of biblical narrative – so that one
might assert, for example, the historicity of a folk tradition about David’s flight
into the wilderness in the tenth century with Israel Finkelstein and Neil Asher
Silberman46 or place Deuteronomy and a so-called ‘Deuteronomistic History’ in
the context of 2 King’s story of Josiah in which a lost Torah scroll is found in the
The Politics of Expansion (London: Pluto Press, 2000), esp. 105–62; Masalha, The
Bible and Zionism; N. Abu El-Haj, Facts on the Ground: Archaeological Practice and
Territorial Self-Fashioning in Israeli Society (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press,
2001); R. Kletter, Just Past? The Making of Israeli Archaeology (London: Equinox,
2005).
44. K. W. Whitelam, The Invention of Ancient Israel: The Silencing of Palestinian History
(London: Routledge, 1996), P. R. Davies, The Origins of Biblical Israel, LHB/OTS 485
(London: T&T Clark, 2007).
45. T. Oestigaard, Political Archaeology and Holy Nationalism: Archaeological Battles over
the Bible and Land in Israel and Palestine from 1867–2000 (Gothenburg: Götteborg
University, 2007), 150–52.
46. I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible’s Sacred
Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition (New York: Free Press, 2006); cf. T. L.
Thompson, ‘Archaeology and the Bible Revisited: A Review Article,’ SJOT 20/2 (2006),
286–313.
318 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
temple, which causes Josiah to launch a religious reform with Mario Liverani
and Amihai Mazar.47 Such arguments construct a history by taking as its own
the Bible’s story of the past. There is no evidence for such constructions. That
the allegorical narratives of the Bible sprang from historical events, which are
themselves captured by these same allegorical narratives is not only a wholly
uncritical and arbitrary assertion that is held without evidence, but it reflects the
enormous intellectual poverty of the way we read biblical texts. For such a his-
tory, one would merely need good stories. The breakdown of such arguments in
the 1970s brought to biblical studies a basic principle of critical historical writ-
ing: without evidence, one does not write history. It is for this reason that sound
methods demand that we try to distinguish between what we do from what we
do not know about the past. Neither the tendency to date biblical works late, to
understand biblical narratives as broadly fictive, nor to recognize the obvious
lack of historicity of such figures of story, is based on presupposition. Such
critical doubt, reflect conclusions which follow from separating history from
tradition and archaeology from biblical interpretation. It is neither history’s nor
archaeology’s function or purpose to confirm the historical accuracy or rele-
vance of biblical narrative.48 To consider the mythic and allegorical functions
of biblical narrative within a symbol system that is appropriate to their authors
hardly ignores the deep roots they have in the past. While the Late Bronze
texts from Ugarit represent early examples of Syria and Palestine’s role within
ancient Near Eastern culture, biblical literature, in contrast, is a relatively late
form of this region’s reflection of this intellectual and literary world. Genesis’s
flood story offers us a creative revision of Atrahasis, much as Exodus’s so-called
‘covenant code’ forms a closely related echo of Plato’s Nomoi 49 as both reiterate
Hammurapi’s codex and early Mesopotamian law and wisdom tropes from the
Middle and Early Bronze Ages. Not only does Psalm 104, itself, but Psalms 2,
89 and 110 present us with a clearly coherent strain of biblical song, revisiting
themes, lyrics and ideology of Egyptian New Kingdom hymnology, so well
47. M. Liverani, Israel’s History and the History of Israel (London: Equinox, 2005); I.
Finkelstein and A. Mazar, The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology
and the History of Early Israel, ABS 17, ed. by B. B. Schmidt (Atlanta, GA: SBL,
2007); also Van Seters, Abraham; Van Seters, In Search of History; see however, I.
Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty: Zion and Gerizim in Competition (London: T&T
Clark, 2004), 272–93; T. L. Thompson, ‘A New Attempt to Date the Patriarchs,’ JAOS 98
(1978), 76–84; T. L. Thompson, ‘A Problem of Historical Method: Reiterative Narrative
as Supersessionist Historiography,’ in M. Liverani and G. Garbini (eds), Recenti ten-
denze nella ricostruzione della storia antica d’Israele (Rome: Accadamia Nazionale dei
Lincei, 2005), 183–196.
48. Mazar, in Finkelstein and Mazar, The Quest, 189–91.
49. See G. N. Knoppers and P. B. Harvey Jr., ‘The Pentateuch in Ancient Mediterranean
Context: The Publication of Local Lawcodes,’ in G. N. Knoppers and B. M. Levinson,
The Pentateuch as Torah: New Models for Understanding Its Promulgation and
Acceptance (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2007), 105–41; P. Wajdenbaum, Argonauts
of the Desert: A Structural Analish of the Hebrew Bible, CIS (Sheffield: Equinox, 2011).
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 319
reflected in Akhenaten’s hymn to the Sun.50 Proverbs has its earliest known
roots in Sumer and comes to reiterate both the structure and content of such
philosophers as the eleventh-century Egyptian Amenemope in his Admonitions
or the fifth-century Assyrian Ahiqar in his ‘Sayings,’ while Job offers an ironic
take on the Babylonian Ludlul bel Nemeqi.51
53. See W. G. Dever, Archaeology and Biblical Studies: Retrospects and Prospects
(Evanston, IL: Seabury Western Theological Seminary, 1974); W. G. Dever, ‘Retrospects
and Prospects in Biblical and Syro-Palestinian Archaeology,’ BA 45 (1982), 103–7;
W. G. Dever, ‘Syro-Palestine and Biblical Archaeology,’ in D. A. Knight and G. M.
Tucker (eds), The Hebrew Bible and its Modern Interpreters (Philadelphia, PA: Fortress
Press, 1985), 31–75; cf., however, W. G. Dever, Recent Archaeological Discoveries
and Biblical Research (Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 1990), 3–36; M.
Skjeggestad, Facts in the Ground? Biblical History in Archaeological Interpretation of
the Iron Age in Palestine (doctoral dissertation, University of Oslo, 2001), 46–51.
54. Y. Aharoni, The Settlement of the Israelite Tribes in Upper Galilee (dissertation, Hebrew
University, 1957).
55. M. Kochavi, Judaea, Samaria and the Golan Archaeological Survey 1967–1968
(Jerusalem: IES, 1972).
56. T. L. Thompson, The Settlement of Palestine in the Bronze Age, BTAVO 34 (Wiesbaden:
Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1979), esp. 39–50, 63–7; T. L. Thompson, Palästina in der Früh
bronzezeit, TAVO B II 11a (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1980); T. L. Thompson,
Palästina in der Übergangszeit Frühbronze IV/Mittelbronze I, TAVO B II 11b; T. L.
Thompson, Palästina in der Mittelbro nzezeit, TAVO B II 11c (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert
Verlag, 1980); T. L. Thompson, Palästina in der Spätbronzezeit, TAVO B II 11d
(Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert Verlag, 1980).
57. On cycles of nomadism and sedentarization in Palestine, see Chapter 7, this volume;
also Thompson, Historicity, 144–71; T. L. Thompson, ‘The Settlement of Early Bronze
IV-Middle Bronze I in Jordan,’ ADAJ (1974), 57–71; T. L. Thompson, Early History,
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 321
156–8; 230–31; D. Esse, Beyond Subsistence: Beth Yerah and Northern Palestine in the
Early Bronze Age (dissertation, University of Chicago, 1982); R. B. Coote and K. W.
Whitelam, The Emergence of Early Israel in Historical Perspective (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1987); H. Weippert, Palästina in vorhellenistischer Zeit, Handbuch der
Archäologie, Vorderasien II/1 (München, 1988); I. Finkelstein, The Archaeology of the
Israelite Settlement (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1988), 185–90.; L. Geraty et
alii speak of this cycle in terms of ‘cycles of intensification and abatement in settlement
and land use’ in ‘Madaba Plains Project: A Preliminary Report of the 1987 Season at
Tell el-’Umeiri and Vicinity,’ BASORS 26 (1990), 59–88; S. Richards, on the other hand,
describes the cycle as a ‘systemic perspective of urban collapse, decline and regenera-
tion’ in ‘The 1987 Expedition to Khirbet Iskander and its Vicinity: Fourth Preliminary
Report,’ BASORS 26 (1990), 33–58; see further: I. Finkelstein and N. Na’aman (eds),
From Nomadism to Monarchy: Archaeological and Historical Aspects of Early Israel
(Jerusalem: Yad Izhaq ben Zvi, 1994).
58. D. Edelman, The Rise of the Israelite State under Saul (dissertation, University of
Chicago, 1987).
59. For an earlier version of this theory, see J. M. Miller, ‘The Israelite Occupation of
Canaan,’ in Hayes and Miller (eds), Israelite and Judaean History, 279–84.
60. Coote and Whitelam, The Emergence of Early Israel; Thompson, Historicity, 1–9.
61. G. W. Ahlström, Who Were the Israelites? (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1986);
also T. L. Thompson, The History of Ancient Palestine from the Palaeolithic Period
to Alexander’s Conquest (SAP: Sheffield, 1993). Ahlström’s monumental history of
Palestine, largely finished by the late 1980s, also offers support to Coote and Whitelam’s
insistence on a history of Palestine independent of biblical perspectives; cf., further, T. L.
Thompson, ‘Gösta Ahlström’s History of Palestine,’ in S. W. Holloway and L. K. Handy,
The Pitcher is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gösta W. Ahlström (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1995), 420–34.
322 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
While the initial reaction to Finkelstein’s dissertation was taken up with the
relatively minor issue of whether the highland settlements were to be called
‘Israelite,’ several new studies concurred with his central views and shaped the
coming debate.
In 1990, Herbert Niehr published a study of biblical monotheism’s post-exilic
adaptation of the older Syrian understanding of Baal Shamem,62 rejecting the
understanding of Yahwistic monotheism as an independent development from a
Northwest Semitic form of weather god from southern Palestine. The following
year, Lemche published a brief study63 on the literary qualities of the biblical
figure of ‘Canaanites’ as fictive protagonists of ‘Israelites.’ The corollary that
these figures were ideological realities of literature rather than historical peoples
was becoming obvious. Also in the same year, David Jamiesen Drake’s pub-
lished dissertation showed that Jerusalem of the late tenth or early ninth century
was a small provincial town, without capacity to maintain the bureaucracy of
state. This seriously undermined the widespread assumption of the historicity of
the United Monarchy.64 Philip Davies’s In Search of Ancient Israel65 followed:
sharply distinguishing the ‘ancient Israel’ scholars attempt to reconstruct, the
‘early Israel’ that once existed and the many ‘Israels’ of the Bible, marking again
the fictive character of biblical Israel.66 Also in 1992, I took up Wellhausen’s
idea that it was unthinkable to have a history without a people, in order to write
a monograph dealing with the development of the understanding of Israel as a
people.67 I concluded that an Israel that also included Judah could not be under-
stood as a coherent ethnic entity at any period from the end of the Late Bronze
Age to the close of the Iron Age. The Bible’s concept of Israel as a people was
centered in literary tropes of exile, return, and reconciliation and, therefore,
must have originated in the Persian period or later. Implicit to Genesis–2 Kings
was a self identification as the renewed, repentant remnant of Israel. In the
autumn of 1992, Lemche published a lecture, which asked whether the Bible
could be understood as a ‘Hellenistic book,’ a question that opened a debate on
the dating of biblical narrative that lasted more than a decade.68 Finally, in late
Before this change in the perspectives of the early 1990s could be thought
through, debated, and integrated, a large fragment of an early eighth-century
Aramaic inscription was found at Tell el-Qadi/Tel Dan in1993.70 Not only did
the inscription provide our earliest reference to the title, ‘king of Israel,’ but the
obvious possibility that one word on the stele – namely, bytdwd – could be read
as ‘House of David’ led the original reading of the inscription to associate the
stele’s text with the biblical narrative about the deaths of Kings Joram of Israel
and Ahaziah of Judah at the hands of Jehu (1 Kgs 9-10). Unfortunately, the
‘debate’ that followed this discovery derailed the larger discussion of the Bible’s
historicity and its intellectual matrix. I think the direction the discussion took
was very unfortunate and it did not improve with the publication of the additional
fragments of the inscription that were subsequently found. If the late ninth- or
early eighth-century inscription(s) from Tall al-Qadi is indeed genuine,71 the
English version appeared as ‘The Old Testament – A Hellenistic Book?’ in SJOT 7 (1993),
163–93 and reprinted in L. L. Grabbe, Did Moses Speak Attic? Jewish Historiography
and Scripture in the Hellenistic Period, JSOTS 317 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 2001), 200–24. Grabbe’s volume presents the European Seminar on Historical
Methodology’s debate on the issue.
69. These lectures were published in D. Edelman (ed.), The Triumph of Elohim. The San
Francisco symposium papers were those of L. K. Handy, ‘The Appearance of Pantheon
in Judah,’ 27–43; T. L. Thompson, ‘The Intellectual Matrix of Early Biblical Narrative:
Inclusive Monotheism in Persian Period Palestine,’ 107–24 (included as Chapter 8 of the
present volume); and P. R. Davies, ‘Scenes from the Early History of Judaism,’ 145–82.
70. A. Biran and J. Naveh, ‘An Aramaic Stele Fragment from Tel Dan,’ IEJ 43 (1993),
81–98; A. Biran and J. Naveh, ‘The Tell Dan Inscription: A New Fragment,’ IEJ 45
(1995), 1–18; see now on the stele, G. Athas, The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal
and a New Interpretation, CIS 12 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2003).
71. For the first publication of the inscription fragments, see A. Biran and J. Naveh, ‘An
Aramaic Stele fragment from Tel Dan,’ IEJ 43 (1993), 81–98; A. Biran and J. Naveh,
‘The Tel Dan Inscription: A New Fragment,’ IEJ 45 (1995), 1–18; for a comprehensive
discussion of the debate, see G. Athas, The Tel Dan Inscription: A Reappraisal and A
New Interpretation, Copenhagen International Seminar 12 (London: Sheffield Academic
Press, 2003) and H. Hagelia, The Tel Dan Inscription: A Critical Investigation of Recent
Research on its Palaeography and Philology, SSU 22 (Uppsala: Uppsala University
Press, 2006). For the most recent discussion of its authenticity, see N.P. Lemche, ‘“House
of David”: The Tel Dan Inscription(s),’ in T. L. Thompson (ed.), Jerusalem in Ancient
History and Tradition, Copenhagen International Seminar 13 (London: T&T Clark,
2003), 46–67.
324 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
name bytdwd, which seems to function as a place name in the inscription, obvi-
ously follows a pattern, similar to the name Bit Humri of Assyrian inscriptions;
namely to refer to the patronage, which is also mentioned on the Mesha stele by
the name ‘Israel,’ with a reference (literal or figurative) to Omri and his son. The
occurrence of the name, bytdwd, on the inscription seemed to many to refer to
just such a patronage kingdom, like that of Bit Humri, and so it was identified
with Jerusalem. That it also could be understood as evidence for the historic-
ity of the biblical figure of David as having been founder of this patronage of
Jerusalem was a conclusion that was also seen as obvious by many. The central
difficulty of this interpretation was, however, that it hardly has found much sup-
port by our understanding of the very limited archaeological finds in the Judean
highlands or in Jerusalem itself during the very early Iron Age. The historicity of
the Davidic kingdom or ‘United Monarchy’ has hardly been questioned because
of the storied figure of David alone, but rather and primarily because we lack
evidence of a city of the tenth century in Jerusalem and, even more importantly,
evidence of any significant population in the Judean highlands. Such historical
discrepancies in our understanding of how the inscription could be integrated
into the history of the settlement of the Judean highlands opened up a lively and
at times, ill-tempered, debate. Some few suggested the less obvious interpreta-
tion that bytdwd might be understood to suggest the name of a shrine or temple:
a ‘House of the Beloved’ (disputably, a divine epithet of Yahweh).72 Jerusalem,
indeed, bore the name Urushalimm, suggesting just such a function for the city
since the Middle Bronze Age; that is, bytdwd referred to a holy city: al Quds,
in periods in which the town was either abandoned or without significant set-
tlement.73 This interpretation finds suggestive biblical echoes in a number of
punning allusions to the name David and the Hebrew gloss dwd.74 If bytdwd,
however, were understood, with the majority of scholars, as ‘House of [the epo-
nym] David,’ the limited archaeological remains in Jerusalem for a much earlier
period might suggest yet another possibility; namely, that the political structure
of the town was that of a regional family patronate rather than a kingdom, much
as Beth Bamoth, Beth Medeba, Beth Diblataim, and Beth Ba’al Meon, all of
which we find on the near contemporary Mesha stele,75 and none of which
seems to refer to an eponymic dynasty or as a political label for a patronage
72. N. P. Lemche and T. L. Thompson, ‘Did Biran Kill David? The Bible in the Light of
Archaeology,’ JSOT 64 (1994), 3–22.
73. T. L. Thompson, ‘What We Do and Do Not Know about Pre-Hellenistic al-Quds,’ in
E. Pfoh and K. Whitelam, The Politics of Israel’s Past: Biblical Archaeology and Nation-
Building (Sheffield: Phoenix Press, forthcoming).
74. T. L. Thompson, ‘“House of David”: An Eponymic Referent to Yahweh as Godfather,’
SJOT 9 (1995), 59–74.
75. Lines 26–29; see K. A. D. Smelik, ‘The Inscription of King Mesha’ in H. H. Hallo and
K. Lawson Younger, The Context of Scripture II: Monumental Inscriptions from the
Biblical World (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 2003), 137–8.
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 325
Regional histories
76. For a recent discussion of the occurrence of bit humri in Assyrian texts, see B. E. Kelle,
‘What’s in a Name? Neo-Assyrian Designations for the Northern Kingdom and their
Implications for Israelite History and Biblical Interpretation,’ JBL 121/4 (2002), 639–66.
77. Thompson, The Messiah Myth, 264–7.
78. Thompson, ‘House of David; Athas, Tel Dan, 298–315.
79. M. Steiner, Excavations by Kathleen M. Kenyon in Jerusalem 1961–1967, III: The
Settlement in the Bronze and Iron Ages, CIS (London: SAP, 2001), 52–3.
80. Thompson, Historicity, 106–13.
81. Compare Finkelstein and Na’aman (eds), From Nomadism to Monarchy with Thompson,
Settlement of Sinai and the Negev, 13–24 and Chapter 7, this volume.
82. See, for example, the discussion in L. L. Grabbe (ed.), A Bird in a Cage and the discus-
sion of biblical issues in I. Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty: Zion and Gerizim in
Competition (London: T&T Clark International, 2004), 30–168.
83. Compare Mazar in Mazar and Finkelstein, ‘The Quest,’ 91–4 with Thompson, Early
History, 301–38.
326 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
our perspectives in writing a history of Palestine has taken several new direc-
tions, especially in regard to the relationship between the Bible and history; for
example, the changes that have occurred in our understanding when questions
take up regional differences related to historical change. The progressive devel-
opment of Palestine’s land use was regionally oriented from at least the begin-
ning of the Early Bronze Age and a development in one region could not be
assumed for other regions. Not only is the climate extraordinarily varied, region
by region, but Palestine’s Mediterranean economy was centered in a threefold
inter-related system of grain agriculture, horticulture (esp. fruits, olives, and
wine) and herding. These involved very different methods of production, which
were largely regionally determined.84 Political structures were patronage85 and
patterns of prosperity depended primarily on climate and inter-regional trade.
Longer periods of prosperity (EB II, MB II and Iron II), were marked by bet-
ter than average climatic conditions and a broad spread of small villages and
towns in the lowlands and hill country, west of the watershed. Settlement in
these periods was disrupted by two major intermediate periods: the EB IV/MB I
and the LB/Iron I transition periods, which were marked by severe drought,
84. For the historical and regional developments discussed here and in what follows, see
Thompson, Settlement of Palestine, 5–68; Thompson, The Early History of the Israelite
People, 141–6, 177–300; for a revised, more popular version, see my The Bible in
History: How Writers Create A Past (London: Jonathan Cape, 1999; published in the
US as The Mythic Past: Biblical Archaeology and the Myth of Israel, New York: Basic
Books, 1999), 105–167. Most important for the early Iron Age is Finkelstein, The
Archaeological Settlement, passim. For agriculture in the highlands in the early Iron Age,
see also D. C. Hopkins, The Highlands of Canaan, SWBAS 3 (Sheffield: SAP, 1985);
O. Borowski, Agriculture in Iron Age Israel (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1987);
see also the classical study of G. Dalman, Arbeit und Sitte in Palästina (Gütersloh,
1928–1942; reprinted in 7 volumes: Hildersheim, 1964–87).
85. M. Liverani, ‘The Ideology of the Assyrian Empire,’ Mesopotamia 7 (1979), 297–317;
M. Liverani, Prestige and Interest: International Relations in the Near East, ca. 1600–
1100 bc (Padua: Sargon, 1990); N. P. Lemche, ‘Kings and Clients: On Loyalty between
the Ruler and Ruled in Ancient Israel’ in D. A. Knight (ed.), Ethics and Politics in the
Hebrew Bible (Atlanta, GA: Scholars Press, 1995), 119–32; N. P. Lemche, ‘Justice in
Western Asia in Antiquity, or: Why No Laws were Needed’ CKLR 70 (1995), 1695–1716;
N. P. Lemche, ‘From Patronage Society to Patronage Society,’ in F. Fritz and P. R. Davies
(eds), The Origin of the Ancient Israelite States (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press,
1996), 106–20; T. L. Thompson, ‘House of David’; T. L. Thompson, ‘Das alte Testament
als theologische Disziplin,’ in B. Janowski and N. Lohfink (eds), Religionsgeschichte
Israels oder Theologie des alten Testaments? (Neukirchen: Neukirchener Verlag, 1995),
157–73; T. L. Thompson, ‘He is Yahweh: He Does What is Right in His Own Eyes:
The Old Testament as a Theological Discipline II,’ in L. Fatum and M. Müller (eds),
Tro og Historie: Festskrift til Niels Hyldahl (Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1996),
246–63; E. Pfoh, ‘De patrones y clientes: Sobre la continuidad de las prácticas socio-
politicas en la antigua Palestina,’ AnOr 2 (2004), 51–74; E. Pfoh, The Emergence of
Israel in Ancient Palestine: Historical and Anthropological Perspectives, CIS (Equinox:
London, 2009).
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 327
which radically shifted the border of aridity northwards. Such extensive and
long lasting drought brought about the collapse of international trade and forced
a restructuring of the economy, away from agriculture and horticulture, towards
herding.86 Although most discussions of the early Iron Age have concentrated
on the new Iron I settlements of the central highlands in areas where settle-
ment had been absent during the Late Bronze drought, significant and marked
historical differences in the development of settlements prevailed from region
to region. New Iron I settlements were also found in the Upper Galilee. They
had different ceramic traditions, however, related rather to the traditions of
Phoenicia than the central highlands. In the central coastal area, a number of
very small single period new settlements have also been found already from late
in the LB period. New Iron Age sites also appear in the Jezreel Valley, even as
the larger towns were able to maintain considerable continuity of settlement.
In the south, however, and in more arid regions, Iron Age settlement was con-
siderably delayed. The Judean highlands, in sharp contrast to settlement in the
north, continue throughout Iron Age I without significant settlement until the
ninth century, when most of the hill country regions which were included in the
patronage kingdom of Judah, including a number of pastoralists, were settled.
The southern coastal plain, on the other hand, reflects immigration during the
Iron I period from the Anatolian coast and shows a marked integration of these
newcomers with the indigenous population.87 Obviously, if this period is in any
way to be associated with ethnogenesis,88 one must seriously consider the pos-
sibility of the development of a number of distinct peoples, separated by their
quite different histories. Alternative histories to those that have been offered by
earlier biblical archaeology have proposed fragmented, regional histories for
Palestine’s Iron Age and give little support for arguments of a comprehensive
ethno-genesis. Furthermore, the basic continuity of the population that lived in
the former patronage kingdom89 of Israel/Bit Humri after the fall of Samaria
in 722 bce, seriously undermines any biblically centered history of Palestine.
Moreover, the devastating effects of Sennacherib’s invasion in 701 bce, involv-
ing both destruction and deportation of a considerable portion of Judea’s popula-
tion, make it difficult to speak historically of ‘the exile’ or ‘the return.’ Referring
simply to the early sixth century BCE deportation to Babylon and the later
return in the Persian period as both singular and inter-related events not only
neglects other known ‘exiles’ and ‘returns’ in favor of a Jerusalem-centered,
There is very good reason to understand the central highland region as having
developed, like the kingdom of Moab to the east, an independent patronage
kingdom in the early part of the ninth century, which had been centered in the
Samaria of Ahab, who is not only mentioned as an opponent of Shalmanezer
III at the battle of Qarqar, in 853 bce, but whose palace in Samaria can be
described as ‘the largest and the most elaborate Iron Age edifice known in the
Levant.’90 An historian is hardly bold in the conclusion that this early Iron Age
kingdom of Israel developed as a quite significant power in the southern Levant,
in competition with the Phoenicians in Tyre and the northern coastal region, for
influence in the Galilee, with Aram for control of the northern rift valley and
the Jezreel and with Moab to the east for influence in the Jordan Valley and the
Transjordan. Assyria’s interest in the region and inscriptions related to their
interest have provided us with a rich source for Palestine’s history from as early
as the middle of the ninth and the whole of the eighth century, when it gradually
incorporated the whole of Palestine within its empire either directly under its
provincial system or as clients. When Samaria was set under siege and captured
by the Assyrian army in 722 bce, its relationship to Assyria radically changed as
it took on provincial status. Although Israel’s independence as a separate patron-
age kingdom was thereby lost and the Assyrian regime began to involve itself
directly in directing the development of Israel’s political life, neither the city of
Samaria nor the people who had lived in the central hill country disappeared or
ceased to live in the land. Although the city suffered considerable destruction in
the Assyrian takeover and most of the elite were sent into exile and the occupa-
tion on the Bethel plateau was noticeably and severely reduced, most areas of
the central hills were far less altered. Some Arabs, possibly from Midian, were
transported to the region and settled in Samaria and the city was reorganized
and came, once again, to function as the administrative center for the central
highlands, but now, as a province of empire. The tax burden was maintained and
few changes can be marked in local pottery.91 It is only 2 Kings’ and Josephus’
sectarian and tendentious, anti-Samaritan assertions of foreign and pagan ori-
gins, excluding them so thoroughly from the Judean national narrative, which
has led scholarship in general to distort their history. The city of Samaria and
the people who had lived in Israel before the Assyrian conquest continued to
live their lives on the land after it. The region, having become an Assyrian prov-
ince, continued to play its traditional, central role within Palestine’s history and
politics. The lost tribes were in fact not lost.92 Most other regions of Palestine
were likewise strongly influenced by Assyrian and Assyrian-related interests.
For example, the northern coastal region as far south as Dor (Khirbet al-Burj,
Tantura) was organized as part of Phoenicia and subordinated to Tyre, much as
the southern coasts was controlled by Assyrian vassals from Jaffa and Ekron to
Gaza. At the end of the Assyrian period, the Babylonian takeover changed little
for Samaria, but rather maintained the city in its role as the provincial capital:
a strategy which continued under the Achaemenids. Recent excavations have
uncovered a temple on the top of Mount Gerizim, which dates at least as early
as the fifth century bce93 and scholarship over the past ten years has raised con-
siderable probability for arguing a continuity of the Samaritan community of the
Hellenistic and Roman periods with the population of historical ancient Israel.94
92. See B. Becking, The Fall of Samaria; Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty, 32–5,
41–6.
93. Y. Magen, H. Misgav and L. Tsfania, Mount Gerizim Excavations II: A Temple City
(Jerusalem, Israel Antiquities Authority, 2008).
94. See on this, E. Nodet, A Search for the Origins of Judaism: From Joshua to the Mishnah,
JSOTS 245 (Sheffield: SAP, 1997); I. Hjelm, The Samaritans and Early Judaism: A
Literary Analysis, CIS 7 (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 2000); I. Hjelm, ‘What
Do Samaritans and Jews Have in Common? Recent Trends in Samaritan Studies,’ CBR
3/1 (2004), 9–62; Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty.
95. Z. Herzog, Beer-Sheba II: The Early Iron Age Settlements (Tel Aviv, 1984).
96. M. Kochavi, Judaea, Samaria and the Golan: Archaeological Survey 1967–1968
(Jerusalem: IES, 1972); M. Kochavi, ‘Khirbet Rabud = Debir,’ TA 1 (1974), 2–33;
I. Finkelstein, The Archaeology of the Israelite Settlement (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration
Society, 1988), 47–53; Thompson, Early History, 288–92.
330 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
in Edom from the mid-eighth and early seventh centuries bce, in the areas south
of the Wadi al-Hasa and the Dead Sea, with an urban administrative center
developing in Bosrah (Tall Buseira). Both the Judean hills and Edom owed the
development of their regional patronage kingdoms to the expansion of Assyrian
influence in southern Palestine during the late eighth and seventh centuries bce,
involving them as active clients in the integration of these climatically mixed
(Mediterranean and steppe) regions with Assyria’s interests in mining at Tall
al-Khaleifa and Feinan as well as in the closely related expansion of the Arab
overland trade network.97 The gap in settlement in Jerusalem during the LB
period continued into the early Iron Age and there is no town found on Ophel
in the Iron I period, which seems to reflect the sparse pattern of settlement
throughout the arid Judean highlands. Only after the region as a whole had
been settled and a Mediterranean economy established during the Iron II period
do we find a market town in Jerusalem late in the ninth century bce, a town
which, according to Assyrian texts, maintained the name of Urushalimmu and,
apparently its Bronze Age role as a holy place.98 The original settlement on
Ophel expanded towards the end of the ninth century onto the southwestern hill
and was defended with a thick defensive wall and two towers, though lacking
any significant public buildings.99 The earliest clear reference to Jerusalem’s
hegemony over the region of Judah as a whole is associated to a list of kings
who paid tribute to Tiglath Pileser III in the period from 734 to 732 bce, in
which Ahaz of Judah is mentioned alongside kings of Ammon, Moab, Edom,
and Gaza.100 Jerusalem was organized as a small patronage kingdom and its
hegemony over the region as the ‘city of Judah’ was maintained under Assyrian
patronage during the reign of Sargon II.101 Its role as an Assyrian vassal was,
however, seriously threatened, if not totally undermined, by Sennacherib’s puni-
tive campaign against Judah in 701 bce.102 This devastating campaign not only
led to the razing of Lachish, but to a thorough political reorganization of the
Judean region, involving both destruction and the reassignment of patronage
rights over many of the villages of ancient Judah to more loyal Assyrian clients
in Gaza, Ekron, and Ashdod in the West and in Bosrah in the East. While one
97. G. Ahlström, The History of Ancient Palestine from the Palaeolithic Period to Alexander’s
Conquest (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), 639–64 [656, 661].
98. T. L. Thompson, ‘What We Do and Do Not Know about pre-Hellenistic al-Quds,’ in
E. Pfoh and K. W. Whitelam, The Politics of Israel’s Past: Biblical Archaeology and
Nation Building (Sheffield: Phoenix Press, forthcoming).
99. Steiner, Excavations, 42–116.
100. E.g., D. D. Luckenbill, ARAB II, par. 801; ANET, 282; See further, B. Becking, The Fall
of Samaria: An Historical and Archaeological Study, SHANE 2 (Leiden: Brill, 1992)
40–56; Ahlström, The History of Ancient Palestine, 665–701; W. Mayer, ‘Sennacherib’s
Campaign of 701 bce: The Assyrian View,’ in L. L. Grabbe (ed.), Like a Bird in A
Cage: The Invasion of Sennacherib in 701 bce, ESHM 4 (New York: T&T Clark, 2003),
168–200.
101. ANET, 287–8; Ahlström, History, 639–64 [657].
102. Grabbe, Like a Bird in A Cage, passim.
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 331
might do well to doubt the entire accuracy of the destruction of ‘46 Judean
towns and countless small villages’ and the deportation of 200,150 Judeans,
which Sennacherib boasted of, archaeological surveys do confirm that the dev-
astation of Jerusalem’s hinterland was both thorough and devastating, marking
the most radical known change in the continuity of Palestine’s indigenous popu-
lation. With a mass deportation of a considerable portion of Judea’s population,
Sennacherib effectively eliminated Jerusalem’s hinterland.103 The later, expan-
sive resettlement of the Shephelah and Judea sometime around the mid-seventh
century, along with a sudden and explosive growth of Jerusalem’s population
during the Iron II B period, when an enlarged Jerusalem spread from the Ophel
to the western hill,104 seems to reassert Jerusalem’s role as the primate city of
Judah. Rather than attempting to reassert with Finkelstein,105 without unfortu-
nately either evidence or argument for Alt’s old theory that Jerusalem’s rapid
growth was due to an immigration of ‘refugees’ from Samaria after its destruc-
tion in 722 bce, this expansive development is probably best associated both
with Assyrian consent and with Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal’s sedentarization
policies,106 when Jerusalem seems to have been re-integrated into the Assyrian
economic system in a role as a collection center and distributer of olives. The
continued absence of large or public buildings in the expanded city should
counsel historians to caution in assigning too much political or administrative
importance to the city at this time. The expansion of sedentarization107 included
especially Edom and southern Judah, as well as the Beersheba and Arad basins,
where it was supported by the construction of fortresses across the northern
103. On Sennacherib’s incursion into Palestine, see both the discussion in Grabbe, Like A
Bird in a Cage and Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty, 33–7. For a discussion of the
destruction of Level III at Tall ad-Duwer, see D. Ussishkin, The Conquest of Lachish by
Sennacherib (Tel Aviv: Institute of Archaeology, 1982).
104. Steiner, Excavations, 105–11. As Hjelm has already pointed out (see Hjelm, Jerusalem’s
Rise to Sovereignty, 272–93), the cause of the population expansions in both Judea and
Jerusalem as the result of an immigration of refugees from Samaria and Israel as asserted,
for example, by I. Finkelstein (‘Judah’s Great Leap Forward,’ in I. Finkelstein and A.
Mazar, The Quest for the Historical Israel: Debating Archaeology and the History of
Early Israel, Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2007, 152–7) not only lacks evidence, but is difficult to
integrate with what we know of Sennacherib’s campaign against the area.
105. I. Finkelstein and N. A. Silberman, David and Solomon: In Search of the Bible’s Sacred
Kings and the Roots of the Western Tradition (New York: Free Press, 2006), 134–8.
106. Ussishkin, however, places the expansion of settlement in the Shephelah and the resettle-
ment of Lachish in Level II at Tall ad-Duwer, as having occurred later in the seventh
century bce, subsequent to the reigns of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal, based on an
unfortunate historicizing of the Bible’s portrayal of Josiah’s reform (Ussishkin, The
Conquest of Lachish, 129–30). See Hjelm, ‘I Makkabæerbogs helte,’ 63–4.
107. On ‘agropastoralism,’ see P. Briant, Etats et pasteurs au Moyen-Orient ancien
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 9–56; see also T. L. Thompson, The
Settlement of Sinai and the Negev in the Bronze Age, BTAVO 8 (Wiesbaden: Dr. Reichert
Verlag, 1975), 5–9, 13–29.
332 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
steppe already in the first half of the seventh century bce,108 suggesting that, in
both Edom and Judah, a large portion of this economic expansion and popula-
tion increase occurred during the seventh century and involved the development
of Bosrah as an administrative center, while the expansion of Jerusalem to its
western hill, was due to an Assyrian policy to settle the steppe-dwellers of the
’Araba, southern Transjordan, the Negev and the Judean hills, not only in an
effort to increase olive production in the Judean highlands and Shephelah but
also to exploit the Araba’s copper mines and broaden the trade network.109 From
the early seventh century, southern Judah (including the Northern Negev, the
Hebron region and the southern Shephelah) and Edom hosted a considerable
socio-economic continuum throughout a large steppe region, with the result that
the populations of both regions were gradually integrated.110 Not only had Edom
and Judah shared common historical roots, a common political context sup-
ported these two relatively small Assyrian client kingdoms, which was based in
their closely parallel economies, fluid borders, common language and, not least,
closely related religious traditions. The understanding of Yahweh as originating
in Edom and areas closely associated with Edom (such as Midian, Seir, Paran,
Teman, and Sinai) is echoed in biblical etiologies of Yahweh worship (Exod.
3:1; Judg. 5:4; Ps. 68:8; Hab. 3:3).
When Samaria was conquered by the Assyrians in 722 bce, the damage to
the city and the region had been limited and the continuity of the population
and the indigenous society was correspondingly great. The political structure of
a patronage state and its capital was changed into a province of empire under a
more direct control of the Assyrians. As a social and religious entity, however,
Israel maintained a coherent development from the past Judah, in the south,
however, suffered a quite other fate under Sennacherib. Lachish was leveled
to the ground and the towns of Judah were ravaged by the Assyrians, who
deported the population in large numbers. Continuity with the past was linked
to Jerusalem. When this town expanded to become a quite large city by the mid-
seventh century and Lachish was rebuilt and the Shephelah resettled, Jerusalem
was securely integrated into the Assyrian system, with an economy dominated in
the Negev and the ’Araba by shared interests with Edom in mining and the Arab
trade network as well as by an expansive olive industry in the highlands and the
Shephelah which supported oil production in the presses from Ekron to Gaza
on the coast. Jerusalem and Judah did not survive Assyria long. After having
raided the Arabs in the steppe regions of Hatti in his sixth year, the Babylonian
king Nebuchadnezzar II, the following year, laid siege to and captured ‘the city
108. On this, see Thompson, Early History, 278–88; further, E. A. Knauf, Die Umwelt des
alten Testaments (NSK 29; Stuttgart: Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1994), 136–45; E. Stern,
Archaeology of the Land of the Bible: The Assyrian, Babylonian and Persian Periods
(New York: Doubleday, 2001), 273–9, 295–300.
109. On the Assyrian influence on Bosrah (Buseira), see C. M. Bennet, ‘Some Reflections on
Neo-Assyrian Influence in Transjordan,’ in P. Parr and R. Moorey (eds), Archaeology in
the Levant (Oxford: Aris & Phillips, 1978), 169.
110. M. Kochavi, ‘Tel Malhata,’ in NEAEHL III, 771–5; Stern, Archaeology, 268–93.
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 333
of Judah,’ appointed a new king and took heavy booty.111 In the course of the
ensuing decade, both Jerusalem and nearly all of the settlements of Judah were
razed by the Babylonian army. The majority of the surviving population was
deported, as once again, the indigenous population of this region was uprooted
in a demographic catastrophe, which reached into regions as far south as the
Northern Negev and the ’Araba. It was an impoverished and drastically reduced
Judaea which was left in the land during the Neo-Babylonian period.112 The
destruction and dismantling of the region included Lachish, Ramat Rachel and
Arad, together with the Judean fortresses in the southern highlands and the
northern Negev and most of the towns of the highlands and the Beersheva Basin
to the South. Throughout the South was thoroughly plundered.
The destruction, however, in the area of Benjamin, immediately north of
Jerusalem, was less. In this normally well-populated region, three important
towns survived undamaged: Bethel, Gibeon, and Tall al-Ful. The excavations
at Tall an-Nasbeh, show that the town, though damaged, did survive and was
rebuilt. Not only are there clear signs in Stratum 2 of continuity with the ear-
lier settlement, but the town seems even to have prospered during the Neo-
Babylonian period.113 Indications of a continuity of settlement and significant
changes in the city plan and fortifications have suggested that Tall an-Nasbeh
became an administrative center and is possibly to be identified with Mizpah.114
The Babylonian destruction of Judah extended as far south as Tall al-Khulei-
fah and Feinan. These mining centers were abandoned in the sixth century bce
and remained unexploited by the Babylonians.115 Edom, itself, was, however,
not directly attacked by Nabuchadnezzar during his campaign against southern
Palestine. It is likely that Bosrah, as a Babylonian client, had supported the
Babylonian army in its campaigns in Judea: at least at such sites as Arad and
others in the Shephelah, where the Edomites had their own interests.116 This
interpretation is supported by references to Edomite hostility in the Arad ostraca
numbers 24 and 40.117 The collapse of settlement in Edom and the eventual
abandonment of Bosrah, however, do not occur until the reign of Nabonidus,
after the Babylonians had laid siege to and captured this ‘city of Edom.’118 The
collapse or abandonment of Babylonian patronage over Edom’s kingdom was
clearly related to the lack of Babylonian interest in the copper mines and Arab
trade. The gradual incursions of Idumeans into the southern highlands and west-
ern areas of Judah could be expected to follow on the collapse of the mining
and trade industries that had been centered at Tall al-Khuleifah and Feinan.
That such incursions might have been supported by the Babylonians might well
have come as a result of any cooperation the Idumeans had given Babylonian
forces. After the collapse of trade and the abandonment of Bosrah, the social-
geographic continuum which united the southern Transjordan, the ’Araba and
the Negev to Feinan now also included the whole of southern Judah. The popu-
lations of the two regions of Edom and Judah as a result became one119 and
were, in the rebuilt Persian province of Idumea, centered since the mid-fifth
century bce in the city of Lachish and continuing until the Hasmonean period.
In contrast to the Province of Idumea, with its center in Lachish, which finally
brought some recovery for the region after the Assyrian and Babylonian destruc-
tions of Judah, the settlement of Jerusalem itself and its immediately surround-
ing area hardly recover at any time over the course of the Persian period. The
destruction of the city and its immediate environs by Nebuchadnezzar, with the
deportations that followed, left the Judean highlands thoroughly devastated.120
Within a three-kilometre radius of the city, according to surface surveys, there
was a drop from as many as 134 Iron Age find sites to merely 15 during the
Persian Period. These statistics are confirmed by the discontinuation of many
family tombs and a very sharp drop in the quantity of Persian period pottery in
this region as a whole. The former city of Jeerusalem lay in ruins throughout
the whole of the Neo-Babylonian period. Most fortresses and settlements in the
Judean highlands were abandoned and followed by a considerable settlement
gap. Tall ar-Rumeida (Hebron) and Tall Mshash, at the edge of the Northern
Negev, were abandoned at the beginning of the sixth century and remained
unsettled throughout the Persian period. At Lachish, the last Iron Age stratum
was destroyed early in the sixth century and there is no evidence of renewal at
the site until the mid-fifth century, when Lachish became the center of the new
Persian province of Idumea, a political structure which was maintained well
into the Hasmonean period. In the area immediately adjacent to Jerusalem, how-
ever, little increase of population is discernible through the whole of the Persian
period, during which the settlement areas in the province of Yehud hardly meas-
ured more than an accumulated 150 dunams altogether, supporting, one must
suppose, a population of hardly more than about 3000. If there had been a return
from exile during this period, it left no visible demographic trace in the archaeo-
logical evidence. Estimates of the size of Jerusalem itself, under the Persian
administration, have dropped considerably from Albright’s estimate in 1949
of 10,000–15,000 to recent estimates of merely 400–1000,121 hardly more than
was perhaps sufficient to maintain the sites traditional religious significance.
Finkelstein points out that there is, in fact, no evidence for a city wall122 and,
certainly, the narrative projection in the Book of Nehemiah of the building of
a twelve-gated wall is a highly successful and dramatic, fictive trope. Based
on the evidence we do have,123 the city seems first to have become a large and
important urban and administrative center in the middle of the second century
bce, under Antiochus III. Although one should certainly not conclude that the
site was entirely abandoned during the Persian period, what remains there has
been found only in fills between later buildings or along the slopes to the east
and west of the Ophel ridge.124 Few architectural finds are attested dating from
the Persian period before the construction of a Hellenistic polis in the second
121. For an overview of archaeological finds in Judah and Jerusalem during the Persian period,
see O. Lipschitz, ‘Achaemenid Imperial Policy, Settlement Processes in Palestine, and
the Status of Jerusalem in the Fifth Century, bce,’ in O. Lipschitz and M. Oeming (eds),
Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2006),
19–53; O. Lipschitz, ‘Persian Period Finds from Jerusalem: Facts and Interpretations,’
JHS 9/20 (2009), 1–30.
122. I. Finkelstein, ‘Jerusalem in the Persian (and Early Hellenistic) Period and the Wall of
Nehemiah,’ JSOT 32/4 (2008), 501–20.
123. Of major importance in the evaluation of this evidence is D. Ussishkin’s evaluation: ‘The
Borders and De Facto Size of Jerusalem in the Persian Period,’ in Lipschitz and Oeming
(eds), Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period, 147–66.
124. For this and the following, see Finkelstein, ‘Jerusalem’; O. Lipschitz and O. Tal, ‘The
Settlement Archaeology of the Province of Judah: A Case Study,’ in O. Lipschitz, G.N.
Knoppers and R. Albertz (eds), Judah and the Judeans in the Fourth Century, bce
(Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 2007), 11–30.
336 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
century bce. Nor are there any traces of rich tombs or cultural material, pottery
shards or stamp impressions. From the western hill – where the city would be
expected to expand if it had attained any significant size – only a few shards
and other small finds have been recovered in later fills. In the ‘Tower of David’
region, no remains whatever are earlier than the second century. The western
hill also was first resettled during the second century. Part of the Ophel and the
northern part of the western hill did have some occupation in the ruins of the
Iron Age town during the Persian Period. However, quarry remains indicate that
at least one area of the western hill lay outside the city at that time. Generally
speaking, a small impoverished settlement along the narrow ridge on the spur
below and south of Ophel is all that existed. The main area of occupation is
estimated from a minimum of 20 dunams to a maximum of 50. Yet, even so,
the extent of settlement in these areas is probably quite limited, as there are
few finds reported. A population of 1000 must perhaps be judged optimistic.
The lower estimates of as few as 400 people as suggested by Finkelstein are,
perhaps, to be preferred.125 This relative gap in settlement is not surprising as it
so clearly corresponds to the severe downturn of the population in the whole of
the southern highlands within the province of Jehud.
There is clear evidence, nevertheless, of the recognition of Yirushlem (an
Aramaic form of the Babylonian Urushalimmu) as a holy place in the fifth cen-
tury. Among the letters from the fifth-century Egyptian garrison of Elephantine
is the reference to a request, sent by Jews in Elephantine to both the high priest
Yohanan in Yirushlem and to political officials in Samaria, for permission
and help in rebuilding a Yahweh temple in Elephantine.126 The reference to
Samaria’s political officials on one hand and to the high priest in Yirushlem on
the other might support an understanding that Yirushlem had its center in a tem-
ple or cult place dedicated to Yahweh: a role which this place had maintained
since the Middle Bronze Age. The existence of such a holy place on the Haram,
above the Ophel, would provide both a function for this impoverished settle-
ment and orient Yirushlem’s population to the service of the temple. That the
high priest is given precedence in the letter over the political leaders of Samaria
might reflect a special status for Jerusalem in the perspective of the community
in Elephantine, as we know from excavations that Samaria had a temple on
Gerizim as early as the fifth century bce.127
That the destruction of Jerusalem by the Babylonians and the deporta-
tions had been devastating, thorough and lasting, is patent. There is no evi-
dence of recovery during the Persian period and no evidence for a return of
the descendents of the earlier population. That the city lay in ruins over a very
long period, reflecting a gap in settlement and absence of any effort to rebuild
the town until the second century bce, is also supported by the closely similar
In the Hasmonean period,134 John Hyrcanus conquered Lachish and set the
region under Jewish law and ritual.135 In his account of the Jewish subjuga-
tion of Idumea, however, Josephus’ reference to a ‘forced conversion and cir-
cumcision’ of the Idumeans seems more likely etiological than historical: a
rationalizing ‘memory,’ explaining the common religion shared by Jews and
Idumeans since the Iron Age, which – like that of the Samaritanism – hardly dis-
tinguished these regions.136 In the parallel discussion of Hyrcanus’ conquest of
137. See on this Hjelm, Jerusalem’s Rise to Sovereignty, 210–22; also I. Hjelm, ‘Brothers
Fighting Brothers: Jewish and Samaritan ethnocentrism in Tradition and History,’ in T.
L. Thompson (ed.), Jerusalem in Ancient History and Tradition (London: T&T Clark,
2003), 197–222.
138. On this theme, see also the recent article by P. R. Davies, ‘The Hebrew Canon and
the Origins of Judaism,’ in Edelman and Davies (eds), The Historian and the Bible,
194–206.
139. Already J. Neusner, From Politics to Piety (New York, 1979), 100.
140. T. L. Thompson, ‘The Early Matrix of Biblical Tradition,’ in The Early History, 415–23.
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 339
suggest that the center of political power in Judea may have shifted to Mizpah
during the Neo-Babylonian period and that Mizpah can therefore be understood,
rather than Jerusalem, as the province of Yehud’s political center for some two
centuries.141 I would certainly agree – given evidence from seals and coins –
that the border of Yehud went to the north of Jerusalem and that political power
did not reside in Jerusalem at this time. The continuity of the population of
the Benjamin area, however, is dependent on a fragile and perhaps arbitrary
identification of sixth-century pottery at Tall an-Nasbeh142, Tall al-Ful143 and in
the Benjamin area generally. Nevertheless, current archaeological understand-
ing does give support to Davies’s suggestion concerning the possibility that,
after the destruction, power shifted northwards.144 This revision of our historical
understanding of the Persian and early Hellenistic periods raises the difficulty of
explaining how such a poor village economy, as is reflected in the excavations
on Ophel, could have been responsible for the prolific literary achievements
that are suggested for the Persian period. Could such a small Jerusalem – how-
ever religiously oriented – support the level of literary production implied by
the Hebrew Bible´, as is now suggested by Charles Carter, Davies, and Firas
Sawah, regarding Jerusalem’s role as a holy city and scribal center?145 Is a
‘return’ historically necessary to provide continuity for the group of scribes
among the exiles who had been responsible for starting the ‘canonical process’
associated with the temple in Persian period Jerusalem? Jerusalem’s importance
was as a spiritual center: as the ‘cradle of Judaism.’146 The understanding of
al-Quds as a holy place is supported by the archaeological and inscription-
based history of ancient Jerusalem; not least, by the surprising continuity in the
141. On this, see also further, P. R. Davies, The Origins of Biblical Israel (London: T&T
Clark, 2007) and Memories of Ancient Israel: An Introduction to Biblical History –
Ancient and Modern (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2008)
142. J. R. Zorn, ‘Tell en-Nasbeh and the Problem of the Material Culture of the Sixth Century,’
in Lipschitz and Blenkinsopp (eds), Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-Babylonian
Period, 413–47.
143. N. Lapp, ‘Casemate Walls in Palestine and the Late Iron II Casemante at Tell el-Ful
(Gibeah),’ BASOR 223 (1976), 25–42; N. Lapp, ‘The Third Campaign at Tell el-Ful:
The Excavations of 1964,’ AASOR 45 (Cambridge: ASOR, 1981). I am indebted to a
discussion of the dating of Tall al-Ful’s pottery with Elizabeth Fried from the University
of Michigan.
144. C. Carter, ‘Ideology and Archaeology in the Neo-Babylonian Period: Excavating Text
and Tell,’ in Lipschitz and Blenkinsopp (eds), Judah and the Judeans in the Neo-
Babylonian Period, 301–22, and O. Lipschitz, ‘Demographic Changes in Judah between
the Seventh and the Fifth Centuries, bce,’ in Lipschitz and Blenkinsopp, Judah and the
Judeans, 323–76; F. Sawah, ‘The Faithful Remnant and the Invention of Religio-Ethnic
Identity,’ in Pfoh and Whitelam (eds), The Politics of Israel’s Past.
145. Sawah, ‘The Faithful Remnant’; C. Carter, The Emergence of Yehud in the Persian
Period (Sheffield: SAP, 1999); P. R. Davies, Scribes and Schools: The Canonization of
the Hebrew Scriptures (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 1998).
146. Sawah, ‘The Faithful Remnant.’
340 Biblical narrative and Palestine’s history
r eligious significance of its name since the Execration texts (1810–1770 bce).147
However, this understanding of Jerusalem as having been primarily a holy city
and not an economic or political center solves only some of the problems. The,
therefore, seemingly necessary assumption of scribal continuity with a Bible
story’s Josianic reform is beyond our knowledge as long as evidence for neither
scribal continuity nor such a reform in the Iron Age is available.148 A perceived
need for continuity does not address the lack of evidence for a return! I had
argued in 1992 that the literary trope of ‘return’ was the matrix of biblical tradi-
tion and the basis of Jewish ethnogenesis. However, the well-understood gaps
in Jerusalem’s history suggest that – in contrast to Samaritanism – it may have
been the very literary tradition as such that was Judaism’s historical matrix.149
Rather than considering Jerusalem as both ‘the cradle of Judaism’ and capa-
ble of producing the Bible, we might consider other sites which can be expected
to have played a significant role in composing the Bible and, consequently, in
forming early Judaism. Certainly the Samaritans on Gerizim (at times conflated
with Bethel in the Hebrew Bible)150, with a temple known already from the
fifth century and an associated city estimated by the excavators to have housed
some ten thousand people in the early Hellenistic period,151 is a far more seri-
ous candidate than Jerusalem for having developed a scribal center capable of
developing the Pentateuch and other texts.152 To the extent that a temple might
imply a scribal culture, one should also consider the communities and Jewish
temples in Egypt in fifth-century Elephantine and second-century Leontopolis
as well as the community and temple at ‘Araq al- Amir near Amman from the
Ptolemaic period. Intellectual centers known for having developed biblical texts
are, of course and above all, Ptolemaeus I’s library at Alexandria and Qumran
(or an alternative scriptorium for the Dead Sea scrolls). One must also consider
political and administrative centers within Palestine, not least Idumaea’s Lachish,
147. T. L. Thompson, ‘What we Do and Do Not Know about Pre-Hellenistic al-Quds, in Pfoh
and Whitelam (eds), The Politics of Israel’s Past. On the dating of these texts to the
Middle Bronze Age, see T. L. Thompson, Historicity, 106–12.
148. On the Deuteronomistic History and its dating, see T. Römer, The So-Called Deuter
onomistic History: A Sociological, Historical and Literary Introduction (London: T&T
Clark, 2007); T. L. Thompson, ‘Martin Noth and the History of Israel,’ in S. L. McKenzie
and M. P. Graham, The History of Israel’s Traditions: The Heritage of Martin Noth
(Sheffield: SAP, 1994), 81–90.
149. As intimated already in Chapter 8 of this volume. Also (and even more directly to the
point), see N. P. Lemche, ‘How Does One Date an Expression of Mental History?
The Old Testament and Hellenism,’ in L. L. Grabbe, Did Moses Speak Attic? Jewish
Historiography and Scripture in the Hellenistic Period, ESHM 3 (London: Sheffield
Academic Press, 2001), 200–24.
150. See, on this conflation, Nodet, Origins of Judaism, 174–6; Hjelm, Samaritans, 56.
151. Y. Magen, Mount Gerizim Excavations II: A Temple City, JSP 8 (Jerusalem: Israel
Antiquities Authority, 2008), 165–206.
152. Nodet, Origins of Judaism; Hjelm, Samaritans. For bibliography on Samaritan stud-
ies and the temple on Gerizim, see Hjelm, ‘What do Samaritans and Jews Have in
Common?’
Changing perspectives on the history of Palestine 341
Sebaste in the central hills and, if Philip Davies is correct, Yahud’s Mizpah. All
could well have had an active intellectual society. The major centers of the
Mesopotamian Samaritan and Jewish Diaspora, such as Babylon, Nippur and
Harran, but also Tyre, Damascus and Antioch in Syria must be considered.153 A
dominant Jerusalem over Judeo-Samaritan scribal traditions is hardly obvious
and Jerusalem’s role in biblical composition seems first pertinent, historically,
after the resurgence of the city during the reign of Antiochus III and under the
Hasmoneans. A more complex perspective on the origins of the Torah and the
Hebrew Bible is required, opening a new perspective with rich possibilities for
the understanding of Samaritan and Jewish origins.
Leviticus 135, 153 Deuteronomy 135–6, 153 1 Samuel 135, 144, 170,
2 192 1:29-30 297 176, 194, 200, 212, 221,
2:3 192 5:28-29 135 267, 315
3:17 303 5–6 141 1:11 192, 260
4:1-21 192 7:12-15 84–5 1–2 194, 220
6:7-16 192 12–26 141 2 179, 240, 249
6:11 192 16 142 2:1-10 194, 211, 229,
6:11-12 192 17:14-17 302 236, 240, 254, 262
8 141 17:14-20 298 2:1b 221
8:10-12 192 18:18 137 2:4 215
16 85 18:18-19 135 2:4-9 199
17:10-14 304 19:14 140 2:6 194
19 141 26:5 10 2:7b 277
23 142 26:5-9 10 2:9ab 200
25:4 189, 248 27–28 141 2:9c 200
26 189, 248 31:30 261 2:30 194
26:1-13 189 32 123, 131, 155 2:35 194
26:3-12 248 32:7-9 291 3:13 194
26:14-33 189 32:8 132 3:18 292
26:14-35 248 32:10-14 266 4 176
26:34-35 189 32:39 300 7 185, 200
26:36 248 32–33 242 8:1-18 298
26:38 248 33 196 8:13 302
26:40-41 249 33:8-11 136 11:1-27 302
33:24 266 12:1-5 193
Numbers 134–5, 141, 34:10 137 12:20-21 179
191 14 143
5:18-19 215 Joshua 307 15 279, 284
5:23-24 215 5:2-12 261 15:32-33 245
6:23-27 300 5:13-15 175 16 143
10:9-10 267 6 136 16:1-13 187, 194
10:11 295 6–10 282 16:4-13 220
10:35-36 295 6:26 136 22 155
11:1-9 295 8:1-29 311 24:6 195
11:1-35 170 8:12 311 24:7 195
11:20 296 10:28-43 282 24:11 195
11:22-23 296 24 129 24:12 221
13 293 Judges 176, 239, 307, 24:17 221
13–14 296–7 311, 315 25 155
13:32 248 1:2-7 78 25:38-39 195
14:1-35 170 5 87 25:39 195
16-18 78 5:4 322 26 195
21:4-9 84 8–9 187 26:9 195
24:3-4 139 13 240 26:11 195
24:15-16 139 13–16 169 26:16 195
24:15a 136 13:1-18 254 26:17 221
24:17 187 19 78 26:19 265
27:17 300 26:21 221
32:33-38 288 Ruth 140, 220 26:23 195
35 191, 192 1:1 78 26:25 221
35:25 191 4:16-22 220 31 143, 144
346 Index of biblical references
2 Samuel 170, 176, 200, 2 Kings 137–8, 144, 156, 12:1b 216, 244
212, 220, 221, 315 157, 159, 166, 170, 317, 12:5 217, 244
1 143, 144 322, 328 12:7 217, 244
1:14 195 4:8-37 262 29–32 137
1:16 195 6:24-31 248 36:22-23 285
1:19 189, 196 6:29 248
1:19-27 189, 195, 18 216 Ezra 190, 203, 255, 338
269 18:1–20:21 137 1 112
1:21 188 18:5 277 1:1-3 111, 285
1:23 196 18:7a 277 1:3 140
1:27b 196 18:15-16 215, 216, 10 236
2:4 196 243
2:30-35 325 18:22 216 Nehemiah 171, 203, 255,
7 155, 185, 202, 325 18–20 215 335, 338
7:9 275 19:4-7 277
7:10 137 19:22 216 Job 153, 154, 217, 294
7:14-16 139 19:28 216 1:3 265–266
15:26-27 286 19:35 216 1:7 265
19:16-24 195 20 138, 216, 243 1:20 265
22 142, 155, 200, 211, 20:3 216, 243 1–2:42 270
259, 261, 263–64 20:6 216, 244 2:2 265
22–23 242 2:8 265
22:1 142, 261, 263, 1 Chronicles 135, 138–9, 2:10 265
277 142, 144, 153 4:9 169
22:3 176 1:1-27 261 4:17-19 141
22:14-20 211 10 143 7:17 140
22:22 275 16 139, 142–3 7:17-19 261
22:29 270 16:7-36 142 12:23-25 179
22:38-50 263 16:8-22 142 14:7-9 269
22:44-46 267 16:12-13 142 15:14 141
22:51 266 16:22 193 15:16 141
23:1 139 16:23-33 142 21 141
23:1-7 142, 196 16:34-36 142 21:5 266
24 143 16:36b 142 21:14-16 141
24:17b 325 17:12 139 22 141
25 196 21 143 22:17-18 141
27 196 29:1-20 251–70
II Chronicles 153, 201 29:2-3 264, 270
1 Kings 170 1 143 29:6 266
3 143 1:1-4 143 29:7-11 266–7
3:7-9 279 5 143 29:12-13, 15-16 267
3:28 266 5:11b-14 143 29:14 267, 270
4:29-34 266 6:36-42 202 29:17 267–8
7 287 6:40-41 201 29:19 269
9–10 323 6:40-42 193 29:24-5 270
10:1 275 6:41-42 267 29:25 264
10:24 275 7 143 32:6-8 260
17:16 266 7:3-6 143 32:19 260
17:17-24 262, 264 7:6d 143 33:4 169, 270
18 298 12:1 216, 244 33:6 169
19:15-18 193 12:1-16 216, 244 33:23-30 270
Index of biblical references 347