Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport

ISSN: 0270-1367 (Print) 2168-3824 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/urqe20

Does Aerobic Exercise Impair Neuromuscular

Function During Water-Based Resistance
Exercises?

Stephanie Santana Pinto, Cristine Lima Alberton, Eduardo Lusa Cadore, Ana
Carolina Kanitz, Rodrigo Sudatti Delevatti, Patrícia Dias Pantoja, Leonardo
Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga, Thaís Reichert, Luciana Peruchena Bregagnol,
Salime Donida Chedid Lisboa & Luiz Fernando Martins Kruel

To cite this article: Stephanie Santana Pinto, Cristine Lima Alberton, Eduardo Lusa Cadore,
Ana Carolina Kanitz, Rodrigo Sudatti Delevatti, Patrícia Dias Pantoja, Leonardo Alexandre
Peyré-Tartaruga, Thaís Reichert, Luciana Peruchena Bregagnol, Salime Donida Chedid Lisboa
& Luiz Fernando Martins Kruel (2018): Does Aerobic Exercise Impair Neuromuscular Function
During Water-Based Resistance Exercises?, Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, DOI:
10.1080/02701367.2018.1512076

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2018.1512076

Published online: 26 Sep 2018.

Submit your article to this journal

View Crossmark data

Full Terms & Conditions of access and use can be found at

http://www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?journalCode=urqe20
RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT
https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2018.1512076

Does Aerobic Exercise Impair Neuromuscular Function During Water-Based

Resistance Exercises?
Stephanie Santana Pinto,1,2 Cristine Lima Alberton,2 Eduardo Lusa Cadore,1 Ana Carolina Kanitz,1,3 Rodrigo
Sudatti Delevatti,1,4 Patrícia Dias Pantoja,1 Leonardo Alexandre Peyré-Tartaruga,1 Thaís Reichert,1 Luciana
Peruchena Bregagnol,1 Salime Donida Chedid Lisboa,1 and Luiz Fernando Martins Kruel1
1
Federal University of the Rio Grande of Sul; 2Federal University of Pelotas; 3Federal University of Uberlândia; 4Federal University of Santa
Catarina

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Purpose: The purpose of this study was to investigate the acute effects of water-based aerobic Received 3 August 2017
exercises on the performance of water-based resistance exercises by assessing kinematic para- Accepted 21 July 2018
meters during protocols and neuromuscular responses after them. Method: Ten women per- KEYWORDS
formed 2 water-based protocols (i.e., resistance and concurrent water-based exercises) on Angular velocity; concurrent
separate days. We evaluated isometric force and electromyographic signal (sEMG) before and training; electromyography;
after protocols and analyzed kinematic parameters during a water-based resistance exercise. force production
Results: There was no significant difference between knee extension force production and
sEMG from the vastus lateralis during the maximal voluntary contraction performed before and
after the protocols. However, sEMG from the rectus femoris presented a significant difference
between pretest and posttest measurements in both water-based protocols with greater values in
the measurement after the end of the protocol (p = .046). The peak angular velocity of knee
extension and mean angular velocity of knee extension and flexion showed similar values among
the sets, with no difference between protocols. The peak angular velocity of knee flexion
presented greater values in the water-based resistance exercises compared with the water-
based concurrent protocol in the last set (p < .001). Conclusion: The main impairment induced
by the water-based concurrent exercises was the lower peak angular velocity in the knee flexors
compared with water-based resistance exercises alone.

A combination of resistance and aerobic training (i.e.,
concurrent training) is an effective way to improve
cardiorespiratory fitness, enhance muscle strength,
reduce metabolic abnormalities, and increase functional
capacity (Nelson et al., 2007). In this context, several
studies have demonstrated that concurrent training
generates improvements in both neuromuscular and
cardiorespiratory function in young and elderly popu-
lations (Bell, Syrotuik, Martin, Burnham, & Quinney,
2000; Cadore et al., 2013; Izquierdo et al., 2004;
Kraemer et al., 1995; Silva et al., 2012).
However, studies have shown that concurrent train-
ing may result in lower maximal strength and power
gains compared with resistance training alone, and this
effect has been called the “interference effect” (Bell
et al., 2000; Cadore et al., 2010; Häkkinen et al., 2003;
Kraemer et al., 1995). This phenomenon may occur due
to the negative influence of aerobic training on neuro-
muscular adaptations induced by resistance training.
Among the mechanisms suggested to explain the
interference effect is the residual fatigue from aerobic
training, which impairs subsequent performance during
resistance training and seems to induce this effect when
both modalities are performed in the same session
(Cadore & Izquierdo, 2013). Indeed, studies have
revealed an acute reduction in strength development
immediately after different modes of aerobic training
(De Souza et al., 2007; Lepers, Millet, & Maffiuletti,
2001; Leveritt & Abernethy, 1999; Panissa et al., 2015;
Reed, Schilling, & Murlasits, 2013). Although we
recently developed studies regarding the effects of con-
current training during water-based exercises (Pinto,
Alberton, Bagatini, et al., 2015; Pinto, Alberton,
Cadore, et al., 2015; Pinto et al., 2014), we did not
find studies that investigated the acute neuromuscular
responses of resistance exercises performed following
aerobic exercises in the aquatic environment.
In contrast to training performed on land, in the
aquatic environment, training is influenced by drag
forces that evoke overload against the movements, not

CONTACT Thaís Reichert thais_reichert@hotmail.com Swimming Center, Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Dance School, Federal University of
the Rio Grande of Sul, Felizardo Street, 750, Porto Alegre, RS 90690-200, Brazil.
© 2018 SHAPE America
2 S. S. PINTO ET AL.
only in aerobic exercise, but also during resistance
exercises (Torres-Ronda & del Alcázar, 2014). Water-
based resistance-training prescription may be per-
formed with short periods of stimulus at maximal effort
and amplitude to achieve the greatest motion velocity
possible to enhance muscular strength (Kanitz et al.,
2015; Pinto, Alberton, Bagatini, et al., 2015). Another
difference between the prescriptions of water-based
resistance exercises and traditional resistance training
on land is the muscle contraction pattern due the
stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) during multiple repeti-
tions in the aquatic environment (Pöyhönen et al.,
2001). These particularities may have implications on
strength development during resistance training when
it is performed immediately after aerobic training.
Pinto et al. (2014) found strength adaptations during
aquatic concurrent training, in which individuals who
performed resistance training prior to aerobic training
presented greater strength and muscle mass gains com-
pared with those who trained in the opposite order (i.e.,
aerobic training followed by resistance training). This
result suggested an interference effect similar to that of
concurrent training performed on a dry-land environ-
ment (Cadore et al., 2013). However, the acute influ-
ence of aerobic training on kinematic and
neuromuscular parameters related to resistance training
in an aquatic environment remains unclear.
To the best of the authors’ knowledge, no study has
verified the acute influence of performing aerobic exer-
cises prior to resistance exercises on neuromuscular
performance in an aquatic environment. Thus, to
improve the available knowledge on the prescription
of water-based training, the purpose of the present
study was to investigate the acute effects of water-
based aerobic exercises on the performance of water-
based resistance exercises by assessing kinematic para-
meters, such as peak and mean angular velocity, as well
as range of motion. In addition, the second purpose
was to compare the acute neuromuscular responses of
water-based resistance exercises alone and concurrent
aerobic and resistance exercises by assessing the max-
imal voluntary contraction and maximal neuromuscu-
lar activity of knee extensors. Our hypothesis was that
water-based aerobic exercises would impair kinematical
and neuromuscular parameters during water-based
resistance exercise.
Methods
Experimental design
To investigate the possible negative influence of water-
based aerobic exercises on subsequent water-based
resistance training, we assessed two variables: peak
angular velocity and mean angular velocity of knee
flexion and extension during water-based resistance-
training sets. We chose these outcomes because both
are related to two relevant training variables: the work-
load achieved and the maximal number of repetitions.
Peak angular velocity is related to the peak of tension
developed inside the water. In addition, we assessed
mean angular velocity because greater the mean velo-
city is associated with a greater number of repetitions
performed in a given set of time. Moreover, to investi-
gate the neuromuscular effects of water-based concur-
rent and resistance training, we measured the maximal
voluntary contraction and maximal neuromuscular
activity of knee extensors during pretraining and post-
training sessions. Each participant took part in two data
collection sessions to collect neuromuscular and kine-
matical variables during water-based resistance-training
and water-based concurrent-training protocols.
Participants randomly performed the water-based resis-
tance-training and water-based concurrent-training
protocols on separate days with a 1-week interval
between them.
Participants
The sample was composed of 10 healthy young women
(Mage = 27.00 ± 2.72 years, Mheight = 163.55 ± 4.82 cm,
Mbody mass = 64.76 ± 11.26 kg, Mbody fat percentage =
35.16 ± 3.86%) who were engaged in a systematic
water-based exercise program in the previous 3
months. Sample size calculation was carried out using
GPOWER 3.0.10 software with an alpha level of 5% and
a power of 90% based on kinematical and neuromus-
cular data from the studies of De Souza et al. (2007)
and Pöyhönen et al. (2001). These parameters resulted
in the need for 10 participants to be recruited for the
study. All participants who took part in the water-based
concurrent-training program applied in the study of
Pinto et al. (2014) were invited, and those who volun-
tarily accepted were included in the study. Exclusion
criteria included any history of neuromuscular, meta-
bolic, hormonal, or cardiovascular diseases.
Participants were not taking any medication that
could influence hormonal or neuromuscular metabo-
lism. We measured body mass and height using an
analog scale and a stadiometer (Asimed, Camarate,
Portugal), and we assessed body composition based
on the skinfold technique using a seven-site skinfold
equation to estimate body density (Jackson, Pollock, &
Ward, 1980). We subsequently calculated body fat
using the Siri equation (Siri, 1993). The local ethics
committee approved the study, which was in

accordance with the Helsinki Declaration. All partici-
pants completed an informed consent form.
Data collection
Aquatic protocols
We separated the water-based resistance exercises
(WBR) into two blocks, and each block had one exer-
cise for the upper limbs and one exercise for the lower
limbs, starting from the anatomical position. Block 1
involved elbow flexion and extension (bilateral) and
right or left hip flexion and extension (unilateral).
Additionally, Block 2 included shoulder flexion and
extension (bilateral) and right or left knee flexion and
extension (starting from hip flexion at 90º; unilateral).
Participants performed four sets of 15 s of each block
with an active interval (stationary running for 1 min
30 s) between each set. Block sequences and intervals
were as follows: four times in Block 1 (7 min 55 s),
active interval between blocks (1 min), and four times
in Block 2 (7 min 55 s), totaling 16 min 50 s. During
the water-based resistance exercises, we instructed indi-
viduals to perform each repetition at maximal effort
and amplitude to achieve the greatest velocity of
motion and consequently a greater resistance, as per-
formed in previous studies (Buttelli et al., 2015; Pinto
et al., 2014; Schoenell et al., 2016).
The water-based concurrent aerobic and resistance
exercises (WBC) were composed of aerobic exercises
following the aforementioned water-based resistance
exercises as applied by Pinto et al. (2014). Participants
performed the aerobic exercises using three water-
based exercises performed at the heart rate (HR) cor-
responding to the second ventilatory threshold (VT2)
obtained during an aquatic maximal test as proposed
by Alberton et al. (2013). We determined VT2 using
the second break point in the VE-by-intensity graph
and confirmed it using the ventilatory equivalent
slopes for carbon dioxide (VE/VCO2; Wasserman,
Whipp, Koyal, & Beaver, 1973). To evaluate ventila-
tory data, we used a mixing box-type portable gas
analyzer (VO2000, MedGraphics, Ann Arbor, MI).
Participants performed three sets lasting 3 min each
without an interval between sets and with the follow-
ing sequence: 3 min of stationary running, 3 min of
cross-country skiing, and 3 min of frontal kick, total-
ing 27 min. During the aerobic exercise session, the
participants used a coded Polar monitor to control the
HR corresponding to VT2.
Throughout the protocols, water temperature was
31.0 ± 0.1°C. In addition, the water depth for all parti-
cipants was fixed between the xiphoid process and
shoulders. One experienced instructor in water-based
NEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION IN WATER-BASED EXERCISES 3
exercises applied both protocols, and the same investi-
gators collected all measurements evaluated in this
study.
Maximal isometric voluntary contraction
To obtain the maximal isometric force before the pro-
tocols, we positioned the participants on the knee
extension exercise machine (Taurus, Porto Alegre,
Brazil), which was fitted with a load cell coupled to
the cable that displaced the load. The load cell was
connected to an A/D converter (Miotec, Porto Alegre,
Brazil), which made it possible to quantify the traction
exerted when each participant executed the knee exten-
sion at the required angle. After the evaluators posi-
tioned their right leg at an angle of 110° in the knee
extension (180° represented the full extension), we
instructed the participants to exert the maximal
strength possible when extending the right knee. Each
participant performed three attempts of maximal iso-
metric voluntary contraction (MIVC) for 5 s for the
knee extension before the protocols. Immediately after
both water-based protocols, participants performed one
attempt of MIVC for the knee extension again. Only
one MIVC was performed after water-based protocols
to evaluate the immediate effects of the exercise perfor-
mance on the maximal isometric force and correspond-
ing neuromuscular activity. We obtained the force-time
curve using Miograph software (Miotec, Porto Alegre,
Brazil) with an acquisition rate of 2,000 Hz and later
analyzed using SAD32 software (Mechanical
Measurements Laboratory, Federal University of the
Rio Grande of Sul, Porto Alegre, Brazil). Signal proces-
sing included filtering with a Butterworth low-pass
filter at a cutoff frequency of 9 Hz. Next, we sliced
the force signal in 1 s when the maximal value of stable
force (1 s) was reached between the 2nd and 4th second
of the force-time curve, and the mean value was
obtained. This procedure was applied for all pretest
and posttest MIVC attempts, and the highest force
signal was selected for subsequent analysis in the pret-
est measurements (i.e., from three MIVC).
We evaluated the maximal neuromuscular activity of
knee extensor agonist muscles using surface electrodes on
the vastus lateralis (VL) and rectus femoris (RF). For this
purpose, we positioned the electrodes in a bipolar config-
uration (double 242, HAL, 20 mm, Gel, Ag–AgCl) with a
20-mm interelectrode distance in parallel with the orienta-
tion of the muscle fibers, according to the Surface
ElectroMyoGraphy for the Non-Invasive Assessment of
Muscles (SENIAM) Project (Hermens et al., 1999). We
shaved the hair at the site of the electrode placement, and
we abraded the skin and cleaned it with alcohol to keep the
interelectrode resistance low (< 3 kΩ). To ensure the same
4 S. S. PINTO ET AL.
electrode positioning in subsequent tests, we mapped the
right thigh of each participant from the position of the
electrodes, small moles, and angiomas by marking on
transparent paper (Narici, Roi, Landoni, Minetti, &
Cerretelli, 1989). We fixed the reference electrode on the
anterior crest of the tibia. We acquired the raw eletromyo-
graphic (EMG) signal using a 14-bit electromyograph
(Miotool400, Miotec, Porto Alegre, Brazil) with a four-
channel system at 2,000 Hz per channel. Then, we trans-
ferred the data to an A/D converter before uploading it onto
a personal computer (Miograph software). Following
acquisition of the signal, we exported the data to the
SAD32 software and then filtered it with a fifth-order
band-pass Butterworth filter with cutoff frequencies of 20
Hz to 500 Hz. We obtained EMG records concomitantly to
the stable force (1 s) slice, and root mean square values were
calculated for each muscle.
Kinematical measurements
We used a 30-Hz waterproof video camera (VPC-WH1,
SANYO, Osaka, Japan) and positioned it in the sagittal
plane on the participant’s right side at a distance of 5 m,
and we used software (Skillspector Version 1.3) to recon-
struct the reflective markers into two-dimensional coordi-
nates. We digitalized the reflective markers corresponding
to the repetitions of the four sets of right knee flexion and
extension during the water-based resistance protocol either
automatically or manually. We measured knee angle by
using markers on the greater trochanter, femur lateral
epicondyle, and the lateral malleolus of the femur. Later,
we filtered these data using a fourth-order low-pass
Butterworth filter with a cutoff frequency of 5 Hz and
processed it, while generating files containing angular posi-
tion and angular velocity graphs for the knee joint over time
(LabVIEW software, Version 8.5). We obtained peak and
mean angular velocity for knee flexion and extension from
these graphs. In addition, we obtained the knee-joint range
of motion of the repetitions in each set and the maximal
angle position of knee flexion and extension. We calculated
the mean number of repetitions in each set of the knee
flexion and extension for the kinematical variable
presentation.
Statistical analysis
We expressed all values as mean ± standard deviation
(mean ± SD). We tested normality and sphericity of the
data using the Shapiro-Wilk and Mauchly tests, respec-
tively. We analyzed force production and neuromuscu-
lar activity between pretest and posttest measurements
in both water-based protocols by two-way repeated-
measures analysis of variance (ANOVA; main effects:
protocol and time). Moreover, we analyzed kinematical
comparisons between protocols and sets (1, 2, 3, and 4)
with a two-way repeated-measures ANOVA (main
effects: protocol and set). When applicable, we used
the Bonferroni post-hoc test, and when the interaction
was significant, we tested the main factors using T and
F tests. We calculated the effect size by ηp2 for each
main effect. Also, we adopted an alpha level of .05 for
all tests and used the Statistical Package for Social
Sciences (SPSS) Version 20.0.
Results
All data presented normal distribution. The present
data showed no significant difference between the
knee extension force production, F(1, 9) = 0.04,
p = .849, ηp2 = .004, and the electromyographic signal
(sEMG) from the VL, F(1, 9) = 3.39, p = .099,
ηp2 = .274, during the MIVC performed before and
after the water-based protocols. In addition, we did
not find any significant difference between the water-
based protocols in the aforementioned variables: knee
extension force production, F(1, 9) = 0.63, p = .449,
ηp2 = .065, and sEMG from the VL, F(1, 9) = 0.001,
p = .992, ηp2 < .001. The sEMG from the RF presented a
significant difference between pretest and posttest mea-
surements in both water-based protocols with greater
values in the posttest measurement, F(1, 9) = 5.37,
p = .046, ηp2 = .37. Moreover, water-based resistance
exercises showed greater values of the sEMG from the
RF than did water-based concurrent exercises for both
measurements, F(1, 9) = 5.25, p = .048, ηp2 = .37. The
interaction was not significant for any outcome: knee
extension force production, F(1, 9) = 0.661, p = . 437,
ηp2 = .068; sEMG from the VL, F(1, 9) = 0.166, p = .694,
ηp2 = .018; sEMG from the RF, F(1, 9) = 3.625, p = .089,
ηp2 = .287. These results are shown in Table 1.
Regarding kinematical responses, the peak and mean
angular velocity of knee extension showed similar
values among the sets—peak, F(3, 21) = 2.89,
p = .059, ηp2 = .292; mean, F(3, 21) = 0.56, p = .527,
ηp2 = .074—with no significant difference between the
water-based protocols—peak, F(1, 7) = 0.41, p = .540,
ηp2 = .056; mean, F(1, 7) = 0.03, p = .863, ηp2 = .005.
We obtained the same behavior for the mean angular
velocity of knee flexion, with similar values among the
sets, F(3, 21) = 0.56, p = .512, ηp2 = .074, and no
significant difference between the water-based proto-
cols, F(1, 7) = 0.07, p = .795, ηp2 = .010. However, in the
water-based concurrent exercises, peak angular velocity
of knee flexion showed significant differences among
the sets, with lower values in the fourth set compared
with the first three sets, F(3, 27) = 147.43, p < .001,
partial η2 = .94. We did not observe the same behavior

Table 1. Force production and neuromuscular activity before and after water-based protocols: Resistance exercises and concurrent
exercises (mean ± SD).
Water-based resistance training
Pretest Posttest
Mean SD Mean
F KEX (kgf) 25.68 ± 6.54 25.40
sEMG VL (μv) 207.81 ± 73.17 265.99
sEMG RF (μv) 155.66 ± 43.87 193.25*
Note. F KEX = knee extension force production during maximal isometric voluntary contraction; sEMG VL and sEMG RF = surface electromyographic signal
from the vastus lateralis and rectus femoris, respectively, during maximal isometric voluntary contraction.
*Significant difference between pretest and posttest measurements in both protocols (water-based resistance training and water-based concurrent training).
in the water-based resistance exercises, because we did
not observe significant differences among the sets in
the knee flexion peak angular velocity, F(3, 21) = 0.45,
p = .720, ηp2 = .060. In addition, knee flexion peak
angular velocity presented greater values in the water-
based resistance exercises compared with the water-
based concurrent exercises in the fourth set, F(1,
9) = 299.51, p < .001, partial η2 = .97. The interaction
was not significant for mean angular velocity of knee
flexion, F(3, 21) = 0.113, p = .952, ηp2 = .016, and mean,
F(3, 21) = 0.222, p = .880, ηp2 = .031, and peak angular
velocity of knee extension, F(3, 21) = 0.933, p = .442,
ηp2 = .118. However, a significant interaction was found
for peak angular velocity of knee flexion, F(3,
21) = 55.403, p < .001, ηp2 = .888. These results are
shown in Figure 1.
Maximal angle position achieved by the knee flexion
and extension showed similar values among the sets—
extension, F(3, 21) = 0.59, p = .496, ηp2 = .077; flexion,
F(3, 21) = 1.12, p = .334, ηp2 = .138—with no significant
difference between the water-based protocols—exten-
sion, F(1, 7) = 2.18, p = .183, ηp2 = .238; flexion, F(1,
7) = 2.28, p = .175, ηp2 = .246. Knee joint range of
motion showed the same pattern, with similar values
among the sets, F(3, 21) = 0.21, p = .692, ηp2 = .029, and
we did not observe any significant difference between
the water-based protocols, F(1, 7) = 0.86, p = .386,
ηp2 = .109. Interaction was not significant for any out-
come of maximal angle position—extension, F(3,
21) = 1.728, p = .192, ηp2 = .198; flexion, F(3,
21) = 1.44, p = .258, ηp2 = .171, and knee joint range
of motion, F(3, 21) = 0.765, p = .527, ηp2 = .098. These
results are shown in Figure 2.
Discussion
As a major finding of the present study, we observed a
lower peak angular velocity in the knee flexors in the
last set of the water-based concurrent exercises com-
pared with the water-based resistance exercises alone.
We did not observe any additional differences between
protocols for the other kinematical parameters
NEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION IN WATER-BASED EXERCISES 5
Water-based concurrent training
Pretest Posttest
SD Mean SD Mean SD
± 6.71 26.03 ± 7.40 26.62 ± 6.59
± 174.39 219.35 ± 126.14 254.79 ± 149.73
± 71.29 143.09 ± 48.10 151.04* ± 49.54
analyzed. Moreover, maximal voluntary contraction
and maximal neuromuscular activity (i.e., sEMG max-
imal amplitude) of the VL muscle did not change after
both protocols, whereas maximal neuromuscular activ-
ity of the RF increased after both water-based concur-
rent and resistance exercises.
Several studies conducted on land have investigated
the acute effects of high-intensity aerobic exercise on
strength performance in young, well-trained partici-
pants (De Souza et al., 2007; Lepers et al., 2001;
Leveritt & Abernethy, 1999; Panissa et al., 2015; Reed
et al., 2013). These studies assessed continuous or inter-
mittent cyclical aerobic activities (i.e., running and
cycling) performed for approximately 30 min at inten-
sities ranging from 80% to 100% of maximal oxygen
consumption (VO2max). In general, these studies
showed acute reductions in dynamic or isometric
force development after aerobic exercises (approxi-
mately 5%–13%). In the study by Lepers et al. (2001),
only 30 min of cycling performed at 80% of VO2max
resulted in a reduction in the MIVC and maximal
neuromuscular activity of the quadriceps femoris mus-
cle. In another study, De Souza et al. (2007) observed
that intermittent running impaired only the number of
repetitions at 90% of one-repetition maximum (1RM)
but not the 1RM value of a leg-press exercise. The
results of the present study are in disagreement with
the aforementioned studies, because maximal force and
maximal neuromuscular activity of the VL during knee
extension did not change after both aquatic protocols.
These different results may be due to the resistance-
training characteristics in each environment. In the
aquatic environment, resistance exercises are executed
at maximal velocity against the drag force and the
multiple repetitions generate an SSC muscle contrac-
tion pattern. This SSC promotes a specific tension
during the eccentric action in the fibers of a distinct
antagonist muscle group, whereas in the traditional
resistance exercises on land, this tension occurs in the
fibers of the same agonist muscle group (i.e., both
concentric and eccentric actions; Pantoja, Alberton,
Vendrusculo, Pilla, & Kruel, 2009).
6 S. S. PINTO ET AL.

A 600 WBR
B 400 WBR
WBC
500 WBC
AVKEXpeak (°.s-1)
400 300

AVKEXmean (°.s-1)
300
200
200
100
100

0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S1 S2 S3 S4

C 600 WBR
a a
a
D 400 WBR
WBC
500 WBC
AVKFLEXpeak (°.s-1)

300

AVKFLEXmean (°.s-1)
400 b*

300
200
200
100
100

0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S1 S2 S3 S4

Figure 1. Peak angular velocity of knee extension (AVKEXpeak): A, mean angular velocity of knee extension (AVKEXmean); B,
peak angular velocity of knee flexion (AVKFLEXpeak); C, mean angular velocity of knee flexion (AVKFLEXmean); D, in the
different sets (S1, S2, S3, and S4) performed during water-based resistance training (WBR) and water-based concurrent
training (WBC); Mean ± SD. Different small letters indicate significant differences among the sets in the water-based
concurrent training. *Indicates significant difference between protocols in the sets 2 and 4.

A 160 WBR B 30 WBR

WBC WBC

120
20
APKFLEXmax (°)
APKEXmax (°)

80

10
40

0 0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S1 S2 S3 S4

C 120 WBR
WBC

80
KROM (°)

40

0
S1 S2 S3 S4

Figure 2. Maximal angle position of knee extension (APKEXmax): A, maximal angle position of knee flexion (APKFLEXmax); B, knee
joint range of motion (KROM); C, in the different sets (S1, S2, S3 and S4), performed during water-based resistance training (WBR)
and water-based concurrent training (WBC); Mean ± SD.

In contrast, there was an increase in the maximal
neuromuscular activity of the RF after both protocols
with no difference between them. Concerning these
results, several studies have shown an increase, a reduc-
tion, or no change in the maximal sEMG amplitude
under fatigue conditions (González-Izal, Malanda,
Gorostiaga, & Izquierdo, 2012). In the present study,
the RF muscle sEMG may have increased due to the
fatigue caused by the action of this muscle in both knee
extension and hip flexion during the resistance exer-
cises applied in our protocol. Therefore, adjustments in
the neuromuscular recruitment strategy during maxi-
mal force development after the exercise protocols
could explain the change in the maximal neuromuscu-
lar activity of this muscle. In addition, the lower
volume of the VL muscle probably did not evoke such
adjustments. Another possible explanation for the
increase in RF sEMG activity after protocols could be
that the muscle actions during the water-based resis-
tance training were performed as fast as possible.
Because at higher speeds of motion the force produced
by each individual fiber is smaller than at slower
speeds, more motor units must be activated to over-
come the drag force, which means a greater motor unit
recruitment. Then, it is possible that there was an
increase in RF sEMG activity during MIVC after the
protocols that was induced by a postactivation poten-
tiation caused by the high-speed muscle actions during
water-based resistance training. However, these
hypotheses remain speculative and should be further
investigated.
Based on most of the kinematical results, performing
water-based aerobic exercise prior to resistance exercises,
as prescribed in the present study, may not have negatively
influenced mean angular velocity and range of motion
during knee flexion and extension performed in the resis-
tance exercise. We speculate that knee extension peak and
mean angular velocities were influenced by the buoyancy
force, which acts from the bottom up in facilitating or
assisting the knee extension movement (Torres-Ronda &
del Alcázar, 2014). On the other hand, knee flexion is
performed against the buoyancy force, and thus, the parti-
cipants would have had to exert greater force to move in
this direction. This buoyancy force could be one factor that
explains the decreased peak angular velocity found only in
knee flexion in the fourth set of the water-based concurrent
training. In addition, hamstrings are responsible for hip
extension beyond knee flexion. Thus, this muscle group
may have presented residual fatigue at the end of the water-
based resistance protocol.
Recently, we showed that young women who per-
formed water-based resistance training prior to aerobic
training presented greater strength and muscle mass
NEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION IN WATER-BASED EXERCISES 7
gains than those individuals who exercised in the
inverse order (Pinto et al., 2014). We speculated that
residual fatigue from the aerobic training could have
impaired strength performance during the water-based
training, which did not occur in the present study. Two
factors can explain the absence of more prominent
effects of aerobic exercise on neuromuscular function.
Firstly, participants in the present study were young
women who were previously familiarized with the
water-based protocols, as they underwent 12 weeks of
water-based concurrent training at a very similar train-
ing volume and intensity. Therefore, adaptations
induced by previous water-based training performed
by our participants, such as increases in maximal
strength and resistance to fatigue, may have prevented
more prominent neuromuscular fatigue induced by the
protocols used in the present study. Indeed, Häkkinen
and Myllyla (1990) found that fatigue induced by exer-
cise depends on participants’ training backgrounds.
Secondly, we only evaluated kinematical parameters
during knee flexion and extension in water-based resis-
tance exercise. We must point out that this exercise
involves a lower projected frontal area than that of
hip flexion and extension, a parameter that influences
drag force and neuromuscular activity (Torres-Ronda
& del Alcázar, 2014). A previous study showed that the
RF was more elicited during hip flexion performed with
the extended rather than flexed knee at maximal velo-
city (Alberton et al., 2014). Thus, this higher overload
during hip flexion and extension in water-based resis-
tance exercise could explain the residual fatigue
observed only in this muscle.
One of the limitations of the present study is that
only young, fit women were analyzed; thus, caution
should be taken in the extrapolation of the present
results for other populations (i.e., older people). In
addition, one protocol composed by only water-based
aerobic exercises could be employed to strengthen the
experimental design, and it should be warranted in
future studies. It is important to highlight that we
evaluated residual fatigue following the water-based
aerobic exercises only in the knee extensor muscle
group. In addition, we only analyzed kinematical para-
meters for knee flexion and extension during water-
based resistance exercise. Therefore, it is possible that
the performance of water-based aerobic exercises at
high intensity (i.e., at HRVT2) impacted other muscles.
Conclusion
In summary, the present study showed a lower peak
angular velocity in the knee flexors only in the last set
of water-based concurrent exercises in comparison with
8 S. S. PINTO ET AL.
water-based resistance exercises alone. Moreover, max-
imal voluntary contraction and maximal neuromuscular
activity of the VL muscle did not change after both
protocols, whereas maximal neuromuscular activity of
the RF increased after both water-based concurrent and
resistance exercises. From a practical point of view, the
present results suggest that water-based exercise instruc-
tors should take into account the exercise order during
water-based concurrent resistance- and aerobic-training
prescription, as aerobic exercise performance prior to
resistance exercises may impair peak angular velocity of
the knee flexors, which is directly associated with the
maximal tension developed in the water environment.
What does this article add?
Water-based aerobic exercises performed prior to
water-based resistance exercises may impair lower-
extremity peak angular velocity in fit, young women.
Thus, exercise order during water-based concurrent
resistance- and aerobic-training prescription should be
considered to avoid residual fatigue during subsequent
exercise.
Acknowledgments
The authors thank especially all the participants who made
this project possible.
Funding
We acknowledge financial support from Coordenação de
Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES),
Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e
Tecnológico (CNPq), and Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa
do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul (FAPERGS).
References
Alberton, C. L., Kanitz, A. C., Pinto, S. S., Antunes, A. H.,
Finatto, P., Cadore, E. L., & Kruel, L. F. M. (2013).
Determining the anaerobic threshold in water aerobic
exercises: A comparison between the heart rate deflection
point and the ventilatory method. The Journal of Sports
Medicine and Physical Fitness, 53, 358–367.
Alberton, C. L., Pinto, S. S., Cadore, E. L., Tartaruga, M. P.,
Kanitz, A. C., Antunes, A. H., . . . Kruel, L. F. M. (2014).
Oxygen uptake, muscle activity and ground reaction force
during water aerobic exercises. International Journal of
Sports Medicine, 35, 1161–1169. doi:10.1055/s-0034-
1383597
Bell, G. J., Syrotuik, D., Martin, T. P., Burnham, R., &
Quinney, H. Á. (2000). Effect of concurrent strength and
endurance training on skeletal muscle properties and hor-
mone concentrations in humans. European Journal of
Applied Physiology, 81, 418–427. doi:10.1007/
s004210050063
Buttelli, A. C., Pinto, S. S., Schoenell, M. C., Almada, B. P.,
Camargo, L. K., & Kruel, L. F. (2015). Effects of single vs
multiple sets water-based resistance training on maximal
dynamic strength in young men. Journal of Human
Kinetics, 14, 169–177. doi:10.1515/hukin-2015-0072
Cadore, E. L., & Izquierdo, M. (2013). How to simulta-
neously optimize muscle strength, power, functional
capacity, and cardiovascular gains in the elderly: An
update. Age (Dordr), 35, 2329–2344. doi:10.1007/s11357-
012-9503-x
Cadore, E. L., Izquierdo, M., Pinto, S. S., Alberton, C. L.,
Pinto, R. S., Baroni, B. M., . . . Kruel, L. F. (2013).
Neuromuscular adaptations to concurrent training in the
elderly: Effects of intrasession exercise sequence. Age
(Dordr), 35, 891–903. doi:10.1007/s11357-012-9405-y
Cadore, E. L., Pinto, R. S., Lhullier, F. L. R., Correa, C. S.,
Alberton, C. L., Pinto, S. S., . . . Kruel, L. F. M. (2010).
Physiological effects of concurrent training in elderly men.
International Journal of Sports Medicine, 31, 689–697.
doi:10.1055/s-0030-1261895
De Souza, E. O., Tricoli, V., Franchini, E., Paulo, A. C.,
Regazzini, M., & Ugrinowitsch, C. (2007). Acute effect of
two aerobic exercise modes on maximum strength and
strength endurance. Journal of Strength and Conditioning
Research, 21, 1286–1290. doi:10.1519/R-20686.1
González-Izal, M., Malanda, A., Gorostiaga, E., & Izquierdo,
M. (2012). Electromyographic models to assess muscle
fatigue. Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology, 22,
501–512. doi:10.1016/j.jelekin.2012.02.019
Häkkinen, K., Alen, M., Kraemer, W. J., Gorostiaga, E. M.,
Izquierdo, M., Rusko, H., . . . Paavolainen, L. (2003).
Neuromuscular adaptations during concurrent strength and
endurance training versus strength training. Journal of
Applied Physiology, 89, 42–52. doi:10.1007/s00421-002-0751-9
Häkkinen, K., & Myllyla, E. (1990). Acute effects of muscle
fatigue and recovery on force production and relaxation in
endurance, power and strength athletes. Journal of Sports
Medicine and Physical Fitness, 30, 5–12.
Hermens, H. J., Freriks, B., Merletti, R., Stegeman, D., Blok, J.,
Rau, G., . . . Hãgg, G. (1999). European recommendations for
surface electromyography: Results of the SENIAM project.
Enschede, The Netherlands: Roessingh Research and
Development b.v.
Izquierdo, M., Ibañez, J., Häkkinen, K., Kraemer, W. J.,
Larrión, J. L., & Gorostiaga, E. M. (2004). Once weekly
combined resistance and cardiovascular training in healthy
older men. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 36,
435–443. doi:10.1249/01.MSS.0000117897.55226.9A
Jackson, A. S., Pollock, M. L., & Ward, A. (1980). Generalized
equations for predicting body density of women. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 12, 175–182.
Kanitz, A. C., Delevatti, R. S., Reichert, T., Liedtke, G. V.,
Ferrari, R., Almada, B. P., . . . Kruel, L. F. (2015). Effects of
two deep water training programs on cardiorespiratory and
muscular strength responses in older adults. Experimental
Gerontology, 64, 55–61. doi:10.1016/j.exger.2015.02.013
Kraemer, W. J., Patton, J. F., Gordon, S. E., Harman, E. A.,
Deschenes, M. R., Reynolds, K., . . . Dziados, J. E. (1995).
Compatibility of high-intensity strength and endurance
training on hormonal and skeletal muscle adaptations.

Journal of Applied Physiology, 78, 976–989. doi:10.1152/
jappl.1995.78.3.976
Lepers, R., Millet, G. Y., & Maffiuletti, N. A. (2001). Effect of
cycling cadence on contractile and neural properties of
knee extensors. Medicine and Science in Sports and
Exercise, 33, 1882–1888.
Leveritt, M., & Abernethy, P. J. (1999). Acute effects of high
intensity endurance exercise on subsequent resistance activ-
ity. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 13, 47–51.
Narici, M. V., Roi, G. S., Landoni, L., Minetti, A. E., &
Cerretelli, P. (1989). Changes in force, cross-sectional
area and neural activation during strength training and
detraining of the human quadriceps. European Journal of
Applied Physiology, 59, 310–319. doi:10.1007/BF02388334
Nelson, M. E., Rejeski, W. J., Blair, S. N., Duncan, P. W.,
Judge, J. O., King, A. C., . . . Castaneda-Sceppa, C. (2007).
Physical activity and public health in older adults:
Recommendation from the American College of Sports
Medicine and the American Heart Association. Medicine
and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39, 1435–1445.
doi:10.1249/mss.0b013e3180616aa2
Panissa, V. L., Tricoli, V. A., Julio, U. F., Ribeiro, N., De
Azevedo Neto, R. M., & Franchini, E. (2015). Acute effect
of high-intensity aerobic exercise performed on treadmill
and cycle ergometer on strength performance. Journal of
Strength and Conditioning Research, 29, 1077–1082.
doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000000706
Pantoja, P. D., Alberton, C. L., Vendrusculo, A. P., Pilla, C., &
Kruel, L. F. M. (2009). Effect of resistive exercise on muscle
damage in water and on land. Journal of Strength and
Conditioning Research, 23, 1051–1054. doi:10.1519/
JSC.0b013e3181a00c45
Pinto, S. S., Alberton, C. L., Bagatini, N. C., Zaffari, P., Cadore, E.
L., Radaelli, R., . . . Kruel, L. F. (2015). Neuromuscular adapta-
tions to water-based concurrent training in postmenopausal
women: Effects of intrasession exercise sequence. Age (Dordr),
37, 9751. doi:10.1007/s11357-015-9751-7
Pinto, S. S., Alberton, C. L., Cadore, E. L., Zaffari, P., Baroni, B. M.,
Lanferdini, F. J., . . . Kruel, L. F. (2015). Water-based concurrent
NEUROMUSCULAR FUNCTION IN WATER-BASED EXERCISES 9
training improves peak oxygen uptake, rate of force develop-
ment, jump height, and neuromuscular economy in young
women. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 29,
1846–1854. doi:10.1519/JSC.0000000000000820
Pinto, S. S., Cadore, E. L., Alberton, C. L., Zaffari, P.,
Bagatini, N. C., Baroni, B. M., . . . Kruel, L. F. M. (2014).
Effects of intra-session exercise sequence during water-
based concurrent training. International Journal of Sports
Medicine, 35, 41–48. doi:10.1055/s-0033-1345129
Pöyhönen, T., Kyröläinen, H., Keskinen, K. L., Hautala, A.,
Savolainen, J., & Mälkiä, E. (2001). Electromyographic and
kinematic analysis of therapeutic knee exercises under
water. Clinical Biomechanics, 16, 496–504.
Reed, J. P., Schilling, B. K., & Murlasits, Z. (2013). Acute
neuromuscular and metabolic responses to concurrent
endurance and resistance exercise. Journal of Strength
and Conditioning Research, 27, 793–801. doi:10.1519/
JSC.0b013e31825c2d3e
Schoenell, M. C., Alberton, C. L., Tiggemann, C. L., Noll, M.,
Costa, R., Santos, N. S., & Kruel, L. F. (2016). Effects of
single vs multiple sets during 10 weeks of water-based
resistance training on neuromuscular adaptations in
young women. International Journal of Sports Medicine,
37, 813–818. doi:10.1055/s-0042-106299
Silva, R. F., Cadore, E. L., Kothe, G., Guedes, M., Alberton,
C. L., Pinto, S. S., . . . Kruel, L. F. (2012). Concurrent
training with different aerobic exercises. International
Journal of Sports Medicine, 33, 627–634. doi:10.1055/s-
0031-1299698
Siri, W. E. (1993). Body composition from fluid spaces and
density: Analysis of methods. Nutrition, 9, 480–491.
Torres-Ronda, L., & del Alcázar, X. S. (2014). The proper-
ties of water and their applications for training. Journal
of Human Kinetics, 9, 237–248. doi:10.2478/hukin-
2014-0129
Wasserman, K., Whipp, B. J., Koyal, S. N., & Beaver, W. L.
(1973). Anaerobic threshold and respiratory gas exchange
during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 35, 236–243.
doi:10.1152/jappl.1973.35.2.236