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Behaviour of Partly Stiffened Cold-Formed Steel Built-Up Beams: Experimental Investigation and Numerical Validation
Behaviour of Partly Stiffened Cold-Formed Steel Built-Up Beams: Experimental Investigation and Numerical Validation
numerical validation
Abstract
To address the various instability problems in cold-formed steel members, many researchers have mainly focused on developing inno-
vative sectional profiles wherein geometry of the section plays a vital role in enhancing the inherent resistance of such sections against
premature buckling. However, the process of forming such innovative shapes is not only complex and time-consuming but sometimes
such sections fail to mobilize their complete reserve strength. Hence, a stiffening arrangement of weaker zones for mobilizing the
untapped reserve strength is suggested. The contribution of this simple, effective and partly stiffening arrangements, aimed at eliminat-
ing/delaying the premature local buckling, is studied both experimentally and numerically and also compared with existing codes.
Experimental study was carried out on different simply supported cold-formed steel beams with judiciously proposed stiffening
arrangements under four-point loading. An equivalent hot-rolled steel beam was also tested to compare the efficiency of the cold-
formed steel beams. The cold-formed steel beams investigated had different width-to-thickness ratio, different geometries and differ-
ent stiffening arrangements. The test strengths, failure modes, deformed shapes, load versus mid-span displacements and geometric
imperfections were measured and reported. The test strengths of the beam models are also compared with the design strength pre-
dicted by North American Standards and Eurocode for cold-formed steel structures. To validate the test results further, a numerical
study was carried out on such stiffened cold-formed steel beams using finite element software ABAQUS. All these results show that
the proposed strengthening system is efficient and economical and allow cold-formed steel beams to reach greater load carrying
capacity.
Keywords
cold-formed steel, experiment, numerical modelling, stiffening arrangements, structural behaviour
Young, 2016). Moreover, optimization techniques in were higher than that of the non-lipped ones. Trahair
design are not fruitful because of the limited availabil- and Papangelis (2018) studied the lateral distortional
ity of rolled section in the market place (Subramanian buckling in hollow flanged beams with corrugated web
and Venugopal (1977). This contributes to the highly plates. It was observed that the distortion in the hol-
conservative use of such a precious construction mate- low flanges resulted in the reduction of their torsional
rial with limited reserves. Keeping in view the impor- rigidities as well as their lateral buckling resistance.
tance of steel as an ideal construction material in However, corrugation of web plate helped in prevent-
challenging situations, it is of paramount importance ing web distortion and significantly reduced the lateral
to make the most optimum use of such vital construc- buckling resistance, which is generally observed in
tion material (Valsa Ipe et al., 2013). CFS provides an beams with flat webs. Laı́m et al. (2015) conducted a
ideal choice to avoid such a wasteful use of steel. series of tests to study the flexural behaviour of CFS
Unlike hot rolling, the cold forming process permits beams with sigma profiles at ambient and elevated
an almost infinite variety of shapes to be produced temperatures. It was seen that the web stiffeners
which can serve desired needs efficiently. Generally, behave differently under elevated temperatures and
the width-to-thickness ratio of individual components that behaviour depends upon the sectional profile.
of CFS members is high, hence are prone to premature Axially unrestrained beams perform better than the
buckling at moderate compressive stress levels restrained ones. Under ambient temperature, chances
(much below the yield stress). This problem can be of excessive non-uniform compressive stress distribu-
tackled effectively either by developing innovative sec- tion are very likely compared to that in tension
tional profiles with intrinsic resistance against prema- regions. Ye et al. (2016) carried out a numerical study
ture buckling and/or by appropriate stiffening to develop more efficient CFS channel sections under
arrangement at vulnerable locations. Past research has flexure. Just by optimizing the relative dimensions of
stressed mainly on the development of innovative flat plates and inclination of lips, the bending resis-
sections. tance can increase by nearly 30%. Double folded lips
In the past decade, due to advances in the manufac- can substantially improve the flexural resistance,
turing technology, many attempts were made to make whereas intermediate web stiffeners may not necessa-
changes in the cross section of the member in order to rily improve flexural performance. Adequately
attain economical and efficient sectional profiles designed CFS channel beam sections have the poten-
(Hancock, 2016; Schafer, 2011). SudhirSastry et al. tial to reach their plastic moment capacity (Kumar
(2015) carried out a numerical study to investigate the and Sahoo, 2016). Siahaan et al. (2016a) studied inno-
effect of different flange configurations on the buck- vative rectangular hollow flanged channel beams to
ling of CFS channel beams. It was observed that the develop optimum sections which can delay the buck-
beams with extended open flanges and rounded flanges ling failure in them. Dar et al. (2015a) investigated var-
had enhanced critical buckling moments compared to ious innovative CFS beam sectional profiles under
beams with dropped flanges. Obst et al. (2016) carried flexure so as to find an ideal replacement for conven-
out tests to study the behaviour of non-standard chan- tional hot-rolled steel sections. Wang and Young
nel beams with single- and double-box flanges. Beams (2015) carried out an experimental and numerical
with double-box flanges had higher capacities than the investigation to study the local buckling and/or distor-
ones with single-box flanges. It was also observed that tional buckling behaviour of the built-up open and
reinforced beams performed better than the unrein- closed sections under flexure. All these studies indicate
forced ones. Ye et al. (2018) conducted a study to opti- that innovative profiles were successful in postponing
mize the CFS channel beam sections for higher energy the buckling failures in CFS beams; however, the pro-
dissipation and ductility. It was found that by incor- cess of forming such innovative sections of complex
porating intermediate web and flange stiffeners to slen- profiles requires a lot of time and effort, thus making
der channel beams, there was a significant the process very difficult and time-consuming.
improvement in their energy dissipating capacity. Appropriate stiffening of vulnerable zones is an effec-
However, in stockier channel beams, such introduction tive alternate solution that can eliminate/delay prema-
of stiffeners did not help. Instead, increasing the cross- ture buckling (Laı’m et al., 2013; Paczos, 2014; Moen
sectional depth and decreasing the flange width helped et al., 2013). Hence, there is an urgent need to develop
in attaining higher energy dissipating capacity. Paczos judicious stiffening arrangements that can be effec-
and Wasilewicz (2009) tested anti-symmetrical CFS I- tively used in simple CFS sections to overcome the
beam sections fabricated out of a single steel sheet. It complex problem of premature buckling failure, thus
was observed that there was quick loss in the stability making CFS construction fast, simple and efficient.
of beams that were loaded with a concentrated force at The primary objective of this research is to conduct
the mid-span. Also, the critical loads for lipped beams experimental investigation on different simply
174 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(1)
Experimental investigation has been used for the fabrication of this model. The
nominal and measured dimensions of the various ele-
Test models ments of the model are shown Table 1. All the beams
To achieve the well-defined objective of this study, four had a span of 2.1 m.
CFS beam models have been fabricated with and with-
out appropriate stiffening arrangements. The tested
Model II: angle-stiffened model. During the testing of
CFS beams comprised two channel sections connected
Model I, localized lip buckling failure on compression
back to back by black bolts of size 5 mm and class 4.6.
side was observed at a low magnitude of loading.
Two rows of bolts were provided with 100 mm centre
Therefore, it was expected that effective stiffening of
to centre spacing along the depth as shown in Figure 1
compression area falling under high bending moment
and 200 mm centre to centre spacing along the length
zone would have arrested such localized buckling,
of the beam. To compare the efficiency and effective-
thereby considerably improving its structural perfor-
ness of the proposed stiffening arrangements, one hot-
mance. Accordingly, Model II, which is a modified
rolled steel section was tested. The dimensional details
version of Model I was stiffened by attaching two hot-
of all the models are given in Table 1. A digital vernier
rolled angle stiffeners (25 3 25 3 5) as shown in
calliper was used to measure the dimensions of various
Figure 2(II). This hot-rolled angle stiffener was placed
components of the models. The details of various mod-
in the central 1.5 m length of the beam falling under
els fabricated and tested are described below.
high bending moment zone. The steel angle stiffener
was welded to the inside of the compression flange lip
Model I: unstiffened model. The sectional geometry of this by using Shielded Metal Arc Welding process. Rest of
model consisting of I shape using two-lipped channel the details of Model II were kept strictly identical to
sections bolted back to back are shown in Figure 2(I). Model I so as to investigate the contribution of the
A cold-formed sheet having a thickness of 2 mm only proposed variation in Model II towards improved
Dar et al. 175
Designation Size (P 3 Q; mm 3 mm) T (mm) A (mm2) W (kg/m) Cxx = Cyy (mm) exx = eyy (mm)
ISMB 150 14.9 1900 150 80 7.6 4.8 7.26°3106 5.26°3 105 61.8 16.6
structural performance. The dimensions of hot-rolled By developing structurally efficient CFS beam sec-
angle stiffener used in Model II are given in Table 2. tions, steel economy was the main consideration.
However, it was equally important to evaluate these
proposed CFS sections from structural performance
Model III: unstiffened lightest model. Keeping in view the consideration too. Accordingly, Model V, that is,
importance of achieving steel economy, it was deemed ISMB-150 (hot-rolled steel section), was chosen as the
appropriate to fabricate lighter models using thinnest reference model for meaningful comparison with the
possible steel sheets. Accordingly, Model III with sym- various CFS beam models. The dimensions of ISMB-
metrical I shape (using two-lipped channel sections 150 are given in Table 3.
back to back similar to Model I) involving simple fab-
rication was fabricated as shown in Figure 2(III). A
cold-formed sheet having a thickness of 1 mm only Material properties
was used for fabrication of this model. The test specimens were fabricated from locally avail-
able structural steel. Tensile coupon tests were used to
determine the mechanical properties of the same. Since
Model IV: stiffened lightest model. During the testing of two categories of steel sheet thicknesses were used to
Model III, localized lip buckling failure (similar to fabricate the models. Three coupons were prepared
Model I) on the compression side was observed in high from the centre of the flange in the longitudinal direc-
bending moment zone. It was again expected that tion from each sheet. Various standards exist which
strengthening of flange lips in the compression zone specify the requirements for testing of tensile speci-
could have prevented/delayed such a failure. mens. However, the dimensions of the coupons, as con-
Accordingly, Model IV which is a modified version of forming to the Indian Standards (IS1608:2005), were
Model III was fabricated by stiffening the compression used for material testing. A computerized universal
flange lips using a small-channel section as shown in testing machine was used to conduct the tensile tests of
Figure 2(IV). The small-channel section was bolted to the coupons. The relevant material properties of the
the compression flange of the beam using 5 mm black steel obtained from the material testing are given in
bolts of class 4.6. For each small-channel stiffener, a Table 4. A typical stress–strain curve of CFS used in
single row of bolts were provided with centre to centre this study is shown in Figure 3. Since hot-rolled steel
spacing of 150 mm along the length. angle was used in Model II, three tensile test coupons
176 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(1)
Model I II III IV
Figure 13. Effect of flange’s flat-to-width ratio on ultimate load and stiffness: (a) ultimate load variation and (b) stiffness variation.
Figure 14. Effect of stiffening on ultimate load and stiffness: (a) ultimate load variation and (b) stiffness variation.
Models lLT PTest PEC PNAS PTest/PEC PTest/PNAS MNAS MEC Mcr My
(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN m) (kN m) (kN m) (kN m)
I 0.193 44.1 34.71 35.95 1.27 1.23 12.58 12.15 326.55 28.66
II 0.18 68.3 54.78 52.86 1.24 1.29 18.50 19.17 591.46 32.04
III 1.04 12.7 11.98 13.13 1.06 0.97 4.60 4.19 180.88 15.06
IV 0.75 15.0 22.04 19.20 0.68 0.78 6.72 7.71 225.70 15.55
Ieff, y hp =t
Weff, y = ð3Þ lp, h = pffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð6Þ
Z 28:4e Ks
where Weff, y,c and Weff, y,t are the section moduli with Ks = 7:81 6:29c + 9:78c2 ð7Þ
regard to compression and tension flanges, respec-
tively; Z is the position of neutral axis from respective h c hp
c= ð8Þ
flange and Ieff,y is the second moment of area of the hc
effective section.
The effective section properties are calculated by where r is the width reduction factor, lp,h is the
using a reduction factor for elements in compression relative slenderness, Ks is the buckling factor, c is the
stress ratio, hp is the nominal dimension of cross-
heff = r*hc ð4Þ sectional element and hc is the distance of the point of
maximum compressive stress in element from neutral
lp, h 0:055ð3 + cÞ
r= 2 ð5Þ axis.
lp, h
Dar et al. 181
Design rules specified in AISI-S100 was indicated by Eurocode, except for Model III
The unfactored design strength (Mn) of flexural mem- (where a slight degree of unconservativeness was
observed). In all the four models, non-dimensional
bers using the AISI specification (2016) is calculated as
slenderness for lateral torsional buckling is less than
follows
limiting slenderness 0.4; therefore, there is no possibil-
Mn = Se *Fy ð9Þ ity of occurrence of lateral torsional buckling.
Ix
Se = ð10Þ Numerical calibration
ycg
The finite element analysis using ABAQUS (2004) ver-
where Fy is the nominal yield strength, Se is the elastic
sion 6.14 was conducted to simulate an experimental
section modulus relative to top fibre, ycg is the depth of
behaviour of CFS lipped channel beams under four-
neutral axis with respect to the compression flange and
point loading as shown in Figure 16. Nominal cross-
Ix is the second moment of area of the effective section,
sectional dimensions, material imperfections and initial
determined by using a reduction factor, given by
geometric imperfections of the test specimens were
incorporated. S4R5 shell element was selected to
w for l ł 0:673
beff = ð11Þ develop the finite element model. This element is thin,
rw for l.0:673
shear flexible, isometric quadrilateral shell with four
rffiffiffiffi
1:052 w f nodes and five degrees of freedom per node, utilizing
l = pffiffiffi ð12Þ reduced integration and bilinear interpolation scheme
k t E
(Ammash, 2017; Anbarasu, 2016; Keerthan and
1 0:22=l Mahendran, 2013). Mesh convergence study was car-
r= ł1 ð13Þ
l ried out to find the optimum mesh size. The model
with 5 mm mesh size provided reasonable accuracy
where beff is the effective design width, w is the width
and was hence used in all the finite element models
of compression element, r is the reduction factor, k is
(FEMs). The size of the element adopted was 5 mm
the plate buckling co-efficient, t is the thickness of
3 5 mm (25) mm2. Elastic perfectly plastic model
compression element, E is the modulus of elasticity
with a modulus of elasticity of 210 GPa and yield
and f is the maximum compressive edge stress in the
stress of 450 MPa was used in this study. To ensure
element.
proper distribution of concentrated forces on to the
beams, the load was applied at the centre of the rigid
Comparison with design rules plate attached to the beams as shown in Figure 16.
Idealized simply supported end condition was mod-
Figure 15 shows the comparison between test strengths
elled by restraining the displacements in x, y and z
and design strength predictions of North American
directions and rotations in z directions at the pinned
Standards and Eurocode. From Table 4 and Figure 15,
support. The displacements were restrained in y and z
it can be concluded that North American Standards
directions and rotations in z directions at the roller
are conservative for beams with a wall thickness of
support. To avoid contact problems in-between the
2 mm, but un-conservative for the stiffened CFS beam
with a wall thickness of 1 mm. A similar behaviour
Figure 15. Comparison between test and design strengths for Figure 16. Numerical model used in the finite element
CFS beams. analysis.
182 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(1)
layers, general hard surface contact was adopted. In trials, it was found that square mesh of size 5 mm
the assembly, various instances of master–slave sur- 3 5 mm can be adopted for modelling all parts of the
faces were created between the surfaces. Frictionless assembled sections to avoid any penetrations (Deepak
hard contact was adopted. One major problem while and Shanthi, 2018). Residual stresses have a negligible
meshing sections with contact faces is that there are effect on the strength (Schafer and Pekoz, 1998) and
penetrations of layers during analysis. From various hence were ignored. Local, distortional and global
Dar et al. 183
Conclusion
Based on experimental as well as numerical investiga-
tions carried out to study the effectiveness of stiffening
arrangements in mobilizing the untapped reserve
Figure 18. Verification of test results.
strength in CFS beams (comprising two channel sec-
tions connected back to back by bolts), the following
important conclusions are drawn:
geometric imperfections were incorporated in the The judiciously provided steel angle stiffener
model. The maximum magnitude of local, distortional
which was welded to the inside of the compres-
and global imperfections adopted was 0.34 3 t,
sion flange lip only over the vulnerable zone
0.94 3 t and L/1000, respectively (Schafer and Pekoz,
considerably improved the load carrying
Figure 19. Comparison of deformed shapes (test vs FEM): (a) Model II and (b) Model III.
184 Advances in Structural Engineering 22(1)
Models PTest PFEM PTest/PFEM dTest dFEM MTest MFEM (P/d)Test (P/d)FEM Failure
(kN) (kN) (mm) (mm) (kN m) (kN m) (kN/mm) (kN/mm) mode
capacity from 43 to 67.8 kN (i.e. increase in It has to be noted that in this study, angles were
strength by 40%) and the initial stiffness from used to stiffen the compression flange of CFS beams.
3.58 to 5.71 kN/mm (i.e. increase by 60%). However, we can optimize the dimensions of the stif-
Hence, instead of using a heavy hot-rolled sec- fener in order to obtain economy. On this aspect, a
tion or larger CFS section, a suitable smaller parametric study being carried out by the authors is
CFS section can be partially stiffened in the under progress.
compression zone to avoid premature local
buckling. This type of stiffening can be adopted Acknowledgements
both in existing structures (which demand stif-
The authors would like to thank the Civil Engineering
fening) as well as in the structures to be built to
Department of National Institute of Technology Srinagar
obtain economy. for their support by permitting the testing of the models in
The stiffening of the compression flange lips in their Structural Engineering Laboratory. Prior to joining IIT
sections with flat width-to-thickness ratio of Delhi, M. Adil Dar was working as an MTech scholar in
compression flange greater than 62.5 using Structural Engineering at Kurukshetra University and wishes
small-channel section did not perform satisfac- to thank the University for their support.
torily. It shows that the proposed stiffening
arrangement may be suitable only when the flat Declaration of Conflicting Interests
width-to-thickness ratio of compression flange
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
is not greater than 32.5.
respect to the research, authorship and/or publication of this
The finite element models developed were in
article.
good agreement with the experimental results.
The ratio of FEM-predicted strengths and test
results had an average PTest/PFEM of 0.987 and Funding
standard deviation of 0.037. It shows that The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
ABAQUS software can be used to predict the port for the research, authorship and/or publication of this
behaviour of such partly stiffened CFS beams. article: The experimental work described in this paper has
Design strengths computed as per North been supported by a grant from Consulting Engineers, PVT.
American Specifications and European Code LTD (Project No. CES2015/8360).
for CFS structures were found to be conserva-
tive, except for the stiffened CFS beam with a
ORCID iDs
wall thickness of 1 mm. Hence, these provisions
can be safely used for the design of such CFS M Adil Dar https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2782-9225
beams. M Anbarasu https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7144-6195
Lip buckling and flange buckling in the com-
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Appendix 1 PTest ultimate test strength
PFEM ultimate FEM-predicted strength
Notation (P/d)Test initial stiffness observed during the test
(P/ initial stiffness predicted by FEM
a width of top compression flange
d)FEM
A cross-sectional area
P, Q outstand elements of hot-rolled angle
b depth of compression flange lip
stiffener
beff effective design width
rxx, ryy minimum and maximum radius of
b/t ratio of spacing between bolts in the web
gyration
along the depth to the thickness of the
Se elastic section modulus relative to top
web
fibre
c depth of the section
tf thickness of flange of hot-rolled beam
CFS cold-formed steel
ISMB 150
Cxx, Cyy centroid of the section of hot-rolled angle
tw thickness of web of flange of hot-rolled
stiffener in X and Y directions
beam ISMB 150
d depth of the tension flange lip
T wall thickness of hot-rolled angle stiffener
D depth of hot-rolled beam ISMB 150
W weight per metre length
e width of compression flange stiffener
Wf width of flange of hot-rolled beam ISMB
exx, eyy distance of extreme fibre in the section of
150
hot-rolled angle stiffener in X and Y
Weff,y effective section modulus
directions
Weff, y,c, section moduli with regard to
E modulus of elasticity
Weff, y,t compression and tension flanges,
fn nominal yield strength
respectively
fy yield strength
ycg depth of neutral axis with respect to the
fyb basic yield strength
compression flange
fu ultimate strength
Z position of neutral axis from respective
FB flange buckling
flange
hp nominal dimension of cross-sectional
dTest maximum deflection at the mid-span in
element
the model tests
hc distance of the point of maximum
dFEM maximum deflection at the mid-span
compressive stress in element from neutral
predicted by FEM
axis
d1 maximum imperfection at the mid-span in
Ieff,y second moment of area of effective section
the transverse direction
Ixx, Iyy moment of inertia about major and minor
d2 maximum imperfection at the mid-span in
axis
the longitudinal direction
Ix second moment of area of the effective
d# elongation (tensile strain) after fracture
section
based on gauge length of 50 mm
k plate buckling co-efficient
lp,h relative slenderness
Ks buckling factor
lLT non-dimensional slenderness for lateral
LB lip buckling
torsional buckling
Mcr elastic critical moment
r width reduction factor
MFEM ultimate FEM-predicted moment in the
C stress ratio
central mid-third portion