Fiber Optics

Paper-II (Geometrical and Quantum Optics)
Unit-III: Fiber Optics
Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai
Department of Physics
Ewing Christian College
Allahabad
Email: pkkhandai@gmail.com
Mobile Number: +91-9122008433
September 23, 2020

Outline
1 Introduction
2 Optical Fiber
3 Total Internal Reflection
4 Acceptance angle and Numerical aperature
5 Classification of optical fibers
6 Losses in optical fiber
Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 2 / 41

Books
• A text book of Optics, N. Subramanyam, Brij Lal and M. N.

Avadhanulu; S. Chand publishers.

Introduction
• Fiber Optics is a technology in which electrical signals are converted into

optical signals and then transmitted through a thin glass fiber and
reconverted into electrical signals.

Introduction
• Fiber optics is used for long-distance and high-performance data

networking. Fiber optics are also commonly used in telecommunication
services such as internet, television and telephones.
• The term fiber optics was coined by Narender Singh Kapany in 1950. He
was born in Punjab and educated in England. His Ph.D theses was on
fiber optics under the supervision of H. H. Hopkins.
• In 1966, Charles K. Kao and George Hockham proposed the

transformation of information over glass fiber. But at that time, the fiber
had a heavy loss of power or signal (only 1% light remains after 20m long
fiber). But with the help of laser, they reduced the loss to some extent.

Introduction (continued ....)
• In 1970 Corning Glass Works produced a low loss glass fiber. The
invention of solid state lasers in 1970 made optical communications
practicable.
• Charles K. Kao is regarded as father of optical fiber communication and
has been awarded Nobel prize in 2009.
• Here we will discuss the basic principle, construction, types and

application of optical fibe.

Why optical fiber ?
• The optical fibre has been constructed for the following reasons:
1 The light wave cannot traverse long distance in air without any losses.
2 To make loss less light wave communication, the optical waves can be
guided through optical fibre.
• The optical fibre can be used for the many of industrial application and
medical applications as well.

What is optical fiber ?
• An optical fiber is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass
(silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair.
• A flexible glass or plastic structure that can carry light over a long
distance is called optical fiber.
• The propagation of light in optical fiber is based on the principle of total

internal reflection. When light enters one end of fiber, it undergoes
successive total internal reflections from sidewalls and travels down the
length of the fiber along a zigzag path.

Total Internal Reflection
• Here light is going from denser medium (n1 ) to rarer medium (n2 ) where
n1 > n2 and so it moves away from the normal.

Total Internal Reflection
• As we increase the incident angle, then at a particular angle θc , the

refracted ray basically grazes the interface between the two media.
• Here θc = sin−1 ( n
n1 ) is called the critical angle.
2
• If the incident angle is greater than θc , the light comes back to the same
medium. This is called total internal reflection.

Structure of fiber
• Optical fiber is a cylindrical in shape and has three co-axial regions:

core, cladding & buffer or coating

Structure of fibre
• Core: The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region. In

general, the diameter of the core is of the order of 8.5µm to 62.5 µ m.
• Cladding: It is the coaxial middle region which confines the light to the
core. Its diameter is of the order of 125 µ m.
The refracting index of cladding is always lower than the core. Light enters
to the core to cladding interface at an angle greater than critical angle will
be reflected back into the core. Since the angles of incidence and
reflections are equal, the light will continue to rebound and propagate
through the fiber.
• Buffer: It is a plastic coating given to the cladding for extra protection.

Acceptance angle
• It is the maximum incident angle at which an optical fiber will transmit

light by total internal reflection at the core-cladding interface.

Acceptance angle
• Here a ray of light is incident from the medium (outside of the fiber) of
R.I n0 on the input end of an optical fiber and refracted to the medium
(core of fiber) of refractive index n1 .
sinθi n1
Using Snell’s law of refraction: n0 sinθi = n1 sinθr ⇒ sinθ r
=n 0
...(1)
• Then this refracted ray incident on the core-cladding interface of the
fiber at an angle φ.
At the critical angle φ = φc : sinφc = nn21 , n2 is the refractive index of the
cladding.
• From triangle ∆ABC , we can write θr + φ = π2 ⇒ sinθr = cosφ. So

Eq.(1) becomes sinθi = nn10 cosφ.

continued ......
n1 n2
• When φ = φc , ⇒ sinθi (max) = n cosφc , But sinφc = n , so
√ 2 2 0 1
n1 −n2
⇒ sinθi (max) = n0 .
• Generally, incident ray is launched from air medium, so n0 = 1 and

designating
q θi (max) = θ0 , the equation
q is simplified in to
sinθ0 = n21 − n22 ⇒ θ0 = sin−1 [ n21 − n22 ].
• Here the angle θ0 defines acceptance angle. Acceptance angle is the

maximum angle upto which the light ray can follow the principle of total
internal reflection.

Numerical Aperature
√ 2
• If n0 = 1 for air medium, then sin(θ0 ) = (n1 − n22 ) is called the
numerical aperature (NA) of the fiber.
• So the numerical aperature is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.
• Numerical aperature determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. A

large NA implies that a fiber will accept a large amount of light from the
source.
q
n1 −n2
(n1 − n22 ) = (n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 ) = ( n1 +n
p 2 p
• As N A = 2 )( n1 )2n1
2
Approxing (n1 + n2 )/2 = n1 → (n21 − n22 ) = 2n21 ∆ → N A = n1 (2∆)

p
Where ∆ = n1n−n
1
2
is called the fractional refractive index change.
• The parameter ∆ is always positive because n1 > n2 for the total internal
reflection. In order to guide light rays effectively through a fiber, ∆ << 1.
Classification of optical fibers
• Based on different parameters optical fibers are classified into various

types. The first parameter is the refractive index profile, second one is
the mode and third one is the materials.
• Refractive index profile of an optical fiber is a plot of R.I drawn on one

of the axes and the distance from the core drawn on the other axis. Based
on this, optical fibers are of two types: (1) Step Index fibers (SIF), (2)
Graded Index fibers (GIF).

SIF
• SIF: R.I of the core is constant along radial direction and abruptly falls
to a lower value at cladding and core boundary.

GIF
• GIF: R.I of the core is not constant but increasing smoothly with the
diameter of the core. The R.I of the cladding is constant.

Continued ........
• On the basis of modes of light propagation, optical fibers are classified

into two categories:(1) Single mode fibers (SMF), (2) Multimode
fibers.
• A SMF has a smaller core diameter and can support only one mode of
propagation. A MMF has a larger core diameter and supports a number
of modes.
• Thus, on the whole, the optical fibers are classified into three types: (i)
Single mode SIF, (ii) Multimode SIF and (iii) multimode GIF.

Types of Optical fiber

Single mode SIF

Multi-mode SIF

Multimode Graded Index Fiber

Losses in Optical fiber
• When a light signal propagates through a fiber, it suffers loss of

amplitude and change in shape. The loss of amplitude is called as
attenuation and the change in shape as distortion.
• Attenuation: When an optical signal propagates through a fiber, its

power decreases exponentially with distance L as: PO = Pi e−αL . Where α
is the fiber attenuation coefficient.
1 log Pi
⇒α= L 10 Po
Pi
In units of dB/km, α is given by: αdB/km = 10 L log10 Po .
• There are two types of attenuation, one is intrinsic attenuation and the
other is extrinsic attenuation.
• Intrinsic attenuation is caused by substances inherently present in the
fiber, whereas extrinsic attenuation is caused by external forces such as
bending.

Intrinsic Attenuation
• It is caused by impurities present in the fiber. During manufacturing, it

is not possibile to eliminate all impurities.
• When a light signal hits an impurity in the fiber, either it is scattered or

it is absorbed.
• Intrinsic attenuation can be further characterized by two components:

material absorption and Raleigh scattering

Material absorption
• It occurs as a result of the imperfection and impurities in the fiber and

accounts for 3-5% of the fiber attenuation.
• The most common impurity is the hydroxyl (OH-) molecule which

remains as a residue despite stringent manufacturing techniques.
• These radicals result from the water remnants that enter the fiber optic
cable material through either a chemical reaction in the manufacturing
process or as humidity in the environment.
• The natural impurities in the glass absorb light signal and convert it into
vibrational energy or in the other form of energy.

Raleigh scattering
• Raleigh scattering accounts for the majority (about 96%) of attenuation

in optical fiber.
• The local microscopic density variations in glass cause local variations in

refractive index. These variations act as obstructions and scatter light in
all directions.
• The Raleigh scattering loss greatly depends on the wavelength as λ14 .

Extrinsic attenuation or bending losss
• It is caused by two external mechanisms: macrobending or

microbending.
• If a bend is imposed on optical fiber, strain is placed in the fiber along

the region that is bent.
The bending strain affects the refractive index and the critical angle of the
ray. As a result, the condition for total internal reflection is no longer
satisfied. Hence, light travelling in the core refract out and loss occurs.
• A macrobend is a large scale bend that is visible, whereas a microbend is

a small scale distortion.

continued....

Distortion or pulse dispersion
• In optical fiber communication system, the information (signal) is coded
in the form of discrete pulses of light. The light pulses are of a given
width, amplitude and interval. The number of pulses that can be sent per
unit time will determine the information capacity of the fiber.
• For the information to be retrieved at the detector, it is necessary that

the optical pulses are well resolved in time.
• However, the light pulses broaden and spread into a wider time interval
because of the different times taken by different rays propagating through
the fiber. This phenomenon is known as distortion or pulse dispersion.
• Hence, even though two pulses may be well resolved at the input end,
they may overlap on each other at the output end. It is clear that the
pulse broadening depends on the length of the travel of the pulse through
the fiber. Hence, dispersion is expressed in units of ns/km (time/distance).
Continued........
• There are three different dispersion mechanisms determine the distortion

of the signal in an optical fiber. They are: (i) intermodal dispersion, (ii)
intramodal dispersion.
• Intermodal dispersion is the spreading of light pulses in different

modes. It occurs as a result of the differences in the group velocities of the
modes.
• For example, let us consider the propagation of a pulse through a

multimode fibre. The power associated with the single pulse gets
distributed into the various modes or paths guided by the fibre.

Continued...

Continued...
• The lower order modes (large reflected angle) travel a greater distance
than the higher order modes (lower angle rays). So the lower order modes
reach the end of the fibre earlier while the high order modes reach after
some time delay.
• As a result, light pulses broaden as they travel down the fibre, causing
signal distortion. The output pulses no longer resemble the input pulses.
This is called as intermodal dispersion.

Intramodal dispersion
• Intramodal dispersion is the spreading of light pulse within a single

mode. Intramodal dispersion is divided into two types: material
dispersion and waveguide dispersion.
• Material dispersion: Glass is a dispersive medium. A light pulse is a

wave packet, composed of different wavelengths, travel at different speeds
along the fibre, eventually causing the light pulse to broaden. This is
called as material dispersion or chromatic dispersion.
• Wave-guide dispersion: It arises from the guiding properties of the

fibre. The group velocities of modes depend on the wavelength. Hence the
effective refractive index for any mode varies with wavelength.
• Waveguide dispersion is small in MMF, but it is important in SMF.

Splicing
• It is often required to join two optical fibres together to form a

continuous optical waveguide. The method and technique for connecting
the fibres depends on whether a permanent joint is required or easily
disconnected joint is required.
• The permanent joint technique is called splice technique and the easily
disconnected techniques are called connectors. Splicing is analogous to
soldering a metal wire.
• The generally accepted splicing methods are: Fusion splicing,

Mechanical splicing.

Continued .......
• Fusion splicing: It is the act of joining two optical fibres end-to-end

using heat. The goal is to fuse the two optical fibres together in such a
way that light passing through the fibres is not scattered or reflected back
by the splice.
•Mechanical splicing: A mechanical splice is a junction of two or more
optical fibres that are aligned and held in place by a self-contained
assembly. The fibres are not precisely joined, just precisely held together
so that light can pass from one to another. Here the fibre ends are aligned
and held together by a clear index-matching gel that enhances the
transmission of light across the joint.

Types of rays in Optical Fiber
• The rays that propagate through an optical fiber are of two types: (i)
meridional rays and (ii) skew rays.
• A ray that propagates through the longitudinal axis of the fiber core
undergoing total internal reflection is called meridional ray.
• A ray that follows angular helical path along the fiber is called a skew
ray. Tthey tend to propagate only in the annular region near the outer
surface of the core.

Continued...

Thank You

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Paper-II (Geometrical and Quantum Optics)

Unit-III: Fiber Optics

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai

September 23, 2020

3 Total Internal Reflection

4 Acceptance angle and Numerical aperature

5 Classification of optical fibers

6 Losses in optical fiber

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 2 / 41

• A text book of Optics, N. Subramanyam, Brij Lal and M. N.

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 3 / 41

• Fiber Optics is a technology in which electrical signals are converted into

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 4 / 41

• Fiber optics is used for long-distance and high-performance data

• In 1966, Charles K. Kao and George Hockham proposed the

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 5 / 41

• Here we will discuss the basic principle, construction, types and

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 6 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 7 / 41

• The propagation of light in optical fiber is based on the principle of total

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 8 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 9 / 41

• As we increase the incident angle, then at a particular angle θc , the

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 10 / 41

• Optical fiber is a cylindrical in shape and has three co-axial regions:

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 11 / 41

• Core: The innermost cylindrical region is the light guiding region. In

• Buffer: It is a plastic coating given to the cladding for extra protection.

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 12 / 41

• It is the maximum incident angle at which an optical fiber will transmit

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 13 / 41

• From triangle ∆ABC , we can write θr + φ = π2 ⇒ sinθr = cosφ. So

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 15 / 41

• Generally, incident ray is launched from air medium, so n0 = 1 and

• Here the angle θ0 defines acceptance angle. Acceptance angle is the

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 16 / 41

• So the numerical aperature is defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.

• Numerical aperature determines the light gathering ability of the fiber. A

Approxing (n1 + n2 )/2 = n1 → (n21 − n22 ) = 2n21 ∆ → N A = n1 (2∆)

• Based on different parameters optical fibers are classified into various

• Refractive index profile of an optical fiber is a plot of R.I drawn on one

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 18 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 19 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 20 / 41

• On the basis of modes of light propagation, optical fibers are classified

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 21 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 22 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 23 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 24 / 41

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 25 / 41

• When a light signal propagates through a fiber, it suffers loss of

• Attenuation: When an optical signal propagates through a fiber, its

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 26 / 41

• It is caused by impurities present in the fiber. During manufacturing, it

• When a light signal hits an impurity in the fiber, either it is scattered or

• Intrinsic attenuation can be further characterized by two components:

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 27 / 41

• It occurs as a result of the imperfection and impurities in the fiber and

• The most common impurity is the hydroxyl (OH-) molecule which

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 28 / 41

• Raleigh scattering accounts for the majority (about 96%) of attenuation

• The local microscopic density variations in glass cause local variations in

• The Raleigh scattering loss greatly depends on the wavelength as λ14 .

Dr. Prashanta Kumar Khandai (ECC) Lecture September 23, 2020 29 / 41