DEBRE TABOR UNIVERSTY

FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER

ENGINEERING 5th YEAR

INTERNSHIP REPORT AND PROJECT

HOSTING COMPANY: Amhara Mass Media Agency

NAME ID N0
1. Melkamu Getnet 489/09
2. Melkamu Sisay 490/09
3.Rahiel mihret 134/09
4.Mulat shemie 07/09
Advisor: Mr. solomon Submission date 11/09/2013 E.C
 Declaration
We are student of electrical and computer engineering at Debre tabor university Institute of
Technology, have completed our internship training at Amhara Mass Media Agency for the period
given to do internship there. We declare that this document is our original work. All the
information’s are collected from the place that we have worked in. We announce and certify that
our work is made to be original according to the internship report writing guide line given by the
university industry linkage office of the institute.

Submitted By:
1.Melkamu Getnet …………. ………
2.Melkamu sisay …………. ………
3.Rahiel mihret …………... ……….
4.Mulat shemie …………. ………..

Approved By:

…………………… ………………………… ………

Name of advisor Signature Date

[i]
 Acknowledgment

At the beginning, we would like to express our deepest gratitude to almighty God for gives us the
strength to our internship trainee and prepare this report. It has been great to be working as intern
which really helps us to upgrade our knowledge and develop new set of skills. A special thanks to
our company supervisors Ahmed Jemal and Fikreslassie they have given their knowledge,
experience, encouragement, and guidance with attractive approach. They instructed us to do in
well manner and told us to respect the professional ethics. Also, we express seriously gratefulness
to our internship adviser Mr. solomon for his advice, suggestion, encouragement and guidance.

[ii]
Table of Contents
Declaration ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgment .......................................................................................................................................... ii
PART ONE .................................................................................................................................................. ix
INTERNTIOP REPORT .............................................................................................................................. ix
Executive Summary ...................................................................................................................................... x
Chapter one ................................................................................................................................................... 1
Background of Amhara Mass Media Agency ............................................................................................... 1
1.Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 1
1.2 Vision, Mission and Objective of a Company .................................................................................... 1
1.2.1 Vision ........................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.2 Mission......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.3 Objective ...................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2.4 Main Product sand Services ......................................................................................................... 2
1.2.5 Main Customer sore End Users ................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Key Stakeholder soft he Company...................................................................................................... 3
1.4.1 Over all Work flow ...................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Production Process of the Company ................................................................................................... 4
1.5.1 Radio Production Process ............................................................................................................ 4
1.5.2 Television Production Process ..................................................................................................... 5
Chapter two ................................................................................................................................................... 7
Overall Internship Experience ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.1 Objectives of the Internship ................................................................................................................ 7
2.1.1General Objective ......................................................................................................................... 7
2.1.2 Specific Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 7
2.3 Working section .................................................................................................................................. 7
2.3.1 Radio Broadcasting System ......................................................................................................... 7
2.3.2 Television Broadcasting, Production Component and Operation .............................................. 16
.3.3 Block Up-Convertor (BUC) ......................................................................................................... 24
2.3.4 Parabolic Dish Antenna ............................................................................................................. 24
2.3.6 Digital Satellite Uplink and Downlink Chains........................................................................... 24

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 2.4 Major Duties of the Intern................................................................................................................. 26
Chapter three ............................................................................................................................................... 27
Benefits Gained from Internship ................................................................................................................. 27
3.1 Theoretical Knowledge ..................................................................................................................... 27
3.2 Practical Skills .................................................................................................................................. 27
3.3 Team Playing Skills .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.4 Interpersonal Skills ........................................................................................................................... 28
3.5 Leadership Skills............................................................................................................................... 28
Conclusion and Recommendation .............................................................................................................. 29
4.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 29
. 4.2 Recommendation ............................................................................................................................ 29
4.2.1 For AMMA ................................................................................................................................ 29
4.2.2 For the Faculty ........................................................................................................................... 29
4.2.3 For the UIL ................................................................................................................................ 30
PART TWO ................................................................................................................................................ 31
INTERNSHIP PROJECT ........................................................................................................................... 31
Abstract ....................................................................................................................................................... 32
CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................................... 33
4. Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 33
4.1. Backgrounds .................................................................................................................................... 33
4.2. Statement of the problem ................................................................................................................. 35
4.3. Objectives ........................................................................................................................................ 36
4.3.1. General objective ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.3.2. Specific objective ...................................................................................................................... 36
4.4. Scope of the project ......................................................................................................................... 37
4.5. Significance of the project ............................................................................................................... 37
4.6. Limitations ....................................................................................................................................... 37
4.7. Literature Review............................................................................................................................. 38
4.8. Methodology .................................................................................................................................... 39
4.9. System design .................................................................................................................................. 41
4.9.1. Communication links ................................................................................................................ 41
4.10. Techniques for improving performance ......................................................................................... 43
4.10.1. Spatial diversity....................................................................................................................... 43

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 4.10.2. Spatial Multiplexing ................................................................................................................ 44
4.11. MIMO Coding Techniques ............................................................................................................ 44
4.11.1. Bell Labs Layered Space-Time (BLAST) system................................................................... 44
4.11.2. Space Time Block Coding (Alamouti) scheme ....................................................................... 52
4.12. MIMO Capacity technique............................................................................................................. 55
4.12.1. Shannon Capacity ................................................................................................................... 55
4.12.2. Capacity of VBLAST.............................................................................................................. 56
4.13. Results and Discussion .................................................................................................................. 59
4.13.1. MIMO System ........................................................................................................................ 60
4.13.2. V-BLAST BER Comparison with different Detection scheme .............................................. 60
4.13.3. Alamouti BER ......................................................................................................................... 62
4.13.4. Capacity Comparison .............................................................................................................. 63
CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................................ 65
5. Conclusion and Recommendation .......................................................................................................... 65
5. 1. Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................... 65
5.2. Recommendation and Future Work ................................................................................................. 66
References ................................................................................................................................................... 67
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................. 70

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 List of figures
figure1. 1Overall Organization Structure of the Company ............................................................. 3
figure1. 2Workflow in Section ........................................................................................................ 4
figure1. 3Radio Production Process ................................................................................................ 5
figure1. 4TV Production Process .................................................................................................... 6

.figure2. 1Dynamic Microphone’s Internal Structure ..................................................................... 9

figure2. 2Studio Microphones ........................................................................................................ 9
figure2. 3On Air Light .................................................................................................................. 10
figure2. 4Telos (Studio Telephone) .............................................................................................. 11

figure4. 1NT x NR MIMO system [20] ........................................................................................ 35

figure4. 2Methodology Flow Chart .............................................................................................. 40
figure4. 3MIMO channel model [22]............................................................................................ 41
figure4. 4MIMO-V BLAST detection algorithm flow chart ........................................................ 50
figure4. 5MIMO- Alamouti algorithm flow chart ........................................................................ 55
figure4. 6Capacity Simulation for MIMO System ....................................................................... 60

[vi]
 List of Acronyms

AC Alternating Current

AF Audio Frequency

AM Amplitude Modulation

AMMA Amhara Mass Media Agency

AWGN Additive White Gaussian Noise

BLAST Bell Labs Layered Space-Time

BUC Block up Converter

CAR Central Apparatus Room

CER Central Equipment Room

CG Character Generator

HPA High Power Amplifier

IRD Integrated Receiver and Decoder

LNB Low Noise Block Converter

LOS Line of Sight

MIMO Multiple-Input Multiple-Output

ML Maximum Likelihood

MMSE Minimum Mean Square Error

MRC Maximal Ratio Combining

MCR Master Control Room

OCP Operation Control Panel

PCR Production Control Room

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RF Radio Frequency

SM Spatial Multiplexing

SNR Signal to Noise Ratio

STBC Space-Time Block Codes

STC Space-Time Coded

SCR Studio Control Room

UIL University Industry Linkage

VCR Video Cassette Recorder

VTR Video Tape Recorder

VBLAST Vertical Bell Laboratories Layered Space Time

ZF Zero-Forcing

[viii]
 PART ONE
INTERNTIOP REPORT

[ix]
 Executive Summary
Internship is important for us to upgrade the theoretical knowledge we gained in university and
help us to know and practice what the real works look like and increase confidence and
powerfulness. It also allows interns to develop core competencies needed to succeed in a business
environment. The report is describing about the background of the hosting company and also the
overall experience gained from the internship of them theoretical, practical knowledge, team
playing skill, interpersonal skill and leadership skills. Although the internship period is short we
develop some problem identification techniques such how to automate the fader of audio mixer.
This report expresses about the internship experiences that have been under taken during the
internship period. In this report we have tried to list the overall aspect soft he internship experience.
In the first unit of the report, it provides general information about the hosting company. It starts
from the brief history of the company. In second unit of the report it describes mainly about the
internship experience. It starts by describing the sections we had been working on and continues
to tell the different types of tasks that we had accomplished. In the third chapter it describes benefit
gained from internship program. The last chapter contains conclusion sand recommendation. It
also involves our contributions and some technical problems of the company observed with their
respective overcoming suggestions and with solution in the form of project during our internship
stay. Finally, we suggestions or conclusion and recommendation comments on the overall program
as seen from our point of view. In general, this report is organized in to two the first part describes
the report. The second part includes the project that deals about Performance analysis of V BLAST
and Alamouti code on MIMO system

[x]
 Chapter one
Background of Amhara Mass Media Agency
1.Introduction
Our hosting company Amhara Mass Media Agency (AMMA) is the Media Organization of
the Amhara Regional State Government and people in Ethiopia. According to the
organization’s establishments proclamation no. 88/1995, it is accountable for the regional
council. It was established to strengthen and announce the region’s culture, tradition and
values. AMMA is serving the community through four Ethiopian languages (Amharic,
Afanoromo, Awi, Himtagna) and English. Its broadcasting operation is based in Bahir Dar,
but it has 10 branches in Amhara region and 1 branch in Addis Ababa, the capital city of
Ethiopia. AMMA out reaches organized information to the community using a website
Amhara Mass Media Agency (fakebooks) and with different radio station so Amhara radio
801kHz, Bahir Dar FM96.9MHz, Dessie FM87.9MHz, Debre Birhan FM 91.4 MHz, Amhara
TV and Begur magazine [1].

1.2 Vision, Mission and Objective of a Company

1.2.1 Vision
To become the first and preferable media organization in 2013 e.c by releasing a reliable
information to enable developmental democracy in our country [1].

1.2.2 Mission
Bringing national agreement and intelligence by improving information transfer between the
peoples and the government [1]. To gather sufficient information practical for the regional
political, economic and joint social movement and to dispatch the gathered information to
teach the society of the region and all this media followers.

1.2.3 Objective
 To announce the rights and obligations of the people stated by the constitution
 To concentrate on the validity of the peoples and publicize them.
 Giving a clear understanding to the people of good governance productivity and
democracy practices with its vital aim and causes.
 To strengthen relationship between the government and the people.

[1]
  In general, to teach the people.

1.2.4 Main Product sand Services

The main services which are provided by the company to its customers are listed as follow:

 Radio, television, and newspaper news coverage service.

 Transmission of product and service advertisements.
 Special program coverage of national and religious holidays etc.

1.2.5 Main Customer sore End Users

The main customers are peoples living in Amhara region. Some customers or end users are:
governmental and non-governmental sectors, different journalist association, natives who live
outside the region and also every interested society etc.

[2]
1.2 Over all Organizational Structure of AMMA

figure1. 1Overall Organization Structure of the Company

1.4 Key Stakeholder soft he Company
The key stakeholders of the companies are:

 Journalists
 Camera man
 Government
 Community
 Engineer

[3]
1.4.1 Over all Work flow
The work flows are the process which frame works or flow of work within standards of work
procedure. The work is being processed first is put into in the higher level of hierarchy

figure1. 2Workflow in Section

1.5 Production Process of the Company
The company has two main productions, which are radio and television productions, this is
discussed below.

1.5.1 Radio Production Process

A radio production follows several processes. Radio programs consists of speech, music or
other sounds. These sounds are either live or prerecorded. During a radio broadcast, a
microphone picks up speech and other live sounds that make up the program. An electric
current in the microphone creates vibration in it that match the sound waves. Accordingly,
these electric Waves are used to produce the radio waves that make up the broadcast. The
control board has many switches and dials. A technician controls the sounds sent to the board

[4]
by varying the volume loudness of each sound. Sometimes, the technician may even blend
sound together. The electric waves move to the transmitter from the control board. The
transmitters strength enchains coming electric waves that represent the broadcast. It combines
the carrier waves with the electricals from the radio studio. This combination becomes the
radio signal that brings the program to radio. The transmitter sends the radio signal to the
antenna. The antenna, in turn, sends the signal out into the air as radio waves. The radio
production processes are generalized in figure 1.3 as follow.

figure1. 3Radio Production Process

1.5.2 Television Production Process
In order to produce a television program, we need various equipment’s and people required
to operate them for the production of a specific program. Television production can be broadly
divided into two separate section, viz. (as follow), one that - Generates an electronic signal
(called video signal) corresponding to the actual picture and the muses this video signal to
modulate an RF carrier so as to be applied to the transmitting antenna for transmission, other
that generate sanely ecteronic signal(called audio signal)containing sound information and
then uses this signal to modulation other RF carrier and then applied to the transmitting
antenna for transmission. However only one antenna is used for transmission of the video as
well as audio signals. Thus, these modulated signals have to be combined together in some
appropriate network. For instance, video as well as audio signals have to be amplified to the

[5]
desired degree before they modulate their respective RF carriers. This function is performed
by video and audio amplifiers. Video signal transmitter employs an AM transmitter as
amplitude-modulation is used for video signals whereas audio signal transmitter employs FM
modulator as frequency modulation is used for sound information.

The TV production processes is expressed in figure 1.4 as follow.

figure1. 4TV Production Process

Video Mixer use Video camera, VTR and any external sources as input and perform signal
analysis process such as amplification, Modulation and other process. Audio mixer also
receives audio signal or microphone’s output as its input and performs a process of
amplification, modulation adjusting of gains etc. And then thus two signals combined by a
combining circuit and the combined signal is amplified by an HPA and transmit by using dish
antenna.

[6]
 Chapter two

Overall Internship Experience

2.1 Objectives of the Internship
The internship has its own general and specific objective.

2.1.1General Objective
The main objective of the internship program is building well skilled and knowledgeable
student in all aspects.

2.1.2 Specific Objectives

 To relate theoretical knowledge with the real-world working environment.
 To build confidence and seeking potential for their future life.
 To upgrade interns theoretical and practical knowledge
 To develop interpersonal interaction, team playing, entrepreneurship, leader ship
skills.
 To allow the interns to identify and solve problems of any engineering aspects.

2.3 Working section

AMMA consist a lot of work sections under its administration. Some of the sections, we have
seen TV broadcasting and Radio broadcasting sections.

2.3.1 Radio Broadcasting System

Radio broadcasting is transmission of audio (sound) by radio waves intended to reach a long
distance and wide audience. In radio transmission we have to transfer the spectrum of message
signal in to the radio-frequency band for broadcasting. Radio transmission uses a radio waves
as a means of transmission, which have a frequency of between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300
gigahertz (GHz), to convey information and energy [11]. First discovered by Heinrich Hertz
which is a German physicist credited with the discovery of radio waves between the years
1886 and 1889 G.C. Electromagnetic wave is wave which have a varying electric and
magnetic fields, which don’t need a medium to propagate. Electromagnetic wave can travel
in vacuum at the speed of light (300,000 km/s). Electromagnetic waves span from the largest
wavelength of radio waves to the smallest wavelength of gamma rays. But for this section,

[7]
we were interested in radio waves. The coverage area of any radio communication system
determined by the following factors:

1. The Hight of antenna

2. The types of antenna

3. Power used for transmission

2.3.1.1 Radio Studios

A radio studio is just a room that radio program becomes on air for the societies. The studio’s
wall was constructed from acoustic materials that have a capability of absorbing any sounds
(not reflect sound back) and enhance the transmission sound quality. Radio broadcasting
system uses microphones as input device. In this studio there are three studio microphones,
talk back, head phone, microphone amplifier, Level Meters and patch panel.

 Microphone

There are different types of microphones. Among them dynamic, condenser, rabbinic. mostly
dynamic microphones are used in studios due to its rigidity and cheap. Despite which type it
is every microphone is a transducer, which converts energy from one form to another. A
microphone converts acoustic energy in the atmosphere to voltage in a cable [7, 12].

 Operation of a Dynamic Microphone

Dynamic microphones are also called moving coil microphones. It consists of a diaphragm,
coil, permanent magnet. In a dynamic microphone, the diaphragm is attached to a coil of wire.
The coil of wire surrounds a magnet. The diaphragm is usually made of aluminum alloy or
other low-mass material, so that it can be moved by the low-mass particles of the air. They
function on the following principle: When air particle hits the diaphragm, the coil moves back
and forth with respect to the intensity of sound wave. As a coil of wire moves with respect to
magnet faraday ’slows of electromagnetic induction a voltage is created on the wire [12]. This
is done according to Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction which states that when

[8]
 . figure2.1 Dynamic Microphone’s Internal Structure
a conductor moves in a certain static magnetic field an EMF is induced in it. But the induced
voltage is very small it’s referred to as microphone level and mostly measured in millivolts
that is why use amplifier

figure2. 2 Studio Microphones

Dynamic microphones are the most common type of microphone. The following qualities are
what make them so popular [12]:

 Durable
 High-Mass
 Directional

[9]
  No Inherent Noise
 On Air Light:

Is a light automatically turned on by the audio console whenever a microphone channel is

turned on to indicate that a program is being broadcasting? Usually we would have at least
one light inside the studio, and one outside. This light warns anybody around to control his
movement.

figure2. 3 On Air Light

 Level Meter

Level Meter is a device which indicates the level of sound which is in recorded. These allow
the announcer or panel operator to see if their audio is too loud or too quiet at any given time

2.3.1.2 Studio Control Room

This is where the technicians(engineers)sit room to handle the technical part of the work. This
room adjacent to the studio that is equipped with sound control and recording equipment, the
director monitors the on-air program from here. There are some equipment’s which coordinate
each other for final best production. Equipment’s in control room explained as fallow:

 Audio Mixer

Audio mixer, also called mixing console, is an electronic device for combining (also called
mixing) and modifying audio signals of different sources like microphones, CD, telephone
etc. Audio mixers can be analog or digital type. Digital audio mixer use digital signal
processing and analog mixers are usually based on operational amplifiers (op amps) electronic
circuits. As the name indicates use several inputs and delivers on output. The studio technician

[10]
controls every program which is transmitting from the studio by this mixer. This interfaces
the radio technician or panel operator to control what’s heard on air. The fader (slider)
attenuates or amplifies the incoming signal.

 Intercom/Talk Back:

An intercom or talk back is IP based intercommunication device which enables different

workers in different rooms to communicate easily. Since it is functioning independent of the
public telephone network it does not charge money.

 Telos (Studio Telephone):

It is simply a telephone which used to present (on air talk shows), for example with maximum
12 different callers at the same time by its 12 different channels but it is not mandatory to use
all channels, rather it can be defined by the user.

Figure 2. 4 Telos (Studio Telephone)

 Audio Players:

Are electronic devices which are used to playback recorded audio sources and to feed to audio
mixer. Some of them include CD/DVD player, PC, HDR and tape player.

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2.3.1.3 Radio Central Apparatus Room (CAR)
Also called central equipment room (CER), or central technical area (CTA), or Rack room is
where shared equipment common to all technical areas is located. Some broadcast facilities

have several of these rooms. In this room the devices are arranged in three RACs. The RACs
include FM RAC, AM RAC, and sever RAC which are contains their own devices. FM and
AM RACs are differed by only their devices, rather other devices function same for both.
Some of devices in the RAC include transmitter, ADC, telephone hybrid, mix- engine, server
RAC, change-over switchers, telephone hybrid and so on. Let us see some devices in detail.

 Telephone Hybrid

A telephone hybrid makes it possible to talk to callers on air. It links the studio audio systems
to the telephone lines. The hybrid feeds the signal from the phone line into the console, and
feeds back studio signal to the caller. A multi-line hybrid enables us to speak to more than
one caller. AMMA uses a multi-line hybrid to forward two callers at a time on air.

 Audio Distribution Amplifier

A distribution amplifier splits single audio feed from the audio mixer and distributes it in
multiple directions without overloading the mixer output. This is done by converting digital
input to analog output or by amplifying as it is for analog and digital devices respectively. For
instance, a CD recorder, speaker, streaming computer, production studio and transmitter can
be destinations.

 Ethernet Switch

It is at the heart of LAN based radio network that receives audio inputs in the form of packets
from entire facility, and routes them to the correct (desired) destination based on assigned IP
address. The advantage of having a switch at the heart of your facility is that you can access
devices remotely; it enables a studio to share sources with another studio, and move our audio
signals from whatever source to whatever destinations we want, we get a simple, flexible,
facility-wide audio routing system.

 Emergency CD Player

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The emergency CD player has CD recorded data. When transmission down accidentally in
the studio, the CD starts to play after 10 seconds automatically

2.3.1.4 Radio Transmitter

The transmitter is a combination of circuits that has a capable of modulating. Here the power
supply determines the signal strength reach to the audience and coverage area. The transmitter
sends the modulated electrical energy to a tuned resonant antenna; this structure converts the
rapidly changing alternating current into an electromagnetic wave that can move through free
space. Of course, the transmitter we observed was a link transmitter from the main studio to
Zeghie site for AM and to Ararat for FM broadcasting via high Power transmitter through the
antenna which is suitable to cover the required area.

 Operation of Transmitter

A microphone converts acoustic signal to electrical signal which is called audio frequency
(AF) and it should be amplified to send long distance. The AF signal and RF wave are super
imposed in modulator circuit and further amplified by the RF amplifier to increase the power
of the signal to transmit through antenna. In an AM transmitter the amplitude of the carrier
wave is varied in proportion to the modulating signal.

In an FM transmitter the frequency of the carrier is varied by the modulation signal. FM

station use high frequency carrier wave which pass through ionosphere and are not bounce
back.

[13]
 Figure 2.9: Frequency modulation

In AM transmitter the carrier signals amplitude varies with respect to the message signal
(electrical sound wave or audio frequency).

Figure 2.10: Amplitude Modulation

There are certain differences between AM and FM radio communication. Among them:

1. AM cover match wider area and AM signal propagate along the surface of the earth but FM
impacted by physical barriers and FM signal propagate along the line of sight (LOS).

2. AM more susceptible to noise but FM is less susceptible to noise.

3. AM have simple transmitter and receiver but complex for FM.

4. AM uses lower bandwidth but FM uses higher bandwidth.

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2.3.1.5 Antenna
Typically, an antenna consists of an arrangement of metallic conductor (elements), electrically
connected (often through a transmission line) to the receiver or transmitter, which has a
capability of changing electrical wave to electromagnetic wave or vice versa. In transmission,
a radio transmitter supplies an oscillating radio frequency electric current to the antenna’s
terminals, and the antenna radiates the energy from the current as electromagnetic wave (radio
waves). In reception, an antenna intercepts some of the power of an electromagnetic wave in
order to produce a tiny voltage at its terminal. That is applied to a receiver to be amplified.
Antennas are required by any radio receiver or transmitter to couple its electrical connection
to the electromagnetic field. Radio waves are electromagnetic which carry signals through the
air (or through space) at the speed of light with almost no transmission loss. Radio transmitter
sand receivers are used to convey signals(information)in systems including
broadcast(audio)radio, television mobile telephones, In Amhara mass media agency there are
two antennas, one is for AM and the other is for FM. Also, there is a Link antenna to link the
main studio and Zeghie site’s for AM transmission and Ararat sites for FM transmissions for
the purpose of increasing transmission coverage area and increase transmission quality.

Figure 2.11: Two Linking Antenna

[15]
2.3.2 Television Broadcasting, Production Component and Operation
Amhara television broadcast sits production using communication satellite throughout the
world. Satellite television is in which a signal is transmitted to the orbiting satellite receive
sand amplifies and send to Earth. A satellite receiver decodes the desired television program
for viewing on a television set. Satellite television provides a wide range of channels and
services without care of geographical nature.

2.3.2.1 Television Studio

A television studio, also called a television production studio, is an installation room in which
video productions take place, either for the recording of live television to video tape, or for
the acquisition of raw footage for post-production. In the studio there are many basic types of
equipment, such as three professional video cameras, video monitor, studio lights, wireless
microphones, studio floor, wall box, and large video wall screen or blue background screen.

 Studio floor:

Is the actual stage on which the actions (news, discussion, live program and post production)
that will be recorded and viewed take place? A studio floor has the following characteristics
and installations:

 decoration and/or sets

 Professional video camera (three in AMMA) on pedestals
 Stage lighting rigs by LED/LCD and the associated controlling equipment
 Separated area for camera movement

AMMA has two television studios, which are higher technology video well studio (Studio A)
and studio B (virtual` video).

 Studio A (Videowall Studio)

In television communication microphone is mainly required for audio recording purpose and
the cameras for image capturing purpose. These cameras are controlled by either manually or
remote control from the control room.

[16]
 Figure 2.12: Video Wall Studio

 Studio B (Chroma Studio)

A chroma studio is a television studio which allows the background to be manipulated in real
time. A virtual set will permit you to alter the background or setting with digital graphics.
This studio has same equipment’s that of studio A has except its blue background screen. In
this studio the virtual scene has to adapt at any time to the camera setting (zoom, pan, angle,
etc.) on live production.

Figure 2.13: Chroma Studio

 Chroma Keying

Chroma keying is a technique by which a specific color element (Chroma) is removed from a
video scene and replaced with a different element. Essentially, it’s a technique to remove one
background and replace it with another by using real time graphics software and vision mixer.

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  Television Camera

Camera is a device that captures moving images and converts them to electric signal so that
they can be saved on storage devices, such as video tapes, or hard drive or can be viewed on
a monitor. The studio television camera has four fundamental parts. These are teleprompter,
lens, the imaging device itself, and the view finder. There are two types of professional
cameras:

 Studio Camera

Most television studio cameras stand on the floor by using pedestals to adjust the height, and
are usually on wheels. Any video camera, when used along with other video cameras in a
multiple camera set up is controlled by a device known us camera control unit (CCU), to
which they are connected via a Triaxle cable.

 Field Cameras

Field cameras are two kinds field camera and null. The differences between the two are their
own capability. field video cameras were originally designed for use by news camera operator;
those have become the dominant style of professional video camera for most video
productions. But Null camera are less capacity than Field camera, so Null camera are used for
short period of time. Generally, studio camera has no video tape recorder or VTR. But Field
camera have video tape recorder or VTR.

 Operation Principles of Camera

The video camera translates the optical image as seen by the lens in to the corresponding
picture on the screen. Filters are typically placed in front of the lens and are used to control
the amount of light entered, the quality of light and create special effects. The light reflected
off an object is gathered and transmitted by the lens to the beam splitter called prism, which
splits white light in to red, blue, and green (RGB) light beams. Theses beams are transformed
in to three imaging devices i.e. CCD sensors. These Digital cameras capture their image on a
silicon semiconductor referred to as digital sensors. Sensors are containing hundreds of
thousands of image sensing elements called pixels are arranged in vertical and horizontal
rows. Each pixel translates the light to an electrical current. These electrical currents are

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encoded into digital format and travels to the PCR through triax cable to view on the monitor.
The analog electric current created by CCD travels to the view finders picture tube to recreate
the scene.

 Triax Cable

Is a type of electrical cable similar to coaxial cable, but with addition of an extra layer of
insulation and a second conducting sheath? It provides greater bandwidth and rejection of
interference than coax which is a transmission line for high-frequency signals. Commonly
triax cable issued in television industry as a connecting cable between a camera and its CCU.
The outer sheath is commonly used as a protective earth conductor; the core provides both
power and signal connection. Through frequency division multiplexing, the camera can send
video signal along triax while the CCU can send camera control information, such as
exposure, talkback, DC power, and tally (a signal altering the operator that their camera is on
the air).

Figure 2.15: Triax Cable

 Studio Light

Like the human eye, the camera cannot see well without a certain amount of light. Because it
is not objecting we actually see but the light reflected of the camera manipulating the light
falling on objects influences the way we perceive them on-screen. Such manipulation is called
lighting. Lighting has four broad purposes:

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1. To provide the television camera with adequate illumination for technically acceptable
pictures.

2. To tell us what the objects shown on-screen actually look like.

3. To show us where the objects are in relation to one another and to their immediate
environment, and when the event is taking place in terms of time of day or season.
4. To establish the general mood of the event.

 Wireless Microphone

A wireless microphone also known as a radio (UHForVHF)microphone, it has a small battery

power radio transmitter in the microphone body, which transmits the audio signal from the
microphone by radio wave to a nearby receiver unit (receives the radio signal from the
transmitter and convert it in to the live audio you hear through the sound system), which
recovers the audio. The other audio equipment is connected to the receiver unit by cable to
hear or to record. There are two common wireless microphones hand held and lavaliere.

 Hand Held Mic

As we can understand from its name it is a microphone held in the hand and used to pick up
human speech. Hand mic is used in a huge variety of settings, from musical performance to
television interviews with free movement inside the allowed distance range from the receiver.

 Lavaliere Microphone

Lavaliere also known as neck mic or personal mic is a small microphone used for television,
theater, and public speaking applications in order to allow for hands-free operation. It is
directly connected with the transmitter through a cord. They are most commonly provided
with small clips for attaching to collars, ties, or other clothing. The cord may be hidden by
clothes and run to a radio frequency transmitter kept in a pocket or clipped to a belt.

2.3.2.2 Production-Control Room (PCR)

The production control room is a place in which the composition of the outgoing program
takes place. The production control room is occasionally also called a studio control room
(SCR) or a” gallery”. This room enormously consists different electronic devices with their

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dedicated software which includes video switcher, video camera, character generator, preview
monitor, OCP, light control console, audio mixer and so on.

 Video Mixer

It is a device used to select between several different video sources and in some cases
compositing (mix) video sources together to create special effect this is similar to what a
mixing console does for audio. Inputs of vision mixer are VCR, DVD, MIC, telephone hybrid,
tape, audio mixer, etc.

Figure 2.18: Video Mixer

 Working Principle of Video Mixer

The most basic part of a vision mixer is the bus, basically a row of buttons with each button
representing a video source. Pressing such a button will select the video signal in that bus.
Most vision mixers are based around the preview bus and the program bus, each of which has
their own video monitors displaying the video selected in their respective buses.

 The preview bus is used to select and preview the source which is about to be put
online.
 The program bus is the main output feed, i.e. the vision which is being recorded or
broadcast. Whichever source is on the program bus is said to be online
 Character Generator (CG)

Computer based device or software that produce static or animated text (such as show news
title, credit rolls, and in the lower third of the picture to identify a speaker or what is happening

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on the screen) for keying in to a video stream. Modern character generators are computer
based, and can generate graphics as well as text [14].

 Video Tape Recorder

A video tape recorder (VTR) is a tape recorder designed to record and play back video and
audio material on magnetic tape. These are some kinds of recording devices which records all
the programs of a TV channel. This tool is mainly used to archive the programs and at night
they can play the programs from the device directly if there is any kind of problem in
automation play out. Thus, we can say it can also be used as a backup device. Quality of the
recorded program are tested immediately after recording and error is solved for better quality
[9].

 Audio mixer

In television production from TV studio, the video and audio come to PCR separately. The
audio goes to audio control system. For video production audio mixer provides the most basic
controls over audio. This audio mixer is same as a mixer found in radio production with a
little bit objective difference. The mixer fed with different sound sources these are audio
microphone, telephone, and music from different sources like CD/DVD player, memory
player and tape player. Thus, ounces are each assigned a channel on the mixer and mixed to
a main program feed to go with the vision/image. The telephone is used to make TV talk
shows with the audiences. The level of each sound source is controlled by vertical faders

 Camera Control Unit

The camera control unit (CCU)is typically part of a live television broadcast chain. It is
responsible for powering the professional video camera, handling signals sent over the camera
cable to and from the camera, and can be used to control various camera parameters remotely
[?]. This unit consists of:

1. Focus

2. Zoom-in/out

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3. Beam focus

4. Contrast

5. Brightness

A color composite video signal is received from the studio camera through Triax cable can be
viewed in monitor

2.3.2.3 Master Control Room (MCR)

Room where all different sources the outside studio comes here and enroot to different
destination. used for transmission media. Master control Room is the technical hub of a
broadcast operation common among most over-the air television stations and television
networks. It is distinct from a production control room (PCR)in television studios where the
activities such as switching from camera to camera are coordinated. MCR is the heart of our
operations with full bank of monitors, VTR, Automation Server, communications equipment
and computers with complete built-in redundant systems. MCR is the final point before a
signal is transmitted over the-air with channel Logo [4].

 Encoder

Is a device which converts audio/video signals from a log format to digital bit stream or code,
for the purpose of standardization, speed, manipulation, transportation or compression

Frame Synchronizer Is a device used in live television production to match the timing of an
incoming video source to the timing of an existing video system. The frame synchronizer
essentially takes a picture of each frame of incoming video and then immediately out put it
with the correct synchronization signals to match an existing video system. They are often
used to” time in” consumer video equipment to a professional system but can be used to
stabilize any video. It also makes use of a common gunlock signal to make sure that all the
equipment works with a common time base.

 CCU (Camera Control Unit)

Device used in conjunction with OCP, responsible for powering the professional video
camera, hand ling signals sent over the camera cable (triax)to and from the camera, CCU
operations are an important component in many types of television production, in particular

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in multi camera productions, and can be used to control various camera parameters such as
iris, focus, zoom in/out, contrast, brightness, etc. remotely.

.3.3 Block Up-Convertor (BUC)

Used in the transmission (uplink) of satellite signals. It converts a band of frequencies from a
lower frequency to a higher (microwave) frequency. Modern BUCs convert from the L band
to Ku band, C band and Ka band. Older BUCs convert from a 70 MHz intermediate frequency
(IF) to Ku band or C band. The high frequency signal is piped to HPA through coaxial cable
to strengthen its power.

2.3.4 Parabolic Dish Antenna

Parabolic antenna is an antenna that uses a parabolic reflector, a curved surface with the cross-
sectional shape of a parabola, to direct the radio waves. The most common form is shaped
like a dish and is popularly called a dish antenna or parabolic dish. The main advantage of a
parabolic antenna is that it has high directivity. It functions similarly to a search light or flash
light reflector to direct the radio waves in a narrow beam, or receive radio waves from one
particular direction only [6]. Parabolic antennas have some of the highest gains, that is, they
can produce the narrowest beam widths, of any antenna type. In order to achieve narrow beam
widths, the parabolic reflector must be much larger than the wave length of the radio waves
used, so parabolic antennas are used in the high frequency part of the radio spectrum. This
dish antenna holds a feed horn that consists of a flaring metal wave guide shaped like a horn
to direct radio waves in a beam. Horns are widely used as antennas at UHF and microwave
frequencies, above 300 MHz They are used as feed antennas (called feed horns) for larger
antenna structures such as parabolic antennas. As shown on the above parabolic antenna the
feed horn is conical type, i.e. a horn in the shape of a cone, with a circular cross section.

2.3.6 Digital Satellite Uplink and Downlink Chains

The communication going from a satellite to ground is called downlink, and when it is going
from ground to a satellite it is called uplink. The term uplink chain is used to refer to the series
of equipment that are used to produce a radio frequency signal for sending out data. The

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description provided her eisim precise as the exact configuration can vary widely. The
downlink chain is built using nearly the same equipment in reverse order. Take a look at the
drawing and note the path of devices on the left-hand side with all the up arrows.

Figure 2.23: Parabolic Dish Antenna

2.3.6.1 Uplink Prouder
The process of gathering any information part and sending to the satellite running on the
specified frequency is termed as UPLINK. To transmit the RF signal in satellite, the frequency
range should be higher. So, it’s needed to increase the frequency range from L-Band to any
other Band which has high range frequency. A Block up Converter (BUC) is used in the
transmission(uplink)of satellite signals. It converts a band of frequencies from a lower
frequency to a higher frequency. Modern BUCs convert from the L band to C band. A high-
power amplifier which provide useful amplification at gigahertz frequencies and increase the
transmission power also reduces percentage loss for the purpose of Uplink.

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2.3.6.2 Down link Procedure
First, tracking the satellite with the receiving antenna. Once the satellite is tracked then the
given downlink parameter of desired channel is inputted in the IRD (Integrated Receiver and
Decoder). When we receive the channel, we downlink the frequency as C-Band frequency.
But there is an LNB (Low Noise Block converter) mounted with the antenna feed horn which
converts the C-band frequency to L-Band frequency by subtracting the C-band frequency with
the Local Oscillator frequency. When the IRD receives the L-Band RF signal, then it first
demodulate the signal and then decode it, after that we got the video signal which is
transmitting from the TV station. This is helps to monitor outgoing signals. Generally, it the
process by which Satellite sends or receive the signals to the controlling station.

Figure 2.24: Digital Uplink and Downlink Chain

2.4 Major Duties of the Intern

Since AMMA is a media company and as we are communication engineering student, major
duties of intern include:

 Understand audio and video signal processing.

 Understand function and operation principle of radio and television studio
equipment’s.
 Knowing production and transmission process.
 Understand and practice professionalism.

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 Chapter three
Benefits Gained from Internship
In the Internship time we got the chance of introducing ourselves with the working
environment of the company and able to fill the gap between student life and professional life.
In our internship experience there were some basic skills we gained accordingly. Some of the
skills are:

1. Theoretical knowledge

2. Practical skills

3. Team playing Skill

4. Interpersonal communication skills

5. Leadership skills

3.1 Theoretical Knowledge

It is one of the benefits gained from the internship. In the internship we developed our

theoretical knowledge when we are in practice. Even if we have some concepts about radio

and TV broadcasting systems but now we have got some detail knowledge about radio and

TV broadcasting systems.

3.2 Practical Skills

The practical skills that we got are realistic expression of operational principals of
equipment’s they used for radio and television broadcasting. The theoretical knowledge
guides us to performs practices which enables us to gain practical skills like parts and
operations of microphone, link antenna operation, and the whole communication systems
operation.

3.3 Team Playing Skills

The internship helped us to develop our team playing skills like

 Sharing: offering ideas and reporting our findings to each other

 Respecting opinions: encouraging, listening and supporting the ideas and efforts of
others
 Questioning: observing the students interacting, discussing, and posing questions to
all members of the team

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  Cooperation: mobilizing and initiate the team to work together

3.4 Interpersonal Skills

Almost all kind of work requires communicating with other persons to shares ideas. Really,
I’ve been understood that without effective communication skills, any one can’t succeed in
the work place or anywhere. This internship program also gives us the interpersonal
communication skill in terms of many ways. Which includes:
 Being a good listener first.
 How to approach persons with a comfortable way.
 How to communicate persons in formal way and with politely.
 How to reflect or present or forward our idea for anyone with a good facial expression.

3.5 Leadership Skills

The internship program benefits us in acquiring basic leadership skills.

This includes:

 Creating and managing the vision.

 Making good decision and effective communication.
 Understand the in dividuals interest.
 Ability to motivate organization members of their ideas.
 The ability to solve problems by focusing on the solutions Respecting organizational
members difference and interest.

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 Conclusion and Recommendation
4.1 Conclusion
The basic concern of this internship program is to get, hold and accumulate knowledge and
experience in different companies through practical ones. During the internship period we
have introduced the overall operation of radio and Tv from the description of equipment’s to
the production and transmission of the company. And also, we get different skills like practical
skill, team playing skill, interpersonal skills, leadership skills in a real working environment
and management system. Generally, we conclude that our internship shows what
communication engineering is in real world and new perspective that we didn’t get before

. 4.2 Recommendation
This internship program had created good opportunities to integrate us with the Agency
through the University Industry Linkage (UIL). Even if they have their own purpose and
strength, we realized some limitation and drawbacks that limited us to go ahead. In order to
overcome these drawbacks, we want to deliver the following recommendations to all
concerns.

4.2.1 For AMMA

 The Agency should be voluntary to allow students to do full periodof internship
experience.
 The Agency should consider the student as part of its staff and permit
 to watch every section required for complete process.
 The Agency should assign professionals who have deep
 technical knowledge

4.2.2 For the Faculty

 The school should pay attention for the order of courses to be given which are
supportive and major courses for the interns, like courses related to antenna, wireless
communication. Otherwise, the internship program should be at 5th year.
 It is better to cross check those interns periodically by their academic advisors to
understand their problems and to know the situation.
 Should make sure that students are achieving the goals of the internship program as
required.

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4.2.3 For the UIL
 Should release the internship costs at appropriate time.
 Try to announce the host company earlier as much as possible.
 Have to be transparent and open minded for all students freely.
 Should increase the internship money by considering the current market condition,
since it is not good enough to lead our life.

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 PART TWO
INTERNSHIP PROJECT

[31]
 Abstract
The hottest issue of next generation communication systems is data throughput improvement
for any wireless channel conditions. The need for wireless services and high data rate is
growing rapidly as a result of development of communication technologies. The major
obstacles in wireless communications are including spectral efficiency, link reliability,
coverage and energy efficiency. Multiple input multiple output (MIMO) communication
system with V-BLAST and Alamouti scheme is evaluated in Rayleigh fading channel using
BPSK modulation to examine how it enhances wireless channel reliability and spectral
efficiency is proposed to alleviate this problem. MIMO system uses multiple transmitting and
receiving antennas with different coding techniques to either enhance the transmission
diversity or spatial multiplexing gain. Utilizing Alamouti algorithm were the same
information is transmitted over multiple antennas in different time intervals and then collected
again at the receivers to minimize the probability of error and thus improve the received signal
to noise ratio. While utilizing V-BLAST algorithm the transmitted signals are divided into
different transmitting channels and transferred over the channel to be received by different
receiving antennas to increase the transmitted data rate and achieve higher throughput.

In order to conduct the project, we use MATLAB software and simulation results show the
performance evaluation of MIMO-Alamouti and MIMO- V BLAST. From the output we
deduce that as compare to the best V-BLAST technique i.e. ML detection, the BER is much
more improved in the MIMO-Alamouti. At 10dB SNR value, the V-BLAST-ML offers BER
of around 0.001while at the same value; the Alamouti offers BER value around 0.0001. This
is how though MIMO-Alamouti and MIMO-VBLAST are much better techniques as
compared to traditional SISO system, yet in terms of error performance, MIMO Alamouti is
more powerful that MIMOV-BLAST. While if data rate is considered then the MIMO- V
BLAST is proved to be better than the MIMO-Alamouti because of increased number of
transmitting and receiving antennas. For this project AWGN and Rayleigh channels used for
analysis purpose and their effect on BER for high data rates is presented.

Key words: Alamouti, BER, MIMO communication, STBC, V-BLAST

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 CHAPTER FOUR
Performance analysis of V-BLAST and Alamouti code on MIMO
system
4. Introduction
AMMA consist a lot of work sections under its administration. Some of the sections, we have
seen TV broadcasting and Radio broadcasting sections.

Radio Broadcasting System: Radio broadcasting is transmission of audio (sound) by radio

waves intended to reach a long distance and wide audience. In radio transmission we have to
transfer the spectrum of message signal in to the radio-frequency band for broadcasting. Radio
transmission uses a radio waves as a means of transmission, which have a frequency of
between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz), to convey information and energy [11]. But
for this section, we were interested in radio waves. The coverage area of any radio
communication system determined by the following factors [12]:

 The Hight of antenna

 The types of antenna
 Power used for transmission

The above factors AM and FM as well TV broadcast are not more enough to increase in
spectral efficiency, link reliability, coverage area and energy efficiency. To increase more
efficiency in spectral efficiency, link reliability, coverage area and energy efficiency, we use
MIMO technologies

4.1. Backgrounds
The growing demand of multimedia services and the growth of Internet related contents lead
to increasing interest to high speed communications. Hence, there were more expectations in
achieving high data rate, capacity and best services among the users of both the systems. To
resolve the problems of capacity and high data rate in the challenging radio environment, a
novel idea was proposed to use the Multiple Element Array (MEA) at both ends of the wireless
Communication systems. These wireless systems were referred as Multiple Input Multiple

[33]
Output (MIMO) systems having multiple transmit and multiple receive antennas in literature
in contrast with Single Input Single Output (SISO) antenna systems [12]. Multiple-input
multiple-output (MIMO) wireless communication systems refer to transmitters and receivers
that are equipped with multiple antenna units for data transferring process in the wireless
communication system. Compared with single input single-output (SISO) wireless
communication systems, additional degrees of freedom (space resource) can be created in
MIMO system without increasing neither the bandwidth nor transmit power, which can be
exploited for significant improvement of system capacity and enhancement of transmission
reliability, MIMO systems use arrays of multiple antennas at both ends of the communication
link, all operating at the same frequency at the same time. This introduces spatial diversity
into the system, which can be used to tackle the problem of multipath. In wireless
communications system, such as point to point radio links, radio waves do not simply
propagate from the transmit antenna to the receive antenna. Rather they bounce and scatter
off objects, this effect is known as multipath [13] [14] [15 the race is towards achieving the
goal of excellent speed of propagation with lowest BER and data rate communication with
lowest error rate and of course the bandwidth requirement must be reasonable enough. But
because of certain practical limitations of wireless channel i.e. quoted as multi path structure,
fading, effect of Doppler shift, inter symbol interference, etc., the efficiency of the existing
standards cannot be upgraded. Which fits as the futuristic system with highest data rates along
with best qualities at lowest error rate. To satisfy the requirement of the highest capacity along
with excellent error rates in the modern wireless systems, the implementation of various
advance antenna systems by suitable approaches is the most innovative aspect to satisfy the
above discussed needs. Multiple-input Multiple-output (MIMO) technology means multiple
antennas at both ends of a communication system [17] [18]. The idea behind MIMO is that
the transmit antennas at one end and the receive antennas at the other end are connected and
combined in such a way that the bit error rate (BER), SNR or the data rate for each user is
improved. MIMO has the capacity of producing independent parallel channels and
transmitting multipath data streams and thus meets the demand for high data rate wireless
transmission. This system can provide high frequency spectral efficiency and is a promising
approach with tremendous potential. The use of multiple antennas at both transmitter and
receiver has been shown to be an effective way to improve capacity and reliability over those

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achievable with single antenna wireless systems [19]. This project is mainly studying about
software implementation of Multiple Input Multiple Output antenna diversity techniques
(with ALAMOUTI coding and V-BLAST structure) so as to improve capacity as well as error
rate.

figure4. 1NT x NR MIMO system [20]

One of the methodologies for exploiting the capacity in MIMO system consists of using the
additional diversity of MIMO systems, namely spatial diversity, to combat channel fading.
This can be achieved by transmitting several replicas of the same information through each
antenna. By doing this, the probability of losing the information decreases exponentially. The
antennas in a MIMO system are used for supporting a transmission of a SISO system since
the targeted rate of is that of a SISO system. The diversity order or diversity gain of a MIMO
system is defined as the number of independent receptions of the same signal. A MIMO
system with Nt transmit antennas and Nr receive antennas has potentially full diversity (i.e.
maximum diversity) gain equal to NtNr. The different replicas sent for exploiting diversity
are generated by a space-time encoder which encodes a single stream through space using all
the transmit antennas and through time by sending each symbol at different times. This form
of coding is called Space-Time Coding (STC) [21] [22]. Due to their decoding simplicity,
the most dominant form of STCs is space-time block codes (STBC).

4.2. Statement of the problem

The major challenges in wireless communication are include spectral efficiency, link
reliability, coverage and energy efficiency. This is due to the limited available bandwidth, the

[35]
fading nature of the propagation channel and the mobility of the wireless nodes. The rapid
growth in demand for high speed and high-quality multimedia services with diverse QoS
requirements is also creating the opportunities and challenges for the system designers. On
top of these woes, the limited availability of bandwidth possesses a significant challenge to a
designer in designing a system that provides higher spectral efficiency and higher quality of
link availability at low cost. There is an exponentially increase in the number of users of
second-generation broadcast and internet subscribers by the end of second millennium.
Hence, there were more expectations in achieving high data rate, capacity and best services
among the users of both the systems. The bandwidth of wireless communication systems is
often limited by the cost of the radio spectrum required. Any increase in bit rate, which can
be realized without increasing the bandwidth, makes the system more spectrally efficient and
less costly [19]. However, the fundamental bandwidth limitation does not change. In other
words, spectrum has become a scarce and expensive resource while the bandwidth is very
limited and restricted. Transmit power is limited in addition to time/frequency domain
processing are at limits, but space is not. Therefore, research over the last years has been
focused towards improving spectral efficiency, so that higher data rates can be achieved within
a given bandwidth. Here in this project, a strong attention is given on the problem arrived
because of limited availability of bandwidth. As a result, here, AMMA to overcome the
problem, we use MIMO with V-BLAST and Alamouti code schemes is proposed as an
alternative means of alleviating the problem arrived.

4.3. Objectives
4.3.1. General objective
To show performance analysis of V-BLAST and Alamouti code technique on MIMO system
using mat-lab code.

4.3.2. Specific objective

 To see the performance of BER MIMO) antennas.
 To observe the tradeoff BER and data rate of V-BLAST and Alamouti STBC.
 To resolve the problems of capacity and high data rate in the challenging radio
environment.
 To get more fundamental understanding of BLAST, STBC MIMO technologies.

[36]
  To evaluate several MIMO techniques by comparing BER performance simulations,
analyzing the capacity formula and overall throughput.

4.4. Scope of the project

There are a number of researches that have addressed the questions on channel spectral
efficiency and link reliability improvements. The scope of this project is to develop with
continuous evaluations of capacity up to 4x4 MIMO and performance reliability for Alamouti
STBC and V BLAST up to 2x2 MIMO antenna systems. Since Alamouti space time code is
an orthogonal scheme that can achieve the full diversity of Nt=2.

4.5. Significance of the project

Obviously, MIMO systems can significantly improve the broadcast capacity. Appreciate this
tremendous increase in Shannon capacity through an increase in performance of the spectrum
availability. The wireless spectrum is congested and will not be enough to meet the demand
requirements. Consequently, such a research is important for the following reasons.

 To analysis demand requirements in channel capacity.

 To analysis in performances and spectrum availability.

4.6. Limitations
With multiple antennas deployed at both the transmitter and receiver, the communication
system can achieve efficient trade-off between diversity and multiplexing without the need of
any extra resources. Various MIMO techniques, such as the V-BLAST and STBC have been
proposed to exploit the potentials. However, MIMO schemes have several problems. On the
one hand, VBLAST suffers from severe inter-channel interference (ICI) at the receiver.
Therefore, the detection algorithm at the receiver is usually very complex. This algorithm has
a limitation that it works only if the number of received antennas is greater or equal to the
transmitted ones. On the other hand, although STBC is able to overcome the limitation of
VBLAST, it is at the price of reduced spectrum efficiency.

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 4.7. Literature Review
To Show performance and capacity comparison between V-BLAST and Alamouti code
technique on MIMO system, lots of work had been done. In this project we discussed result
of various research papers
In [22] presented A Comparative analysis of space time block code and VBLAST detection
technique with trellis coded modulation over Rayleigh and Rician fading channel. The BER
performance of Rician channel (LOS) is better than Rayleigh channel when the line of sight
(LOS) path is considered, while with no line of sight (NLOS) path is considered, this
technique gives better result of about 1dB over Rayleigh fading channel as compare to the
Rican fading channel. But still the problem of high SNR Exist. But our work is on rich
scattering environment which is NLOS and we achieve high capacity of 8 dB even at very
low SNR we achieve SNR of greater than 1dB.

In [23] Authors had tried to analyze and compare the performances of different MIMO
techniques. In particular, they compare the performance of three MIMO methods, namely,
BLAST, STBC, and linear precoding/decoding. They provided both an analytical
performance analysis in terms of the average receiver SNR and simulation results in terms of
the BER. Moreover, the applications of MIMO techniques in WCDMA systems were also
considered in the study. But the problem is there work is only restricted to WCDMA, whereas
our work is applicable like HSPA in addition to WCDMA.

In [24] presented to Simulation of Space-Time Block Coding in Broadband Indoor Fading

Channel Using Mat lab, presents a large effect of frequency selectivity on the space time
communication system. But the main drawback of this method is that it is used inside
buildings did not provide outdoor free space channels. We add VBLAST detection technique
to increase data rate and our project is also applicable outdoor environment. Another study
also presented in [25] where he studied Space Time Block Coding for MIMO Systems using
Alamouti Method with Digital Modulation Techniques BPSK and QAM Modulation Scheme
with channel state information (CSI) at the transmitter, however they used a large SNR to
achieve this. We add VBLAST detection technique to increase data rate and analyzed the
performance at low SNR such as at 10 dB

[38]
 4.8. Methodology
In this sub sections, we explain methodologies that used to achieve the objectives of this
project.

Data gathering Method: The central method used for data gathering was encompasses the
reviews and study of various literatures on Performance and capacity comparison between
MIMO V-BLAST and Alamouti code technique which help to understand the necessary
theoretical background for the project work.

Data Analysis Method: Mathematical Analysis: Based on the inputs retrieved from review
of related literatures and the statement of the problem in mind, the analytical analysis of this
study is as follows. First thing, we are assuming Shannon’s theorem for interpret the system
capacity specifically the SNR regimes of the transmitted and received signal for wireless
system. Next to this, we analyze the impact of different antenna configuration (SISO, MISO,
SIMO) on system capacity under fixed SNR. Afterward, we employ MIMO Finally, we will
see also by employing STBC and V-BLAST on MIMO system for enhancing system capacity.

System design (modeling): The MIMO-STC used in this project consist of two transmit
antennas and two receive antennas since space time code used was Alamouti STC. Fading
channel was modeled using 2X2 array (H) where element hij is random variable represents
fading coefficient from transmit antenna j to receive antenna i. Also, AWGN is added at each
the receive antenna to represent receiver thermal noise.

Materials used: In order to conduct the project, we use the following tools and techniques

 MATLAB software.
 Simulations: The tool we used to outline simulation workflows that can be used is
MATLAB. The simulation capabilities of MATLAB are used to analyze capability
and spectral efficiency using the mathematical model.

Performance Analysis &evaluation

The proposed system performance has to be evaluated and compared to V- BLAST and STBC
on MIMO system. So, it must be evaluated by one detection method. ML detector is used for
optimality reasons and to avoid error enhancement problem. Result Analysis &
Interpretations:

[39]
 Perform spectral efficiency (capacity) evaluation analysis whether the target broadcast
requirement achieved or not.

figure4. 2Methodology Flow Chart

[40]
 4.9. System design
This section gives an overview of the MIMO channel model, MIMO capacity and the basic
open loop MIMO communication system. It covers BLAST architecture and space time block
codes

4.9.1. Communication links

The communication links can be classified depending on the number of antennas used to
transmit and to receive. The different schemes may be valuable, or feasible, in different
scenarios, depending on the application they are used for.

4.9.1.2. MIMO System Model

The advantages of MIMO are exceeding its fundamental issue of adding diversity benefits.
The mathematical nature of MIMO, where data is transmitted over a matrix rather than a
vector channel, creates several new opportunities. Let H be the channel matrix of N x M
dimensions, where M is a number of transmit antennas and N is a number of receive antennas
as shown in Fig. below. In the ideal case, each path is assumed to be statistically independent
from the others. Independent data can be sent from each antenna, increasing the capacity of
the system.

figure4. 3MIMO channel model [22]

Here in, consider a transmitted vector [22].

x= [x1, x2, x3, x4……. xM] T (4-5)

The vector is then transmitted via a MIMO channel characterized by the channel matrix H
whose element hi, j =CN (0,1) is the random Gaussian complex channel coefficient between

[41]
the jth transmit and ith receive antennas with zero mean and unity variance. The received
vector [22].

r= [r1, r2, r3 ……. rN] (4-6)

Can be given as follows [22].
r = Hx +n (4-7)

Where r is the received vector, H is channel matrix x a transmitted vector signal and n the
noise signal. This can be expressed as [22]

4.9.1.4.1. MIMO Transmission

The figure below demonstrates how data is transmitted in a MIMO system. Consider the 6-
bit data stream is broken down (demultiplexed) into N equal rate data streams, where N is the
number of transmitting antennas, which are three in this case. Each of the lower bit rate sub
streams are transmitted from one of the antennas. All are transmitted at the same time and at
the same frequency, therefore they mix together in the channel. Since all sub streams are being
transmitted at the same frequency, it is very spectrally efficient. If the channel “H” is a
sufficiently rich scattering environment, each of the superimposed signals will have
propagated over slightly different paths and hence will have differing spatial signatures.

[42]
 Figure 4. 7: Data transmission in MIMO systems [22]

Since each of the receive antennas detects all of the transmitted signals, there are N×N
independent propagation paths, where there are transmit and receive antennas. This allows
the channel to be represented as a N×N matrix. As an example, the matrix below is obtained
[22].

Each of the elements in the channel matrix is an independent propagation path. The system
can be represented as the following equation [22].

r=Hs+n (4-10)

Where r =received signal vector, H=Channel Matrix, s=Transmitted signal vector, n=noise.

4.10. Techniques for improving performance

Spatial Multiplexing techniques example – VBLAST yields increased data rates in wireless
communication links. Fading can be mitigated by employing receiver and transmit diversity
(Alamouti Scheme), thereby improving the reliability of the transmission link. The goals of a
wireless communication system are conflicting and a clear balance of the goals is needed for
maximizing the performance of the system [19] [27].

4.10.1. Spatial diversity

As indicated, two fundamental resources available for a MIMO system are diversity and
degrees of freedom. In diversity techniques, same information is sent across independent

[43]
fading channels to combat fading. When multiple copies of the same data are sent across
independently fading channels, the amount of fade suffered by each copy of the data will be
different. This guarantees that at-least one of the copies will suffer less fading compared to
rest of the copies. Thus, the chance of properly receiving the transmitted data increases. In
effect, this improves the reliability of the entire system. This technique is referred as inducing
a “spatial diversity” in the communication system [19] [27].

4.10.2. Spatial Multiplexing

In spatial multiplexing, each spatial channel carries independent information, thereby
increasing the data rate of the system. This can be compared to Orthogonal Frequency
Division Multiplexing (OFDM) technique, where, different frequency sub channels carry
different parts of the modulated data. But in spatial multiplexing, if the scattering by the
environment is rich enough, several independent sub channels are created in the same
allocated bandwidth. Thus, the multiplexing gain comes at no additional cost on bandwidth
or power. The multiplexing gain is also referred as degrees of freedom with reference to signal
space constellation. The number of degrees of freedom in a multiple antenna configuration is
equal to min (NT, NR). The degree of freedom in a MIMO configuration governs the overall
capacity of the system [19].

4.11. MIMO Coding Techniques

Space-time block coding (STBC) and Spatial Multiplexing (SM) are MIMO based techniques
that provide link quality and high capacity in the system. According to the objective of this
project, the main aspect is to investigate the performance of existing wireless systems and to
perform the numerical modeling of the same so as to make them efficient wireless systems.
This section contains the detailed analysis of various antenna diversity techniques with
Alamouti coding scheme and VBLAST structure followed by MATLAB based simulation of
qualit based algorithms for the implementation of the same.

4.11.1. Bell Labs Layered Space-Time (BLAST) system

The BLAST architecture consists of multiple antennas at both the transmitting and receiving
ends of the system. In this system, information signals are divided into sub-streams and
multiple antennas (array) is used to transmit these sub-streams simultaneously on the same
carrier frequency. The same frequency bandwidth is used and the total transmitted power is

[44]
always held constant. At the receiving end, the transmitted signals are received by an antenna
array [22] [28]. Each antenna element of the array receives all the transmitted signals as one
composite signal. Even though the signals are transmitted in the same frequency band, the
signals from the different transmit antennas are located at different points in space, and each
signal is scattered

Figure 4. 8: Spatial Multiplexing System Model [28]

differently. The received signal at each receive antenna element still contains useful
information about the transmitted signal. Since BLAST does not require additional spectrum
resources to transmit parallel sub-streams the BLAST architecture is spectrally efficient.
However, the spatial multiplexing and simultaneous use of the same portion of the spectrum
lead to co-antenna interference, which is the major source of channel impairment in the
BLAST architecture

4.11.1.1. VBLAST using spatial multiplexing

Spatial multiplexing scheme exploits the rich scattering wireless channel allowing the
receiver antennas to detect the different signals simultaneously transmitted by the transmit
antennas. That is, spatial multiplexing method uses multiple antennas at the transmitter and
the receiver in conjunction with rich scattering environment within the same frequency band
to provide a linearly increasing capacity gain in the number of antennas. Hence, the concept
of spatial multiplexing is different from that of space-time coding method, which permits to
efficiently introduce a space-time correlation among transmitted signals to improve
information protection and increase diversity gain [17]. The main concept of spatial

[45]
multiplexing is to provide simultaneous transmissions of M information streams in the same
frequency band from M transmit antennas. However, by using such a transmission method, a
constraint is introduced where the number of receive antennas must be equal or greater than
the number of transmit antennas (N ≥ M) in order to separate and detect the M transmitted
signals.

4.11.1.2. V-BLAST System Architecture

The data stream is bifurcated into sub-streams proportional to the number of transmitting
antennas and then individual antenna will transmit each independent sub-stream which all are
going to received and detected by multiple receivers. The idea behind the technique is to
increase the rate of transmission of the system dramatically by taking the advantage of
multiplexing gain property of antenna diversity. All the bifurcated data sequences are radiated
within the same frequency spectrum, so spectrum efficiency will increase dramatically.
Moreover, the rate of transmission will be approaching the double value or proportional to the
number of transmitting elements used. One thing that has to be made sure is number of
receivers for this system must be equal to or greater than that of the transmitter. The
transmitted sub-streams are independent of one another [16] [29]. At the receiver, again the
multiple antennas are used to receive the copies of transmitted data sub streams and their
multipath replicas. Each receiver element receives all the data sub streams that are transmitted
by number of antennas. These all streams approaching to the individual receiver are not
separate but are superimposed over one another but, because of sufficient multipath scattering
observed by different sub-streams is different, the use of classy signal processing algorithms
will help to detect the individual sub-streams from the replicas of it at each receiver. Thus, by
the utilization of the V- BLAST system, as the number of paths is more, the performance will
be better as compared to the conventional techniques.

[46]
 Figure 4. 9: The physical model of VBLAST system with Spatial Multiplexing [29]

4.11.1.3. V-Blast Mathematical Model

V-Blast is a single user scheme which has multiple transmitters. It divides the data stream
into sub streams and transmits them through multiple transmitters at the same time and
frequency. The transmission is described as follows. A data stream is demultiplexed into M
sub-streams termed layers and transmits them through multiple transmitters at the same time
and frequency. This results in receiving the data at the receiver at the same time and frequency.
By implementing VBLAST algorithm, the diversity gain is increased and the bit error rate
(BER) performance is improved. The MIMO system is assumed to undergo flat fading
channel. The system model of the output signal is given by [19]:

y=Hx+η (4-11)

Where y is the received signal, x is the transmitted signal, η is the added noise and H is the
channel model of the system. Although the layers are arranged differently for the two BLAST
systems across space and time, the detection process for both systems is performed vertically
for each received vector. Without loss of generality, assume that the first symbol is to be
detected. The V-BLAST system is simplified version of D-BLAST that tries to reduce its
computational complexity. But in doing so transmit diversity is loss. A high-level block
diagram of a V-BLAST system is shown in Fig below.

[47]
Figure 4. 10: Spatial Multiplexing Transmitters with Parallel Encoding: VBLAST [16]

Figure 4. 11: VBLAST Receiver with Parallel Decoding [16]

A. Encoder A single data stream is de-multiplexed into m sub-streams, and each sub-
stream is then encoded into symbols and fed to its respective transmitter.
B. Decoder: needs to demodulate the symbols on the received vector. If channel
encoding is used, then the demodulated symbols need to be buffered until the whole
block can be decoded

[48]
4.11.1.4. V-BLAST detection algorithms
A. Maximum Likelihood (ML) V-BLAST Detection Algorithm The most optimized detection
method for V-BLAST signals is the ML detection which performs optimum vector decoding.
As the name suggests, the method uses the fundamental of comparison between the signals of
the receiving end and the transmitted symbols of the sender end.

B. Zero Forcing (ZF) V-BLAST Detection Algorithms In this algorithm initially the strongest
signal is detected and then its effect is eliminated from the rest of the symbols and then the
process continues until the last data is detected in each time slot. Here the most important
assumption which has to be considered is the perfectly known behavior of channel i.e. at the
receiver side; the channel matrix should be very well estimated.

[49]
figure4. 4MIMO-V BLAST detection algorithm flow chart

[50]
 A

SNR(V)

Y(i)=H*data(i)+N(i)

ZF detection MMSE ML detection

detection

Parallel
serial Parallel serial
Parallel
serial
Store
Store inB2(i) Store inB3(i)
inB1(i)
If i>=FL/2
No i=i+1
yes

B1=demodulate(B1)
B2=demodulate(B2) B3=demodulate(B3)

BER1(V)=biterr (A, B1) BER2(V)=biterr (A, B2)

BER3(V)=biterr (A, B3)

v>=SNR No, V=v+1

Yes, Plot BER1(V), BER2(V), BER3(V)

VS SNR

[51]
 Figure 4. 13: Cont. MIMO-V BLAST detection algorithm flow chart

C. Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) V-BLAST Detection Algorithm: The

limitation of ZF method can be very well eliminated by MMSE detection method that
eliminates the effect of noise and interference. This justifies that transmitted symbols
and their estimated versions are differing with small error. Hence, MMSE is better
than ZF in the presence of noise.

4.11.2. Space Time Block Coding (Alamouti) scheme

Space Time Coding (STC) takes advantage of the additional spatial diversity that MIMO
offers. Unlike BLAST system which transmitting independent data streams, in STC, the same
signal is transmitted in a predetermined manner instantaneously from different transmit
antennas to obtain transmit diversity, in order to combat the channel fading. Generally, Space
Time Coding (STC) leads to signal-reliability improvement, so that even when one or more
of the paths are in a deep fade, it is still possible to obtain an error-free signal. Using spatial
diversity, however, reduces the number of independent paths, which leads to a decreased
maximum possible rate at the transmitter. This technique is an efficient approach towards the
exploitation of multi path fading for achieving enormous diversity gain. The realization of
MIMO using the Alamouti coding scheme accounts for very high spectral efficiency by means
of improved error rate.

4.11.2.1. Alamouti STBC

A simple Space Time Code suggested by Mr. Siavash M. Alamouti in October 1998. He
offered a simple method for achieving spatial diversity with two transmit-antennas. The
scheme considers that the system has a transmission sequence, for example x = [x1, x2,
x3……, xM]. In normal transmission, x1 is sent in the first time slot, x2 in the second time
slot, x3 and so on. However, Alamouti suggested that the symbols will be divided into two
groups. In the first time slot, x1 and x2 are sent from the first and second antennas,
respectively. In second time slot - x2* and x1* are sent from the first and second antennas,
respectively as seen in Fig. below. In the third time slot x3 and x4 are sent from the first and

[52]
second antennas and so on. Notice that although we are grouping two symbols, we still need
two time slots to send two symbols. Hence, there is no change in the data rate. This forms a
simple explanation of the transmission scheme with Alamouti Space Time Block coding.

Figure 4. 14: particular MIMO 2x2 system with Alamouti coding and MRC&ML
decoding [29]
A. The Space-Time Coded MIMO Channel
The transmitted symbols over the MIMO channel are affected by severe magnitude
fluctuations and phase rotations. The transmission matrix for two transmit antenna
Alamouti is given by [16]

For two receive antennas, the received symbols are:

Where hij is the path gain between the jth transmit antenna and the ith receive
antenna. The term nij is the additive noise for the ith receive antenna at the jth time
slot, modeled as independent complex Gaussian random variables with zero-mean
and variance 1/(2SNR) per complex dimension, where SNR is the signal to noise
ratio of the channel. If the symbols y12 and y22 from equations (2) are complex
conjugated, then we
[53]
Have:

Which can be rewritten [19]:

y = H ef x+n (4-14)
This relation represents the transfer function between the input x of the STBC
encoder and the output y of the MIMO channel, where Hef is the matrix of the
equivalent channel formed by the ST encoder and the MIMO channel. Moreover,
Hef is an orthogonal matrix over all channel realizations. At the receiver we use
the Maximal Ratio Combining (MRC) technique, combining coefficients being
optimally chosen equal with the complex conjugated equivalent channel matrix
[19]:

The MRC technique can be generalized easily for an arbitrary number NR of

receive antennas, including also one antenna case. The combined symbols are [16]:

[54]
 figure4. 5MIMO- Alamouti algorithm flow chart

4.12. MIMO Capacity technique

4.12.1. Shannon Capacity
A MIMO channel is a wireless link between MT transmits and NR receives antennas. It
consists of MT NR elements that represent the MIMO channel coefficients. The multiple
transmits and receive antennas could belong to a single user modem or it could be distributed
among different users [19]. Statistical MIMO channel models offer flexibility in selecting the
channel parameters, temporal and spatial correlations. MIMO channel simulation tools are

[55]
implemented based on these models. Several statistical MIMO channel models were
proposed. Both models VBLAST and Alamouti introduced spatial correlation by multiplying
a matrix of uncorrelated random variables by a square root of a covariance matrix and both
are based on similar assumptions. However, they differ in their approach. In [13], the authors
validate the statistical model of [10] based on measurements in picocells and microcells. They
showed that the eigen value distribution of the model matches the measurements [13].

where PT is the power at the transmitter and k denotes the time index the vector r(k) is the
size N received signal vector n{r1(k), r2(k)…. rN(k)} T where rNR(k) denotes the received
signal at receiving antenna NR, s(k) is the modulation transmission vector of size M. The
matrix H is the M x N channel matrix where the element at row n and column m, hmn denotes
the channel response at receiver NR due to transmitter MT. The channel capacity of MIMO
system is given by [13]:

CMIMO=Blog2[1+M.N.SNR] (bps/Hz) (4-18)

Where signal to noise ratio is given by [13].

SNR=M x N x SNR (419)

As per the above equations and considering M no. of transmitting antennas and N no. of
receiving antennas, it can be said that the channel capacity of MIMO system is the highest
among all diversity techniques.

4.12.2. Capacity of VBLAST

The architecture of V-BLAST consists of MT especially multiplex data streams at the
transmitter, which are measured at NR receiver antennas. Each sub-stream is encoded into
symbols and fed to a separate transmitter. BLAST's receivers operate co-channel, each
receiving the signals emanating from all MT of the transmitting antennas. For successful
operation of the algorithms, it is usually required that NR > MT. The V-BLAST signal
processor operates using M detection cycles, one for each transmitter antenna. The ordering
algorithm selects the antenna with the strongest SNR, followed by the next strongest, until

[56]
every antenna signal has been detected. Reconstructed signals for the detected antennas
are then subtracted from the received signal to remove interference to the remaining
undetected antennas. During the detection process, except for the antenna signal to be
detected, the interference from antennas yet to be detected must be suppressed. The operation
is performed by linearly weighting the receives signal to satisfy the maximum likehood (ML)
criterion .ML receiver is a method that compares the received signals with all possible
transmitted signal vector which is modified by channel matrix H and estimates transmit
symbol vector x according to the Maximum Likelihood principle. The ML detector is defined
as [13].

4.12.3. Capacity of Alamouti

Space-time coding is coding technique designed for use with multiple transmits antennas.
Coding is performed in both spatial and temporal domains to introduce correlation between
signals transmitted from various antennas at various time periods. The spatial temporal
correlation is used to exploit the MIMO channel fading and minimize transmission errors at
the receivers. Space-time coding can be achieved transmit diversity and power gain over
spatially uncoded systems without sacrificing the bandwidth. A basic space time code is
Alamouti space time codes. This particular scheme is restricted to using MT = 2 antennas at
the transmitter but can any number of receive antennas NR. Two QAM symbols S1 and S2
for transmission by the Alamouti scheme are encoded in both the space and time domain at
the two transmitter antennas over the consecutive symbol periods as shown in equation (9).
The information bits are first modulated using a modulation scheme (for example QPSK).
The encoder then takes a block of two modulated symbols s1 and s2 in each encoding
operation and gives to the transmit antennas according to the code matrix [13].

In the above matrix the first column represents the first transmission periods and the second
column, the second transmission period. The first row corresponds to the symbols transmitted
from the first antenna and second row corresponds to the symbols transmitted from the second
[57]
antenna. It means that during the symbol period, the first antenna transmits s1 and second
antenna s2. During the second symbol period, the first antenna transmits –s2* and the second
antenna transmits s1* being the complex conjugate of s1. This implies that we are transmitting
both in space (across two antennas) and time (two transmission intervals). This is space time
coding. Hence [13].

S1= [s1 -s2*] and S2= [s2 s1*] (4-22)

Moreover, a close look reveals that sequences are orthogonal. The inner product is given by
[13]:

S2=s1s2*-s2*s1=0 (4-23)

In order to decode the signal, the received signal can be expressed as [13].

The matrix HA is defined by [13]

decoding the data is achieved be done by multiplying the received signal with the Hermitian
transpose of the channel matrix HA as [13]:

In order to calculate the capacity of the Alamouti scheme the vector is measured over two
consecutive symbol periods. For consistent results, the effective bandwidth of the system must
be divided by two in compensation. So, the following result is obtained [13].

[58]
4.13. Results and Discussion
In this section, the results obtained from the MATLAB simulations are discussed. It is
necessary to explore what happens to the signal as it travels from the transmitter to the receiver
through a MIMO with V BLAST and Alamouti schemes communication system that uses
algorithms to optimize communication channel. The simulation parameters used in this
project are

Rayleigh fading channel to simulate multi-path propagation environment over transmission

symbols or radio signals applicable when there is no Line-Of-Sight.

 AWGN channel is a theoretical channel used for analysis purpose only.

 BER is a key parameter that is used in assessing systems that transmit digital data
from one location to another.
 SNR that measured at the output of the target-receiver is more important and useful in
dimensioning and evaluating the overall fidelity of the networks.
 Channel capacity is the maximum information rate that can be transmitted and
received with arbitrarily low probability of error at the receiver.
 MIMO antenna configuration describes the use of multiple transmitter and receiver
antenna for a single user produce high spectra efficiency and link reliability for
wireless communication.

[59]
4.13.1. MIMO System
As shown in the Figure 4.16 the capacity versus SNR for SISO, MIMO systems. MIMO
system increases the capacity lineally with the number of transmit antennas since it allows
transmission of parallel data stream. Hence it is concluded that the capacity growth achieved
by MIMO system is the highest compared to other systems yielding remarkable improvement
(especially for High SNR). The effect of increasing the number of used antennas on the
utilized channel capacity that will increase above the defined Shannon capacity.

figure4. 6Capacity Simulation for MIMO System

4.13.2. V-BLAST BER Comparison with different Detection scheme

As simulation graph figure 4.17 shows two nonlinear interference cancellation methods –
Zero Forcing (ZF) and Minimum-Mean-Square-Error (MMSE) - with symbol cancellation
and compares their performance with the Maximum-Likelihood (ML) optimum receiver.

[60]
 Figure 4. 17: BER Performance of different V-blast Detection scheme over 2X2
MIMO.

As shown in the figure 4.17 we observe that the ML receiver is the best in performance
followed by the MMSE and ZF receivers, as also seen in. In terms of receiver complexity,
ML grows exponentially with the number of transmit antennas while the ZF and MMSE are
linear receivers combined with successive interference cancellation. At a BER of 10-4, the
SNRs of ML, MMSE and ZF are 17 dB, 31 dB and 35 dB respectively. We have seen that a
huge improvement in using ML detection over MMSE and ZF detections by 14 dB the
performance of MMSE detection is better than ZF detection by 3- 4 dB from the above results,
it has been observed that the ML detection has better BER performance than the MMSE and
ZF detections by 14dB. In Addition, the performance of MMSE detection is better than ZF
detection by 4- 5 dB

[61]
4.13.3. Alamouti BER
This section highlights comparison of transmit vs. receive diversity by simulating coherent
binary phase-shift keying (BPSK) modulation over flat-fading Rayleigh channels. For
transmit diversity, we use two transmit antennas and one receive antenna (2x1), while for
receive diversity we employ one transmit antenna and two receive antennas (1x2). The
simulation covers an end-to-end system showing the encoded and/or transmitted signal,
channel model, and reception and demodulation of the received signal. It also provides the no
diversity link (single transmit- receive antenna case) and theoretical performance of second-
order diversity link for comparison. We run the simulation over a range of Eb/No points to
generate BER results that allow us to compare the different systems.

Results

As we have seen figure 4.18 from graph 2x2 Alamouti STBC has the smallest BER values
for all of SNR_dB values. This result is expected because 2x2 Alamouti system has one more
receiver when compared with 2x1Alamouti system and thanks to this one more receiver it
increases its diversity. Matlab simulation shown below figure 4.18 SISO system has the
highest BER values for all of SNR_dB values because of number diversity.

Figure 4. 18: Comparative simulation results of applied Alamouti in BPSK

modulation.

[62]
The transmit diversity system has a computation complexity very similar to that of the receive
diversity system. The resulting simulation results show that using two trans receive antenna
provides the same diversity order as the maximal-ratio combined (MRC) system of one
transmit antenna and two receive antennas. Also observe that transmit diversity has a 3-dB
disadvantage when compared to MRC receive diversity. This is because we modeled the total
transmitted power to be the same in both cases.In V-Blast System from the fig 4.18 we can
observe that for Rayleigh flat fading channels the BER is near about 10-3. This system is good
for high speed wireless communication because the data is transmitted independently through
different channel therefore time required is less to transmit the data the only disadvantage of
this system is BER because at receiver side the data is weak due to fading effect. Therefore,
the choice of this system is depending on user. In Alamouti STBC based system as shown in
fig 4.18. the BER is 10-2 for Rayleigh flat fading channel we can conclude that BER is
improve because in this system we have send multiple copies of data through different antenna
at receiver side decoding we will get our data with less error. But in this system at same time
we are sending same copies of data therefore the data transfer rate of this system is not so
good.

4.13.4. Capacity Comparison

Figure 4. 19: Capacity comparison between VBLAST and Alamouti as shown in

figure 4.19
we have observed that the (2, 2) VBLAST scheme provides a distinct performance advantage
over the (2, 2) STBC (Alamouti) schemes at high SNRs. We can summarize from the above

[63]
result and discussion in VBLAST there is high spectral efficiency and low BER than
Alamouti.

Table 4. 6: performance summarization for Alamouti and VBLAST

[64]
 CHAPTER FIVE
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
5. 1. Conclusion
We conclude that when we do our project the simulation results confirm that with STBC or
V-BLAST and multiple transmit antennas a significant performance gain can be achieved at
almost no processing expense. At low SNR the V-BLAST algorithm with ML performs better
that the space-time code, but at a SNR above 10dB it is noticed that with the Alamouti scheme
the BER is the smallest. Another advantage of the Alamouti scheme compared to the V-
BLAST implementation with a ML detection is the reduce receiver complexity. From the
simulations performed, it can be concluded that a simple way to improve the quality of the
transmission is to increase the number of receive antennas. For small devices, where the
number of antennas is limited, a solution is to increase the number of transmit chains with
very little decoding complexity. When the SNR is high diversity is important and over
compensates the larger sensitivity of high-order modulation schemes.

 The simulation results confirm that with STBC or V-BLAST and multiple transmit
antennas a significant performance gain can be achieved.
 By considering BER as parameter that STBC system is good for error less
transmission but if we require high speed transmission we will consider V-BLAST
for that.
 For high data rate V-blast is preferred technique while for bit error rate STBC is
preferred for the wireless communications.
 From the simulations performed, it can be concluded that a simple way to improve the
quality of the transmission is to increase the number of receive antennas.
 Zero forcing has lowest complexity and induces low performance improvement due
to suppression of ISI.
 ML has very high complexity and is difficult to implement but yet it has very high
performance.
 STBC technique performs efficiently to obtain maximum diversity gain with reduced
complexity related to decoding. It involves linear processing in all the receivers or
receiving antennas.

[65]
5.2. Recommendation and Future Work
In BLAST systems, spatial multiplexing is used where independent signals are transmitted
simultaneously via different antennas. This gives good results in increasing the capacity of
the channel. This well-known system is designed to maximize the spectral efficiency.
However, in some environments, the independent links of BLAST system may suffer from a
considerable fading which causes decreasing in the total data rate. Space-time block codes
can mitigate that problem but with occupation of at least two links to transmit one symbol in
at least two time slots which decreases the number of transmitting layers and transmitted
symbols. The result is a decrease in channel capacity. MIMO systems are the key techniques
for the next generation communication systems. BLAST system achieves high data rates with
acceptable BER performance over a good channels state while STBC system can achieve
better BER performance even for a bad-state channel but with lower data rate than BLAST.
Combining spatial multiplexing VBLAST and STBC Alamouti diversity can provide both
increased capacity and transmit diversity in one system. Therefore, we recommend AMMA
that uses Hybrid BLAST-STBC system is the effective solution to achieve a good tradeoff
between STBC and BLAST systems since it improves the BER performance and keep them
robust over a bad MIMO channel state compared with the conventional BLAST system.

[66]
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APPENDIX
1.This code shows the capacity of MIMO system:
clear all
clc
snr=0;
for i = 1:10 snr = snr +2;
c=(log(1+10^(snr/10)))/log (2);
x(i)=snr;
y(i)=c;
end
figure plot (x, y,'bp-','LineWidth',1.5)
hold on
NR=2;
rand('state',456321) snr=0;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
for=1:10000;
c(j)=(NR*log(1+(10^(snr/10)) *abs (Normand (0,1)))/log (2));
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot (xx, yy,'kd-','LineWidth',1.5)
NR=3;
rand('state',456321)
snr=0;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
forj=1:10000;
c(j)=(NR*log(1+(10^(snr/10)) *abs(normrnd(0,1)))/log (2));
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot (xx, yy,'mo-','LineWidth',1.5)
[70]
NR=4; rand('state',456321)
snr=0;
fori=1:10;
snr=snr+2;
forj=1:10000;
c(j)=(NR*log(1+(10^(snr/10)) *abs(normrnd(0,1)))/log (2));
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot (xx, yy,'cd-','LineWidth',1.5)
xlabel('SNR (dB)')
ylabel('Capacity (bit/s/Hz)')
grid on
legend ('Shannon Capacity','MIMO, NT=NR=2','MIMO,
NT=NR=3','MIMO, NT=NR=4',2) title ('MIMO Capacity')
2. V-BLAST BER Comparison with different Detection scheme
clear
N = 10^6;
snr = [0:45];
MT = 2;
MR = 2;
for i = 1: length(snr)
p = rand (1, N)>0.5;
s = 2*p-1;
sMod = kron(s,ones(MR,1));
sMod = reshape(sMod,[MR,MT,N/MT]);
h = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(MR,MT,N/MT) + 1i*randn(MR,MT,N/MT)];
n = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(MR,N/MT) + 1i*randn(MR,N/MT)];
y = squeeze(sum(h.*sMod,2)) + 10^(-snr(i)/20) *n;
hCof = zeros (2,2, N/MT) ;
hCof(1,1,:) = sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1) + 10^(-snr(i)/10);
hCof(2,2,:) =sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1) + 10^(-snr(i)/10);
hCof(2,1,:) = -sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1);
hCof(1,2,:) = -sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1);
[71]
hDen = ((hCof(1,1,:).*hCof(2,2,:)) - (hCof(1,2,:).*hCof(2,1,:)));
hDen = reshape (kron(reshape(hDen,1, N/MT),ones(2,2)),2,2,N/MT);
hInv = hCof./hDen;
hMod = reshape(conj(h), MR, N);
yMod = kron(y,ones(1,2));
yMod = sum (hMod. *yMod,1);
yMod = kron(reshape(yMod,2, N/MT),ones(1,2));
yHat = sum (reshape (hInv,2, N). *yMod,1);
pHat = real(yHat)>0;
nErr(i) = size (find ([p- pHat]),2);
end
ber1 = nErr/N;
for i = 1: length(snr) p = rand (1, N)>0.5;
s = 2*p-1;
sMod = kron(s,ones(MR,1));
sMod = reshape(sMod,[MR,MT,N/MT]);
h = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(MR,MT,N/MT) + 1i*randn(MR,MT,N/MT)];
n = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(MR,N/MT) + 1i*randn(MR,N/MT)];
y = squeeze(sum(h.*sMod,2)) + 10^(-snr(i)/20) *n;
hCof = zeros (2,2, N/MT);
hCof(1,1,:) = sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1);
hCof(2,2,:) = sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1);
hCof(2,1,:) = -sum(h(:,2,:).*conj(h(:,1,:)),1);
hCof(1,2,:) = -sum(h(:,1,:).*conj(h(:,2,:)),1);
hDen = ((hCof(1,1,:).*hCof(2,2,:)) - (hCof(1,2,:).*hCof(2,1,:)));
hDen = reshape (kron(reshape(hDen,1, N/MT),ones(2,2)),2,2,N/MT);
hInv = hCof./hDen;
hMod = reshape(conj(h), MR, N);
yMod = kron(y,ones(1,2));
yMod = sum (hMod. *yMod,1);
yMod = kron(reshape(yMod,2, N/MT),ones(1,2));
yHat = sum (reshape (hInv,2, N). *yMod,1);
pHat = real(yHat)>0;
nErr(i) = size (find ([p- pHat]),2);
end
[72]
ber2 = nErr/N;
for i = 1: length(snr) p = rand (1, N)>0.5;
s = 2*p-1;
sMod = kron(s,ones(MR,1));
sMod = reshape(sMod,[MR,MT,N/MT]);
h = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(MR,MT,N/MT) + 1i*randn(MR,MT,N/MT)];
n = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(MR,N/MT) + 1i*randn(MR,N/MT)];
y = squeeze(sum(h.*sMod,2)) + 10^(-snr(i)/20) *n;
sHat1 = [1 1];
sHat1 = repmat(sHat1,[1 ,N/2]);
sHat1Mod = kron(sHat1, ones(MR,1));
sHat1Mod = reshape (sHat1Mod, [MR, MT, N/MT]);
zHat1 = squeeze(sum(h.*sHat1Mod,2));
J11 = sum (abs (y - zHat1),1);
sHat2 = [1 -1];
sHat2 = repmat(sHat2,[1 ,N/2]);
sHat2Mod = kron(sHat2, ones(MR,1));
sHat2Mod = reshape (sHat2Mod, [MR, MT, N/MT]);
zHat2 = squeeze(sum(h.*sHat2Mod,2));
J10 = sum (abs (y - zHat2),1);
sHat3 = [-1 1];
sHat3 = repmat(sHat3,[1 ,N/2]);
sHat3Mod = kron(sHat3, ones(MR,1));
sHat3Mod = reshape (sHat3Mod, [MR, MT, N/MT]);
zHat3 = squeeze(sum(h.*sHat3Mod,2));
J01 = sum (abs (y - zHat3),1);
sHat4 = [-1 -1];
sHat4 = repmat(sHat4,[1 ,N/2]);
sHat4Mod = kron(sHat4, ones(MR,1));
sHat4Mod = reshape (sHat4Mod, [MR, MT, N/MT]);
zHat4 = squeeze(sum(h.*sHat4Mod,2));
J00 = sum (abs (y - zHat4),1);
rVec = [J11; J10; J01; J00];
[u, dd] = min (rVec, [],1);
ref = [1 1; 1 0; 0 1; 0 0];
[73]
pHat = zeros (1, N);
pHat(1:2:end) = ref(dd,1);
pHat(2:2:end) = ref(dd,2);
nErr(i) = size (find ([p- pHat]),2);
end
ber3 = nErr/N;
semilogy(snr, ber1,'r-',snr,ber2,'b-',snr,ber3,'g-');
% plots the ber for legend ('MMSE','ZF', 'ML');
xlabel('SNR (dB)');
ylabel('BER');
title ('BER Performance of Different V-BLAST Detection Schemes
over 2x2 MIMO Channels with Rayleigh Channel’);
axis ([0 45 10^-5 0.5])
grid on
3. BER for Alamouti Space Time Block Coding
N = 10^6;
Eb_N0_dB = [0:25];
nRx = 2;
for ii = 1: length (Eb_N0_dB)
ip = rand (1, N)>0.5;
s = 2*ip-1;
sCode = 1/sqrt (2) *kron(reshape(s,2, N/2),ones(1,2)) ;
h = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(nRx,N) + j*randn(nRx,N)];
n = 1/sqrt (2) *[randn(nRx,N) + j*randn(nRx,N)];
y = zeros(nRx,N);
yMod = zeros (nRx*2, N);
hMod = zeros (nRx*2, N);
for kk = 1: nRx hMod = kron(reshape(h(kk, :),2,N/2),ones(1,2));
hMod = kron(reshape(h(kk, :),2,N/2),ones(1,2));
temp = hMod;
hMod(1, [2:2:end]) = conj(temp(2,[2:2:end]));
hMod(2, [2:2:end]) = -conj(temp(1,[2:2:end]));
y(kk,:)=sum(hMod.*sCode,1)+10^(-Eb_N0_dB(ii)/20)*n(kk,:);
yMod([2*kk-1:2*kk],:)=kron(reshape(y(kk,:),2,N/2),ones(1,2));
hEq([2*kk-1:2*kk],:) = hMod;
[74]
hEq(2*kk-1, [1:2:end])=conj(hEq(2*kk-1,[1:2:end]));
hEq(2*kk, [2:2:end]) = conj(hEq(2*kk, [2:2:end]));
end hEqPower = sum (hEq. *conj(hEq),1);
yHat=sum (hEq. *yMod,1). /hEqPower;
yHat(2:2:end) = conj(yHat(2:2:end));
ipHat = real(yHat)>0;
nErr(ii) = size (find ([ip- ipHat]),2);
end
simBer = nErr/N;
EbN0Lin = 10. ^(Eb_N0_dB/10);
theoryBer_nRx1 = 0.5. *(1-1*(1+1. /EbN0Lin). ^ (-0.5));
p = 1/2 - 1/2*(1+1. /EbN0Lin). ^ (-1/2);
theoryBerMRC_nRx2 = p.^2. *(1+2*(1-p));
pAlamouti=1/2-1/2*(1+2./EbN0Lin).^(-1/2);
theoryBerAlamouti_nTx2_nRx1 = pAlamouti.^2.*(1+2*(1-
pAlamouti)); close all
figure
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBer_nRx1, 'bp-','LineWidth',2);
hold on
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerMRC_nRx2,'kd-','LineWidth',2);
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,theoryBerAlamouti_nTx2_nRx1,'c+','LineWidt
h',2);
semilogy(Eb_N0_dB,simBer, 'mo-','LineWidth',2);
axis ([0 25 10^-5 0.5])
grid on
legend ('theory (nTx=1, nRx=1)' ,'theory (nTx=1,nRx=2, MRC)' ,
'theory (nTx=2, nRx=1, Alamouti)', 'sim (nTx=2, nRx=2, Alamouti)'
); xlabel('Eb/No, dB'); ylabel('Bit Error Rate'); title('BER for BPSK
modulation with 2Tx, 2Rx Alamouti STBC (Rayleigh channel)');
4. Capacity Comparison VBLAST Vs Alamouti
clear all
clc
snr=0;
for i = 1:10
snr = snr +5;
[75]
c=(0.5*log(1+10^(snr/10)))/log (2);
x(i)=snr;
y(i)=c;
end
figure
plot (x, y,'bp-','LineWidth',1.5)
hold on NR=2;
rand('state',456321) snr=0;
for i=1:10;
snr=snr+5;
forj=1:10000;
c(j)=(NR*log(1+(10^(snr/30)) *abs(normrnd(0,1)))/log (2));
end
yy(i)=mean(c);
xx(i)=snr;
end
plot (xx, yy,'kd-','LineWidth',1.5) xlabel('SNR (dB)') ylabel('Capacity
(bit/s/Hz)')
grid on
legend ('Alamouti 2X2', 'VBLAST 2X2',2) title ('MIMO Capacity')

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