Professional Documents
Culture Documents
NITROGEN ASSIMILATION AND GLOBAL Regulation in e Coli
NITROGEN ASSIMILATION AND GLOBAL Regulation in e Coli
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTEXT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Nitrogen Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Ammonia Assimilation and Intracellular Nitrogen Donors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Quantitative Nitrogen Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
NITROGEN LIMITATION AND THE NTR RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Proteins Required for General Nitrogen-Limited Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Regulation of GS Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
The Ntr Regulatory Cascade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Differential Expression of Ntr Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Functions of the Ntr Response and Nac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
THE σ 54 REGULON: ITS FUNCTION AND RELATION TO THE
NTR RESPONSE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Properties of σ 54 -Dependent Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
The Functions of σ 54 -Dependent Genes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
METABOLIC INTEGRATION: NITROGEN ASSIMILATION AND
CARBON METABOLISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
0066-4227/03/1013-0155$14.00 155
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
156 REITZER
Lrp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Cyclic AMP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
EINtr -NPr-EIINtr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
GUANOSINE TETRAPHOSPHATE, AMINO ACID
SYNTHESIS, AND AMMONIA ASSIMILATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
CONCLUDING REMARKS: INTERACTIONS
BETWEEN GLOBAL REGULATORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
INTRODUCTION
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
A group of scientists, which included Lavoisier, gave the name azote (without
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
life) to the major inert component of air—a name that is still recognizable in many
nitrogen-containing compounds. The name nitrogen was derived from niter (potas-
sium nitrate), a not-so-inert component of gunpowder. Nitrogen is present in many
intracellular metabolites and can be assimilated from inorganic or organic sources.
Its assimilation from inorganic sources requires reduction to ammonia, followed
by incorporation into intracellular metabolites. The appropriate distribution of
nitrogen among various pathways usually involves specific or local regulatory
mechanisms, such as endproduct inhibition or endproduct-mediated transcriptional
control. However, a few global regulators control the expression of genes from sev-
eral pathways and thereby coordinate metabolism. This review focuses on nitrogen
assimilation in Escherichia coli, its regulation, and the role of global regulators
in this regulation. A major theme of this review is the integration of nitrogen
assimilation with other aspects of metabolism.
PHYSIOLOGICAL CONTEXT
Nitrogen Sources
Bacteria assimilate a variety of inorganic nitrogen sources, but Escherichia coli
assimilates only ammonia aerobically. The ability to assimilate particular organic
nitrogen sources also depends on the organism. Organic nitrogen sources are usu-
ally monomeric units of macromolecules (e.g., amino acids or nucleobases) or
compounds derived from them (e.g., agmatine or putrescine). E. coli can assimilate
nitrogen from adenine, adenosine, agmatine, L- and D-alanine, allantoin (anaero-
bically), γ -aminobutyrate, ammonia, arginine, asparagine, aspartate, cytidine, cy-
tosine, glucosamine, glutamine, glutamate, glycine, ornithine, proline, putrescine,
L- and D-serine, threonine, and a few other compounds (76). Ammonia supports
the fastest growth rate and is therefore considered the preferred nitrogen source
for E. coli.
mate formation. E. coli contains both the GDH- and the GS-dependent pathways,
and they are not physiologically equivalent. The ATP-consuming GS-GOGAT
pathway in E. coli is used in energy-rich environments, whereas the GDH pathway
is employed in energy-limited (presumably nitrogen-rich) environments (39, 40).
The GS-GOGAT pathway is more appropriate for ammonia assimilation in a
nitrogen-limited environment, since GS has a much lower Km for ammonia than
GDH. Ammonia assimilation by the GS-GOGAT pathway accounts for an aston-
ishing 15% of the cell’s ATP requirement, which is calculated from the fact that
synthesis of 1 g of E. coli requires 40 mmoles of carbon, about 11 mmoles of
nitrogen, and 72 mmoles of ATP (56). [GS is highly conserved (52), which is
consistent with the possibility that it assimilates ammonia in most microbial or-
ganisms. Nonetheless, it appears that alanine dehydrogenase assimilates ammonia
in Rhizobium leguminosarum bacteroids, which subsequently secrete alanine to
the pea plant (1).]
158 REITZER
Both amino acids provide carbon and nitrogen for other amino acids and nu-
cleotides. These properties distinguish aspartate and serine from other amino acids
and might provide a metabolic basis for the specificity of the major chemotactic
receptors. Third, the biosynthetic requirement for glycine (1000 µmoles) is al-
most equal to that for C1-derivatives in purine, thymine, and methionine synthesis
(1104 µmoles). This stoichiometry necessarily couples nucleotide and amino acid
synthesis and may obviate the need for more complex regulatory mechanisms. It is
conceivable that the amazingly complex regulation directed at the glycine cleavage
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
GLUTAMATE SYNTHASE The gltBD operon codes for the two subunits of GOGAT
(75). The proposals that the E. coli gltBD operon also contains gltF (23) and that
GltF regulates the Ntr response (23, 24) have not withstood close scrutiny (35, 36).
gltBD mutants are pleiotrophically defective in nitrogen source utilization and
are said to have an Asm− phenotype (76). E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae
mutants can still utilize a few nitrogen sources either because they can readily
generate glutamate (e.g., asparagine, aspartate, glutamate, glutamine) or because
they generate ammonia so rapidly that GDH can synthesize glutamate (e.g.,
D-serine) (93). Two different explanations can account for the Asm− phenotype
(35). The glutamine-excess hypothesis proposes that GS assimilates ammonia into
glutamine, which accumulates in the absence of GOGAT (the major glutamine-
metabolizing enzyme) and prevents Ntr gene expression. The products of Ntr genes
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
160 REITZER
would normally generate glutamate independent of both GOGAT and GDH (e.g.,
arginine catabolism). Alternatively, the glutamate-starvation hypothesis proposes
that glutamate starvation prevents Ntr induction (35). A mechanism by which this
occurs is not stated. A hybrid hypothesis is that glutamine accumulation prevents
Ntr gene expression until glutamate starvation stops metabolism and growth. In
any case, the arguments are complex and subject to several untested assumptions
(35). It is possible that the explanation for the Asm− phenotype involves still other
factors, such as an indirect effect of glutamate starvation.
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
enzymes can also have pleiotropic effects in nitrogen source utilization. Enteric
bacteria have ammonia- and glutamine-dependent asparagine synthetases, AsnA
and AsnB, respectively. A K. aerogenes asnB mutant fails to grow in ammonia-
restricted nitrogen-limited environments because AsnA is insufficient for aspara-
gine synthesis (77). NAD synthetases in E. coli and other bacteria are often, but
not always, ammonia dependent (19, 82). A nadE (formerly nit) mutant with
diminished NAD synthetase fails to grow in ammonia-restricted environments
(15, 82). Glutamine-dependent amidotransferases with defective glutamine bind-
ing or amide transferase can inefficiently use ammonia as an alternative substrate
(61). Mutants with such defective amidotransferases fail to grow with organic ni-
trogen sources (L. Reitzer, unpublished observation). In summary, mutants with
altered enzymes that require a high concentration of ammonia are generally de-
fective in utilization of organic nitrogen sources.
Regulation of GS Activity
GS synthesizes glutamine and assimilates ammonia, and the ratio of these functions
depends on the environment. If GDH assimilates ammonia, then glutamine’s amide
provides 25% of cellular nitrogen and the function of GS is primarily anabolic. If
the GS-GOGAT pathway assimilates ammonia, then glutamine’s amide provides
almost 100% of cellular nitrogen and the assimilatory function is quantitatively
three times more important.
FUNCTIONAL REDUNDANCY: PII AND GLNK PII and GlnK have 67% amino acid
identity and similar biochemical activities (5–7, 94). The phenotypes of glnB and
glnK mutants, which lack PII and GlnK, respectively, differ only slightly from a
wild-type strain (6). In contrast, a glnB glnK double mutant has serious metabolic
problems, which result from overexpression of Ntr genes (6, 12). Furthermore,
placing glnK under the glnB promoter and vice versa do not result in appreciable
phenotypic differences (5). On the other hand, several observations suggest differ-
ent functions for PII and GlnK. First, the properties of the two purified regulators
with respect to Ntr control are not identical. Second, they are not synthesized at
the same time. Third, during nitrogen-limited growth GlnK is more abundant than
PII. Fourth, GlnK and PII form heterotrimers whose properties can differ from the
homotrimers (33, 96). Finally, GlnK can have activities that PII does not have (26).
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
162 REITZER
iological concentrations binds to unmodified PII and interferes with its interaction
with ATase and NRII. Therefore, α-ketoglutarate is a signal of carbon sufficiency
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
and relative nitrogen limitation, but only to the extent that PII is not uridylylated
(i.e., in cells with high glutamine).
During the transition to nitrogen-limited growth PII is in excess over GlnK
and is rapidly uridylylated. PII-UMP stimulates deadenylylation of GS and fails to
interact with NRII, which results in phosphorylation of NRI (3, 69). The initial level
of NRI ∼ P is sufficient for activation of glnA, but not for other Ntr operons (4, 80).
In the absence of NRII-stimulated dephosphorylation acetyl phosphate probably
contributes to NRI phosphorylation (31).
During steady-state nitrogen-limited growth the concentrations of two impor-
tant regulators, GlnK and NRI, are higher. It can be deduced that GlnK becomes
more abundant than PII on the basis of immunological assays and the predom-
inance of GlnK homotrimers and (GlnK)2(PII)1 heterotrimers over (GlnK)1(PII)2
heterotrimers and PII homotrimers (26, 96). Both PII and GlnK are readily uridy-
lylated in vivo and in vitro, and the heterotrimers are presumably rapidly uridy-
lylated (7, 33, 94, 96). Purified GlnK-UMP slowly deadenylylates GS compared
with purified PII-UMP (96). Deadenylylation in a strain with only GlnK-UMP
might be a little slower than deadenylylation in a strain with both GlnK-UMP
and PII-UMP, although this cannot be stated with certainty because cells with
different levels of GS (because of their prior growth) were compared (94). The
rate of deadenylylation suggests that the PII subunits in purified uridylylated
heterotrimers are active (96). Because GlnK can substitute for PII and medi-
ate Ntr induction (6), it can be deduced that GlnK-UMP, like PII-UMP, fails to
interact with NRII, which results in net phosphorylation of NRI. Acetyl phos-
phate is not required for optimal glnA expression but is required for arginine
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
Figure 1 The Ntr regulatory cascade: regulators and effectors. Regulation is con-
sidered for (a) steady-state growth in ammonia-containing minimal medium, (b) the
transition from nitrogen-rich to nitrogen-limited growth, (c) steady-state nitrogen-
limited growth, and (d) the transition from nitrogen-limited to nitrogen-rich growth.
Abbreviations: ATase-A, adenylylating ATase; ATase-D, deadenylylating ATase; and
αKG, α-ketoglutarate.
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
27 Jul 2003
12:20
AR
AR195-MI57-07.tex
AR195-MI57-07.sgm
LaTeX2e(2002/01/18)
163
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
164 REITZER
utilization (and therefore for the ast operon) and presumably for other Ntr genes
(31, 81).
During the transition from a nitrogen-limited to a nitrogen-replete environment
transcription of glnA, an Ntr gene, is rapidly abolished (78), and GS is rapidly
adenylylated (94). GlnK is in excess over PII. Purified GlnK-UMP is deuridyly-
lated 10 times slower than PII-UMP (7). However, because purified GlnK effec-
tively stimulates NRII-mediated dephosphorylation of NRI (7), the accumulation of
deuridylylated GlnK must be sufficient to prevent glnA expression (94). However,
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
lylation (7, 33) because glutamine stimulates the adenylylating activity of ATase
and nitrogen-limited cells without either GlnK or PII can rapidly adenylylate GS
(6). In addition to these properties GlnK associates with AmtB, an ammonia trans-
porter/facilitator, and inhibits its activity (26). PII also associates with AmtB but
does not inhibit its activity (26). Therefore, ammonia transport should be impaired
during the transition to an ammonia-containing, nitrogen-rich environment. These
properties have interesting implications. If AmtB and GlnK are made stoichio-
metrically, then AmtB is in excess over PII. AmtB has the potential to sequester
PII and GlnK or to allosterically affect their activities. If so, AmtB might regulate
nitrogenase synthesis in K. pneumoniae, in which GlnK controls the activity of
NifL (37, 45).
In summary, glutamine ultimately controls the activities and interactions of the
individual regulators of the Ntr regulatory cascade. Considering the importance of
glutamine, it is probably not surprising that synthesis of the two glutamine-sensing
regulators, UTase/UR and ATase, is constitutive. In contrast, nitrogen limitation
controls the synthesis of the other regulators. Glutamine also determines whether
other signals are sensed. In a high-glutamine environment α-ketoglutarate modi-
fies the activities of unuridylylated PII and GlnK, and the products of glutamine
metabolism inhibit GS. In a low-glutamine environment acetyl phosphate con-
tributes to Ntr gene expression. Until recently, it was thought that a single protein,
UTase/UR, sensed the ratio of glutamine to α-ketoglutarate. Such regulation per-
mits the possibility of a high ratio (apparent nitrogen excess) with insufficient
glutamine for numerous glutamine-dependent enzymes (functional nitrogen de-
ficiency). Sensing the absolute concentration of glutamine avoids this problem.
Instead, the ratio of glutamine to α-ketoglutarate is important only when glu-
tamine is high and there is sufficient glutamine to drive the glutamine-dependent
reactions.
higher NRI concentration is required for nac, glnK, the astCADBE operon, and
probably other Ntr operons (4).
high NRI partially inhibits the activation (86). The binding of NRI to low-affinity
sites apparently mediates this modulation (8). NRI activates nac expression, and
then Nac impairs this activation (32). Finally, a glnK mutant overexpresses several
Ntr genes during nitrogen starvation, which apparently reduces viability (13). This
suggests that one function of GlnK is to prevent such overexpression.
SCAVENGING Zimmer et al. proposed that numerous Ntr transport systems scav-
enge nitrogen-containing compounds (100). Nitrogen limitation induces transport
systems for several amino acids (D-alanine, arginine, aspartate, glutamate, glu-
tamine, glycine, histidine, lysine, ornithine, and D-serine), peptides (D-alanyl-
D-alanine, dipeptides, and oligopeptides), polyamines and related compounds
(putrescine, spermidine, and γ -aminobutyrate), cytosine, and nucleosides. Scav-
enging obviously spares the need to assimilate ammonia.
166 REITZER
not explain why so few catabolic enzymes are under Ntr control and why nine
of them degrade compounds that are associated with polyamine metabolism. The
products of astCADBE, gabDTPC, and patA (ygjG) degrade arginine/ornithine,
γ -aminobutyrate, putrescine, respectively [(81, 83); B. Schneider, C. Pybus &
L. Reitzer, unpublished observations). YdcW degrades γ -aminobutyraldehyde, a
product of putrescine catabolism (B. Schneider & L. Reitzer, unpublished obser-
vation). In addition to these catabolic enzymes, nitrogen limitation induces two
putrescine or polyamine transport systems, potFGHI and ydcSTUVW (100). At
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
least 19 Ntr genes transport putrescine, degrade putrescine, or degrade the pre-
cursors of putrescine synthesis. Polyamine levels are correlated to the growth
rate (89, 92). These Ntr genes may integrate slower nitrogen-limited growth with
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
polyamine content.
Metabolic integration could account for why nitrogen limitation represses both
enzymes of glutamate synthesis, the first enzyme of serine synthesis, and AsnC
(the activator of asnA) (12, 35, 64, 71). Nitrogen limitation also induces a peptidase
that degrades D-alanyl-D-alanine, a precursor for peptidoglycan (100), which may
modulate peptidoglycan synthesis. In summary, Ntr genes might integrate slower
growth with several major metabolic pathways. Such a function may account for
the lethality of Ntr gene overexpression (13).
NAC Nac is an Ntr protein that represses the enzymes of glutamate and serine
synthesis and AsnC (12, 35, 64, 71). Nac activates codBA (cytosine metabolism),
ydcSTUVW (putative putrescine transport and catabolism), nupC (nucleoside trans-
port), gabDTPC (γ -aminobutyrate transport and degradation), dppABCDF (dipep-
tide transport), and fklB-cycA (100). The products of these genes might modulate
the levels of important metabolic intermediates and, by this mechanism, integrate
nitrogen assimilation with other aspects of metabolism. If so, then such integration
is dispensable (or at least redundant) because an E. coli nac mutant does not have
a dramatic phenotype and Salmonella lacks the gene (64).
(PspA and GS, products of σ 54-dependent operons, can be a few percent of E. coli
proteins). Perhaps this dynamic range is important for proteins or pathways that
must at times consume large amounts of energy or metabolic intermediates.
of nitrogen metabolism (74). FhlA activates five of these operons, which code for
proteins associated with formate hydrogen lyase. The other σ 54-dependent operons
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
specify proteins for the phage shock response, zinc tolerance, two products of fatty
acid catabolism, propionate and acetoacetate, and an RNA-modifying enzyme of
unknown function. The products of these genes are associated with a variety of
environmental stresses. FhlA regulon genes are thought to contribute to pH home-
ostasis during fermentation, which potentially facilitates growth or survival in an
acidic, energy-limited, anaerobic environment (14). The phage shock proteins are
required for survival in an alkaline environment and, more generally, may maintain
the proton motive force during stress (51, 97). Zinc tolerance alleviates the stress
of high zinc. Propionate and acetoacetate are also associated with stress. FadR
participates in the universal stress response by mediating fatty acid degradation,
which would generate propionate and acetoacetate for energy (27, 30). Perhaps
the products of these genes alleviate problems associated with certain stresses
that make nitrogen assimilation difficult (74). Alternatively, expression of these
genes might somehow modulate expression of the σ 54-dependent genes of nitrogen
metabolism. A conceivable modulation mechanism is competition for σ 54, which
is not an abundant protein (48). It is also possible that these genes have no obliga-
tory association with nitrogen assimilation and that strains with certain genes with
the unique properties of σ 54-dependent promoters have a selective advantage.
Lrp
The leucine-responsive regulatory protein (Lrp) is a moderately abundant DNA-
binding protein (98), but it is not a major nucleoid-binding protein (9, 10). Lrp
has several modes of action: It can either activate or repress gene expression;
leucine can reverse, enhance, or have no effect on this regulation (68). Guano-
sine tetraphosphate (ppGpp) controls Lrp synthesis (55), which accounts for its
synthesis in amino acid–poor minimal media (25) and during the transition into
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
168 REITZER
stationary phase (41, 90). Lrp affects the expression of about 10% of the genes
in E. coli (43, 90). Several reviews and a recent microarray analysis consider the
broader functions of Lrp (18, 67, 68, 90).
Lrp has been implicated in several aspects of the Ntr response. Lrp activates
gltBD, which means that Lrp is required for the Ntr response (29). Lrp also controls
the metabolism of alanine, serine, and glycine, which are feedback inhibitors of GS.
Furthermore, Nac, an Ntr protein, represses two Lrp-activated operons, serA and
gltBD (12, 35). Finally, evidence pieced together from different sources suggests
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
that Lrp and Ntr regulators might independently activate ompF, oppABCDF, ydc-
STUVW, and yeaGH (68, 90, 100). In summary, Lrp controls Ntr gene expression,
and regulators of the Ntr response modulate the expression of some Lrp-regulated
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
genes.
The effects of Lrp without leucine (Figure 2, top panel) and with leucine
(Figure 2, bottom panel) must be considered separately in order to understand
Lrp’s function in ammonia assimilation. Lrp without leucine activates synthesis of
GOGAT and pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase, which together provide two
of the three substrates for ammonia assimilation. Lrp without leucine represses
two serine deaminases and alanine dehydrogenase. The net effect would appear to
favor ammonia assimilation (and amino acid synthesis) over ammonia generation
(amino acid degradation). The addition of leucine moderately reduces GOGAT
and pyridine nucleotide transhydrogenase, but increases the amino acid degrada-
tive enzymes. To the extent that nitrogen is transferred to serine and alanine via
reversible transaminations, leucine will stimulate net amino acid catabolism. Lrp
appears to be one factor that coordinates ammonia assimilation and amino acid
catabolism in an amino acid–poor environment. This hypothesis is supported by the
observation that an lrp mutant has enhanced amino acid degradation (101). It has
been proposed that Lrp mediates the transitions between feast and famine. For the
former, amino acid catabolic functions are appropriate; while for the latter, amino
acid biosynthetic functions (including ammonia assimilation) are more appropri-
ate (18, 66). If Lrp coordinates ammonia assimilation with amino acid catabolism,
then leucine is an indicator of amino acid sufficiency. Alanine may also contribute
to this regulation because alanine also binds Lrp [(59) and references cited therein].
Cyclic AMP
Cyclic AMP bound to its receptor protein interferes with expression from the
glnAp2 promoter of the glnA operon and from other Ntr promoters (91). It is
possible that the primary effect of high cyclic AMP is at the glnALG operon and
that lowering its expression prevents synthesis of sufficient NRI to activate other
Ntr genes.
EINtr-NPr-EIINtr
EINtr (PtsP), NPr (PtsO), and EIIANtr (PtsN) are paralogs of sugar phospho-
transferase transport proteins in E. coli and other organisms, which might also
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
Figure 2 Lrp and nitrogen assimilation. The information is from Newman et al. (68).
The filled arrows and numbers indicate activation, whereas the open arrows and numbers
indicate repression. The top panel compares the effects on the indicated pathways or en-
zymes between strains with and without Lrp, both without added leucine. The bottom panel
compares the effects of a wild-type strain with and without leucine. SerineEXT is external
serine.
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
170 REITZER
and EIINtr, but not NPr, have a regulatory function. An E. coli ptsN mutant (EIINtr
deficient) grew less well with organic nitrogen sources in carbon-limited media,
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
which suggests positive regulation (72). The mutant grew normally with glucose
as the carbon source and expressed at least one Ntr gene normally (72). In contrast,
a K. pneumoniae ptsN mutant had increased Ntr gene expression, which suggests
negative regulation (63). An E. coli ptsP (EINtr deficient) has not been isolated;
but loss of EINtr in other organisms prevents the expression of important genes
(49, 85). ptsO and ptsN are members of the putative rpoN-yhbH-ptsN-yhbJ-ptsO
operon, whereas ptsP is unlinked (72, 73). yhbH, yhbJ, and ptsO in E. coli, and
their homologs in P. putida, do not appear to contribute to regulation (21, 72). A
model for how the EINtr-NPr-EIINtr system might affect gene expression is not
obvious from these results, and none has been presented.
important effector of the Ntr response. Finally, the regulators of the Ntr response
control ammonia assimilation. Numerous environmental factors modify the ac-
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported in part by grant MCB-0077904 from the National Science
Foundation.
LITERATURE CITED
1. Allaway D, Lodwig EM, Crompton LA, verse phototransducing proteins. Trends
Wood M, Parsons R, et al. 2000. Identi- Biochem. Sci. 22:458–59
fication of alanine dehydrogenase and its 3. Arcondeguy T, Jack R, Merrick M. 2001.
role in mixed secretion of ammonium and PII signal transduction proteins, pivotal
alanine by pea bacteroids. Mol. Microbiol. players in microbial nitrogen control. Mi-
36:508–15 crobiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65:80–105
2. Aravind L, Ponting CP. 1997. The GAF 4. Atkinson MR, Blauwkamp TA, Bon-
domain: an evolutionary link between di- darenko V, Studitsky V, Ninfa AJ. 2002.
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
172 REITZER
Activation of the glnA, glnK, and nac pro- phimurium with a pleiotropic defect in ni-
moters as Escherichia coli undergoes the trogen metabolism. J. Bacteriol. 128:86–
transition from nitrogen excess growth 98
to nitrogen starvation. J. Bacteriol. 184: 16. Buck M, Gallegos MT, Studholme DJ,
5358–63 Guo Y, Gralla JD. 2000. The bacterial
5. Atkinson MR, Blauwkamp TA, Ninfa AJ. enhancer-dependent σ 54 (σ N) transcrip-
2002. Context-dependent functions of the tion factor. J. Bacteriol. 182:4129–36
PII and GlnK signal transduction pro- 17. Bueno R, Pahel G, Magasanik B. 1985.
teins in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. Role of glnB and glnD gene products in
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
the GlnK signal transduction protein in the 18. Calvo JM, Matthews RG. 1994. The
regulation of nitrogen assimilation in Es- leucine-responsive regulatory protein, a
cherichia coli. Mol. Microbiol. 29:431–47 global regulator of metabolism in Es-
7. Atkinson MR, Ninfa AJ. 1999. Character- cherichia coli. Microbiol. Rev. 58:466–90
ization of the GlnK protein of Escherichia 19. Cantoni R, Branzoni M, Labo M, Rizzi M,
coli. Mol. Microbiol. 32:301–13 Riccardi G. 1998. The MTCY428.08 gene
8. Atkinson MR, Pattaramanon N, Ninfa of Mycobacterium tuberculosis codes for
AJ. 2002. Governor of the glnAp2 pro- NAD+ synthetase. J. Bacteriol. 180:
moter of Escherichia coli. Mol. Microbiol. 3218–21
46:1247–57 20. Carmona M, Claverie-Martin F, Maga-
9. Azam TA, Ishihama A. 1999. Twelve sanik B. 1997. DNA bending and the ini-
species of the nucleoid-associated protein tiation of transcription at σ 54-dependent
from Escherichia coli. Sequence recogni- bacterial promoters. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.
tion specificity and DNA binding affinity. USA 94:9568–72
J. Biol. Chem. 274:33105–13 21. Cases I, Perez-Martin J, de Lorenzo V.
10. Azam TA, Iwata A, Nishimura A, Ueda 1999. The IIANtr (PtsN) protein of Pseu-
S, Ishihama A. 1999. Growth phase- domonas putida mediates the C source
dependent variation in protein composi- inhibition of the σ 54-dependent Pu pro-
tion of the Escherichia coli nucleoid. J. moter of the TOL plasmid. J. Biol. Chem.
Bacteriol. 181:6361–70 274:15562–68
11. Bender RA. 1991. The role of the NAC 22. Cashel M, Gentry DR, Hernandez VJ,
protein in the nitrogen regulation of Kleb- Vinella D. 1996. The stringent response.
siella aerogenes. Mol. Microbiol. 5:2575– See Ref. 64a, pp. 1458–96
80 23. Castano I, Bastarrachea F, Covarrubias
12. Blauwkamp TA, Ninfa AJ. 2002. Nac- AA. 1988. gltBDF operon of Escherichia
mediated repression of the serA promoter coli. J. Bacteriol. 170:821–27
of Escherichia coli. Mol. Microbiol. 45: 24. Castano I, Flores N, Valle F, Covarrubias
351–63 AA, Bolivar F. 1992. gltF, a member of the
13. Blauwkamp TA, Ninfa AJ. 2002. Phys- gltBDF operon of Escherichia coli, is in-
iological role of the GlnK signal trans- volved in nitrogen-regulated gene expres-
duction protein of Escherichia coli: sion. Mol. Microbiol. 6:2733–41
survival of nitrogen starvation. Mol. 25. Chen CF, Lan J, Korovine M, Shao ZQ,
Microbiol. 46:203–14 Tao L, et al. 1997. Metabolic regulation
14. Bock A, Sawers G. 1996. Fermentation. of lrp gene expression in Escherichia coli
See Ref. 64a, pp. 262–82 K-12. Microbiology 143:2079–84
15. Broach J, Neumann C, Kustu S. 1976. 26. Coutts G, Thomas G, Blakey D, Merrick
Mutant strains (nit) of Salmonella ty- M. 2002. Membrane sequestration of the
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
signal transduction protein GlnK by the 36. Grassl G, Bufe B, Muller B, Rosel M,
ammonium transporter AmtB. EMBO J. Kleiner D. 1999. Characterization of the
21:536–45 gltF gene product of Escherichia coli.
27. DiRusso CC, Nystrom T. 1998. The fats FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 179:79–84
of Escherichia coli during infancy and old 37. He L, Soupene E, Ninfa A, Kustu S. 1998.
age: regulation by global regulators, alar- Physiological role for the GlnK protein
mones and lipid intermediates. Mol. Mi- of enteric bacteria: relief of NifL inhibi-
crobiol. 27:1–8 tion under nitrogen-limiting conditions. J.
28. Eisenberg D, Gill HS, Pfluegl GM, Bacteriol. 180:6661–67
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
Rotstein SH. 2000. Structure-function 38. Heil G, Stauffer LT, Stauffer GV. 2002.
relationships of glutamine synthetases. Glycine binds the transcriptional acces-
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
174 REITZER
46. Jiang P, Peliska JA, Ninfa AJ. 1998. Enzy- thetase: physiological significance. Curr.
mological characterization of the signal- Top. Cell. Regul. 27:201–13
transducing uridylyltransferase/uridylyl- 55. Landgraf JR, Wu J, Calvo JM. 1996. Ef-
removing enzyme (EC 2.7.7.59) of fects of nutrition and growth rate on Lrp
Escherichia coli and its interaction with levels in Escherichia coli. J. Bacteriol.
the PII protein. Biochemistry 37:12782– 178:6930–36
94 56. Lengeler JW, Drews G, Schlegel HG.
47. Jiang P, Peliska JA, Ninfa AJ. 1998. 1999. Biology of the Prokaryotes: Black-
The regulation of Escherichia coli glu- well Science
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
tamine synthetase revisited: role of 2- 57. Liaw SH, Jun G, Eisenberg D. 1994. In-
ketoglutarate in the regulation of glu- teractions of nucleotides with fully un-
Annu. Rev. Microbiol. 2003.57:155-176. Downloaded from www.annualreviews.org
leucine/Lrp regulon. See Ref. 64a, pp. Acad. Sci. USA 82:1979–83
1513–25 79. Reizer J, Reizer A, Merrick MJ, Plunkett
69. Ninfa AJ, Atkinson MR. 2000. PII signal G 3rd, Rose DJ, Saier MH Jr. 1996. Novel
transduction proteins. Trends Microbiol. phosphotransferase-encoding genes re-
8:172–79 vealed by analysis of the Escherichia coli
70. Ninfa AJ, Jiang P, Atkinson MR, Peliska genome: a chimeric gene encoding an en-
JA. 2000. Integration of antagonistic sig- zyme I homologue that possesses a pu-
nals in the regulation of nitrogen assimi- tative sensory transduction domain. Gene
lation in Escherichia coli. Curr. Top. Cell. 181:103–8
Regul. 36:31–75 80. Rothstein DM, Pahel G, Tyler B, Ma-
71. Poggio S, Domeinzain C, Osorio A, Ca- gasanik B. 1980. Regulation of expres-
marena L. 2002. The nitrogen assimila- sion from the glnA promoter of Es-
tion control (Nac) protein represses asnC cherichia coli in the absence of glutamine
and asnA transcription in Escherichia coli. synthetase. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 206:151–56 77:7372–76
72. Powell BS, Court DL, Inada T, Naka- 81. Schneider BL, Kiupakis AK, Reitzer LJ.
mura Y, Michotey V, et al. 1995. Novel 1998. Arginine catabolism and the argi-
proteins of the phosphotransferase sys- nine succinyltransferase pathway in Es-
tem encoded within the rpoN operon of cherichia coli. J. Bacteriol. 180:4278–86
Escherichia coli. Enzyme IIANtr affects 82. Schneider BL, Reitzer LJ. 1998. Salmo-
growth on organic nitrogen and the condi- nella typhimurium nit is nadE: defec-
tional lethality of an erats mutant. J. Biol. tive nitrogen utilization and ammonia-
Chem. 270:4822–39 dependent NAD synthetase. J. Bacteriol.
73. Rabus R, Reizer J, Paulsen I, Saier 180:4739–41
MH Jr. 1999. Enzyme INtr from Es- 83. Schneider BL, Ruback S, Kiupakis
cherichia coli. A novel enzyme of the AK, Kasbarian H, Pybus C, Reitzer
phosphoenolpyruvate-dependent phos- L. 2002. The Escherichia coli gab-
photransferase system exhibiting strict DTPC operon: specific γ -aminobutyrate
specificity for its phosphoryl acceptor, catabolism and nonspecific induction. J.
NPr. J. Biol. Chem. 274:26185–91 Bacteriol. 184:6976–86
74. Reitzer L, Schneider BL. 2001. Metabolic 84. Schneider BL, Shiau SP, Reitzer LJ. 1991.
context and possible physiological themes Role of multiple environmental stimuli in
of σ 54-dependent genes in Escherichia control of transcription from a nitrogen-
coli. Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 65:422– regulated promoter in Escherichia coli
44 with weak or no activator-binding sites.
75. Reitzer LJ. 1996. Ammonia assimilation J. Bacteriol. 173:6355–63
and the biosynthesis of glutamine, gluta- 85. Segura D, Espin G. 1998. Mutational
27 Jul 2003 12:20 AR AR195-MI57-07.tex AR195-MI57-07.sgm LaTeX2e(2002/01/18) P1: IKH
176 REITZER
CONTENTS
Access provided by Universidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico on 04/07/16. For personal use only.
vi
P1: FRK
July 27, 2003 15:23 Annual Reviews AR195-FM
CONTENTS vii
INDEXES
Subject Index 703
Cumulative Index of Contributing Authors, Volumes 53–57 739
Cumulative Index of Chapter Titles, Volumes 53–57 742
ERRATA
An online log of corrections to Annual Review of Microbiology chapters
(if any, 1997 to the present) may be found at http://micro.annualreviews.org/