The Brass Instrument

Owner’s Handbook
The Brass Instrument
Owner’s Handbook

Michael J. Pagliaro

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD

Lanham • Boulder • New York • London
Published by Rowman & Littlefield
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 Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

Introduction

1 Where These Instruments Came From

2 How These Instruments Work

3 Different Kinds of Brass Instruments

4 How Brass Instruments Are Made

5 How to Choose and Buy a Brass Instrument

6 How to Rent a Brass Instrument

7 How to Take Care of a Brass Instrument

8 Brass Instrument Accessories

9 How Brass Instruments Compare to Each Other

10 Learning to Play a Brass Instrument

11 The Science of Sound

Appendix: Instrument Diary

Glossary of Terms

About the Author

 Preface

The instruments of the brass family evolved from the same roots, produce
sound in very similar ways, and are structurally alike. They use very similar
maintenance procedures, are marketed and rented through the same venues, and
are sufficiently alike in their gestalt to warrant sharing a manual.
In the “simplest terms” contemporary brass instruments might be considered
to be expanded versions of those very early sound producing devices made from
conch shells or hollowed out bones into which primitive humans buzzed their lips
to make a sound. The operative phrase here is “simplest terms” for as these
instruments evolved, their architecture and operational mechanisms developed to
the point where simple lip-buzzed horns became the sophisticated labrosones that
are the powerhouses of today’s bands and orchestras.
As you read through this book, you will find that the instruments differ to
some degree. These differences are minor to the point where they would not
preclude the possibility that a player of one instrument could become a player of
all of them. Transitioning from one brass instrument to another is plausible since
most of the playing techniques and music reading skills they require are
transferable.
The Brass Instrument Owner’s Handbook can be read from cover to cover or
be used as a reference source to directly approach any of the topics listed as
chapter headings. The reader can start at any point in the handbook to seek a
specific bit of information and find the presentation will be as clear as it would be
if the content were read starting from the first chapter.
Each chapter begins with a brief overview to assist the reader in pursuing a
specific issue. To facilitate that end, references are made to other chapters that
contain information relevant to the topic at hand. Moreover, some material from
other chapters is repeated to ease the reader through a concept by avoiding the
interruptions necessitated by referring to other chapters.
 Acknowledgments

The following individuals have generously contributed their talent and effort
to assist in the final production of this work. My most grateful appreciation to:

Thomas Caserta, a celebrated academic in the New York area who applied
his extensive knowledge of English grammar and usage acquired through his
Jesuit education at Fordham Preparatory School and Fordham University to assist
in editing the text in this book.

Marianna G. Perrier who combined the special talents of a musical

instrument technician, artist and graphic artist to assisted in the development of
many of the figures throughout this book.

The extraordinarily gifted professionals in the field of musical instrument

fabrication and distribution listed below have generously granted permission to
use information and artwork from their websites. They are listed in alphabetical
order. The numbers preceding their names follow the titles of their contributions
throughout the text.

[1] Donna Altieri Bags, info@altieribags.com Gig Bags

[2] Dave Brambert, daveb@thefabricator.com Tube Bending

[3] Professor Matthias Hofs, www.matthiashoefs.de Keyed Trumpet

by Thein

[4] David G. Monette, www.monette.net

David G Monette Corp. Video
[5] Matthew Parker, trumpets@matthewparkertrumpets.com Tromba da
Tirarsi and Flatt Trumpet

[6] Alan Perkins, adperkins@outlook.com Cornopean and Courtois

[7] Popular Mechanics Magazine, Hearst Magazines Breakout Trumpet

[8] Selmer/Stoner, jstoner@connselmer.com Bach Trumpets

[9] Robb Stewart Brass Instruments, www.robbstewart.com Early Piston and

Rotary Valve Trumpets

[10] Justin Tung, thejustintung@gmail.com The Silent Sidebar Blog Trumpet

Factory

[11] David Werden, www.dwerden.com.pistonvalves Piston Valves Made

[12] Denis Wick Products LTD, tradesales@deniswick.com

Selmer/Bach Mouthpieces

[13] Zachary Music ZeuS Wind Instruments www.zacharyMusic.com

ZeuS Factory Tour
 Introduction

Millions of musical instruments of all kinds are located in every conceivable

place in the world. They can be found tucked away in attics, closets, basements,
under beds, and anywhere else an instrument can fit. Most of these instruments
are lying idle, some possibly for centuries. We might also confidently speculate
that there are numerous ancient musical instruments yet to be unearthed. Should
they ever see the light of day, they can be of significant value to the work of
organologists and musicologists. There are however, other instruments that can be
found living a happy life in the hands of students, teachers, and some of the
world’s greatest musicians. These instruments are often the prize possessions of
the owners. It is to these owners and their instruments that this book is dedicated.
Among the brass instruments currently in use are families of trumpets,
trombones, French horns, tenor and baritone horns, and tubas. Each of these
groups consists of an assortment of instruments of a similar design and size with
variations in their range, transposition, and timbre. These subsets enjoy similar
architecture but vary in size and tonal range thereby expanding the entire section’s
potential for sound production. With that expanded spectrum of sounds, brass
instruments provide the music community with a strength and dynamism
unmatched by any other group of instruments. It is the life cycle of these
instruments that The Brass Instrument Owner’s Handbook covers beginning with
what is assumed by the cognoscienti to be the very first “lip reed” instruments to
the current crop in use today.
The handbook can be read from cover to cover or used as a reference source
to directly approach any of the topics listed as chapter headings. You can start at
any point to seek a specific bit of information and find the presentation will be as
clear as it would be if you had read the content starting from the first chapter.
 To aid in finding a specific issue, references are made to other chapters that
contain information relevant to the topic at hand. Moreover, some material from
other chapters is repeated to ease you through a concept by avoiding the
interruptions necessitated by turning to other chapters.
Throughout the book I make references to notes in different registers. You
will see a letter followed by a number such as C3. The following will explain how
the system called Scientific Pitch Notation helps you to know exactly where that
note is located on the staff without having to have an actual written staff in the
text.

Scientific Pitch Notation

The following is a brief explanation of a system of identifying the location of
a note in the entire range of notes in music. I have included it in the introduction
as a tool which will facilitate your understanding the references to notation
throughout the book. This system uses an alphanumeric symbol, a combination of
letters and numbers to identify the location of a note in the spectrum. By placing a
number following a letter, the register of that note in the entire range of notes is
identified. An example would be middle C whose alphanumeric name is C4. The
C one octave below middle C is C3. The C an octave above middle C is C5. The
notes ascending between these Cs maintain the C’s numeral until the next C is
reached. An example would be C4, D4, E4, F4, G4, A4, B4, C5, D5, etc. The
figure below shows the alphanumeric symbols for all notes.
 Chapter 1

Where These Instruments Came From

Note: The contemporary instruments introduced from a historical perspective

in this chapter will be covered in greater detail in chapter 2, How These
Instruments Work, and 3, Different Kinds of Brass Instruments.
The term “brass instrument” is usually applied to a musical instrument made
of brass which produces sound by the player’s expelling air and buzzing his or her
lips into a cup-shaped mouthpiece. These instruments are also called aerophones,
labrosones, or lip-reed instruments. Although the ancient ancestors of
contemporary brass instruments were not made of brass, they did fall under these
latter named categories because they utilized a lip-reed sound generating process.
The early history of instruments that produced sound by a player’s buzzing
lips is without documentation. The only possible early time-line would have to be
predicated on logic and deductive reasoning. What motivated primitive beings to
create a device that would produce sound? What would that device look like?
How would it be played? What purpose would it serve in a primitive society?
How could all this come to be?
The history of brass instruments and most other instruments for that matter is
replete with contradictions and vague references to what might have or could
have happened. As we progress through the time periods, information does
become clearer with documentation but not to the point where accuracy is the
theme of the day. We might speculate that the first sounds were accidental. A
reasonable scenario would be a person cleaning out a conch shell for its meat
made a hole at the small end and blew into it to clear out the residual contents.
His or her lips buzzed, a sound occurred, the player liked the sound, experimented
with making other sounds and so a labrosone was born.
 A similar scenario might have occurred with animal horns, hollowed out
sticks, and anything else that would produce such a result. “Wow!
What a great sound. I can use this to call my tribe together. Hmm! If I tighten
my lips, the sound goes up. Loosen them, down. If I blow real hard, maybe I can
summon the gods to help me get some rain or chase away the evil spirits.”
This is speculation, but it is logical and something similar to that likely
happened. Relics have been found that appear to be parts of such instruments
dating back several thousand years BC to the Stone Age. During that period the
primitive population was limited to the use of stone, wood, and other natural
resources as its primary raw material for creating implements for everyday use.
Following the Stone Age was the Bronze Age 3,000 BC to 1,000 BC, when
copper and bronze, an alloy of copper, came into existence. The period from
1,000 BC on is referred to as the Iron Age, completing the evolutionary sequence.
Because of the development of these metals, humankind had the material to make
tools for survival, war, and entertainment. Evidence of instruments fabricated
from various metal alloys begins to appear with the Bronze Age. Among them is
the lur, discovered in the Nordic countries and northern Germany.

Lur
The lur was a labrosone in its simplest form (Fig. 1.1). It had a trombone-like
cup mouthpiece (see chapter 2) as its lip-reed sound generator. There were no
valves, slides, or tone holes so the player had to rely on embouchure to change
pitch. The mouthpiece was connected to a conical pipe which could be between
four and six feet long. To accommodate for their extreme length, some lurs were
curved or shaped like an elephant’s tusk. Others took any configuration that
allowed the player to carry the instrument wrapped around his or her body as one
would a modern sousaphone. The earlier known lurs discovered primarily in
Germany and Denmark were from the Bronze Age and were made of bronze.
Those found in Scandinavia were made of wood.
Roman Buccina
This instrument was a labrosone fabricated from animal horns. As its
popularity increased, the buccina was made from other materials and ultimately
was made of metal. Like the lur, the buccina took a circular shape which
encompassed the player (Fig. 1.2). The buccina was used to announce the changes
of the guards and in ceremonial events both joyful and solemn.
Roman Cornu
Originally made from animal horns, the cornu developed into a C-shaped
brass instrument with a supporting brace crossbar (Fig 1.3). Like the buccina, the
cornu was also without valves or tone holes and relied on the player’s
embouchure to change pitches. As was the case with many of the brass
instruments of the time, their primary function was to sound alarms and signals
for the military. The cornu served a similar function as a clarion call for social
meetings, gladiator fights, and to announce the coming of the emperor.
Cornetto (Cornett)
Not to be confused with the current-day cornet, this instrument was a
labrosone (lip-reed) instrument which used a cup-shaped mouthpiece similar to
that used on a trumpet but was made of animal horns or ivory. The cornetto was
widely used for about one hundred fifty years beginning in about 1500. About
two feet long, it was made in three different configurations called curved, straight,
and mute.
The curved model (Fig. 1.4) was made of wood in a very interesting manner.
A block of wood was cut into a curve and split in half. A cone-shaped bore was
then scooped out of each half. The halves were then joined back together to form
the body of the instrument. There were six tone holes on the front of the body and
one on the back similar to the sound manipulation system used on today’s
woodwind instruments.
 The straight treble cornetto was essentially the same instrument as the curved
model (Fig. 1.5). As the name implies, the instrument was straight and similar in
appearance to a long recorder with a detachable cup mouthpiece but without a
bell. This instrument played in the treble range and produced a bright tone quality.

The mute cornetto was similar in appearance to the straight cornetto but was
usually designed to play in the alto range (Fig. 1.6). The instrument had a built-in
mouthpiece which produced a less strident tone than that of the straight model.
There are many examples of this instrument dating back to the sixteenth century
on display in museums throughout Europe.

Cornetti (plural) were also built in the tenor and bass ranges to complete the
ensemble requirements of the time. Tenor cornetti were a bit longer than the treble
model and sounded a fifth lower. The tenor’s extra length required that a curve be
incorporated into its body to facilitate holding it. This version had an additional
tone-hole with a key articulated by the pinky finger. The primary role the tenor
cornetto played was that of the tenor or third voice in an ensemble. There is no
evidence of its ever being a solo instrument.
The bass cornetto transposed a fourth or fifth below the tenor. This eight-foot-
long cornetto was so large it had to be serpentine in shape (Fig. 1.7).

It used a cup-shaped mouthpiece and woodwind-like tone holes to articulate

the various pitches. Due to its serpentine shape, this instrument was also known
as the serpent. You might consider it to be the tuba of the cornetto family.
In liturgical music the bass cornetto provided the bass line. The bass cornetto
was capable of producing such an offensive sound that it was used in the military
to frighten the enemy. Three specimens of bass cornetti are displayed in the
Musée de la Musique in Paris, France.

Summary
The preceding is a brief overview of a few of the many labrosones that existed
prior to the introduction of the “brass instruments” now part of the contemporary
musical instrument inventory. These newer instruments have a more clearly
documented history to provide facts about their origins and evolution. The brass
instruments to be discussed are the contemporary trumpet, cornet, flugelhorn,
French horn, trombone, sackbut, valve trombone, alto horn, euphonium, baritone
horn, tuba, and sousaphone.

Natural Instruments
The term trumpet was widely used to label many labrosones from the past to
the present. Some of these instruments were discussed in the preceding pages to
give you some sense of the variety of lip-reed instruments that preceded the Bb
trumpet we now know and use. The early instruments were known as “natural”
instruments because they were only capable of producing those pitches that were
natural to the architecture of each instrument. Since there were no valves or
slides, the players were entirely dependent upon embouchure changes to produce
different pitches.

Hand Stopping
It was eventually discovered that placing a hand in the bell would change the
pitch on a natural horn. This procedure was called hand stopping, Trumpet-like
instruments were made with large bells (Fig. 1.8) so that by closing and opening
the bell with the hand, the player was able to adjust the pitch up or down, thereby
producing additional notes between the natural tones of an instrument.

Crooks
Another method of increasing the number of pitches on instruments without
valves was through the use of different length crooks (Fig 1.9). Players could
change the effective length of an instrument by adding a shorter or longer length
of tubing in the form of a crook to the main body of the instrument. Longer
crooks lowered the pitch and shorter crooks raised the pitch. Through this method
an instrument was able to play in different keys and be suitable for playing a
greater variety of music. It was the invention of the valve that finally produced
the complete chromatic scale. Figure 1.8 shows a natural trumpet made in
Germany in 1790. The earliest instruments were primarily used as signaling
devices for social and military events.

Keyed Instruments
Other attempts were made to increase the pitches beyond the natural
overtones. Among the attempts was the use of keys similar to those used on
woodwind instruments. Tone-holes were drilled in the bore of a brass instrument
and were covered by padded keys similar to those used on a modern saxophone
(Fig. 1.10). This mechanism added pitches to the natural overtone series.
Slide Trumpet
The concept of a slide was born in the early fourteenth century. Various
attempts were made to incorporate a slide into either the leadpipe or other tubing
locations on a brass instrument. This mechanism enabled the player to extend or
contract the instrument’s tubing thereby facilitating the playing of chromatics.
The slide trumpet (Fig. 1.11) was the transitional instrument which carried
brass instruments from the limitations of the overtone series or the awkward act
of changing crooks to having the ability to produce tones that lie between the
natural overtone series. The slide facilitated the upper brasses’ ability to play
chromatics. That flexibility was carried over to the lower brass in the form of the
sackbut and eventually the first trombone.
Trumpets that were built in various sizes to cover the range desired included a
bass trumpet. If one was built with a slide, it could have been the early makings
of a slide trombone. There are indications through writings and artwork of the
existence of such instruments dating back to the mid-fifteenth century. One of the
dates given for the oldest actual trombone made is 1551 in Nuremburg, Germany.
Piston and Rotary Valves
The invention of the piston valve significantly advanced brass instrument
development. The name Heinrich Stoelzel (1777-1844) is most often associated
with that accomplishment. It is said that he and Friedrich Bluhmel were co-
inventors of the device.
There is some question as to who invented the rotary valve. The names
Nathan Adams, USA; Friedrich Bluhmel, Germany; Joseph Kail, Austria
(Prague); and Joseph Felix Riedl, Austria (Vienna) are all associated in the history
books with that invention. Organologists name Friedrich Buhmel in conjunction
with Stoelzel as the inventors. That said, Joseph Riedln is noted as the first to use
the rotary valve on an instrument in 1832. By the end of the nineteenth century
the Bb trumpet began to be the instrument of choice. That transition occurred
because of the trumpet’s bolder, brighter sound, its ease of use with valves, and its
improved intonation. During the period between the beginning of the nineteenth
century, with the invention of the valve, and the early part of the twentieth
century, valve trumpets of every conceivable modification were built. Figure 1.12
shows just two examples of such instruments.
Cornet
It is generally believed that the cornet is a derivative of the post horn, a
valveless brass instrument which was used in the eighteenth century to signal the
activities of mail coaches. The post horn was made of copper or brass and took
either a circular or straight form. Jean Aste, an instrument manufacturer in the late
1820s, used the post horn as a model to which he added the newly invented piston
valves. And so appeared a cornet.
He later redesigned the instrument so that it had the bell front similar to the
design we now use. That model which he called the cornopean had its piston
valves on the left side of the instrument as pictured in Figure 1.13 with the second
valve off center to facilitate fingering. The contemporary design pictured in
Figure 1.14 was introduced by Antoine Courtois in 1855.
 The cornet differed from the trumpet by having a conical bore and a tighter
wrap of tubing as opposed to the trumpet’s bore which was cylindrical in an
elongated tubing. The result was a difference in tone quality and playing
resistance. The cornet was mellower in tone while offering the greater resistance.
There was also a variance in the comfort level of holding the two instruments.
Because the trumpet’s design was straighter and longer than that of the cornet, the
center of gravity differed from that of the cornet resulting in its being easier to
hold.

Flugelhorn
The original instrument that carried the name flugelhorn was a curved brass
horn used in the eighteenth century to signal those on the hunt, a common pastime
for the elite. It was the fluegelmeister (fluegel meaning flank) who was charged
with the task of keeping the hunters on the path of the hunted. He did so with a
horn. Thus the contemporized name flugelhorn. The flugelhorn was also used by
the military for signaling.
The instrument has a rather convoluted history because it went through
numerous modifications. It was built with different materials from wood to silver
and restructured with the addition of both piston and rotary valves. Over the years
flugelhorns have been built in soprano, alto, tenor, and bass ranges in the keys of
Eb, Bb, C, F, G, and A.
Looking back over the evolution of the instrument, it becomes apparent that
the term flugelhorn was applied to an assortment of brass instruments with valves,
thereby further confusing its history. In examining those instruments from the
past, the most likely candidate for parenthood for what is now known as a
flugelhorn would be the keyed bugle. Figure 1.15 shows an early model
flugelhorn with rotary valves and a contemporary model with piston valves.
French Horn
Originally the French horn was valveless. Its concentric configuration
permitted the player on the hunt to hold several feet of tubing with one hand
while the other hand held the saddle horn. The instrument had a length of tubing
which produced a predetermined set of pitches. As interest in the instrument
increased to the point where the horn was used to play music, horn players would
have several instruments with different tubing lengths readily available to change
when the music required different pitches. The next step in the evolution
consisted of creating additional lengths of tubing called crooks. These could be
used alternatively on an instrument as the music called for different notes. Shorter
crooks would raise the pitch and longer crooks would lower the pitch.
The natural harmonic series (chapter 2) consists of tones that begin with an
interval of an octave followed by a fifth, fourth, third, and then proceeds in
progressively closer intervals. Under these circumstances you are able to play a
significant number of different notes in the upper register without the use of
valves or changing crooks. This, in conjunction with the hand stopping technique
described above permitted the experienced horn player to produce a significant
number of chromatics. By the mid-eighteenth century, exchangeable crooks were
devised for both the instrument’s body and the mouthpipe so it was possible,
although unwieldy, to play a complete chromatic scale.
How to improve handling? Invent the omnitonic horn with all crooks built
into the instrument and with a mechanism that would permit the player to transfer
from one set to any of the others. This instrument was heavy, cumbersome, and
had a short life which ended with the adaptation by Francois Perinet of the
Stoelzel piston valve to the French horn. It was now possible to play all the notes
within a range of three octaves without having to have a plumber’s license. This
advance was succeeded by Riedl’s rotary valve so that by the late nineteenth
century, rotary valves were the technology of choice.
It was at that time that the double horn was created by Fritz Kruspe, a German
instrument maker. Kruspe built the double horn with a fourth rotary valve that
allowed the player to shift from a Bb horn to an F horn with the flick of a thumb.
The original double horn was designed with tubing added to increase its length.
This configuration was and is still known as the compensating horn. The full
double horn is actually a complete Bb and an F horn sharing a single leadpipe and
bell. The thumb trigger directs the air to the instrument of choice.
A third version of the French horn called a descant horn appeared at the
beginning of the twentieth century. This was a smaller horn designed to facilitate
playing the more difficult to control notes in the F horn’s higher register. Pitched
an octave above the traditional F horn, the descant horn placed those notes in the
lower overtone series spacing where the notes are farther apart. This spacing
allows the player a bit more latitude and security when positioning the
embouchure for those notes.
The descant horn was further expanded into a triple horn concept in the
middle of the twentieth century (Fig. 1.16).
 The concept of a triple horn in F, Bb, and high (descant) F completed the ideal
instrument to deal with all French horn players’ needs. Chapters 3 and 9 will tell
more about how these instruments work and how they relate to their family
members.

Sackbut
The name sackbut is derived from the French word sacqueboute meaning
retractable or push-pull referring to the slide. The bell and bore sizes of the
original sackbut were somewhat smaller than those of contemporary instruments.
The bore of the sackbut was cylindrical up to the point of the “U” shaped bout.
From that point on, the bore expanded to reach the bell which was elongated and
rimless with a small flare of less than five inches. The sackbut’s smaller bore and
more elongated bell resulted in a mellow, sensitive tone.
 The major parts of the early sackbuts were bound together with leather
strapping or other cord-like material rather than being soldered together as are
contemporary brass instruments. This allowed for easy disassembling for
transportation or storage. We might reasonably speculate that the sackbut and/or
the early trombone were an offshoot of the bass slide trumpet described above.
Original sackbuts did not have a water key or slide lock because those
modifications were not yet invented. Figure 1.17 shows an original design
sackbut.

As the instrument gained popularity, tuning slides were added to permit the
player to change keys (Fig. 1.18).
 Sackbuts are still in use and can be purchased in a contemporary model with a
spit valve (Fig. 1.19).

Trombone
 There is no definitive evidence to indicate exactly how the trombone evolved.
As is the case with the sackbut, the trombone most likely was an offshoot of the
bass slide trumpet during the mid-fifteenth century. Trombone-like instruments
can be found in artwork and in some literature of that period which describes a
low-brass instrument called a trompone (Italian) and a sacquebout (French).
During the Renaissance, the trombone was used primarily for social and
liturgical occasions. Early trombones were often used to support the vocal bass
line in church music. To expand their use, trombones were made in the keys of
Eb, Bb, and F covering the alto, tenor, and bass ranges. In the Baroque period, J.
S. Bach and G. F. Handel incorporated the instrument into some of their works. In
Austria during the Classical period, the trombone began to be featured as a solo
instrument in liturgical works by Mozart and Haydn while retaining a position in
the opera and in church music. Trombones were used in duets with voice and as
an alto, tenor, bass trombone trio.
In the mid-1800s the trombone began to appear as part of the instrumentation
of full orchestras and bands. To balance the dynamics with the other brass
instruments, trombones needed greater volume and a richer tone quality. This was
accomplished by increasing the bore and bell sizes (Fig. 1.20). Because of this
advancement, the trombone began to be included in opera scores and ultimately
by Beethoven in his Fifth Symphony. It was Beethoven’s use of the trombone in
his symphonies 5, 6, and 9 that acted as the prime impetus for other composers to
begin to use the instrument more frequently.
In the nineteenth century all the renowned composers were including the
trombone as part of the standard instrumentation for their works. It was not long
before the trombone was no longer considered to be only an accompaniment
instrument for liturgical music but rather took its place in the brass section of the
full orchestra and band.

Valve Trombone
 The Stoelzel piston valve invented in 1814 was applied to the slide trombone
by Viennese instrument makers at about 1820 (Fig. 1.21). The instrument gained
immediate popularity in Germany and Italy and its use spread throughout Europe,
South America, and Asia primarily for popular band and theater orchestras.
As mentioned above, the valve system used on any brass instrument has a
series of inherent pitch problems. The slide trombone is spared those problems
because of the total versatility of positioning the slide. Given a player’s ability to
discern perfect intonation, the slide can be placed in exactly the correct position to
achieve that end. In the case of the valve trombone, the player must deal with the
idiosyncrasies of a valve instrument.
One further advantage the slide trombone has over the valve model is in that
when the outer slide is extended, because it has a larger bore than that of the inner
slide, the total volume of the bore is increased proportionately to the increase of
the extension providing fuller resonance. This occurrence is absent in the valve
model since there it has no outer slide. For this reason, the slide trombone is often
the instrument of choice.

Alto Horn
Adolph Sax, the instrument maker from the mid-eighteen hundreds who was
famous for inventing all of the assorted saxophones, was also the inventor of
brass instruments. Among these were the saxhorn and saxotromba, both
labrosones with valve systems made of brass. These instruments were built as Eb
soprano, Eb alto, Bb contralto, Eb tenor, and a Bb baritone. Having two Eb horns,
one alto and the other tenor is believed to be the reason for a confusion that exists
in the instrument world with the Eb alto and Eb tenor horns. In fact, today's alto
and tenor horns are essentially the same instrument (Fig. 1.22). The difference in
nomenclature is due to the fact that in America this horn is called the alto horn
where in Britain it is called the tenor horn.
Euphonium and Baritone Horn
The euphonium and baritone horns are often mistaken as being the same.
Although they are similar and share a significant amount of technology, their
differences are enough to qualify them as being different instruments (Fig. 1.23).
See chapter 3 for more on this. To establish the history of the euphonium, it will
be necessary to go back to the serpent (see bass cornetto above) which is believed
to be the euphonium’s predecessor. The serpent led to the orphicleide, another
labrosone in the bass range which was invented by Jean Hilaire Aste in 1817.
Also popular during that period was the orphicleide, which was made of brass and
produced sound through the use of a cup-shape mouthpiece, but had pad-covered,
keyed tone holes similar to those on a saxophone in place of the valves yet to be
invented.
There is some confusion concerning who invented the euphonium, since the
credit is given to Carl Moritz in 1838, Ferdinand Sommer in 1843, and Adolphe
Sax in the same year. Each of these gentlemen invented an instrument that fits the
general description of a euphonium. To add to the puzzle are the saxhorn and the
baritone horn, both instruments that have been confused with the euphonium.
 There is also the series of labrosones in various keys ranging from sopranino
to contrabass invented by Mr. Sax. These instruments were the center of a
controversy concerning their names, and whether the instruments were copies of
previous labrosones as opposed to being original to Mr. Sax. They were widely
accepted by brass bands in the United States and Europe because they provided a
compatible blend with like-sounding brass instruments and had a complete range
from sopranino to contrabass.
The serpent, orphicleide, and euphonium existed simultaneously for several
decades until the euphonium eventually became the instrument of choice.
Throughout the twentieth century, the major instrument manufacturers refined the
euphonium’s technology to the point where it is now a highly regarded member of
the brass section in concert, ceremonial, and marching bands.

Tuba
The word tuba (Latin word for trumpet) has been used throughout antiquity to
name an assortment of labrosones, none of which is the tuba we know. Today’s
tuba evolved from the serpent, followed by the orphicleide, which was superseded
by an assortment of brass lip-reed instruments such as the saxhorn, saxtromba,
and saxtuba, all created by Adolphe Sax.
 In 1835 a patent for a bass tuba was granted to Wilhelm Wieprecht and
Johann Moritz. Similar to already existing instruments, the patent was granted
more on the basis of its name than its originality as an instrument. The bass tuba
had three piston valves to be operated by the right hand and two additional valves
for the left hand. The bass tuba supported the bass line in the brass, woodwind,
and string sections of ensembles. Consequently, by the end of the nineteenth
century it became a permanent part of the brass section of orchestras and bands.
Today’s tubas can have from three to six valves in order to facilitate playing the
complete chromatic scale with accurate intonation. Figure 1.24 shows a
contemporary three-valve tuba.

Sousaphone
This version of the tuba is believed to have been invented by the renowned
march king, John Philip Sousa, but, in fact, the instrument already existed as the
helicon. In about 1845 the helicon, which had the bell facing up as opposed to
facing forward on the sousaphone, appeared in Russia. The helicon was designed
to be a marching instrument and was produced by the Viennese, Ignaz Stowasser.
There are two points of view as to how the sousaphone came to be. One states
that in 1893, at the behest of Sousa, J. W. Pepper, an instrument maker in
Philadelphia, modified a helicon into what is now the sousaphone. Pepper named
the instrument after Sousa in appreciation for his idea. The second point of view
is that just the opposite occurred. It was Pepper that proposed the change in bell
direction to Sousa who was pleased with the idea and the instrument was born
(Fig. 1.25).

Summary
 “What's in a name? That which we call a labrosone by any other name would
sound as splendid.” Guess who?
Brass wind, lip reed, aerophone, and labrosone identify a family of
instruments that provide the music community with a splendor and brilliance that
can stand on its own, as an ensemble, or significantly contribute to the sounds of
any other combination of musical instruments.
To all of those individuals who originated these instruments, from the lur,
buccina, and the cornu to the trumpet, French horn, and tuba, to those primitive
individuals who made the first sounds and to the inventors, musicians,
technicians, and visionaries who brought us up to the point where society is now
fortunate enough to enjoy a listening experience that has become a precious
possession of our music world, a profound thank you!
 Chapter 2

How These Instruments Work

Most brass instruments share the same architecture. The exception is the slide
trombone which has a slide in place of the valves. These differences will be
discussed as the chapter unfolds. The trumpet pictured in Figure 2.1 names the
parts of brass instruments with piston valves.
Tone Production
To produce a tone on a brass instrument, you must buzz your lips into a cup-
shaped mouthpiece (Fig. 2.2).
 Your upper lip usually produces the primary buzz. Depending on your oral
configuration, your lower lip will usually buzz to a lesser degree. Your lower lip
also acts as a support or stabilizer for the vibration of your lips and controls the
size of the opening through which the air passes into the mouthpiece.
Every conceivable opinion on where the mouthpiece should be placed on your
lips has been offered by experts. The only point of agreement is that the
placement is unique to each embouchure and must ultimately be determined by
you.
Beginning players are usually advised to place the mouthpiece in the center of
their lips with equal amounts of the upper and lower lip in contact with the
mouthpiece cup. It is then a matter of adjusting the mouth-piece placement up or
down until the position that produces the best sound for that individual is
established.
The fundamental pitches you produce on a brass instrument without the use of
valves can be altered by increasing or decreasing the intensity of your buzz. In the
simplest terms, this is accomplished by raising or lowering the corners of your
mouth. Pulling the corners of your mouth down will raise the pitch and raising the
corners of your mouth will lower the pitch. I must further state that there are as
many elaborations of that concept as there are brass instrument teachers.

The Sound Voyage

The sound produced by buzzing into the mouthpiece of any brass instrument
causes the body of air that is present in the instrument to vibrate. When that air
column is set into motion, sound is heard. The sound is then altered by
lengthening or shortening the instrument’s tubing using one of several mechanical
means to be discussed later in this section.
The immediate flow of air from your lips does not necessarily travel through
the instrument to exit the end of the bell as a sound. When you initiate a buzz into
a BBb tuba, a sound occurs immediately in spite of the fact that your breath does
not have time to travel throughout the entire instrument to produce that sound. It
would take several full breaths to fill up the tubing of the instrument before any
air could reach the bell. The sound that comes out of the bell is caused by the
buzzing of your lips exciting the air that already exists in the instrument.
Tone produced on a musical instrument contains a fundamental pitch plus a
series of additional sounds called harmonics, upper partials, or overtones (Fig.
2.3).

The natural order of harmonics contains an inherent problem of a diminishing

interval relationship. As the pitches in the overtone series get higher, the distance
between them gets closer.
On brass instruments, the harmonics are the open tones that you can play
without using any valves or slides. Brass instruments’ use of the harmonics
increases in number as the instrument rises in pitch in its relationship to its family
members. A tuba utilizes open tones that are farther apart from each other than
those of the French horn. This being the case, a problem of inconsistency of
intonation arises which is inherent in all brass instruments. The intervals which
occur higher up on the overtone series will be smaller in size by a small fraction
than those of the same interval taken from a lower point in the overtone series.
Therefore, an interval of a second between the tenth and eleventh partials, for
example, E-F#, will be larger than the interval of a second between the twelfth
and thirteenth partials, G-A. Since many tones played on brass instruments are
harmonics, they are, by their very nature, not true in pitch and so the brass
player’s problems begin.

Valves
All brass instruments are similar in their acoustical and structural designs.
With the exception of the slide trombone, brass instruments have a system of
valves as part of their structure. There are two types of valves used on these
instruments. The piston valve is used on most brass instruments. The rotary valve
is used on the French horn and less frequently on other instruments.

Piston Valves
A piston valve (Fig. 2.4) is a metal cylinder with ports that pass through the
cylinder at different points. The cylinder is set in a casing which also has ports
that line up with those of the valve. The ports in the casing are connected to
different tubing on the instrument and also with other adjacent valves. When a
valve is in its rest position, certain ports are lined up with those in the casing. This
alignment permits air to pass through a prescribed part of the tubing of an
instrument. A series of tones can be produced with the valves in that rest position.
These sounds are called open tones.
When a valve is depressed, different ports line up with other ports in the
casing diverting the air flow to a different set of tubing. By depressing the correct
valve at the correct time, a player is able to open and close tubing and in so doing
increase or decrease the length of the instrument. Longer instruments play lower
tones. Shorter instruments play higher tones. Valves can be used individually or in
combination to lower open tones to produce other tones.
Rotary Valves
A rotary valve (Fig. 2.5) works on the same principle as the piston valve
except that there is a rotor in place of a piston. The rotor turns inside a casing
configured to accommodate the rotor. The same procedure of port alignment
described for the piston valve applies to the ports in the rotor and its casing.
 Rotary valves are linked to a key paddle used to activate the valve in several
different ways. The connection is called linkage. The ball and socket system (Fig.
2.6) is so named because it has a ball and socket connection to the part of the
valve that controls (stops) the distance a rotor rotates in each direction. This is
called the stop arm.
 The mechanical system or the “S” link system (Fig. 2.7) is so named because
the shape of the arm resembles the letter S. The S shaped arm is connected to the
stop arm with a screw.
 The Unibal system (Fig. 2.8) is the most current addition to the group. The
connection to the stop arm consists of a steel ball with a hole in its center. This
ball is encased in a steel housing. A screw holds the unit to the stop arm.
 The string system (Fig. 2.9) consists of a special string configuration in place
of the mechanisms described above. This system is the quietest and requires the
least amount of lubrication due to its lack of metal parts. The strings on this
system require periodic changing since wear is a factor.
Fingering Patterns
All brass instruments with valves can produce a series of open tones with no
valves depressed. Using the scientific pitch notation defined in the introduction
the open tones on a trumpet are C4, G4, C5, E5, G5, and C6. By depressing
valves, the open tones can be lowered in half-step increments to produce the tones
that exist between each open tone. To lower an open tone:
one half step, a minor second, depress valve 2.
two half steps, a major second, depress valve 1.
three half steps, a minor third, depress valve 3 or valves 1 & 2. Note: For better
intonation the preferred fingering for these notes is 1 & 2.
four half steps, a major third, depress valves 2 & 3.
five half steps, a perfect fourth, depress valves 1 & 3.
six half steps, augmented fourth or diminished fifth, depress valves 1, 2, & 3.

The Slide Trombone

The slide trombone uses a slide mechanism instead of valves to adjust the
length of its tubing.
 The slide consists of two parallel tubes called the inner slide which are
contained within two slightly larger tubes called the outer slide. The outer slides
are joined on one end by a “U” shaped tube (Fig. 2.10). Extending the slide down
increases the length of the instrument, lowering the fundamental pitch. Drawing
the slide up decreases the length of the tubing and raises the pitch. With the slide
as high as it can be, called first position, you can produce the open tones
illustrated in Figure 2.11.

To play the tones between the open tones you must extend the slide in half-
step increments called positions. There are seven positions on a trombone slide.
The approximate distance the slide must travel for each position is as follows:
Valve Trombone
The valve trombone has the appearance of a slide trombone with three piston
valves incorporated into the slide (Fig. 2.13). The slide portion is stationary.
A popular use of the valve trombone is the enabling of a lower brass player to
double on the trombone because it uses the same fingering as the baritone horn in
bass clef and the euphonium. On account of the valves, these trombones suffer the
same intonation problems as do other valve instruments.
Summary
The valves on any brass instrument can be used individually or in
combination, lowering an open tone to produce all the other tones that exist below
the open tones. The pattern is as follows:
Valve 1 = whole step or a second;
Valve 2 = half step or minor second;
Valve 3 = step and a half or minor third;
Valves 1 & 2 = step and a half or a minor third;
Valves 2 & 3 = two whole steps or a major third;
Valves 1 & 3 = two and a half steps or a perfect fourth;
Valves 1, 2, & 3 = three whole steps or a diminished fourth.
These principles also apply to the valve trombone. The slide trombone
produces the same descending half-step progressions by extending the slide to the
positions as stated above.

Bore
The bore, the inside of the tubing of a brass instrument is often a subject of
disagreement, and misinterpretation. It is said, for example, that the trumpet has a
cylindrical bore while the cornet has a conical bore. In fact, neither is entirely the
case. Brass instruments use a combination of conical and cylindrical-shaped
tubing to form the body and mechanism of the instruments. The mouthpipe,
valve, and bell section of brass instruments each require a different shape and size
in order to function in a prescribed manner. Compare the trumpet and cornet in
Figure 2.14 below. The major portion of the trumpet is cylindrical but does
become conical and flares out toward the bell. The cornet begins the conical
shape sooner.
 Most often, the bore size of brass instruments is referred to as being either
large, medium, or small. There is no industry standard for the exact dimensions of
these categories so, when the terms are used, the interpretation of their meanings
must be judged in a broad sense. It is generally accepted that larger bore sizes will
produce the deeper sounds. Large bore instruments produce a full sound, medium
bores permit more playing flexibility, and small bores produce a brighter, crisper
sound.

Intonation
Intonation difficulties occur because occidental (Western) music uses the
tempered (adjusted) scale intended for keyboard instruments, whereas brass
instruments are built to produce the natural or just scale, the result of the natural
harmonic series of overtones. As these two scales approach their extreme ranges,
the comparative frequencies differ so that open G5 (a step above the fifth line in
the treble clef) on the trumpet, which has a just tuning, produces a pitch which is
higher than that same note on the tempered scale.
An even greater problem of intonation arises when the valve systems are
activated. Recall that the second valve lowers the fundamental by one half-step,
the first valve by two half-steps, and the third valve by three half-steps. When the
second valve is depressed on a trumpet, the instrument is converted from its
natural Bb overtone series to an A overtone series. In effect, this creates a new
instrument, a trumpet in A instead of in Bb. A trumpet in A is longer than a
trumpet in Bb and, therefore, requires longer tubing for the first and third slides, if
the ratio of these slides is to remain consistent with the new length of the
instrument. Of course, the first and third slides do not change and so, when
additional valves are activated in conjunction with the second slide, intonation
begins to fail.
The two problems are that of the just, as opposed to the tempered scale, and
the distorted ratios incurred by the use of the valves. These can be compensated
for but not totally corrected by the manufacturer's selecting a mid-point in the
length of the valve slides to provide the least possible inaccuracy of pitch under
all conditions. In addition to that compromise, many brass instruments are fitted
with valve slide rings allowing you to quickly and easily adjust the length of the
particular slide in use at that moment.
As stated previously, the mechanics of valve instruments are not particularly
complex. Simply, a piston, a rotor, or a slide does the job. Unfortunately, the
piston and the rotor do not offer an opportunity to play an instrument in perfect
tune. Instead, they create problems of intonation which did not exist on the
original brass instruments before valves were added. On the other hand, without
valves you are limited to the overtone series as performed by embouchure
changes. It is obvious that the addition of valves is the lesser of the two evils.

How Brass Instruments Are Tuned

Tuning a brass instrument is achieved by moving slides in or out. The main
tuning slide located at the end of the leadpipe on most instruments is used to tune
the instrument’s basic pitch. The tuning slide on a trombone is located at the top
of the instrument. Additional tuning slides on each valve casing are used to tune
the notes related to the use of each valve. Extending a tuning slide will lower the
pitch. Drawing a tuning slide in will raise the pitch.
Some euphoniums and BBb tubas, as well as other low-pitched brass
instruments, are built with an auxiliary set of tubing which is used to compensate
for the natural rise in pitch inherent in their low register. By depressing a fourth
valve, additional tubing is opened to lower the pitch for that particular note. This
mechanism does not affect the other registers on the instrument.

Transposition
Some instruments are labeled transposing instruments and are referred to as
being in a certain key. Some examples are a Bb clarinet, an Eb saxophone, or an F
horn. These key names refer to the actual note heard when the written note C is
played on the instrument. This begs the question why all instruments are not
made in the same key? The answer is somewhat complicated.
Each instrument has a specific limited range. In order to expand that range,
other versions of the same instrument are made in different sizes. Smaller sizes
produce notes in higher ranges and larger sizes produce notes in lower ranges. An
example would be the clarinet family which consists of clarinets called an Eb
sopranino, Bb soprano, Eb alto, Eb contra-alto, Bb bass, and BBb contrabass. All
these instruments share the same fingerings so that a clarinetist can go from one
instrument to any other by simply adjusting to the different instrument size and
mouthpiece.
A change in the size of an instrument results in a corresponding change in the
key in which it plays. If that change in key is an octave, the new instrument will
be in the same key as its parent but play an octave higher. An instrument in C
recreated to sound an octave higher will also sound in the key of C. If the change
is other than an octave, the new instrument will be in whatever key represents the
new interval. For example, an instrument in C recreated so that it sounds a fifth
higher will be in the key of G, which is five notes or a fifth higher than the
original instrument in C.
If related instruments were all made in the same key, they would each need
different fingerings. To avoid this, the key that results from an instrument's design
is used and all instruments in the family then have the same fingering. This
facilitates a player's switching from one instrument to another within the same
family.

Summary
The manner in which brass instruments function acoustically, mechanically,
and musically is almost identical. The materials from which they are made are the
same. They all use lips buzzing into a cup mouthpiece to produce sound. The
mouthpiece is coupled with a brass body which acts as an amplifying system. The
body is fitted with valves which are used to extend the length of the body of the
instrument. The slide trombone is the exception. Unfortunately, the brass family
of instruments also shares the characteristics of having inherent intonation
problems. Again, the exception is the trombone.
Sound production problems begin with the sound generator being the human
lips functioning as a buzzing device. Through this system of sound generation,
the brass player is restricted to the limitations inherent in his or her own lip and
mouth configuration. The brass player does not have the option of changing the
components of the tone generator as do other instrumentalists. Single reed players
can change mouthpieces, reeds, and ligatures. Double reed players have their
reeds made to order or make them themselves. String players have a vast variety
of strings, bows, and bridge configurations at their disposal. Brass players can
change their mouthpiece but are committed to their sound generator, their
embouchure. There are numerous mouthpiece designs available to accommodate
the infinite numbers of shapes of lip-mouth configurations. Ultimately, however,
brass players, unlike other instrumentalists, must deal with that with which they
were born.
The second problem that is unique to brass instruments, again with the
exception of the slide trombone, is the change in valve-slide ratios as the valves
are engaged. Devices such as the valve slide trigger and the addition of a fourth
valve on some instruments, along with some creative concepts in bore
construction, have all helped to improve the intonation problems. However, it is
apparent that the valve system used on brass instruments at best provides an
inexact system of intonation.
Listeners have adjusted to these imperfect sounds by sheer exposure, tending
to accept the sound of the brass section as being a product of timbre rather than of
imperfect intonation. In fact, listeners have become accustomed to those sounds
and consequently find them acceptable. Of all the problems with instruments in
use at this time, the brass player's plight is the most difficult in the area of
intonation. Good intonation on a brass instrument must rest with the ability of the
performer to humor individual notes as required by each situation.
The brass choir provides the power and brilliance essential to the performance
of band and orchestral music as it evolved with the works of Beethoven, Brahms,
and Wagner during the Romantic period. Military, ceremonial, and entertainment
bands could not fill their roles without the brass choir's dynamic character. So, as
is the case with anything we love and need, we accept it for its virtues and live
with its imperfections.
 Chapter 3

Different Kinds of Brass Instruments

Among the brass instruments currently in use are families of trumpets,

trombones, French horns, tenor and baritone horns, and tubas. Each of these
families consists of an assortment of instruments of similar design with variations
primarily in their size. They function in exactly the same manner mechanically
but, depending on their size and design, each produces a different tone quality or
timbre and plays in a different range. When all the instruments of this brass choir
are combined, they can produce pitches ranging from D1, a twelfth below the
bass clef to C6 an octave above the treble clef. The higher-pitched instruments
produce a brilliant penetrating sound. As the sizes increase, the sounds become
progressively lower and less intense.
The following are descriptions of the most commonly used brass instruments.
Additional information on these instruments can be found in chapter 1 on history
and chapter 9 on how they compare to one another.

Trumpet
The trumpet will serve as a model for the architecture of most brass
instruments. Figure 3.1 shows a trumpet with its parts labeled. These part names
are universal to the instruments in this chapter. Use this sample as a guide to the
text that follows.
 The B flat trumpet is the most popular of the brass instruments. Its structure is
as follows:
A cup-shaped mouthpiece usually made of brass and coated with silver is
inserted into a slightly conical-shaped tube called a leadpipe or mouthpiece
receiver. The leadpipe is connected to the main body of the instrument. The major
portion of the trumpet tubing is cylindrical. Connected perpendicular to this
tubing are three larger cylinders that house valves. The valves can be either of the
piston or rotary type. (More on valves later.) Following the main cylindrical
section of the instrument is a bell section which is conical and about one quarter
the length of the preceding cylindrical section.
The trumpet is designed with a slide for each valve. These slides can be
extended or drawn inward. They are used to tune the instrument to adjust for
inherent intonation problems. When a slide is extended, the pitch for that section
of the instrument is lowered. Conversely, when the slide is drawn in, the pitch is
raised. Presently, the trumpets being manufactured and used most commonly are:
mezzo-soprano in C and Bb, soprano in D high Eb, high F, sopranino in high G,
piccolo in high Bb, contralto in low Eb and F, and tenor in C and Bb.

Cornet
While the trumpet is primarily cylindrical with some conical parts, the cornet
is almost totally conical. Sharing essentially the same design with the trumpet, the
cornet begins with a cup-shaped mouthpiece somewhat smaller than that of the
trumpet. That mouthpiece is connected to a cylindrical mouthpiece lead pipe
which joins the remainder of the conical body.

The overall appearance of the cornet is shorter than that of the trumpet
because the cornet’s tubing is usually bent into two loops. The combination of the
smaller conical bore and the two turns in the tubing presents greater resistance.
The result is that the tone is mellower than that of the trumpet. Currently in use
are the mezzo-soprano cornet in Bb and soprano in high Eb.

Flugelhorn
This instrument is, in effect, a bass trumpet. It has the same range and pitch as
the trumpet but demonstrates its unique characteristics in a range similar to the
lowest female voice called the contralto range, where it produces a rich mellow
tone. Flugelhorns are available in Bb and in a lower bass range in C.
French Horns
French horns are made as single horns in Bb or F, as a combination of the Bb
and F horns called a double horn, as a Bb and F combination in a different
configuration called a compensating horn, as a descant horn which sounds an
octave above the F horn, and as a triple horn which combines a double horn with
a descant horn. All these models can be made with a detachable bell.

Single Horn
The single horn in F or Bb contains three rotary valves which open and close
the various lengths of tubing.
Double Horn
The double horn has a fourth valve. This operates the Bb horn section which
can be added to the single horn to make a double Bb-F instrument.
 Using a double horn, you can switch from F to Bb by pressing a thumb
trigger, which turns a rotary valve to redirect the vibrating column of air from one
section of tubing to another. Switching from F to Bb enables you to more easily
play the high notes which depend on upper partials of the overtone series. Due to
their close interval proximity, these notes present difficulties in tone placement.

“Wrap”
The term “wrap” in the brass instrument world refers to the configuration of
the tubing of the instrument. Two popular wraps for double horns are the Kruspe
wrap and the Geyer wrap. Both systems are named after their inventor.
The Kruspe wrap devised by Fritz Kruspe in about 1900 is generally used on
professional level horns. Kruspe wrap positions the fourth valve and its trigger in
front of the three-valve cluster. This valve switches the instrument from F to Bb.
The system requires some additional tubing which is located near the top of the
instrument.
With additional tubing comes a greater playing resistance which places a
greater demand on the player’s endurance and performance skills. The extra
tubing on the Bb side also provides additional tuning slides and opportunities to
drain condensation. With this architecture, the Kruspe design has a larger bell
throat and bell resulting in a sound that is fuller and darker than that of the Geyer
wrap instruments.
The Geyer wrap places the fourth valve trigger in the same location as that of
the Kruspe wrap but the actual valve is located after the valve cluster. An
extended mechanism connects the thumb trigger to the valve. In this design, the
weight from the additional tubing is concentrated toward the bottom of the
instrument and the tubing tends more toward straight lines.
Geyer wrap instruments tend to be lighter in weight and have smaller bells.
They are noted for presenting less resistance and for producing a brighter sound
than that of the Kruspe instruments. There have been some differing opinions as
to which of the wraps is better. Choice now becomes a matter of taste.
If you plan to buy an instrument with one of these wraps, note that they can be
found on mass-produced as well as hand-made instruments. Carefully observe the
two horns in Figure 3.6 to note the differences. The Kruspe horn has a more
elaborate wrap with the fourth valve trigger directly connected to its valve. The
Geyer wrap has less convoluted tubing and a bar connecting the thumb trigger to
the valve on the opposite side of the valve cluster.
Compensating Horn
A compensating horn (Fig 3.7) is constructed by adding tubing to a basic Bb
horn tubing. With the use of a trigger you can engage the extra tubing to add it on
to the Bb section thereby creating an F horn.
The advantage of a compensating horn lies in its reduced weight and cost
when compared to a full double horn. The compensating design can be applied to
both double and triple horns.

Descant Horn
The descant horn (Fig. 3.8) is a smaller instrument and sounds an octave
above the F horn. This horn facilitates playing music that centers on the higher
notes in the French horn range.
Triple Horn
The descant horn can be added to the structure of a double horn resulting in a
Bb, F, and high F triple horn (Fig. 3.9).
 Double and triple horns can also be made as compensating horns. See
chapters 1 and 9 for more on this.
With all the advantages of double and triple horns comes a shortcoming
caused by the necessity of the two or three instrument sections having to share
one leadpipe and bell section. Ideally, these two sections of an instrument should
be specifically proportioned to fit only one instrument. In the double and triple
setups this cannot be. Manufacturers deal with this issue by adjusting the
proportions of these instrument parts to strike a structural balance that will satisfy
the acoustical requirements of the combined instruments.

Detachable Bell Horn

Most French horns can be made with a detachable bell (Fig. 3.10). This is a
convenience in packing and traveling as a case for this instrument is generally
smaller than that used for a horn with an attached bell.
Mellophone
The mellophone is produced in two designs. One is for marching (Fig. left)
and a second duplicates the shape of the French horn (Fig. 3.11 right). The
mellophone, played with piston valves located for use with the right hand, is
available in Eb and F, and uses the same fingering as that of the trumpet. The
mellophone is most useful when a quick change from the trumpet or cornet to a
French horn-like instrument is required. It should be noted that there is a
difference evident in the tone quality of the French horn when compared to the
mellophone. Additionally, although the two instruments may resemble each other
in appearance, there are significant differences in the physical act of playing
them. For more on this see chapter 9.
Tenor Slide Trombone
The tenor slide trombone is the only brass instrument that can be played in
perfect tune. Instead of valves, the trombone uses a slide which lengthens or
shortens the instrument to create different notes.
If you are capable of discerning proper pitch placement there is no limit to the
level of pitch perfection attainable, since the slide can be placed in any position
necessary to achieve accurate intonation.
Due to the slide design, the bore of the instrument must be primarily
cylindrical. The exception occurs with the widening of the bell section which
flares out to approximately eight to nine inches at the widest point.
Trombones come in an assortment of models among which are the soprano in
Bb, alto in Eb, tenor in Bb, bass in Bb, contrabass in D, CC, or BBb, and the
valve trombone in Bb.
Valve Trombone
This instrument has the appearance of a slide trombone with the addition of
three piston valves incorporated into the slide structure (Fig. 3.13). The slide
portion is stationary.
The valve trombone is often used to enable a lower brass player to double on
the trombone. Valves in place of a slide negate several positive attributes of the
slide trombone. Because of the valves, these trombones suffer the same intonation
problems as do other valve instruments, a problem that is not associated with a
slide model.
With some valve models you will find that the addition of the valves can
result in a reduction of the open sound associated with a slide model which has a
more free-flowing air stream. Despite these negatives, the valve trombone
remains the instrument of choice of many in Europe, South America, and in the
Indian sub-continent. The valve trombone is most often lauded for the fact that is
it easier to articulate rapid passages with a set of valves than it is using a slide.

Alto Horn
The upright Eb alto horn (Fig. 3.14) is primarily a marching instrument and is
often used in place of the French horn. This instrument has a mellow tone and
often acts as a support to the rhythm section of the marching band as well as a
carrier of the mid-range harmony. The alto horn is made in Eb only. (See chapter
9 for more on the Eb alto horn.)
Tenor Horn
More commonly used in central Europe, the tenor horn (Fig. 3.15) is so
named for its range placement in the scheme of brass instruments. It is used for
solo passages that require more virtuosity than that normally associated with
instruments in the lower range. The tenor horn is built in the key of Bb.
Baritone Horn
Representing the baritone voice in the brass family, the baritone horn is less
versatile than the Bb tenor horn and has a more mellow voice. The baritone horn
is built in the key of Bb and has a mostly cylindrical bore with a gradual taper up
to the bell throat and bell. If in doubt as to whether an instrument is a baritone
horn, remove the tuning slide and put it back in the reverse position. If it goes in,
it is a baritone horn. Baritone horns can be made with an upright bell, a bell-front,
and as marching models. Figure 3.16 shows upright and marching models.

The baritone horn can be played in both the treble and bass clefs. When
played in the treble clef, the instrument uses the same fingering as that of the
trumpet and is a transposing instrument. This versatility allows for easy doubling
for trumpet players. When played in the bass clef, the instrument is non-
transposing and shares the same fingering as the euphonium and valve trombone,
allowing easy doubling for lower brass players.

Euphonium
 A euphonium is often considered to be a form of tenor or baritone horn;
however, this point of view is not appreciated by euphonium purists. This
confusion is even carried out to the manufacturers and vendors, some of whom do
not properly differentiate the two instruments. Simply stated, a euphonium has a
mostly conical bore which expands up to a substantial size bell throat and bell.
The result is a full rich tone tending toward a mellifluous rather than brassy
timbre. Figure 3.17 shows a euphonium next to a baritone horn. Note how the
bottom bows compare and how the conical graduation of the euphonium differs
from the mostly cylindrical tubing of the baritone. The euphonium is best used to
perform slow lyrical bass solos. Like the baritone horn, the euphonium is built in
the key of Bb.
 The tuba, lowest of the brass instruments, comes in several designs. BBb
tubas and sousaphones are built with three and four valves in either piston or
rotary design.

Upright Tuba
The upright bell tuba (Fig. 3.18) is primarily used for concert work.

Bell Front Tuba

 A similar instrument with a bell facing front called the bell-front or recording
model tuba (Fig. 3.19) is used for marching.

Sousaphone
In addition to the upright and bell front BBb tubas, there is the sousaphone
(Fig. 3.20). This tuba is designed with its tubing in concentric circles to encircle
you which allows the instrument to rest on your shoulder.
 It can also be placed on a specially designed stand for concert use. The
instrument was named after the historic band master and composer of military
marches, John Philip Sousa.
Tubas are built with three and four valves in either piston or rotary design.
The various models available are the rotary or piston valve in BBb and CC, the
three valve in BBb and Eb, the four valve in BBb, and the sousaphone in BBb and
Eb. There are some tubas that are built with as many as six valves. These act as
alternatives to improve intonation for other combinations of valves. They also
extend the range of the instrument.
Marching Band Instruments
A complete line of brass instruments called marching band instruments
perform identically to the instruments mentioned above, except that the marching
models are designed to be held in a horizontal playing position, as you would
hold a trumpet. This design facilitates playing while marching. An example is the
mellophone pictured in Figure 3.11 above. The left image is the marching version
of the concert model which is pictured on the right.

Summary
The instruments discussed above are those that are familiar to most of us who
are in in touch with music in a more than casual way. Chapter 1 told about the
primitive instruments that led to the current ones. We now know that in addition
to the standard Bb trumpet, there are at least eleven other trumpets that are used in
varying degrees. Add to those the other iterations of the cornet and flugelhorn and
we find an astounding selection of upper brass instruments that can produce notes
from the mid-range to the very top.
In the mid-range there are at least six French horn models that are available to
overcome the inherent problems that players have with that instrument when
playing in certain difficult ranges. Additionally, the myth that the mellophone is a
form of French horn has been debunked. It is its own instrument and not an easy-
to-play French horn.
Next in line pitch-wise are the slide and valve trombones, followed by a series
of “horns,” namely, the alto, tenor, baritone, and euphonium. These produce brass
sounds in the mid-range with an assortment of timbres from strident to
mellifluous. They are also a source of confusion for many as to which is which. I
wonder if these instruments were mischievously invented to taunt and confuse
organologists as well as most of the cognoscienti.
The tubas in double keys (BBb, etc.) complete the family with upright and
front facing bells and with the sousaphone. Tubas can be found with as many as
six valves and in sizes as large as 6/4. That fraction I assume is the result of the
industry’s inability to anticipate the possibility of growth after they designed and
marketed what they thought would be the full 4/4 size model.
All of the above can be found with either rotary or piston valves, the latter
being predominant in the U.S. Brass instruments can also be found that are
adapted structurally in some way to serve the marching band musicians.
 Chapter 4

How Brass Instruments Are Made

All brass instruments (labrosones) share a significant similarity in their

architecture. Because of the strong family resemblance, the manufacturing
process of these instruments is essentially the same, assuming the instruments
under construction are intended to be of the same quality.
Student grade instruments are almost always manufactured en-masse, using
the highest level of mass production technology, computerized machinery, and the
least amount of handwork possible. The goal is to produce the best instrument for
the lowest cost. In almost all cases the end result does, indeed, achieve those
goals. Numerous manufacturers produce thousands of brass instruments each
year, providing music students with excellent equipment.
On an entirely different level are those instruments made for professional
musicians. Although the basic steps are the same as those used in mass-produced
instruments, the manner in which the steps are implemented is very different.
Professional grade brass instruments are made almost entirely by hand, of
different quality material, and with an attention to detail and individuality not
found on the assembly lines of the major manufacturers. It is the goal of the
artisan to provide an instrument which will produce the sound the musician
customer is seeking.
Some of the attributes that will affect the sound an instrument will produce
are: the formula of the alloy to be used, that being the ratio of copper to zinc, to
any other element in the mix; the density and gauge of the alloy; the proportionate
distribution of differing gauges of material; the size and rate of expansion of the
bore; the bell stem as one piece or a separately fabricated bell; the annealing
process and its effect on the molecular structure of the brass; and the manner in
which the instrument is finished, that is, lacquer, silver, gold, or no plating. These
are just some of the factors that must be monitored and adjusted as needed during
the fabrication process.
Decisions may be made prior to starting the process; however, the true artisan
will be continuously aware of the possibility of some adjustments as the process
is implemented.

The Process
The process begins with deciding on which raw materials are to be used.
Brass is an alloy composed of copper and zinc. Brass is a substitutional alloy
where the two elements that make up the final structure can replace each other in
differing proportions. As a result, an end product of the mix of copper and zinc
can be classified as being yellow, gold, silver, or red brass.
Yellow brass is composed of seventy percent copper and thirty percent zinc.
Gold brass, which contains no gold, is made up of eighty-five percent copper and
fifteen percent zinc. Silver brass consists of sixty percent copper, twenty percent
zinc, and twenty percent nickel. Red brass is made of eighty-five percent copper,
five percent tin, five percent lead, and five percent zinc. These ratios can vary
depending on the artisan’s particular goal. Occasionally there are special order
instruments made predominantly of gold and/or silver.
There is another alloy called ambronze which is composed of eighty-five
percent copper, thirteen percent zinc, with the addition of two percent tin. When
ambronze is used to fabricate a bell, the sound of the instrument tends to have a
greater resonance.
In the final analysis, it is the microstructure of a material that affects its
resonating qualities. Since each element affects the sound and durability of an
instrument, the ratio of these elements warrants serious consideration. Zinc is
subject to corrosion but produces a brighter sound and brighter appearance. This
has to be taken into consideration when determining the quantity of zinc to use in
the alloy mix. Less zinc will mean less corrosion, a darker sound, and a darker
color for the instrument. Red brass is still another level lower in corrosion and in
tone quality.
The microstructure of brass can be varied by adjusting the ratio of the
elements contained therein. It is for this reason that brass is the best material for
constructing labrosones. Varying the ratios provides a metal with the malleability
and resonance needed to produce different sound qualities. That capability, in
conjunction with a maker’s ability to use different techniques to shape the
materials, results in each instrument’s individuality. The options to finish one in a
variety of ways make it possible to produce instruments that are unique and can
meet the musician’s wishes in both tone production and playability.
Manufacturing a brass instrument requires a number of steps. An instrument
is made up of a length of tubing, a set of valves (with the exception of the slide
trombone which has no valves) and a flared bell. The process is as follows: A
template is used to mark out a form on a sheet of brass that will become the bell
section of an instrument. The sheet is then cut to a shape that begins as a several
inch-wide strip, depending on the instrument being made. The strip flares out to
what appears to be a one-dimensional flattened bell (Fig. 4.1).

The two linear edges of the sheet are notched to produce tabs which overlap
the seam forming a lap joint (Fig. 4.2).
 The seam is joined by hammering the overlapping tabs (Fig. 4.3).

The hammer marks are then smoothed out by passing shaped rollers over the
piece. The craftsman runs the rollers over the hammered surface exerting enough
force to smooth out the metal (Fig. 4.4). This process is continued until the
surface is relatively smooth.

The sheet of metal is then wrapped around a steel rod called a mandrel. The
mandrel is conical in shape to provide a form from which the sheet brass will
eventually take its conical shape. It starts out as a tube and terminates as the
instrument’s bell (Fig. 4.5).
 The joint is fused using a brass alloy wire melted by a propane torch at about
1500 degrees Fahrenheit (Fig. 4.6).
 After being cooled, the excess alloy on the seam is hammered down, sanded,
and buffed to form a flush surface (Fig. 4.7).

With that seam secure, the unit is placed on a different mandrel with a more
exact shaped taper and a more definitive bell shape at one end (Fig. 4.8). It is here
that the maker begins to refine the shape of this bell portion of the instrument by
annealing (heating) and hammering out the brass to meet the specific shape of the
mandrel.
 Using a raw-hide hammer, the maker hammers the brass so that it takes on the
shape of the mandrel beginning with a tube and ending with a flared-out section
as the initial form of the bell (Fig. 4.9).
 Throughout this process the brass being worked is periodically softened
through a heating process called annealing. When heat is applied to brass, the
molecular structure begins to change at 480 degrees Fahrenheit. As the
temperature of the brass continues to rise, the craftsman must control the flow of
heat to assure that the brass reaches but does not exceed the annealing
temperature of between 650 and 750 degrees. This can vary depending on the
type of brass being used and the wall thickness of the section of the instrument
being worked. This process, referred to as eye or hand annealing, gives the maker
the flexibility to judge the exact amount of attention needed for variations in each
part of the instrument.
Another method for annealing uses an oven for the process. The instrument is
passed through an oven set at a fixed temperature for a prescribed period of time
during which the annealing occurs. This process is effective for mass production
purposes; however, it cannot account for the variation in material content and
density that can be accommodated for by the human touch. Additionally, using
the oven process will subject parts of the instrument to an unnecessary heating
and cooling process.
Some makers add a forming die press to the process to facilitate the bell stem
forming process. The bell stem is lubricated in preparation for being put in the
press (Fig. 4.10).

The bell stem is placed in the press where it takes on the form of the die.
Figure 4.11 shows before and after pictures.
 There is a method of bell fabrication which uses a separate brass disc that is
shaped on a lathe into the desired bell size. That disc is then soldered onto the
larger end of the previously fabricated bell shaft. The shape, size, and density of
the final bell produced will profoundly affect the instrument’s sound.
The roughed-out bell is then placed on a mandrel mounted on a lathe where
the bell’s shape is further refined to its ultimate dimensions (Fig. 4.12).

When the bell is completely formed, a wire rim called a bell bead is placed
around the bell’s edge strengthening it to resist denting. The edge of the rim is
turned partway outward forming a pocket into which a brass alloy wire is
inserted. The edge of the rim is then turned in completely and the edge is soldered
enclosing the wire (Fig. 4.13). In addition to reinforcing the rim, the wire adds a
dimension to the bell and depending on the wire’s density and how it is installed,
affects the bell’s resonance.
 When the soldering is complete, the bell rim is further refined on the lathe
(Fig. 4.14).
When the hand work on the lathe is complete, the bell stems are recognizable as
being part of a finished instrument (Fig. 4.15).
 The next step in the process is preparing the instrument’s tubing. Depending
on the instrument being made, the tubing can be either cylindrical or conical.
Other factors to consider are the length, diameter, density, and shape of the
tubing. What is common to the fabrication of all the instruments is that the tubing
must be shaped to fulfill each individual instrument’s unique structural
requirements. Simply stated, the tubes, whatever their material and dimensions,
must be bent to form the body of the instrument.
The original process used to bend brass tubing without its collapsing or
crimping was to fill to the tube with heated pitch (pine tar), allow it to cool, bend
the pipe, reheat the pipe to melt the pitch, and then clean out the pipe completely.
No easy task. That last heating process to melt the hardened pitch often affected
the molecular structure of the brass tubing, thereby altering its sound-producing
potential.
There are several alternative methods that are now being used in place of
pitch. A product called Bolton 158, formerly called Cerrobend, is an alloy that,
when at room temperature, has the consistency of lead yet will melt at 158
degrees Fahrenheit. Due to its low melting point, this product can be used as a
stabilizer for bending brass tubing without the negative effects on the molecular
structure of the brass during the removing process.
Another item used to fill certain sections of brass tubing for the purpose of
bending is a soap and water solution which, when in a brass tube, is frozen to
minus sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit. The water becomes solid ice but the soap
prevents the ice from cracking as the tubing is bent (Fig. 4.16).

When the tubing is prepared for bending, the process can be done by hand on
a manual bending gig as pictured in Figure 4.17.
 Another process uses a hydraulic blowout press which pumps oil into the tube
at high pressure. A tube is placed in a die, the oil is forced into the tube, and the
high pressure of the oil forces the tube to assume the shape of the die.

Valve Casings
Valve casings are housings for piston or rotary valves (Fig. 4.18). Valve
casings are made from heavy tubing in dimensions appropriate for the instrument
under construction. The tubes are cut to a prescribed length and holes are bored
into the tube’s sides to match the location of the holes in the valves to be placed in
those casings.
 The two ends of the casing are threaded to receive valve caps later on in the
process (Fig. 4.19).

Short sections of a smaller tubing are bent into various angles and are sized
and shaped to fit the holes that were drilled in the casings. These shaped tubes
called knuckles are soldered in place on the casings (Fig. 4.20).
 The knuckles are soldered in their respective positions on the casings and the
casings are joined together with connecting rings to form a valve cluster (Fig.
4.21). A valve cluster usually consists of three valve casings but can have as
many as there are valves on an instrument.
 When the cluster is complete, it is given an acid bath, all excess solder is
removed, and the unit is polished, buffed, degreased, and ultimately spray-
lacquered.

Valve Slides
Valve slides are tubes which extend from the knuckles in the sides of each
casing to create a major portion of the instrument’s body (Fig. 4.22). Because
these slides are used to tune the instrument, it is essential that their fit be firm
enough to prevent any air leakage yet able to slide in and out easily. A perfect fit
is vital to producing a good instrument. Each valve casing will have its own “U”
shaped slide through which the air will travel when the valves are properly
positioned.

One of the hazards associated with bending tubes is the possibility that the
interior diameter (ID) will be altered. (See above on bending tubing.) Such a
change can result in turbulence and air flow resistance issues. Should it be
necessary to alter the inner dimension of a tube, the craftsman passes a series of
steel balls in progressively increasing sizes through the tubes, stretching and
smoothing out the inner surface of the tubing (Fig. 4.23).
 The smallest size ball is forced through the tubing first, thereby expanding it
to the size of that ball while pressing out any other imperfections. That process is
followed by a progression of increasingly larger balls until the desired inner
dimension and a perfectly smooth inner bore are achieved. When all the necessary
tubing has been bent into shape and refined to the required dimensions, the next
step is to fabricate valves.

Making Valves
Valve production is perhaps the most critical part of the instrument-making
process. Anything less than perfection will result in a poor instrument. In most
contemporary manufacturing facilities, valve ports are milled to the ten-
thousandth of an inch using computerized milling machines. A process called
helical interpolation, where the drilling takes place in both a circular and vertical
motion simultaneously, results in valve ports that are as close to perfection as is
possible (Fig. 4.24).
 After the ports are drilled on either side of the cylinder (soon to be valve),
they are connected through the interior of the valve with tubing that matches the
bore size of the instrument (Fig. 4.25).

The pistons are then dressed, honed, buffed, and polished, resulting in a
finished product that will produce flawless motion within the valve casing (Fig.
4.26).
Material
There is an unresolved question regarding the best choice of material to use
for piston valves. The choices at the time of this writing are nickel, nickel plating,
and Monel, which is a nickel alloy with copper, manganese, carbon, and silicon.
Fans of each present arguments in favor of their choice. The topic warrants some
attention but since any conclusion of significance has not yet come to the fore,
this may be an issue for the reader to pursue independently.
Presently, the most common valves in use are the top sprung and bottom
sprung piston valves, and the rotary valve. These are discussed in chapter 2,
“How These Instruments Work.”

Smaller Parts
Remaining for consideration is an assortment of smaller parts, most of which
are produced by mechanical means. This is not necessarily the case for the
artisans who hold the position that every part of an instrument, regardless of its
prominence, does have an effect on the sound production of the final product.
Those craftsmen are inclined to make each part individually by hand. These items
are valve caps, finger buttons, pinky slide hooks, braces, lyre screws, and any
type of specialty engraving, plating, or decorating.

Finish
Finally, there is the issue of finish. To lacquer, to plate, or to do nothing, that
is the question. In the world of music you will often find strong differences of
opinion on issues where empirical evidence is weak or lacking. Such is the case
with applying a finish to a brass instrument. Some publicly stated opinions are:
lacquer hinders performance; lacquer makes little to no difference; lacquer is easy
to maintain; silver plate will result in a brighter tone; silver plate will tarnish and
is difficult to maintain; gold plate will produce a warmer sound; raw brass
without a finish is best; and so forth. When considering this matter, there are
some facts that can be used as points of reference from which you might then try
to draw conclusions.
Raw brass is free to resonate to its fullest potential. Lacquer applied to brass is
in effect applying a coat of a foreign substance that could possibly restrict
resonance albeit to a relatively small degree. When electroplating with nickel,
silver, or gold, the additional material becomes part of the structural content of the
brass. This additional element may change the resonance of the brass but in the
opinion of many for the better because silver or nickel is a brighter sound and
gold is mellower. The term “better” in this case is a matter of personal opinion. It
is my opinion that unless the player is extraordinarily talented and performing at
the highest levels, the differences in sound are probably not discernable.
When all of the above processes have been fulfilled, assembly takes place
followed by any cosmetic corrections needed. Depending on the price level of the
instrument, it is then inspected and tested to whatever degree commensurate with
that level and as extensively as the maker feels is necessary to meet the standards
set by the manufacturer.

Making Brass Cup Mouthpieces

The mouthpiece-making process begins with a very heavy solid brass rod
(Fig. 4.27) which is placed into a sophisticated computerized milling machine.
 In this process, the skill required of the craftsman is more a matter of knowing
how to program the computer than actually being able to make the mouthpiece
(Fig. 4.28). By using a computerized mechanized process, the final product will
be a mouthpiece that is die cut to a defined contour with an accuracy of within
four microns. A micron is one millionth of a meter.
 A section of the brass bar is placed in the milling machine and cut to size (Fig.
4.29).

The shaping process begins with forming the outer profile of the subject
mouthpiece (Fig. 4.30-31).
 The cup is formed and an appropriate rim is shaped to fit the prescribed
dimensions (Fig. 4.32).

The mouthpiece throat and backbore are drilled into the shank that will fit into
the lead pipe. This section is milled to one-thousandth of an inch (Fig. 4.33).
 The exterior profile is milled in progressive steps until the rim, body, and
shank all meet specifications (Fig. 4.34).
The completely formed mouthpiece is removed from the gig (Fig. 4.35).
 The mouthpiece is inspected and prepared for final buffing and polishing (Fig.
4.36).

The polishing is done by machine and then hand finished (Figs. 4.37 and
4.38).
 Chapter 5

How to Choose and Buy a Brass Instrument

Brass instruments are mechanically very similar. They use a cup mouthpiece,
have tubing that is adjustable to some degree, and have valves to change the open
tones. The one exception is the slide trombone, which has a slide in place of the
valves. However, there is also a trombone which uses valves as do all the other
brass instruments. Be reminded that the official name for these instruments is
labrosone (lip reed), part of the aerophone (wind) category of instruments.
Although called brass instruments, some of these are made of other alloys and
plastics.
A process that can be used for selecting a brass instrument could rise to a
degree of sophistication that ultimately becomes self-defeating. For this reason it
is wise to set goals based on the intended use for the instrument being sought. As
an example, you should not be investigating the coefficient that determines the
ratio of zinc to copper in the bell of an instrument as part of the search for a
student instrument.
One of the most important concerns when selecting any wind instrument is
intonation. The structural design that is necessary for valve brass instruments to
function results in inherent intonation problems. You will find extended
dissertations on how a player can deal with these through the use of embouchure
adjustments. Many brass instruments have built-in triggers, slide adjustments, and
other structural modifications to ameliorate the problem. These modifications
help, but the problem still remains. The question then arises concerning the
degree to which the buyer should pursue the issue of inherent intonation
problems. The answer is to the degree that will satisfy the needs of the intended
player.
 How to proceed? Start by avoiding off-brand instruments that have no track
record. Some may be acceptable but even if they are, there is a danger of
inconsistency. This being the case, it will be necessary for the buyer to carefully
identify those intonation problems that are inherent in the particular instruments
under consideration, seek the least offender, and then be prepared to accept less
than perfection where perfection is not feasible. The best bet is to stick with those
manufacturers who have been making instruments for decades or that are custom
made. If anyone has come close to solving the problem, it is they.
Other parts of the instruments to be checked are:

Valves
The two kinds of valves used on brass instruments are piston and rotary. The
finishes used on valves can be nickel-plating, stainless steel, and Monel, a nickel-
copper alloy that performs smoothly and is less inclined to corrode than nickel-
plate. Most student instruments have nickel-plated valves, upgrade instruments
may have Monel-plated valves, and professional-grade instruments, stainless steel
or Monel-plated valves. It is imperative that the valves function smoothly,
respond quickly, and are fitted to close enough tolerances so as not to allow any
air leakage. Student instruments are generally built with slightly looser tolerances,
while professional-grade instruments have closer tolerances.

Valve Springs
Valves are fitted with a spring that returns the valve to its original position
after being depressed and released. Three possible configurations for springs are
an around-the-valve stem system, a spring encased in a cylinder between the stem
and the valve body (boxed springs), and a spring under the piston within the valve
casing held by the bottom valve cap. The boxed-spring configuration is preferred
by some for student use because it is enclosed and less vulnerable to well-
intended but inexperienced handling. That configuration is also used in most
professional level brass instruments. Rotary valves use a system to be covered
later.

Slides
Brass instruments are replete with slides. They are used for tuning the
instruments and, on the trombone, for note articulation. All slides must fit
securely if there are to be no air leaks. Slides also need to move easily and
smoothly. Two possible construction issues that can cause a problem are slides
that are too tightly fitted in an effort to avoid leaks, and the converse, where in an
effort to make them move easily, they are too loose and not airtight. Avoid both
extremes by insisting on firm but free-moving slides.

Water Keys
Water keys (spit valves) are devices used to drain condensation from the
tubing on brass instruments. Three types are the swing arm, Amado, and Saturn
water keys. The swing arm is the most common, consisting of a spring-loaded key
with a spatula on one end and a cork or rubber stopper on the other end. The cork
or rubber stopper covers a collar that surrounds a hole in the tubing from which
the condensation drains. Press the spatula, the key opens, and the condensation
drains. A small but significant refinement on this device is a rubber stopper with a
nipple that fits into the drain hole when the key is closed. The purpose of that
nipple is to fill in the distance from the stopper to the inside of the slide and,
thereby, erase any turbulence that may occur when that space exists.
The Amado-type water key has a spring-loaded piston contained within a
housing unit soldered directly over the drain hole. Press the button on the side of
the housing, a valve opens, and the fluid drains. This unit works well provided it
is properly maintained. If it is not lubricated and kept clean, it can stick in either
an open or shut position.
The Saturn water key works on the principle of the Amado but uses a ball
bearing in place of the piston. In so doing, the likelihood of a jammed mechanism
is lessened. Press the ring on the side of the key and the fluid drains.

Braces
The tubing on all brass instruments is held together and supported by braces
that are soldered onto the instrument in appropriate places. Each manufacturer has
its own design and location for these braces. Buyers need to evaluate the
durability and method of the installation of these braces. A one-piece brace is
consistently the most durable.

Weight
The weight of a brass instrument is an overt manifestation of its construction
and durability. Heavier instruments are made with thicker metal. The question
arises as to whether this is a plus or a minus. Where durability is concerned, it is
more likely for an instrument made of a heaver-gauge metal to bounce when
dropped, a distinct advantage when dealing with young players. In contrast, a
heavier instrument will be more difficult for a young person to hold and
manipulate. Additionally, there is the issue of sound production, since the density
of the tubing and bell on a brass instrument is directly connected to the
instrument’s tone quality.
Instruments constructed with lighter-weight metal tend to produce a brighter
sound, whereas instruments built with a denser heavier metal will tend to produce
a darker sound. A careful evaluation of the intended use of the instruments under
consideration is recommended. Give serious thought to the importance of
durability versus tone quality along with the need for the player’s physical
comfort. Durability should not be an issue for the mature player.

Balance
Balance is a consideration especially for the brass instruments that are held
parallel to the floor while being played. The trumpet, cornet, flugelhorn,
trombone, and to a lesser degree the French horn all fall into this category. If the
instrument is heavy, a player will have the tendency to let it gradually drop away
from the lips and, in so doing, affect the embouchure. Once again, the buyer must
exercise judgment in deciding priorities.

Bell
All bells on similar instruments tend to look much the same; however, they
can be constructed of either one or two pieces of material and can be of different
sizes. A one-piece bell, by virtue of the consistency of the sheet of metal, tends to
vibrate more freely. That characteristic, in conjunction with the flare and size of
the bell, will determine the tone quality of the instrument. The choice is in the
“ear” of the beholder.
The material used to make a bell will also affect its sound. Yellow brass with a
high copper content will produce a brighter sound than gold brass, which will be
heavier and produce the darker sound. Pure silver bells, available at a greater cost,
will generally produce a fuller, rounder sound because of silver’s greater
inclination to amplify the upper partials of a pitch.

Bore
The bore (inner space of the tubing) plays an important role in determining
the tone quality and playing resistance of a brass instrument. Instruments are
usually offered with a choice of several bore sizes indicated by the terms small,
medium, and large. These classifications refer to the internal dimension of the
tubing of the three valve slides and are measured in millimeters.
The concept that smaller produces a lighter sound and larger produces a
bolder sound applies to the bore of brass instruments with a caveat.
 Although the label the manufacturer gives to the bore size is significant, it is
its rate of expansion from the leadpipe to the bell section in conjunction with the
diameter of the conical tubing that actually play a role in the final tone quality of
an instrument. A slower expansion or taper creates greater resistance, whereas a
faster expansion creates less resistance. A smaller bell size will produce a brighter
more aggressive sound whereas a larger bell will result in a mellower sound.
Finding the correct balance of leadpipe to bell size with a compatible bore size
that will serve the needs of a player is the challenge of the buyer. An additional
consideration is that larger-bore instruments require greater lung capacity and
breath control. If this might be an issue for the player for which the instrument is
being purchased, the buyer might consider leaning toward medium to small bore
sizes.

Mouthpieces
Every newly purchased instrument will come with a mouthpiece the
manufacturer believes appropriate for that instrument. Unfortunately, those
mouthpieces may not be appropriate for the player. It is recommended that the
player try a variety of different-size mouthpieces to determine the size that will be
most effective. Since the size, shape, and structure of embouchures can differ
significantly, one should invest the time needed to make a prudent mouthpiece
selection. The following general principles of brass mouthpiece construction will
help in the selection process.

1. Because each player has a unique dental, lip, and facial structure that
creates a unique embouchure, it follows that a suitable mouthpiece must
be selected on an individual basis in order to achieve the best possible
results.

2. Each instrument must have a mouthpiece that matches the instrument’s

design dimensions, especially in relation to the size of the instrument’s
leadpipe.

3. The mouthpiece’s inner dimensions are critical to its output and must be
matched with the player’s needs and the leadpipe of the instrument.

4. Mouthpiece model numbers and letters indicate the size of the mouthpiece
parts. Low numbers indicate larger cup diameters. High numbers indicate
smaller cup diameters. Models without letters following the numbers have
medium-deep cups, producing a full, rich, sound. Models with letters
 following the number are sized as follows: “A” cups are very deep; “B”
cups are medium deep; “C,” medium shallow; “D,” shallow; “E,”
extremely shallow; and “W” models have a wide-cushion rim for thick,
soft lips.

When selecting a mouthpiece, evaluate the player’s physiological

characteristics in relation to the instrument’s mouthpiece size requirements. Then
determine what combination of mouthpiece components will best serve the
player. It is essential that the player try a number of mouthpieces that approximate
the proportions that have been decided on as appropriate. In the final analysis, the
response of the mouthpiece to the player’s embouchure should determine the
choice.

The Anatomy of a Mouthpiece

All brass mouthpieces consist of six components (Fig. 5.1). These are the rim,
cup, shoulder, throat, backbore, and shank.

The factor that distinguishes mouthpieces from one another is the size of their
components. The effectiveness of a mouthpiece is the result of the combination of
its components in conjunction with the player’s lips or embouchure. The totality
of these factors ultimately becomes the sound generator.

Rim
 The rim of a mouthpiece is the outer edge that comes into contact with the
player's lips. The size and shape of the rim are generally described as being wide,
narrow, round, or sharp. When selecting a mouthpiece, you should consider the
shape of the rim in relation to the player’s lips. Since the rim size and shape
profoundly affect the player’s tone quality and endurance, it is important to select
a rim which is best suited to the player’s lip shape and size.
The most effective width of the rim for an individual is usually similar to the
lip size. Most players will need a medium rim. Players with thick lips will most
likely benefit from using a wide rim, while players with thin lips might benefit
from a narrow rim. Although a reasonable degree of comfort is desirable, priority
must be given to the sound generation response that the player will derive from
the rim selected. The size and shape of the rim that produces the best sound, not
the one that feels best, should be the one chosen.

Cup
In the structure of a mouthpiece, the rim is followed by the cup. The factors to
consider in choosing the cup are its diameter and depth. The diameter provides
the area in which the player’s lips vibrate, so a diameter that is too small might
restrict the vibration. Using the widest diameter possible will allow the player’s
lips more vibrating space and thereby permit a fuller sound.
The depth of a cup follows the principle of acoustics which permeates all of
musical instrument design. The larger the instrument, the deeper and more
mellow the sound. Deeper cups favor lower sounds, whereas shallower cups favor
higher sounds.

Shoulder
The shoulder of a mouthpiece is the door to the throat. The shoulder controls
the flow of air into the throat of the mouthpiece and, in so doing, greatly affects
the tone quality. Again, selection must be predicated on the embouchure of the
player. The size that allows the player to produce the best sound with the least
effort would be the one of choice.

Throat
The throat of the mouthpiece also follows the general acoustical principles of
size-to-pitch relationship, that is, larger instruments favor lower sounds and vice
versa. It is, therefore, necessary for the player to choose a mouthpiece throat size
that will best serve the other components selected for the mouthpiece in question.
When you choose a mouthpiece, remember that since the throat controls the
airflow, too small a size will tend to smother or mute the extreme registers, while
too large an opening will not provide sufficient control for the optimum tone.

Backbore
The backbore of a brass mouthpiece is the column that follows the throat.
This portion of the mouthpiece is not generally considered in terms of its size but
rather in terms of its shape. The backbore is narrowest at the throat and then
increases in size as it reaches the end of the shank. To repeat, larger spaces
produce deeper and louder sounds, while narrower or smaller spaces restrict the
flow of air, offering more resistance and favor higher sounds.

Shank
The shank of the mouthpiece is the portion that enters the leadpipe of the
instrument. It is essential that the shank make perfect contact with the inside of
the leadpipe in order to avoid a leak or space that would cause turbulence in the
flow of the vibrating air column.

Material
Another consideration in evaluating brass instrument mouthpieces is the
materials from which they are made and the effects those materials have on tone
production and playing ease. Sterling silver, German nickel silver, silver or gold-
plated brass, plastic, aluminum, and stainless steel are the materials most
commonly used. There are as many opinions as there are players about which is
best, but sterling silver, silver plate, and nickel plate are by far the most popular.
Another option available in the selection of mouthpieces for brass instruments
is the detachable rim type where the rim screws on and can be used with
mouthpieces of various components. The screw-on rim allows the player to
switch to a plastic rim when playing outdoors in cold weather. This is particularly
convenient since the player can avoid using a metal rim that can freeze onto the
lips.
The number of possible combinations of mouthpiece components can be
expressed mathematically as seven factorial (7!), since seven different parts can
be combined. This means that when multiplying 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1, there
are 5,040 possible combinations of mouthpiece components. Good luck!

Instrument Finish
All brass instruments must have a finishing coat to keep the raw brass from
tarnishing. At least that was the prevailing wisdom until some players theorized
that the finishes interfered with the resonance of the metal and decided it would
be best to play an instrument with no finish. Not so, proved Renold Schilke,
president of the Schilke Brass Instrument Manufacturing Company. Schilke
selected three identical trumpets. He finished one in lacquer, the second in silver
plate, left the third unfinished, and presented them to a group of professional
trumpet players to evaluate. The result was that the silver-plated and raw brass
played the same, whereas the lacquered brass was significantly different. The
lacquer on the bell of the instrument had actually doubled the thickness of the bell
and thereby changed its resonating ability.
Given that bit of information, what is the buyer of a brass instrument to do?
Unless the search for an instrument is being conducted for a professional player,
the previous may be a bit more information than one needs. Many budgets do not
allow for the purchase of silver- or gold-plated instruments, and if they do,
perhaps it would be better to use those extra funds to buy more equipment. You
should resort to pragmatism and go with the lacquer.

Summary
Brass instruments for sale are easy to find. That is probably what makes the
search for suitable one a challenging task. They can be found in every music
store, on eBay, Amazon, all over the internet, and from too many different
countries of origin. What to do?
The first hurdle is to find a music store that has a significant number of the
subject instruments in stock. If the buyer lives in or near a major metropolitan
area, that may not be a problem. If not, perhaps it would be worth a trip to a
location where there is such a music store.
If the buyer is a professional on the instrument being sought, he or she will
know what to look for. If the buyer is less than a professional, it is highly
recommended that one who is knowledgeable about the instrument be part of the
final decision making process. Depending on the circumstances, the initial search
could be started by the non-professional and then culminate with all present at the
final decision.
Above is a laundry list of what to look for in a search. Not only is that list
long but each item is in itself a research topic. Depending on the buyer’s
individual circumstances, a reasonable scenario may begin with reviewing and
summarizing the information above. Make notes or bring the book along to the
trial experience.
A next step, where possible, would be to consult with everyone who is
associated with the subject instrument on a level above that of the buyer. Ask for
opinions and try the instruments they have. Then search the Internet for whatever
is offered in the price category of the subject instrument. “Knowledge is power.”
Compare prices and seek discounts.
It’s time now to move on to whatever music store of substance that has been
selected for the hands-on search. Call first to ensure they have an inventory of the
instrument being sought. Arrange for a visit and begin an active search. While at
the store and assuming that the instrument is a trumpet and there are ten available
to try, a process of elimination that works well is as follows:

1. Select one trumpet and play a few simple scales and long tones. Nothing
fancy yet. Listen carefully for tone quality, and try to intellectualize the
entire physical experience. If possible, verbalize that experience with
whoever is available to listen.

2. Take a second trumpet and go through the exact same process. Seek
differences in the two instruments and on the basis of those differences
pick one and eliminate the other.

3. Select another trumpet, play it, compare it with trumpet you selected from
the first two and eliminate one of those two.

4. Continue the process with the ten always retaining the one that best fits
the bill.

5. The one still standing is the one that will probably be best to buy.
However, be sure it can be bought with a trial period of at least a week
after which it can be returned with no conditions. During that week, play
the instrument in every venue that is part of your musical experience and
have everyone who is associated with those experiences try it and
comment on it.

Selecting a brass mouthpiece probably ranks high in the “almost impossible to

get it right the first time” category. Using the information above, conduct a trial
experience following the same “process of elimination” described above using the
new instrument. Good luck!
 Chapter 6

How to Rent a Brass Instrument

Renting a musical instrument is a multi-step process requiring an

understanding of the many pitfalls in the market, a basic knowledge of the
instrument being sought, and due diligence on the part of the renter. Following the
steps outlined in this chapter will lead to a successful rental experience at a
reasonable cost.
Musical instrument rental programs abound throughout the United States.
They can be found anywhere from the local mom-and-pop music shops to
national franchises on the Internet. The reason for this abundance? It is a good
business. Unfortunately, because of the almost universal lack of consumer
knowledge, it is a better business for the rental shop than for consumers. These
are usually parents of early grade school children but can also be beginner adults
or one who needs a second instrument for convenience.
Many students do not become proficient because they don’t practice. This is a
great advantage to the rental company for the less the student practices, the less
the wear and tear on the instrument. Sad but true. The rental companies’ best
customer is the one who is a long-time mediocre member of a school band or
orchestra.
Musical instruments are very complex and, as a result, few people know much
about them. A nonprofessional out to acquire an instrument by either rental or
purchase is a “babe in the woods.” The best protection is to consult with someone
who has had experience dealing with the music industry. Usually a music teacher
or professional musician can assist in deciding what to rent, what to look for
when renting, and where to rent it. Be sure to rent with an option to return,
exchange, or replace the instrument within a prescribed period of time. Then ask a
teacher or other knowledgeable individual to check the instrument within that
time period so the dealer can make any adjustments to the instrument if needed.
When renting an instrument, the first concern should be with its cleanliness.
No professional knowledge is needed for you to see that an instrument and case
are clean, and that those items have no major visible defects. A good quality
professional rental service will present an instrument that is either new, is not new
but looks new, or is at least in good playing condition, clean, and properly
prepared. The instrument’s surface should be clean with no evidence of any
substance that is not part of the instrument’s finish. Look down the lead pipe and
the shank of the mouthpiece for any evidence of debris. The inner bores should be
immaculately clean. All you should see is brass. If these check out, the next step
would be to try the instrument by playing a few simple scales or even just open
tones. Listen for clarity of sound and gauge the ease of playability.
Rental plans can range from a handshake to a multi-page, fine-print contract
tying the renter into a plan that will ultimately cost more than the instrument is
worth. Buyer beware! This phase of the rental process requires no knowledge
about instruments. It requires that you acquire information on all the rental plans
available. Read and understand the contracts for each plan and carefully calculate
the costs, not based on the initial charge, for that is often a loss leader, but on the
ongoing cost as you continue with the rental plan. This step is essential to getting
the best deal. Remember, because instruments are usually rented for long periods
of time, what appears to be a low-cost rental as a starting price can add up to your
having to pay several times the value of the instrument over the contracted rental
period. Read and compare all rental contracts before making a commitment.
Musical instrument rental plans can range in time and cost from a simple
school year rental for a one-time fee to every arrangement conceivable by man.
The following are some of the plans available:

Month-to-Month Rental
This is not recommended because, although it may be appealing to be able to
opt out at any time with as little investment as possible, it also permits the student
to opt out of study if he or she has a particularly tough week. Studies show that
committing to the rental of an instrument for a year has the effect of committing
to study for a year. The ongoing cost for these programs is usually the highest of
all plans.

Three Month Starter with Renewal

This is a particularly dangerous one for it introduces the rental as a loss leader
with an introductory period for a small price and then follows that with
ballooning costs not easily found in the small print of the contract. If you do the
math, the ultimate cost over an average rental period can end up being much more
than the value of the instrument without your owning it.

One Semester at a Time Rental

If the price is right, this may be O.K. except for the fact that, as in the month-
to-month rental, the option to quit mid-year is open and the mid-year renewal will
make the total year cost higher. This is not the best choice. Remember, shorter
rental period agreements cost more than longer ones.

School Year Rental

This is the most common and usually the most equitable plan because (A) the
time period coincides with the school program, (B) the student is committed to
the program for the school year, (C) the price is usually the best of all the rental
time periods, and (D) a reliable company will usually give the summer to follow
with no charge if the next school year’s payment is made prior to the summer
recess. When choosing this plan, be sure it includes a provision for instrument
exchanges at any time with no charge for the same priced instrument or a prorated
price for a more expensive one. This plan is also the best deal for an adult who is
not affiliated with any school program.

Full Year (12 Month) Rental

This program is best used if your child wants to begin study at the end of a
school year with the intention of continuing to study in the following school year.
Again, when using this plan, be sure it includes a provision for instrument
exchanges at any time with no additional charge for the same priced or lesser
priced instrument or a prorated price for a more expensive one.

Rent-to-Own
This program is appealing at first glance until you get into the weeds of the
contract. The question here is whether you want to own the first instrument you
get. Students, especially young ones, because of their lack of experience in
handling an instrument, usually cause more wear and tear than they will as they
progress. Also, there is often some likelihood that a student may want to change
instruments, so the possibility of a change should be included in the contract. As a
student progresses, he or she may need a better quality instrument. Does the
contract allow for upgrades? If so, at what cost.
The major issue in the rent-to-own program is the true value of the instrument
and its ultimate cost to you over the rental period. These programs often lack
specificity in stating the true value of the instrument in question. The advertising
will focus on the low monthly payments with little or no reference to the total cost
at the end of the contract. Most important is the total price being charged for the
instrument. In many cases, it is full list price. Keep in mind the fact that it is easy
to obtain a least a 30-40% discount on the purchase of any instrument on line or
even in a local music store. In some cases that discounted price can be paid over
time or at least put on a credit card that can be paid over a convenient time period.

Renting an Upgrade Instrument

The rental of a better than beginner quality instrument is often sought by
advancing students or professionals who want a second instrument for
convenience. If you lack experience in this field, look for guidance from a
professional on which brand and model instrument to rent.
It is unreasonable to expect a rental service to provide upgrade instruments at
the same price as beginner instruments; however, the higher price should be
proportionate to the higher value of the upgrade. A quick search on the Internet
will tell you the list price and usually the discounted prices of any known-brand
instrument. With that information in hand, you can then evaluate the deal being
offered by a rental service.
In summary, evaluate the quality of the instrument being provided and your
entire cost for the expected rental period. Will it reflect some kind of reasonable
discount or will it end up being full list price or greater? Consider the fact that the
dealer will have to wait a period of time for full payment and so is entitled to a
reasonable margin of profit, but there should also be some form of discount built
into the program that will benefit you.

Renting a New Instrument

If you prefer to rent a new instrument, expect to do so at a higher cost than
that of the traditional used instrument program. The cost and the rental program
will vary depending on the dealer, the quality of the instrument, and its retail
value. Renting a new instrument for a beginning student should be necessary only
if there are no good used instruments available. A reliable company with
professional standards can easily provide a used instrument for a lesser price.

Renting an Old Instrument

Old instruments of good quality are sometime offered for rental by either an
individual shop owner or by the more sophisticated larger companies. Be sure to
have a professional who knows the instrument check it carefully to evaluate its
structur al stability. When the instrument passes a physical inspection, it is then
necessary to determine if it is capable of producing the sound desired. Have
someone who is proficient on that instrument play it, and put it through its paces
to ensure it functions properly in every playing mode. If the player is satisfied
with the physical structure and the sound it produces, rent it. Regarding the cost
of renting such an instrument, the market is wide open for negotiating a price by
the consumer and the merchant.

Renting a Shopworn Instrument

The term shopworn is used to describe an instrument that shows some
evidence of wear. It can take the form of scratches, dents, or any other kind of
blemish. Dents on any part of a brass instrument that requires movement while
being played are not acceptable. This would include all slides and valve casings.
Assuming the instrument performs as it should, cosmetic blemishes should have
no effect on the instrument’s playability. Some companies specialize in such
rentals, offering them at significantly lower prices than those of the more
attractive instruments. Providing that the student does not object, such a rental is
usually a good deal monetarily.

Additional Charges
Along with the rental plans there can be addons such as damage protection,
loss protection, and a long list of accessories and learning aids. Buyer beware!
These are some of them.

Damage Protection
Damage protection is insurance which covers any damage that may occur
under normal use. The operative words here are normal use. Vandalism or
deliberate destruction is usually omitted from this coverage, so if the player is
inclined to vent his or her frustrations on the instrument, be prepared to pay for
the damage.
The cost of this insurance can vary greatly. It is based on the value of the
instrument along with whatever the market will bear. The prices can range from
$20.00 for a school year to as much as $20.00 per month. This is one of several
places where an unscrupulous merchant can take advantage of you. Check the
prices against other offers and remember to include this cost in the calculation of
total rental cost for the year. It is possible that a higher extra fee may suggest you
seek another dealer.

Loss Protection
 This is insurance against loss but again there are caveats to this kind of
coverage. You cannot just claim an instrument as being lost and expect to get it
replaced. Usually, the coverage is effective only in certain locations such as the
school, at home or from a car, or under certain conditions such as fire or burglary.
A police report and a statement from the principal of the school from which the
instrument is stolen, along with other documentation, are usually required to
process a claim.
The cost of this insurance can also vary greatly. It, too, is based on the value
of the instrument along with whatever the market will bear. Like damage
protection, the prices can range from $20.00 for a school year to as much as
$20.00 per month. This is also one of several places where an unscrupulous
merchant can take advantage so remember to include this cost in the calculation
of the total rental cost for the year.
It is possible that the loss of a rented instrument is covered under a
homeowner’s or valuable items policy, so check with your insurance broker
before signing up for this coverage with the music dealer. If this extra cost is
excessive, you may want to consider another dealer.
An additional consideration that is important is the procedure that is offered
by the rental company for servicing a rental instrument. For school program
rentals, a full service company will offer an in-school pick-up and delivery
service where permitted. With this program, the consumer will call the company
for the service. It will assign a pick-up day and specific location to leave the
instrument in the school in which the instruction is being provided. The
instrument will be picked up and returned to that location within a reasonable
time or sometimes replaced with another instrument. If the rental company is
local, there may be a location where the renter can bring the instrument in for
prompter service. For individual rentals, returning to the rental location for
service will be the renter’s obligation.

Summary
Much thought and research should precede the rental of an instrument if you
expect to end up on the winning end of a deal. Renter, beware! What can appear
to be a few dollars a month can over time (and the study of a musical instrument
is over time) end up costing hundreds if not thousands of dollars more than would
be necessary had you been prudent in the initial stages of the renting process.
 Chapter 7

How to Take Care of a Brass Instrument

Brass instruments require “per-use” care and periodic care consisting of

lubricating, cleaning, minor adjusting, condensation removal, and any other
action needed to ensure the proper functioning of the instrument. Keeping a brass
instrument properly lubricated before each use and cleaned after each use is
essential to its well-being. Periodic care includes any major action or repair such
as complete cleaning of the bore and valve slides, and replacing corks, bumpers,
felts, and other small parts. These processes are the same for most brass
instruments, the exceptions being those with rotary valves and trombone slides.

Lubricating (See chapter 8 on lubricants)

Piston Valves
All piston valves should be lubricated as needed, usually before every playing
session. To do so, remove the valve from its casing and check for any extraneous
debris on the valve. If there is any, wipe it with a soft clean cloth, give the valve a
coat of valve oil of choice, and replace the valve in its original position in the
casing. This procedure is used by most professionals and adult players.
For young children using this process, there is the risk of their dropping the
valve and damaging it (a serious event), putting the valve in the casing
incorrectly, dropping or damaging the spring if it not attached to the valve, or all
of the above. The safer, although less effective way to oil a valve, is to invert the
instrument so that the bottoms of the valves face up leaning to the side slightly off
right angle. In that position, place a few drops of oil into the hole in the bottom
valve cap while working the valves up and down. At this angle the oil will slide
down the sides of the valve casing, not pool in the bottom of the valve, and
lubricate it without the risks associated with valve removal. Repeat that procedure
while leaning the instrument at the opposite angle from the first application.
You may find opposing views on using this method which state that by doing
so, the oil will not reach all parts of the valve. It is the slight tilt to one side while
working the valves and then repeating the process with tilting to the opposite side
that permits the oil to cover the entire valve piston. It does work.

Rotary Valves
Rotary valves present a different challenge. Because the mechanism has
several different points of wear, rotary valves require three different kinds of oil
for proper maintenance. On each side of the rotor there is a bearing which needs
bearing oil. The valve itself within the casing is a rotor and will require rotor oil.
The mechanism called the linkage that moves the valves requires still another
kind of lubricant and that varies with the kind of linkage on the instrument.
There are four linkage systems currently in popular use. The ball and socket
system has a ball and socket connection to the piece attached to the bearing called
a stop arm. This connection can be lubricated with a light slide grease to prevent a
clicking sound when activated.
The mechanical system or the S link system is so named because of the shape
of the arm which resembles the letter S. The S-shaped arm is connected to the
stop arm with a screw which can be lubricated with slide grease to ensure quiet
operation.
The Unibal system is the most current addition to the group. The connection
to the stop arm consists of a steel ball with a hole in its center. This ball is encased
in a steel housing. A screw holds the unit to the stop arm. Because of the
simplicity of this system, the only lubricant needed is an occasional drop of oil.
There is a linkage system which consists of a special string configuration in
place of all the mechanisms described above. The string system only requires
lubrication where there are any metal moving parts. At those points a drop of
linkage oil will do the job. For the remaining moving parts of all these systems,
linkage oil should be used where needed.
To lubricate the bearings, remove the valve cap, apply one drop of bearing oil
to each bearing while working the valve so that the oil migrates into the bearing
where it joins the collar. Reverse the instrument and put a drop of bearing oil at
the point where the bearing joins the mechanism. Finish by putting a drop of oil
on the thread of the valve caps and replace them finger tight. Do not over-tighten
them.
 For any type of mechanical linkage, apply a drop of linkage oil to each
connection and work the oil in by operating the valves. In some cases where the
linkage is loose or noisy, using trombone slide cream on the offending moving
parts of the linkage may remedy the problem.
To lubricate the rotors without disassembling them, insert the lubricant into
the valve casing via the tuning slide ports. The risk here is in possibly having the
valve oil mix with the tuning slide lubricant and that combination getting into the
valve casing. This mixture will slow down the valve motion and require a
complete cleanup.
To oil valves using the tuning slide port, remove the tuning slide completely,
wipe off any excess tuning slide grease, hold the slide with the openings facing
upward, and insert a few drops of oil into the slide. The next step is crucial.
Holding the instrument with the open valve casing knuckles facing down and the
valve slide with the oil in it facing up, insert the slide into position. When the
slide is completely in place, turn the instrument around and work the valves to
allow the oil to pass on in-to the casing.
Another way to insert oil directly into a valve casing through the open slide
port is to use a valve oil bottle that has a needle extension on the nipple end. The
needle will extend down into the open tuning slide preventing the oil from
drawing any slide grease into the valve casing. Insert the oil while working the
valves.

Slides
All brass instruments have tuning or valve slides which, if not properly
maintained, will become stuck in place. This is a condition that can be difficult to
remedy. Valve slides should be moved in and out on a regular basis to ensure their
mobility. To lubricate the slides, remove them and wipe them clean with a soft
cloth. If there is any oxidation, remove it with a mild brass polish. When the slide
is clean, lubricate it by applying a tuning-slide lubricant of choice. Apply a small
amount of the lubricant in the center of the male slide tube and then distribute it
evenly over the entire slide. By doing so, the likelihood of the lubricant getting
into the valve casing will be greatly diminished. Use only enough lubricant to do
the job. Any excess may make its way into the valve casing, causing a sluggish
valve response.
Trombone slide lubricants are available in oil and cream form. Each
manufacturer, and there are many, will make every claim imaginable with respect
to the virtues of his or her product. Again, player’s choice. Whichever product
you choose, use it sparingly, as a thin coat of lubricant on a well-aligned dent-free
slide is all that is needed.
 Oil is easier to use on a trombone slide than cream because oil can be applied
with one hand by squirting the oil from the bottle, while the other hand holds the
slide in an open position. If slide cream is to be applied evenly, it is necessary to
remove the outer slide. Additionally, cream requires frequent applications of
water from a spray bottle to keep the lubricating factor active. Oil does not. There
are some trombonists who use plain water from a spray bottle as a lubricant.
Again, player’s choice.

Water-Key Care
The three types of water keys (spit valves), the swing arm, Amado, and Saturn
(See chapter 5) all require regular maintenance. For the swing arm type, there are
three steps to be taken. Lubricate the pivot screw with an occasional drop of valve
oil. Check the cork or rubber stopper to ensure that it is sealing the collar
properly. If not, replace the stopper. Finally, be sure the collar hole is clear,
allowing easy egress of the condensation.
The Amado water key has a spring-loaded piston contained within a housing
unit. Periodically, place a drop of valve oil on the moving parts where the piston
slides into the casing. Work the piston in and out a few times to ensure a smooth
movement.
The Saturn water key, which works on the same principle as the Amado key,
requires the least care. An occasional drop of oil on the moving parts should keep
the key in good condition.

Stuck Mouthpiece
Occasionally a mouthpiece will become stuck in the leadpipe. Under no
circumstances should any attempt be made to remove a stuck mouthpiece using
anything but a professionally made mouthpiece puller. The process is simple but
only with a puller device. See chapter 8 for an example of two different kinds of
mouthpiece pullers.

Bathing
Brass instruments are almost entirely waterproof. With the exception of a few
felt pads and corks, all parts of a brass instrument can be given a bath with mild
soap and warm water. Depending on the condition of the instrument, one can opt
to clean only the sections of the instrument that are in immediate contact with the
player’s breath or clean the entire instrument. If the instrument is reasonably
clean and just needs a freshening, clean the mouthpiece, lead pipe, tuning slide,
and bell section. This will only require the removal of the tuning slide. If the
instrument needs a complete cleaning, it will then be necessary to disassemble it
entirely.
To clean any brass instrument, use the following procedure:

1. Spread a clean towel on a flat surface large enough to hold all the
individual disassembled parts of the instrument.

2. Fill an appropriate-size tub with warm water and gentle dishwashing type
detergent. Place a large bath towel on the bottom of the tub to act as a
cushion that will prevent the instrument from being scratched.

3. Disassemble the instrument, removing all slides, valves, valve cap

bottoms, valve finger buttons, valve cap tops, and valve springs not
encased in the valves. Any stuck slides or mouthpieces should not be
forced out since this can damage the instrument. What may appear to be
an easy fix is not. Leave stuck components to the professionals.

4. Place all the small loose parts with the exception of the valves in a
separate container to soak.

5. Wash the valves individually in the soapy water using a soft-bristle valve
brush. Be sure to pass the brush through the valve ports, but take care not
to scratch the surface of the valves. Rinse them and lay them out on the
towel.

6. With each slide submerged in the soapy water, proceed to scrub its interior
with a snake brush until it is clean. With a soft washcloth, wash the
exteriors of the slides, removing any evidence of slide grease.

7. Return to the smaller parts and clean them as needed until they are free of
any debris. Valve cap bottoms are particularly prone to collecting detritus.
Give them special attention.

8. Submerge the entire stripped body of the instrument into the soapy water
and wash the inside and outside as needed.

9. Remove all instrument parts from the soapy, now not-so-clean water.
Drain the tub, replace the towel at the bottom of the tub, put all the parts
back in the tub and refill it with clean lukewarm water. Rinse all the parts
thoroughly and lay them out on the towel on the table as each one is
 deemed to be perfectly clean and rinsed. Dry all parts thoroughly with a
soft cloth.

Grease the slides using the process described above and replace them.

Oil and assemble the valves and replace them with their springs, if separate.
Replace any felts or corks as needed. Your clean instrument is now ready to go!

Exceptions
The process described above is applicable to most brass instruments; however,
the trombone and French horn require a slightly different approach to handling
their pitch-altering mechanism, that is, the slide on the trombone and the rotary
valve mechanism on the French horn.
The alignment of the inner slide on a trombone must be exact to the
millimeter if it is to perform properly. When removed from the outer slide, the
alignment of the inner slide becomes vulnerable to misalignment. Great care must
be taken to ensure that the two now unsupported inner slides are kept in a
perfectly parallel position and that they are not inadvertently bent out of
alignment.
The French horn rotary valve mechanism can be connected to the key spatulas
with various mechanisms, a cotton fiber cord, or with nylon cord. Each must be
handled in a different manner if the valves are to be removed to be cleaned.
Mechanically connected valves must be disconnected at the point where the
connecting rod meets the valve. It is not necessary to disconnect the spring part of
the action as long as the valve is free to be removed. The valves can then be
removed by unscrewing the valve caps and the cleaning process can begin.
If the valves are connected by a cord, loosen the screws at the points of
connection, remove the cord, and proceed with the valve cleaning. Cotton fiber
cords must be replaced with new cords. Nylon cords can be reused. In both cases,
it would be best to replace the cords with new nylon if that is convenient.

Summary
The good news about cleaning brass instruments is that the process for all of
them is quite similar. Cleaning is a matter of disassembling the instrument,
cleaning the parts as needed, drying them, and then lubricating and reassembling
those parts. Letting something air-dry will leave a residue, whereas drying with a
cloth will prevent that from happening. A tub filled with warm water, a gentle
detergent, and a table to work on are all that are needed. Almost no parts of these
instruments will need any significant adjustments when the cleaning process is
done properly. At the very most, it may be necessary to replace the felt or cork
valve washers, water-key cork, and possibly the valve bumper corks and strings
on an instrument with rotary valves.
 Chapter 8

Brass Instrument Accessories

Certain accessories are essential for use in maintaining a musical instrument.

This chapter focuses on accessories for brass instruments. There are three
categories of accessories available that are used to enhance the playing
experience: those that are necessary, those that make playing more enjoyable, and
those that are luxuries. The following accessories are those that are needed to
successfully play any brass instrument.

Lubricants
Brass instruments have many moving parts which require regular lubrication.
Moving parts of each instrument require different kinds of lubricants ranging
from oils of differing viscosities to creams and greases. A search for “brass
instrument lubricants” in Google Images will illustrate the variety of such
products that are available. One retailer alone offers 89 different products in this
category. The following provides a sampling of each type of lubricant and its use.

Piston Valve Oil

One of the topics in music that has been debated ad nauseum is that of piston
valve oils. Is there a difference? Does it make a difference? Some say there is
none, others take the position that different oils will profoundly affect the
performance of an instrument. Most professional brass players will have their
own opinion and choice. Different oils contain different ingredients which may
produce different results. Google musical instrument valve oil and 376 results will
appear. How to decide? The first step is to understand what purpose valve oil
serves.
 When valve oil coats the surface of a valve and its casing, the oil provides a
buffer between the two surfaces preventing direct contact, reducing wear, and
accelerating motion. The oil fills in the space, minute as it may be, between the
valve and its casing to create a perfect seal thereby preventing air leakage. A
decision must be made as to how thick the oil should be in order to achieve that
end.
The correct oil thickness (viscosity) to use is that which fills all of these
requirements. Since an accurate scientific evaluation of these factors is almost
impossible for the average person to perform, the choice must rely on the
judgment of the instrument’s player.
Some of the factors which should enter into the decision making process are
determining the quality of the instrument, its age, and the playing needs of the
owner. There is a direct relationship between the level of perfection of a valve’s
fit in its casing and the cost of the instrument. Less expensive instruments tend to
have looser fitting valves than those on a professional level instrument. Of course
this is totally dependent upon the maker and can vary greatly from one to another.
The judgment has to be made on a non-empirical basis, that being a good guess.
The objective will be to fill the gap between the valve and its casing with an oil
that will create a perfect seal while accelerating the action of the valve. The
decision comes down to trial and error.
The variety of oils available along with the accompanying sales pitches are in
some respects a disadvantage to the consumer. Have little faith in the propaganda
of the vendors. Begin by reading about the choices of those brass instrument
players who share their opinions on Internet blogs. Whom to believe? How to
choose?
In most cases, for an instrument with closely fitted valves a thinner oil will be
the better choice. The converse applies. As the valve fit becomes looser, a thicker
oil will be a better choice.
To test the viscosity of oils, place a drop of several different oils side by side
on one end of a smooth flat surface and then raise that end of the surface and
observe the rate of speed at which the oils travel down. Thicker oil will move
more slowly. When you know the viscosity of those oils, try each on the subject
instrument. Do not combine different oils during the trial. When changing oils, be
sure the valve and its casing are completely free of the previous trial oil. One can
draw a conclusion based on the response of the instrument to each product.
After making a selection on the viscosity, the thickness of the oil that works
best, a good next step is to try to determine if the chosen oil has any history of
causing damage to the metals involved. Some mineral-based oils when applied
through the tuning slide can come in contact with tuning slide grease. This
combination can result in the buildup of a substance that will result in sluggish
piston action. Synthetic oils are less inclined to have that reaction. Ultimately, you
will want an oil that will provide the quickest response of valve motion with the
fewest associated negative effects.
There is an additional issue of oil durability, which is how long the oil will
function successfully before it evaporates. To test an oil’s durability, rub a drop of
oil between the thumb and index finger and judge how long the oil’s lubricating
sensation lasts. Compare several oils against one another. Petroleum-based oils
will probably last a shorter time than synthetic oils. In the final analysis, the
choice of valve oil is a very individual one.

Rotary Valves
Unlike piston valves, maintaining rotary valves presents a different set of
procedures which are described in chapter 7. The process requires three different
oils: one for the bearings or spindle, another for the valves, and a third for the
linkage which is the mechanism that operates the valves. These oils should be
used on the parts for which they are intended and should not be interchanged nor
combined.

Bearing (Spindle) Oil

Bearing oil is used on the spindle or bearing which has the burden of wear-
and-tear on a rotary valve setup. It is, therefore, important that this portion of the
valve be serviced regularly using an oil specifically designed to accommodate for
that stress. This is usually a thicker oil than that used on the actual rotor but it is
available in various densities. When making the selection, you must give attention
to the possibility that an oil that is too thick can slow the action.

Rotor Oil
Rotor oil is available in several thicknesses. A selection should be made
depending on the rotor to casing tolerance, which is the space between the rotor
and its casing. If the instrument is of excellent quality and in good condition, the
lightest oil will most likely result in the best response. From that point on it will
be up to you to make a determination as to how heavy an oil to use. The judgment
will be based on the condition of the valves and their response to the oil you are
trying.
The goal in making a selection will be to provide the quickest valve response
while maintaining the best valve to casing seal. Since it is not practical for the
average player to make a scientific calculation of these two factors, the best
approach will be that of buying several oils of different densities and trying each.
Be sure that each trial begins with a clean valve and casing setup. This trial can be
preceded by the test described above, where different oils are placed on a flat
surface and it is tipped to the point where the oil begins to travel down. The rate
of speed at which the oils travel down will indicate their viscosity. Knowing the
thickness of each oil before it is tested will help in the decision making process.

Linkage Oil
There are four linkage systems currently in popular use. These are the ball and
socket system, the mechanical system or the S link system, the unibal system, and
the string system. The care of these systems is described in chapter 7 under rotary
valves. The ball and socket and S link systems require both linkage oil and a
small amount of ball joint lubricant where needed.

Tuning Slide Lubricants

All brass instruments have tuning slides which must move freely to allow
adjustments for cleaning and tuning. Tuning slide lubricants are produced in
liquid oil form, as a grease or cream, and as a gel. There is no scientifically
definitive information available that determines which is better so, once again, the
choice is up to you. Through experimentation, conferring with other brass
instrument players, and reading opinions on the appropriate blogs and other
Internet sources, it is possible to select a product(s) that will satisfy your needs.
Beware of a vendor’s propaganda. Read it for content and then apply that
information to that which has been gleaned from all other sources.
Tuning slide lubricants of each category — oil, grease, cream, or gel — are
available in a variety of viscosities. The only true way to decide on which is best
for a given situation after doing as much research as is sensible would be by
experimentation. Gather all the relevant information and purchase an assortment
of different lubes and try them. Hopefully, one will come out on top. The
objective will be to achieve an easy sliding motion with as perfect an airtight seal
possible. Tighter slides require a lighter lubricant. Perhaps an oil would be best.
Looser-fitting slides will benefit from a heavier oil or perhaps a grease or gel.
The variety of densities of these products is great enough to accommodate for
every possible fit. It is just a question of finding the one that is appropriate for
your specific need. Buy some, try them, and pick one. When doing so, don’t
forget the small moving parts such as the water key spring, lyre screw, and other
secondary moving parts on your instrument.

The Trombone
 The valve trombone’s lubrication needs are parallel to those of the trumpet or
any other piston valve instrument. The slide trombone requires the same attention
to its tuning slide but the hand slide mechanism is another issue. (See chapter 7
for information on this.) Trombone slide lubricants are available in petroleum-
based and synthetic oil or a cream solution. Over the years many non-instrument
products such as face cream, Pledge furniture polish, hair cream, and just plain
water have been used by both professionals and others. They all work to some
degree depending on the condition of the slide and the requirements of the player.
Given the fact that the same conditions of variety and ambiguity exist for slide
lubricants as do for piston and rotary valve lubricants, the best procedure for
making a selection would be to follow the plan of research and experimentation
described previously with an assortment of those lubricants that might fill the
need.
There are slide trombones that have a rotary valve which is used to extend the
instrument’s range while facilitating the playing of certain difficult passages.
These valves function in the same manner as those of the French horn and should
receive the same care.

Water Key Lubricants

At this writing there are three kinds of water keys on brass instruments. These
are the swing arm, Amado, and Saturn types. (See chapter 7 on water key care.)
Following the instructions in chapter 7, piston valve oil is the lubricant most often
used. Purchasing a spit valve specific oil may be a bit over the top for picking
specific oil choices.

Brass Instrument Mouthpieces

Choosing a proper mouthpiece is discussed in chapter 5. To satisfy the broad
range of needs, the music industry has produced a variety of mouthpieces so vast
and diverse flooding the market with more options than an individual can
intelligently evaluate. Additionally, there is no universal industry coding or
numbering system used to describe the features of the parts of a mouthpiece. Most
brass instrument mouthpieces have a marking consisting of the maker’s name and
some alphanumeric indicator. Unfortunately, these numbers are proprietary so that
a marking of 3C on two different brands may mean different things.
The mouthpiece section in chapter 5 details a process for selecting a
mouthpiece from the possible 5040 combinations of mouthpiece components. A
Google Images search for “trumpet mouthpiece size guide” will yield an
overwhelming quantity of information on that subject. What to do?
 A logical approach to beginning a search for a brass mouthpiece might be to
review each part of the anatomy of a mouthpiece with attention to how it relates
to your specific circumstances. The needs of a beginner are significantly different
from those of a professional. The needs of professionals differ depending on the
venue in which they perform. A marching band player’s mouthpiece requirements
are not likely to match those of a jazz or symphonic performer. There are
numerous additional venues that require subtle differences in a mouthpiece
structure if one is to seek the optimum results. Given that, we are back to the
5040 possible choices. The best one can do is generalize on the effect each of the
components will have on a player’s tone production.
The following is a summary review of the effect on sound production each of
the six components will have as covered in chapter 5: Figure 8.1 is a review
which identifies the parts of a brass instrument mouthpiece.

Rim
The rim is generally described as being wide, narrow, round, or sharp. For
thick lips choose a wide rim, average lips a medium rim, thin lips a narrow rim. A
narrow rim allows for more flexibility with greater lip stress. A wide rim does the
opposite; there is less flexibility with greater endurance.
Cup
A larger diameter cup provides a greater vibrating area and a fuller sound.
Deeper cups favor lower sounds; shallow cups favor higher sounds.

Shoulder
The shoulder controls the flow of air into the throat. Find one that produces
the best sound with the least effort.

Throat
The throat controls the airflow. Too small a size will tend to smother or mute
the extreme registers, while too large an opening will not provide sufficient
control for the optimum tone. Medium???

Backbore
The backbore controls sound quality. The larger bores produce mellower
sounds; narrow bores produce brighter sounds. Experimenting with a variety of
sizes is the only approach to take.

Shank
A perfect fit of the shank to the mouthpipe is essential to avoid turbulence in
the air flow at the joint. You should not be able to move the mouthpiece in any
direction except in or out.

Material
Sterling silver, German nickel silver, silver or gold-plated brass, plastic,
Lucite, aluminum, and stainless steel are the materials most commonly used.
Sterling silver, silver plate, and nickel plate are the most popular.

Detachable Rim
A rim that screws on can be used with mouthpieces of various components.
This enables switching to a Lucite rim for outdoor cold weather work in place of
a metal rim which can freeze onto your lips.
The following are some of the numerous websites that focus on mouthpiece
topics.
http://www.dwerden.com/Mouthpieces/trombone.cfm;
http://www.bachbrass.com/pdf/AV6001%20Bach%20Mpce%20Manual.pdf;
https://mouthpieceexpress.com/specshub/index.html;
https://mouthpieceexpress.com/specshub/comparisons/comparison_idx.html;
http://www.trumpetplayersdirectory.com/mouthpiececomparisonchart.html;
http://www.allbrassradio.com/page1/;
https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/HWFBC5H.

If the reader wants to have a mind-boggling experience, go to Google Images

and search “trumpet mouthpiece sizes guide.”

Mouthpiece Puller
The only way to remove a stuck mouthpiece from a leadpipe is with the use of
a mouthpiece puller. Figure 8.3 shows two different types that do the job without
any damage to the mouthpiece or the instrument.
 Figure 8.4 shows four different kinds of mouthpiece containers. The choice is
personal.

Cleaning Brushes
All brass instruments are made up of an assortment of tubing through which
the player’s breath passes. The result is a need for periodic cleaning discussed in
chapter 7. The music industry offers an assortment of brushes designed to fit into
every part of every brass instrument. The following are some examples of these
brushes. Other iterations of these configurations are available.
Electronic Tuners
An electronic tuner is the best device for you to use as a point of reference
from which to check intonation. A comprehensive model offers a complete
chromatic scale from which to hear a pitch. Select the pitch needed, press the
required button for that sound generator, and you will hear the pitch (Fig. 8.8).
 A more advanced type of device shows an image of the pitch being produced
(Fig. 8.9). When a note is sounded, a dial on a screen will indicate if the sound is
sharp, flat, or spot-on in relation to the actual pitch being sought. If necessary, you
can then adjust the appropriate tuning slide up or down until the correct pitch is
reached.

The speed at which technology is advancing precludes my going into any

detail on this subject for fear that by the time this sentence is complete, the facts
will once again have changed. Apps and websites on any music topic abound.
Aids to tuning appear on websites, iPads, iPhones, the Internet, and whatever else
will be invented by the time this book is published. There may be some advantage
to taking this route for tuning assistance; however, in doing so, it would be wise
to keep in mind that the objective of this exercise is to tune your instrument. Try
to avoid being distracted by the intrigue of technology and utilize what should be
practice time on getting involved with the wonders of the new normal.

Summary of Tuners
Human beings possess every level of pitch discrimination from perfect to tone
deaf. For those with excellent pitch discrimination, an electronic tuner that
produces a pitch without visual enhancement can provide an adequate tuning
experience. For those who are weak in pitch discrimination, a visual aid or screen
showing how the sound being produced relates to the actual pitch needed can be
an excellent learning tool.

Mutes
A mute is a device placed on a musical instrument to modify the natural
sound being produced. On brass instruments different-shaped mutes placed in the
bell of the instrument alter the balance of the harmonic series (see chapter 11) and
modify the volume. Mutes can be made of plastic, a fortified cardboard,
aluminum, copper, brass, and other materials that can be shaped to produce the
desired results.

Straight Mute
A straight mute diminishes the strength of the lower partials of the overtone
series allowing the upper partials to dominate the sound. The result is a crisp,
piercing sound. The sound differs depending on the material from which the mute
is made. Those made of aluminum produce a brighter sound than those made of
fortified cardboard.
Cup Mute
A cup mute is a straight mute with an additional cup shaped section. This
addition modifies the upper partials of the sound, allowing the lower partials to
dominate the timbre. The result is a mellower sound than that of a straight mute.
Harmon Mute
A Harmon mute (trade name) is a two-part unit usually made of aluminum. A
bell-shaped section that is fitted into the bell of the instrument has a tube-shaped
opening in its center into which a second section called a stem can be inserted.
The stem is removable and can be inserted to any degree to alter the sound to suit
the player’s needs. The addition of the stem alters the sound by increasing the
intensity of the fourth degree of the overtone series. With this mute, a player can
achieve a wah-wah effect by closing or opening the orifice on the front of the
mute.
Derby Mute
A derby mute looks exactly as the name implies. Originally an actual hat,
derby mutes eventually were made in the same form but from aluminum and now
a type of reinforced cardboard. This mute is used to produce a wah-wah effect
similar to but slightly different from that of the Harmon mute.
Plunger Mute
A plunger mute is another appropriately named mute. This is an actual sink
plunger (with the handle removed) that the player places over the instrument’s
bell with varying degrees of coverage to create a wah-wah effect similar to that of
the Harmon mute.
Bucket Mute
A bucket mute is unique in that it is not inserted into the instrument’s bell but
rather clipped onto the outside rim of the bell. As the name implies, the mute is
shaped like a bucket which has a cotton lining to produce a dampened more
subdued sound by muffling the upper partials.

Stop Mute
Variations of the mutes described above are made for all instruments of the
brass family. The exception is the stop mute which is specifically designed for the
French horn. This mute is designed to replace the practice of modifying the horn’s
sound for special effects by the player placing his or her hand partway into the
bell, a process called hand stopping. The stop mute is used in place of the player’s
hand.
Practice Mute
Practice mutes are designed to modify the volume of an instrument in order to
allow practicing under most non-music friendly circumstances. There are
numerous non-electronic models on the market all claiming their virtues. Trying
as many as possible is probably the best route to take in making a selection. When
deciding, two important considerations are to be sure the mute’s weight will not
interfere with the balance of the instrument and that the mute will not noticeably
impede air flow.

Electronic Practice Mute

Also available are electronic practice mutes which muffle the ambient sound
while picking up the sound on a microphone connected to an amplifier and
earphones. You will be able to hear an excellent reproduction of the sound of the
instrument while the environment in which the practicing is taking place
experiences a mere whisper.
Mute Summary
Mutes modify the balance of the harmonic structure of a sound. By changing
the ratio of upper to lower partials, the sound can become more strident,
mellower, or assume a timbre that is unique to the mute in use. Certain mutes
such as the Wah-Wah or derby mutes can be manipulated by the player to create
additional unique musical effects.

Music Stands
A music stand is a very important aid to playing an instrument. Correct
posture and playing position are essential to successful performance on any
instrument. The recommended traditional seating, standing, and playing positions
evolved as a time-tested result of adjusting these positions to achieve the best
playing results. When playing music from a score, the music must be placed at a
distance suitable for you to see it comfortably while holding the instrument in the
correct playing position. Thus, we have the music stand.
Music stands are sold in three basic designs with numerous variations for
each. There are stands that fold, those that are rigid or non-folding, and tabletop
versions.

Folding
The folding stand or sheet music stand (Fig. 8.18) is very useful for a
beginning student. It is lightweight, totally portable, and very inexpensive.
Folding stands can also be purchased with a carrying case for even more
convenient portability. A caveat to this low cost mobility is found in the stand’s
fragility and some degree of instability. These stands can easily be knocked over
and the lightweight parts can be bent out of shape.

Rigid
The rigid design stand, (Fig. 8.19) sometimes referred to as concert, stage, or
orchestra music stand, is not convenient to carry, usually quite heavy, and
intended to be used most often in one particular place. They are more expensive
than the folding stand but are very stable, able to hold a significant amount of
music, and are practically indestructible. The cost of these stands usually ranges
from two to four times that of a folding stand.
Baroque
Should the budget permit, you can buy every degree of elaboration on the
basic design from contemporary to Baroque style at costs that can run into
hundreds of dollars (Fig. 8.20).
Table Top
A tabletop stand is small, highly portable, does not have legs, and is
lightweight and inexpensive. It can be placed on any stable surface and allows
complete flexibility. The caveat here is that, should it be positioned on a
conventional tabletop, the music could be too low for a player in standing
position to see while maintaining a proper playing position. This stand may work
if you are playing in the sitting position. Figure 8.21 shows three models of table
top stands: from left to right they are a decorative model, folding design, and a
concert style.
 Some students elect to place their music on a piano music stand. This is not
recommended since the stand lacks portability and restricts control of the distance
and height the music can be placed from the player. Depending on the piano, the
position may also be too low to allow for a proper playing position.

Lyres
A lyre is the ultimate music stand. It is attached to an instrument and goes
wherever the instrument goes. Lyres are used to hold the music for marching band
instruments. There is a specially designed receiver soldered on to each marching
instrument to accommodate a lyre.
Lyres are designed with every possible configuration to accommodate every
instrument. There are also lyres with clips of a universal design for instruments
that do not have a receiver. Figure 8.22 shows three different kinds of lyres for
use on brass instruments.
Instrument Stands
There is a stand designed to hold each brass instrument safely when it is not in
use. Figure 8.23 shows a stand for each instrument. By no means do these
illustrations approach the variety available. If you intend to buy a stand, I suggest
that your search begin by entering “(instrument name) stands” on Google Images,
scroll down to see the vast variety available, click on the picture of the ones you
like best, then click on “visit page” for additional information on the product.
When you find something of interest, your best move might be to order it on-line
if the return policy is favorable. If you prefer to shop directly, print the page on
the desired product and begin the search at your local music store.
Instrument Cases
Cases are available in a variety of designs for each instrument. The two broad
categories are hard and soft cases. Soft cases are often called “gig bags.” Hard
cases (Fig. 8.24-29) are usually heavier than soft cases but offer a significantly
greater degree of protection for the instrument. Some hard cases are made of
wood covered with various durable fabrics. The inner lining is contoured to fit the
instrument, is padded, and often is lined with velour. A suspension system which
prevents the instrument from being in direct contact with the case by holding it at
several key points is a desirable extra.
A simpler and usually less expensive construction for a hard case is light-
weight and durable molded plastic with an inner lining of appropriately soft
padding with a plush fabric.
Soft cases, if padded, will provide sufficient protection for normal use. If the
instrument is to travel in any multi-item storage situation or is to be transported
by young players, a hard case is recommended. The figures below show a variety
of hard cases for various instruments that are representative of the market. A
simple “Google Images” search of cases by instrument will show almost the
entire market. Numerous manufacturers offer a variety of both hard and soft cases
at every price point possible; however, there are a few makers of custom cases
who will craft practically anything the customer requests.

Brass Instrument Hard Cases

Brass Instrument Soft Cases (Gig Bags)
Soft cases, if padded, will provide sufficient protection under normal, player-
held use. If the instrument is to travel in any multi-item storage situation or is to
be transported by young players, a hard case is recommended. The figures below
show a variety of soft cases for various instruments that are representative of the
market. A simple “Google Images” search of cases by instrument will show
almost the entire market. The following pictures include descriptions of the
numbered sections of these padded soft gig bags. Other more modest models can
be found in most music stores. For your convenience, I will show one bag per
page. These pictures are printed with the permission of Altieri Instrument Bags @
https://www.altieribags.com.

Trumpet Gig Bag

1. Flex Grip, swivel shoulder strap;
2. Zipper top – the "circle-in-the-square" shape buries the bell rim. Plus there
is no zipper along the valve line;
3. Lead pipe nestled in quilted foam;
4. Compartment big enough for several mutes and method books with a
small Velcro pocket inside for mouthpieces and valve oil;
5. Backpack straps (not shown) on back;
6. Circular drawstring protector tightens around the bell.
Trombone Gig Bag
1. Expandable compartment for mutes and music with Velcro strap for stands
and small pocket for mouthpieces;
2. Quilted drawstring circle encompasses the bell area;
3. Square zipper top buries the bell from outer edges – the “circle in the
square” works magic around the bell;
4. Slide box with quilted sleeve for the slide;
5. Velcro flap secures the slide in place.
French Horn Gig Bag
1. Leadpipe safely “buried” in this corner;
2. Accessory, music compartment with mouthpiece pocket inside;
3. Swivel, padded, shoulder strap;
4. Handles for both top and bottom;
5. Zippers located across the “empty” space of the bell, never down the brass
and leadpipe spine;
6. Padded zipper protector provides extra bell rim cushion.

1. Leadpipe and body buried inside rip-stop nylon and dense closed cell
foam;
2. Multilayered foam and plastic bell protection;
3. Sleeve covers the backpack straps — it can also slide over a rolling cart;
4. Perfectly balanced backpack straps that tuck away when not in use;
 5. Bottom buckle adds another layer of protection.

Tuba Gig Bag

1. Giant music compartment with stand sleeve and 2 mouth piece/accessory
pockets;
2. Adjustable body support strap tightens around the bottom to eliminate
movement;
3. Zipper-free double drawstring closures creates accordion pleats around
your bell for superb bell rim protection—just pull from both sides and you
never have to worry about broken zippers;
 4. Padded bell cover adds another layer of protection in the bell area;
5. Bell cover adjusts the bag length to make room for a Mute—and even
makes a great rain bonnet!

When buying a case for an instrument you already own, be sure to arrange for
a chance to try your instrument in the case for a fit. It is not uncommon for an
instrument to not fit properly in a case that is supposedly designed for that
instrument.

Conclusion
The introduction to this chapter states that musical instrument accessories fall
into the categories of those that are necessary, those that make playing more
enjoyable, and those that are luxuries. These three categories are not divided by
strict rules. What may be one person’s luxury could well be considered by another
to be a necessity. As is usually the case in the music world, the decision is unique
to the individual.
The examples shown in this chapter are just a sampling of what is available in
each category. There are in fact hundreds of additional variations on the market.
 Chapter 9

How Brass Instruments Compare to Each Other

Refresher – If you will take a moment to review the information on scientific

pitch notation (Fig. 9.1) also in the introduction and in chapters 2 and 3, you will
better understand the relationship among these instruments.

Different Brass Instruments

The following is a conversation about the more popular brass instruments and
how they relate to one another. The information includes the instrument’s name,
the key in which it transposes (see chapter 2 on transposition), and the
comfortable range in which it performs. A comparison will show the similarities
or differences among them, highlighting similarities in playing techniques where
appropriate. The indicated range of all instruments is approximate, since range
can be extended in both directions if the player has the ability to do so. All of
these instruments are described in detail in chapter 2. Some information will be
repeated for the convenience of the reader.
There are eight similar instruments that currently perform in the upper range of
the brass section and numerous others that are less frequently used.

Standard Bb Trumpet
The Bb trumpet (Fig. 9.2) is the most popular of the upper brass instruments.
It has a range from F#3 to C6. Although most trumpets are built with piston
valves, there are trumpets made with rotary valves which are more commonly
found in Europe.
Trumpets are made in many keys affording musicians the opportunity to create
different effects and to play in all ranges. At this time the trumpets available in
the mid to upper range are the mezzo-soprano in C and Bb, soprano in D, high
Eb, and high F, sopranino in high G, piccolo (trumpet) in high Bb, contralto in
low Eb and F, and the tenor in C.

Bb Bass Trumpet
The Bb bass trumpet (Fig. 9.3), the lowest of the trumpets, is made in C or
Bb. It is played in the treble clef in spite of the fact that it mimics the trombone in
range and to some degree in timbre. This instrument transposes below the written
note so that the bass trumpet in C sounds an octave below the written note and the
bass trumpet in Bb sounds a major ninth below the written note.

Slide Trumpet
Another unique but not too well known instrument in the upper brass family is
the slide trumpet (Fig. 9.4). This instrument dates back to the Renaissance and is
still a member of the contemporary trumpet family. It was developed as a step in
the evolution of the natural trumpet which was before the invention of valves. It is
a Bb instrument with a slide in place of the traditional valves. A slide on a
trumpet eliminates all of the inherent intonation problems created by valves by
giving the player the opportunity to adjust the slide to the exact position needed
for perfect intonation.
Herald Trumpet
A version of the standard Bb trumpet sometimes called the Aida trumpet for
its part in the opera by the same name is the herald trumpet (Fig. 9.5). Instead of
having the tubing folded over as with most brass instruments, the portion of the
tubing beyond the valves is extended outward to end in the bell. It is not
uncommon to attach banners of an appropriate nature to hang from that extended
bell stem. The herald trumpet has all the attributes of the traditional Bb trumpet
and requires the same playing technique. It can be a bit uncomfortable to hold in
playing position for an extended length of time.

Valve Piccolo Trumpet

 The Bb piccolo (Italian for small) trumpet (Fig. 9.6) is one-half the size of the
standard Bb trumpet and sounds a minor seventh higher than the written note or
an octave above the standard Bb trumpet. To explain further, the Bb trumpet is a
transposing instrument which sounds one step lower than the written note. When
it plays a written C4 (middle C), the sound it produces will be Bb3, one step
below C4. The piccolo trumpet sounds an octave above the Bb trumpet. When it
plays written C4, it will sound Bb4 or one octave above the standard Bb sound.
Bb4 is a minor seventh above the written note C4 and an octave above Bb3.
The piccolo trumpet is the highest pitched of the brass instruments. It has a
range from F#3 to G5. Not a great deal of music is written for the piccolo
trumpet. It is primarily used to perform trumpet parts that center around the
higher register of the trumpet range. Using a piccolo trumpet in this manner
facilitates the performer’s task in extended playing in that high range.
Piccolo trumpets are also made in the keys of A, F, G, D, and C although
these are less commonly used. The music of J. S. Bach was the incentive for the
invention of the D piccolo trumpet since much of his trumpet parts centered on
those notes in the higher trumpet register.
Many contemporary piccolo trumpets have a fourth valve providing alternate
fingerings to facilitate playing difficult passages, adjust intonation of certain
notes, and extend the range of the instrument down by a fourth.

Pocket Trumpet
The pocket trumpet (Fig. 9.7) is a smaller version of the standard Bb trumpet.
Not to be confused with the piccolo trumpet, the pocket trumpet is about half the
size of a standard trumpet yet plays in the same range. This is accomplished by
having the tubing of the smaller instrument the same length and bore size as the
larger instrument but built in a more compact configuration. The pocket trumpet
is not considered to be part of the instrumentation of an orchestra or band but
rather a convenient device which can easily be transported when a full-size
instrument is not practical. The pocket trumpet is also considered to be a novelty
for those who are inclined toward that area of interest.
The early pocket trumpets which began to appear in the nineteenth century
suffered from poor tone quality and intonation because of the distortion of the
size of the bore and bell. It was not until the mid– twentieth century that pocket
trumpets were designed with an architecture that closely resembled that of the
standard Bb trumpet. The result has been a small convenient-to-carry trumpet that
can, under certain circumstances, be used in place of a full-size Bb trumpet.

Cornet
The cornet (Fig. 9.8) is essentially a modified Bb trumpet. While the trumpet
is primarily cylindrical with some conical parts, the cornet is primarily conical.
This accounts for the difference in timbre of the two instruments. The trumpet
might be described as having a bright, penetrating tone whereas the cornet’s tone
is mellower. If you compare the appearance of the two instruments, the cornet
would look smaller in spite of the fact that it has the same amount of tubing as the
Bb trumpet. The difference in the appearance of size is because the cornet tubing
is bent into two more compact loops.
The combination of the smaller conical bore and the two turns in the tubing
present greater resistance to the player with the resulting tone being mellower
than that of the trumpet. There is little difference between the two in playing
technique. The cornet plays in the key of Bb with a range from F#3 to C6.
Currently in use are the mezzo-soprano cornet in Bb and the soprano in high Eb.
Cornets are generally used in British brass bands, concert bands, and military
bands whereas trumpets are less often used in these venues. In the first half of the
twentieth century, American concert bands often arranged separate parts for the
trumpet and cornet. Early jazz bands also featured the cornet. It was not until the
middle of the twentieth century that the trumpet began to replace the cornet in the
“big bands” and in most of the popular music venues.

Flugelhorn
The flugelhorn (Fig. 9.9) is, in effect, an alto trumpet. It has the same range
and pitch as the trumpet, F#3 to C6, but demonstrates its unique characteristics in
the contralto range where it produces a rich, mellow tone. This quality is the
result of the instrument’s bore which, like that of the cornet, is conical as opposed
to a trumpet bore which is cylindrical and produces a brighter tone. If one were to
rate this “group of trumpets” in brilliance of timbre, the Bb trumpet would be the
brightest, the cornet would rank next as a mellowed trumpet, followed by the
flugelhorn with a timbre approaching that of the French horn.
The flugelhorn differs from its upper cousins in performance challenges when
it reaches the upper register in the area of G5 and above. At that point it becomes
more difficult for the performer to firmly articulate higher notes. The better tonal
neighborhood for this instrument is in the middle to lower register where it can
produce an expansive melodic line.
Some of the more recent model flugelhorns are now being fitted with a fourth
valve which, when activated, lowers the playing range by a fourth. The fourth
valve can also be used in place of the traditionally sharp combination of the first
and third valve, the result being better intonation.

Flugelhorns are also made with rotary valves and with a tunable leadpipe (Fig.
9.10). This unique device is a modification of the beginning of a leadpipe. A slide
with a lock permits the player to tune the instrument by moving that section of the
leadpipe in or out. It is the opinion of some that tuning in this manner results in
less bore turbulence than extending the traditional tuning slide at the end of the
leadpipe.
 Presently, there are soprano, alto, tenor, and bass flugelhorns providing a brass
section with a rich mellifluous timbre throughout the entire tonal range.

French Horns
French horns are produced as a single horn in Bb or F, a descant horn in
Bb/high F, a double horn in Bb and F, a compensating horn also in Bb and F but
with less tubing, and a triple horn combination in Bb, and F with a descant horn
all in one instrument. Any of these horns can be built with a detachable bell.

Single Horn
The single French horn (Fig. 9.11) consists of a coiled tube with three rotary
valves which open and close to increase or diminish various lengths of tubing
being used. It is the simplest form of horn usually used for beginning students. A
drawback of the single horn in F occurs when the player ascends to notes above
C5. It is at this point that the open tones in the natural overtone series begin to be
closer together making it more difficult to accurately attack those notes.
 The Bb single horn’s overtone series does not have that higher register
problem but when played in the mid to lower register loses some of the desirable
timbre associated with the French horn. This is not the case with the F horn which
has the desirable sound but with difficult articulation in the upper register. The
problem was rectified with the creation of the double horn which is a combination
of an F horn and a Bb horn in one unit. The usual beginning student will use a
single horn and, as a student progresses, move on to a double horn.

Double Horn
The double horn (Fig. 9.12) is a complete single Bb and complete single F
horn combined into one unit. It has a fourth valve which allows the player to
switch from a Bb horn to an F horn by pressing a thumb trigger. This action turns
a rotary valve to redirect the vibrating column of air from one section of tubing to
another. Switching from F to Bb makes playing high notes which have a closer
interval proximity easier. The combination creates a heavier horn but solves the
problem of accurate articulation in the upper register while maintaining true horn
tone quality in all registers.
Compensating Horn
This instrument was the first attempt at configuring the tubing needed to
create a double horn result. It was in effect a Bb horn with additional tubing that
when activated would change the Bb to F (Fig. 9.13). Instead of there being two
complete horns as does a double horn, the compensating horn has tubing of one
complete horn with enough added tubing on that structure to produce a second
horn result when activated. The result was a lightweight double horn.
Compensating horns are still part of the French horn inventory. Whereas a double
horn has tubing for two complete horns, Bb and F, a compensating horn has a
smaller set of tubing added on the basic horn to provide an F and Bb option.
Descant Horn
The descant horn (Fig. 9.14) is a smaller instrument and sounds an octave
above the F horn. This horn facilitates playing music that centers on the higher
notes in the French horn range.
Double Descant Horn
The double descant horn (Fig. 9.15) is pitched in Bb/high F or F alto. The Bb
section is the same as that section of a double horn. The high F section has half
the tubing of the F single horn resulting in that portion sounding an octave higher
than the F single. This configuration facilitates playing in the high register by
providing an overtone series with harmonics further apart in that register. Descant
horns are also made in Eb.
Triple Horn
The triple horn (Fig. 9.16) is a combination of a single horn in F, a horn in Bb,
and a descant horn in high F or F alto, all in one instrument. This instrument has
two thumb triggers which the player uses to switch to whichever instrument is
suitable for the music being performed. The triple horn affords the player the best
of all worlds. It provides the excellent tone of the F horn in the lower to mid-
range without the stress associated with that horn’s upper partials, a secure pitch
articulation in the upper partials that is associated with the Bb horn without
having to endure the lesser timbre of that instrument in the lower to mid-range,
and finally, the additional security of the extreme upper register afforded by the
descant horn. Each horn is available to the player by simply pressing the correct
trigger.
 There are some disadvantages to the triple horn; the first is that its weight is
almost equal to that of all three instruments combined. A more serious issue
results from the fact that the three horns are sharing the same leadpipe and bell
section. These parts of an instrument should be designed to suit the specific
properties of each particular horn. The results thus far have been dealt with by the
industry’s performing a balancing act which provides some measure of success in
the final tone quality of all three sections of the horn. They are still working on it.

Detachable Bell

This French horn is exactly what the name implies. For the convenience of
storage and travel, some horns are made with bells that are threaded on the bell
stem side to match a similar thread on the bell itself. It is at that point that the bell
can be screwed on or off for the convenience of the player (Fig. 9.17). This
configuration also allows for the use of different bells on the same instrument
which can produce different effects.
Mellophone
The mellophone (Fig. 9.18) resembles a French horn and is often used as a
substitute for the horn when one is not practical or available. The two models of
mellophones are the marching and traditional models. The marching model is
designed with a bell front to direct the sound forward in a marching band. If the
concert model were used while marching, the sound would be directed backwards
as the band marches forward.
The instrument is played with piston valves located for use with the right
hand. The mellophone is considered by some to be useful when a quick change
from the trumpet or cornet to a French horn-like instrument is required. A Bb
mellophone will use the same fingering as a trumpet whereas the F mellophone
uses the same fingering as that of the single French horn in F.
There is a point of view that the mellophone/French horn relationship is
misleading since the two instruments produce significantly different quality
sounds. The argument goes on to indicate that the French horn sound is
compatible with orchestral string and woodwind sections, does not have
significant tonal strength to contribute meaningfully to a brass band, and is
difficult to manage physically while marching.
On the issue of the mellophone being used as an introductory instrument for a
beginning French horn student you must consider the fact that although they look
similar, the instruments are entirely different. The mellophone is fingered by the
right hand using piston valves. Additionally, the two instruments are held in
opposite directions; the mellophone is held with the bell facing toward the left,
the French horn with the bell toward the right. The right hand placement in the
bell of the French horn also plays a role in controlling intonation and timbre. This
is not the case with the mellophone. The actual fingering of the mellophone is
different depending on the pitch of the instrument. As stated above, the Bb
mellophone uses the same fingering as that of the trumpet. The F mellophone
uses the same fingering as that of the single F French horn.

Trombone
Throughout history the trombone has evolved in every pitch from the piccolo
trombone as the highest pitched to the contrabass as the lowest. That broad range
was set into two architectures including the slide mechanism which is the most
familiar and the valve trombone which is structured like all the other valve
instruments.
Trombones are built in an assortment of keys some of which are the alto in
Eb, tenor in Bb, symphony in Bb, bass in Bb, and valve in Bb. The most
commonly used trombones are the tenor and the bass.
 Among the more unusual iterations of the instrument are the super-bone, a
combination of a slide and valve trombone, and the pBone, a trombone made of
plastic. These instruments might be more correctly categorized as somewhat non-
conforming as opposed to the traditional piccolo through contrabass instruments
mentioned above.

Tenor Slide Trombone

The tenor (slide) trombone (Fig. 9.19) uses a slide in place of the valves most
other brass instruments use to lengthen or shorten their instrument. If the player is
capable of discerning proper pitch placement, there is no limit to the level of pitch
perfection attainable since the slide can be placed at any point necessary to
achieve accurate intonation. Due to the slide design, the bore of the instrument
must be primarily cylindrical. The exception occurs with the taper of the bell
section which flares out to approximately eight to nine inches at the widest point.
This section is equal to about one-third of the entire length of the instrument. The
range of the tenor trombone is from E2 to F5 producing pitches that range
between that of the trumpet and the tuba.

Bass Trombone
The bass trombone (Fig. 9.20) currently in use is very similar to the tenor
model; both are pitched in Bb and have the same length of tubing. The similarity
ends with the bore of the bass model which has a greater diameter and the bell
which is also expanded in size to accommodate for that larger bore. The increase
in the size of these results in a greater resonance in the lower range.
The bass trombone has two rotary valves controlled by a thumb trigger. When
engaged, one valve transposes the instrument to the key of F. When joined by the
second valve, the instrument is in the key of E.
 There is another system which allows the valves to work independently. The
first valve lowers the instrument to F and the second valve works independently,
lowering the trombone to the key of Gb. When both valves in that system are
engaged simultaneously, the instrument then shifts to the key of D. The range of
these instruments, depending on the key, is approximately C1 to C5.

Contrabass Trombone
The contrabass trombone (Fig. 9.21) is the next lower in the trombone family.
The contrabass has a range from Ab0 to C5 and is pitched a perfect fourth below
the tenor and bass trombones.

Double Slide Trombone

There are several ways in which to provide for the need for longer tubing.
Figure 9.22 shows a double slide model in Bb.
 In this configuration, four branches of tubing, half the length of the traditional
tubing on the bass trombone, are connected over each other and joined at the
bottom and top. When this double slide is drawn out, both pairs of slides travel
together. Since there is twice the tubing, it is only necessary to extend the slide by
half the distance. The closer positioning provides the player with an easier
articulation between the notes. Music parts for the contrabass trombone do not
appear too frequently in most scores. When one is needed the position is usually
filled by a trombonist to specifically carry that part.
Throughout the history of brass instruments it has not been uncommon for
them to be constructed with numerous modifications. Above is a small example
of how the architecture of these instruments can be modified to suit the needs of
the works being performed. The following are some more unique examples of
these instruments.

Superbone
The superbone (Fig. 9.23) is described as being a definitive trombone since it
combines the positive attributes of both the slide and valve trombones. It is said
that by maneuvering the mechanism of both instruments an experienced
performer is able to articulate the most challenging passages with ease and with
musicianship unencumbered by the limitations usually associated with either
instrument alone. Hmmmm!
PBone
The pBone (I assume the p is for plastic) is a traditional tenor slide trombone
made of plastic (Fig. 9.24). The most interesting feature of this instrument is its
sound which very closely resembles that of a traditional brass trombone. What
does that tell us about all of the history that has gone into manufacturing brass
instruments discussed in chapter 4? No further comment!
The pBone was developed in England by professional trombonists in an effort
to encourage youngsters to study the instrument. The pBone has received much
attention and is being used by young students and professionals alike in various
venues. The two models are the Jiggs pBone, a plastic model of the traditional
tenor trombone in Bb, and an alto pBone Mini, which is a smaller version in Eb
for use by younger students. How long will it take for a Suzuki method for
trombone to appear?

Valve Trombone
 This instrument has the appearance of a trombone except that there are three
piston valves incorporated into the slide design and the slide portion is stationary.
The valve trombone (Fig. 9.25) uses the same fingering as the baritone horn in
bass clef and the euphonium. This feature enables lower brass players to easily
double on the trombone.

Sackbut
The sackbut (Fig. 9.26) is the forerunner of the contemporary trombone. (See
chapter 1.) Although the sackbut dates back to the Renaissance, it is still
manufactured by artisans today. The various models available are the alto in Eb,
and tenor in Bb, the bass in F or Eb, and the bass in G tuned in either A440 or
A465. The difference between the sackbut and the contemporary trombone is
found in the size of the bore and bell. With that structure, the sackbut produces a
mellower tone than that of the trombone.
Mid-Range Horns
Three instruments that are often misnamed are the alto horn, baritone horn,
and the euphonium. These instruments share a similar appearance until they are
placed alongside one another. The alto is the smallest, the baritone second in size,
and the euphonium the largest. That is, usually! There are variations in all
instruments that can break that mold.
The alto horn, which is pitched in Eb, is the smallest in overall size. It has the
narrowest conical bore and smallest bell of the three instruments and the highest
range.
The baritone is the mid-sized of the three. It is larger than the Eb alto in total
size, has a cylindrical bore which is larger in diameter than that of the alto horn,
and also has a larger bell size. Of course, a larger instrument means a lower sound
which is, indeed, how the baritone horn sounds when compared to the alto horn.
The euphonium is the largest of the three and is often described as appearing
to be a “baby tuba.” The euphonium’s bore is conical as is the alto horn bore but
the size of the euphonium is much larger, resulting in the lowest pitch of the three
instruments.

Alto Horn
The alto horn (Fig 9.27), also known in the United States as the Eb upright
horn, in Britain as the tenor horn, and in Germany as the althorn is a transposing
instrument sounding a major sixth below the written note. This Eb instrument has
a range from A2 to Eb5. Music for the alto horn is written in the treble clef. As an
Eb transposing instrument, notes played will sound a major sixth below the
written note.
The architecture of this instrument resembles that of the euphonium in that
both usually have three piston valves and a conical bore. That alto horn bore in
conjunction with a deep cup mouthpiece produces a full rich sonority that is
placed in the alto (upper middle) range between the trumpets and the lower brass.
Alto horns are made in several configurations. In Figure 9.26, the picture on
the left is most common with piston valves and its bell facing up. The two other
horns made by Cerveny, a European manufacturer, have rotary valves. The center
horn has an oval shape whereas the picture on the right is an Eb alto horn
assuming a French horn configuration.
Baritone Horn
Representing the baritone voice in the brass family, the baritone horn (Fig.
9.28) is used most often in American and European concert bands. Two models
pictured are the bell front model, usually used on stage, and the marching model
designed for ease of carrying and projecting the sound more forcefully forward
while marching. Both the bore diameter and the bell size are larger than those of
the alto horn, placing the baritone next in the descending line of mid-range horns.
The basic baritone has three piston valves, is constructed on the Bb overtone
series, and is played in both the treble and bass clef. When played by a
professional, the range of the baritone horn can be from Bb2 to Bb4. This range
can be extended by those who are proficient enough to do so.
When played in the treble clef, the baritone horn becomes a transposing
instrument and uses the same fingering as that of the Bb trumpet. This fingering
allows for easy doubling for trumpet players. When played in the bass clef, the
baritone is non-transposing and shares the same fingering as the euphonium and
valve trombone.
The baritone horn tubing is approximately the same length as that of the
euphonium. It is about nine feet long. However, the baritone bell is smaller, the
bore narrower and cylindrical, making the entire package somewhat smaller than
a euphonium. This difference accounts for the brighter timbre of the baritone as
compared to that of the euphonium.

Euphonium
The euphonium (Fig. 9.29) resides in the baritone range of brass instruments
and is often confused with the baritone horn. Although there are some
similarities, the differences are distinctive. The bore of the euphonium is conical
and larger than that of the baritone which is cylindrical. The result is a difference
in timbre; the euphonium produces a more mellifluous sound, while the baritone
sound is brighter. Both instruments share the same fingering and reasonably
similar playing requirements.
The euphonium is pitched in Bb with a practical range from E2 to Bb4. This
range can be extended significantly by an experienced player and by the addition
of a fourth valve. “Compensating” euphoniums have a fourth valve which is used
to compensate for the intonation problems of the lower register. Depressing that
valve redirects the air stream through additional tubing. This compensates for the
intonation problem inherent in valves one and three. Given all the best
combinations, it is conceivable that a euphonium can play as low as B0. The
euphonium is sometimes referred to as a tenor tuba because it resembles in pitch
and tone quality certain Bb rotary valve tubas that play in the same register.
Euphoniums are usually built with three piston valves as a basic instrument
with an additional fourth valve located either on the right side of the instrument or
in line with the other three valves. As stated above, the fourth valve serves as a
substitute for the first and third valves which, when used in combination, are
inherently out of tune. This is also the case when valves one, two, and three are
used together. These can be replaced with two and four combined. The fourth
valve also serves as an extension of the instrument’s range in the lower register.
There is a caveat to this in that there are different fingerings for compensating and
non-compensating four-valve euphoniums. See “Compensating Horn” above in
the French horn section.
When music for the euphonium is written in the bass clef, it is non-
transposing like that of the trombone. When the music is written in the treble clef,
the euphonium becomes a transposing instrument sounding a major ninth below
the written note.
The euphonium’s large conical bore results in its producing a rich mellow
tone, making it an excellent choice for performing slow lyrical solos. Most
euphoniums have piston valves although some use rotary valves similar to those
used in French horn construction.
Pictured in Figure 9.28 is the concert model and the marching model
euphonium. They are essentially the same instrument with a different
configuration. The marching version was created to facilitate carrying while the
sound it is producing is traveling forward with the band as opposed to upward and
away from the flow of the other instruments’ sounds.
Tuba
The tuba, the lowest of the brass instruments, is produced in several shapes. A
look into the past will show an extraordinary number of tubas of different sizes,
shapes, designs, and tonalities. I will discuss only those tubas that are most
commonly in current use.
The upright tuba is used primarily for concert work, while the recording, or
bell front model, is used for marching. A third popular model is the famous tuba
designed for marching known as the sousaphone.
Tubas can be designed with piston or rotary valves. The number of valves can
vary from three to as many as six. Three-valve instruments are basic to the tuba
and are usually used in early learning situations or where the budget does not
allow for more. Some models have a fourth, fifth, and sixth valve which open
additional tubing to compensate for the inherently sharp lower notes on these
instruments. The additional valves also provide alternate fingering to facilitate
playing trills and rapid passages which would be difficult to execute with a three-
valve instrument.
The additional valves also extend the lower range of the instrument. In
general, the range for tubas is from G1 to F4; however, there are tubas of every
size and architecture which can produce sounds as low as C0. As is the case with
all brass instruments, their range can be extended in either direction subject to the
performer’s ability to do so.
There is a preference for piston valves in the USA and Great Britain and for
rotary valves in central Europe. To date there is no rational explanation for this
phenomenon. Piston valves can be positioned on a tuba in either an upright
orientation referred to as a top-action or in a forward-facing position called front-
action. Player’s choice! Rotary valves do not vary in placement on most tubas.
Another interesting idiosyncrasy associated with the tuba world is the system
used to identify a tuba’s size. In instruments of the string family, fractions such as
½, ¾, etc., are used to indicate the size of the instruments. 4/4 is the indication for
the largest string instrument in its class. A 4/4 size violin is a full-size instrument,
the largest of the group. In the evolution of tubas and their different sizes, there
came a point where a similar method was used until the size of these instruments
began to grow beyond what was to that point called full or 4/4 size. The result has
been an assortment of size indications such as 5/4 and 6/4 for those instruments
that are larger than the 4/4. To compound the confusion, the industry has yet to
standardize the dimensions those fractions are to represent. Another (?). Figure
9.30 shows an upright tuba, a recording or bell front tuba, and a sousaphone.
Marching Band Instruments
A complete line of brass instruments has been redesigned for use in marching
bands. Some of the more popular instruments were shown in the figures above.
These are identical to the standard instruments in the manner in which they
function, except that they are designed to be held in a horizontal playing position,
as one would hold a trumpet, in order to facilitate playing while marching. The
bells of marching instruments are redesigned to face forward so their sound is
projected in the direction of the band’s motion rather than facing up as would an
upright tuba or to the side as would a French horn. Additional accommodations
take the form of a sturdier construction, a resistance to weather, and in the case of
brass instruments, plastic substitute mouthpieces which will not stick to the
player’s lips in freezing weather.

Summary
The manner in which all brass instruments function acoustically,
mechanically, and musically is almost identical. The materials from which they
are made are the same. They all use the player’s lips buzzing into a cup
mouthpiece attached to a brass instrument body as an amplifying system. Valves
fitted to the body are depressed to open tubing which extends the length of the
body thereby lowering pitch. The slide trombone uses a slide to achieve the same
result.
Unfortunately, this family of instruments also shares the characteristics, with
the exception of the slide trombone, of having inherent intonation problems.
These begin with the sound generator being the human lips functioning as a
buzzing device. Through this system of sound generation, the brass player is
restricted to the limitations inherent in his or her own teeth, lip, and mouth
configuration.
The brass player does not have the option of changing most of the
components of the tone generator as do other instrumentalists. Single reed players
can change mouthpieces, reeds, and ligatures. Double reed players have their
reeds made to order or make them themselves. String players have a vast variety
of strings, bows, and bridge configurations at their disposal. Whereas all other
instrumentalists can select components with which they can customize their
sound generators, brass players are born with theirs. The only outside assistance
they can turn to is the cup mouthpiece. There are, therefore, numerous
mouthpiece designs available to accommodate the infinite number of lip/mouth
configurations. Brass players, unlike all other instrumentalists, cannot simply
change their sound generator.
 The second problem that is unique to brass instruments, again with the
exception of the slide trombone, is the change in valve-slide ratios as the pistons
are depressed. Devices such as the valve slide trigger and the addition of a fourth
valve on some instruments, along with some creative concepts in bore
construction, have helped improve the intonation problems. However, it is
apparent that the valve system used on brass instruments at best provides an
inexact system to perfect intonation.
Listeners have adjusted to these imperfect sounds by sheer exposure, tending
to accept the sound of the brass section as being a product of timbre rather than of
imperfect intonation. Listeners have become accustomed to it and, consequently,
find it acceptable. Of all the problems with instruments in use at this time, the
brass player's plight is the most difficult in the area of intonation. Good intonation
on a brass instrument must rest with the ability of the performer to humor
individual notes as required by each situation.
The brass choir provides the power and brilliance essential to the performance
of band and orchestral music as it evolved with the works of Beethoven, Brahms,
and Wagner during the Romantic period. Military, ceremonial, and entertainment
bands could not fill their roles without the brass choir's dynamic character. So, as
is the case with anything we love and need, we accept it for its virtues and live
with its imperfections.
The following pages show basic fingering charts for the popular brass
instruments. Each chart will be shown on a separate page.
Tenor Slide Trombone
The tenor (slide) trombone in Bb uses a slide to produce the tones between the
fundamental and its upper partials. The figure below shows the tones that can be
produced with the slide in its uppermost first position.

To play the tones between the open tones, extend the slide in half step
increments. The approximate distances the slide must travel for each position are
shown below.
 Chapter 10

Learning to Play a Brass Instrument

Choosing a Music Teacher

Choosing a music teacher is certainly the most important decision one must
make in the study process. As is the case with everything in life, there are
functioning teachers who rank from the best to the worst in teaching skills,
knowledge, personality, and general gestalt. The choice is, at best, a gamble. This
chapter will help in making a decision that may increase the odds in your favor.
When an individual played the first sounds on whatever might have been the
first sound-producing item for him or her, I think we can say with some
confidence that the player showed someone what he or she did and then how to
do it. That was the first music lesson, a bit simplistic but a quite reasonable
assumption. “Look, Charley, this thing makes sounds.” “How did you do that?”
“This is how.” We have since come a long way in the evolution of musical
instruments and in the methods used to teach someone how to play them.
The publishing world abounds with method books for every instrument. The
questions are which method to use and who shall be the teacher to use it? These
are questions almost impossible to answer definitively. In the perfect world, you
would seek the advice and counsel of someone knowledgeable in the field of
music education who has no agenda, will not benefit from the decision, and has
had professional and personal experience with the teacher being considered. Not
an easy bill to fill. Unfortunately, this is not a perfect world, so what would be the
best next step?
I define a successful music teacher as one who is equipped with an uplifting
personality, knowledge, musical talent, teaching skills, an ability to communicate
easily, and a love for the job that results in a complete commitment to the
profession.
Personality
The relationship between a music teacher and student can be the most
important part of the learning process. The student will be visiting with the
teacher on a weekly basis or possibly more often. With that in mind, consider how
it would feel spending an hour or more with someone who was not particularly
pleasant to be with. Not an experience to look forward to each week. Should
likability be a deciding factor in teacher selection? Yes! But it should not be the
only factor. An equally important question is whether the teacher can teach. How
do we measure that skill?

Teaching Skills
The most effective way to judge a music teacher’s teaching skills is by
observing the teacher in action and evaluating his or her student’s achievements.
Watching a great teacher in action followed by an equally good performance by
his or her students is an indication that something positive must be happening to
achieve that end. To implement this evaluation procedure, it would be necessary
to have access to the teacher’s lessons and students’ performance. In a music
school, such access is commonly provided on a regular basis either in the form of
periodic public events or by appointment. When dealing with a private teacher
who provides only one-on-one instruction, access may be less likely. In that case,
inquiry by word of mouth through the students and their parents would be an
alternative approach.

Education and Professional Experience

Checking a teacher’s credentials, degrees, and training should not be
particularly difficult. Usually, those are made public in the teacher’s biography or
advertising. In many cases, Googling the teacher’s name will produce all the
information needed and, in some cases, more than the teacher wants to be known.
The fact that an individual has a stellar education with many degrees is
laudable; however, such credentials do not necessarily guarantee that the
individual will be an outstanding teacher. A great performer with a long list of
credentials might allow those achievements to inflate his or her ego to the point
where it interferes with the teaching process on a fundamental level. Such a
teacher would probably better serve advanced students.
In the final analysis, teaching is not only a science but also an art. It is one
that requires a balance of all the above mentioned attributes possessed by a
puppet master, so to speak, in the form of an individual who is capable of pulling
the right string at the right time under a given student-teacher interaction to
achieve the best results.
The Methods
SheetMusicPlus.Com, a business accredited by the Better Business Bureau,
advertises 74 brass instrument instruction books.
This is a bit of a mouthful but a site that will yield 2,696 listings at this
writing. They threw in a few sax books, but then, saxophones are made of brass.
(They need to read chapter 1 of this book.) So much for trying to review or
recommend a method book. Their popularity ranges from minimal to great, but it
is possible that the least popular method book could be the best for a particular
teacher-student match. A method book for all instruments that has been on the
market since 1926 and is considered by many to be a staple in music education is
the Rubank Method now owned by the Hal Leonard Corporation. Rubank offers
books for beginning, intermediate, and advanced students for almost every
instrument. An example of a search for method books can read “Traditional
Methods for the (Trombone).”
In instrumental music education, a phenomenon occurred in the early to mid-
nineteen-seventies in the form of a system of teaching young children to play
musical instruments starting at the early age of two years. Dr. Shinichi Suzuki
(1898-1998) born in Nagoya, Japan, the son of a luthier and owner of one of the
largest violin factories in Japan, was a self-taught violinist who eventually studied
with some of the greatest violin teachers of that time and became the conductor of
the Tokyo String Orchestra. It was during that period that he theorized that it
would be possible for young people to learn to play a musical instrument in the
same manner that they learn to speak. Thus began the Suzuki method of teaching
music as a departure from the traditional methods that had been used for
centuries. It reverses the early learning process in which one is introduced to an
individual note written on a page and simultaneously learns to play that note. The
Suzuki method starts the student by observing, listening, and immediately playing
without notation and with minimal technical instruction.
Dr. Suzuki theorized that it should be possible for one to learn music from
early childhood just as a young child learns a language. By hearing, listening, and
associating what is being heard with something tangible, a young person can
apply those three activities to an undertaking that will produce a desired result.
Children do not learn the written word or the principles of grammar as they learn
to speak. That understanding all follows after having first learned to speak a
language. So, why not use the same paradigm to learn music? Dr. Suzuki did, and
it worked!
By the mid-nineteen seventies the music world had been introduced to what is
now known as the Suzuki method of teaching the violin. Today the method has
grown to include other instruments. Many of the students of that method have
gone on to become professional performers and teachers using the Suzuki
method, which is now accepted worldwide as a driving force in teaching
instrumental music.
The language learning process begins from birth with exposure to words as a
result of normal social interaction. As a child begins to use words in speech, a
corrective intervention occurs by adults to help in the formation of proper
sentence structure. Ultimately, reading printed words already in use and the
formal study of grammar complete the cycle.
Following the same learning pattern, a child exposed to music from birth
subliminally processes the sounds. It is then possible to channel those embedded
audio experiences into actions that will reproduce these sounds on an instrument.
This application can begin at whatever age (even as early as two years old) is
appropriate for the individual. Interaction with peer groups is used to reinforce the
development just as one would normally experience with speech.
This activity is one of learning to play on an instrument what a student has
heard, is hearing, and has processed. A child speaks before seeing words on a
page and so he or she should play before seeing notes on a page.
The objective is to postpone the theoretical aspects of music study to a point
where the player has reasonable facility with the instrument. Almost all attention
is given to the mechanics of playing and to ear training, both of which are
essential to success in playing an instrument. When a reasonable degree of
proficiency is reached in those areas, the cerebral aspects of music study become
easier. The student is relieved of the burden of learning both the physical and
intellectual simultaneously.
Again, as is the case in the early stages of learning speech, parents’
participation in the music study is highly recommended to ensure that they are
informed on the process and, consequently, are capable of supervising home study
between lessons. Essentially, the child first learns to play by ear as he or she
learns speech by ear and then learns the technical aspects, which in effect are the
grammar and spelling of music at a later time. The program is highly successful
and is being used by millions of students throughout the world.
All this begs the question, “what does this have to do with brass instruments?”
It appears that the Suzuki method which centered on instruments of the violin
family for half a century is now beginning to make its way to brass instruments
through the efforts of one Natalie DeJong, a professional trumpet player and now
exponent of the Suzuki method applied to teaching the trumpet. Ms. DeJong
holds the title of North America’s only certified Suzuki trumpet instructor. In
2011 the International Suzuki Association recognized the trumpet as a Suzuki
instrument.
 The Suzuki trumpet method began in Norway led by Ann-Marie Sundberg, a
teacher of brass instruments in the Royal College of Music in Stockholm. In 2007
she began with a group of 4-year-olds with whom she developed material in
preparation for the Suzuki Trumpet Book I. That book is now ready for
publication. Volumes II and III are in the works.

The Traditional Method

The label “traditional” when applied to music teaching methods refers to
those procedures that have been in practice since the first lesson. Traditional has
come to mean anything that is not Suzuki. Traditional instrumental music teachers
begin by teaching the student to hold an instrument in a proper playing position,
some basic sound producing techniques, and an introduction to reading music.
This is generally followed by a notation/performance format where the student
learns to play a particular note or set of notes from a printed page. The number of
deviations, modifications, elaborations, and innovations on this theme is as
numerous as there are teachers. Scales, exercises, etudes, simple songs, and any
other collections of notes are used at the discretion of the teacher to achieve
success with the student. Since there is no curriculum, the traditional teacher has
the flexibility to use anything that will work.

Summary
Obviously, the rather extensive assortment of pedagogical tools available must
work in some way because we have enjoyed instrumental music performance at
the highest level for centuries. The question remains as to whom one should
choose to activate those tools in a manner that would best suit the needs of a
particular student. To find the answer you must engage in a comprehensive
investigation of the curriculum vitae of the teachers available along with their
record of success and reputation with regard to their student-teacher rapport. An
evaluation of the uniqueness of each individual student’s total being and how that
gestalt will affiliate with a particular teacher is the principal consideration. On the
basis of those findings, you can decide which teacher will most likely be able to
succeed with a particular student. When that has been decided, select one, hope
for the best, keep a careful eye on how the entire lesson experience is progressing,
and if necessary, at some point make a change.

Guidelines to Learning to Play

The following are some guidelines that will generally apply to most, players
of brass instruments. The operative words here are guidelines— parameters within
which one can conduct an activity; generally which means usually but not always;
and most, which means it may not be you.
One aspect of studying any instrument is the need for you to engage in the
combined act of trying to follow “the rules” while adapting them to your own
individuality. It is not difficult to find a “rule” for items such as a correct playing
position or embouchure for a particular instrument. The first issue occurs when
you are confronted with a rule and find other rules to contradict the first rule. The
rules then become more a point of view or an opinion than a rule. Another issue
arises when that particular rule does not work for you. It is at that point that you
must select and modify “the rules” so that they are applicable to your uniqueness.
The two topics that I consider to be of paramount importance in the directory
of brass playing procedures are proper breath control and embouchure. Air flow,
the product of breath control is the fuel supply for your embouchure. A good
supply of fuel is the first part of the two part sound production process. How your
embouchure responds to the fuel supply is the other half of the process.

Conscious Diaphragmatic Breathing

The normal breathing process we experience continuously is a function of the
involuntary muscle called the diaphragm. This is a sheet of muscle and fibrous
tissue that separates your lung cavity from your abdominal cavity. The diaphragm
moves in an up-and-down motion causing your lungs to fill with or expel air.
When your diaphragm moves down, it increases the area in the lung cavity
causing a vacuum which your lungs fill by drawing in air. When the diaphragm
moves up, the lung cavity is made smaller. To compensate for that smaller space,
the air in your lungs is pushed out. That being the case, as a brass player, one of
the most important skills you must master is that of controlling your diaphragm,
and in so doing, control your air flow which is the fuel supply for your
embouchure. Your diaphragm is regulated by your abdominal muscles, those
muscles that are often referred to as ABS. By expanding and contracting those
muscles you are able to move your diaphragm up or down.
Try this! Lie down on a flat surface and relax. Place a book on your abdomen
and you will notice that as you breathe the book on your abdomen will rise and
fall. As you inhale, it will rise and as you expel air, it will fall.
Now expel much of the air in your lungs by contracting your ABS. Then take
a deep breath by expanding your ABS. Do not move any other part of your body
such as raising your shoulders or expanding your chest. Raising your shoulders
does nothing and your chest will expand itself as your lungs fill with air. This
conscious expanding and contracting of your abdominal muscles is called
diaphragmatic breathing. It is something you do all day long without being
conscious of doing it.
To apply this procedure to playing a wind instrument, you must take a deep
breath by expanding your diaphragm as much as possible. Remember not to
consciously expand your chest or raise your shoulders. Your lungs should now be
full of air.
Now expel the air either through pursed lips or by playing a long tone on your
instrument. When expelling the air, give some attention to contracting your
abdomen especially as you begin to approach the end of your air supply. You will
notice that as you reach what you think is the very end of that air supply, if you
contract your abdomen further, there will still be a bit more air left to use. This
process should be practiced regularly to develop breath control. The better you
are at controlling your air flow through conscious diaphragmatic breathing the
greater the fuel supply you will have for your embouchure.

Embouchure
Perhaps the most vexing item a new student of a wind instrument must deal
with is that of the embouchure. In chapter 2 on tone production you learned how a
player’s lips are formed to buzz on a cup-shaped mouthpiece and produce a
sound. You will note that the second paragraph contains the words usually, and
depending on, while the third paragraph reads “The only point of agreement is
that the placement is unique to each embouchure and must ultimately be
determined by you.”
My advice to a beginner is to learn all you can about what the experts say, try
it all, and then do what works for you. When you find that you are producing the
best possible sound, try to establish a mental picture of the shape your facial
muscles, upper and lower lips, jaw, and upper and lower teeth alignment have
formed. Then practice achieving that embouchure until it becomes second nature.
 Chapter 11

The Science of Sound

Sound occurs when a force excites vibrations in the atmosphere. These

vibrations are projected by a series of compressed and released waves of air
pressure. Molecules of air are pushed against one another, acting as a train would
when the last car is pushed and each car preceding the last one responds in turn in
a chain reaction. Since one single molecule of air cannot travel very far on its
own, the molecules must push against one another in order to permit the sound to
travel.
When this action and reaction takes place in the air, a wavelike motion
produces groupings of molecules positioned in alternating sequences. The first
grouping of compressed molecules is referred to as compression. The grouping
created by the void left behind the compression is in a more open spatial
relationship and is called rarefaction. It is the combined action of compression
and rarefaction that results in one complete cycle. (Fig. 11.1)
String Vibration
When vibration is initiated on a string, movement begins at the point of rest or
equilibrium (Fig. 11.2, point A). The movement proceeds to its upper limit (point
B), begins a return trip traveling back through the original point of rest or
equilibrium (point A), and then continues on to the opposite or lower limit (point
C). The movement then travels back again returning to the point of equilibrium
(point A). This entire voyage completes one cycle. Similarly, one cycle consists
of a vibration passing by means of compression and rarefaction through every
position which encompasses its point of equilibrium (Fig. 11.2). This type of pure
tone is called sinusoidal and its image is called a sine wave.
Sine Wave
When sound is generated on a musical instrument, the sound presents itself in
a symmetrical pattern of vibrations. These vibrations include a fundamental pitch
along with a number of other related pitches sounding in lesser degrees of
amplitude or volume. The fundamental pitch alone is a pure tone and can be
visualized as a simple wave, free from any accompanying vibrations or tones
(Fig. 11.3).
Harmonics
Pure tones are best produced electronically and are generally considered to be
musically uninteresting. When a tone is generated on a musical instrument, it is
almost always accompanied by a series of related sounds or tones called
harmonics, overtones, or upper partials. These three terms can be used
interchangeably.
Harmonics (overtones, upper partials) are secondary vibrations occurring
concurrently with the fundamental pitch and consist of successive multiples of the
whole vibrating body. The segments occur as ½, ⅓ ¼, etc., of the original
vibrating column and sound with less amplitude (volume) than the fundamental
pitch (Fig. 11.4). Harmonics are embellishments of the pitch. They are not
distinguishable as entities in themselves but rather serve as ornamentation to the
fundamental pitch. As such, harmonics give a distinctive character to a pitch,
allowing you to distinguish among the different instruments or voices.

Hertz
Vibrations per second are commonly referred to as cycles per second (cps) or
Hertz (Hz), named after the physicist Heinrich Hertz. The number of Hz refers to
a number of complete cycles per second and so 30 Hz means 30 cycles per
second. Any given tone is the product of the number of vibrations or cycles which
occur per second, for example, “A” 440 is the tone which is produced by a sound
generator producing 440 vibrations or cycles per second (Fig. 11.5).
 Although noise is sometimes used in musical performance, tone is more
frequently utilized. Therefore, it is necessary to understand those attributes of
sound production which modify noise, thereby converting it into a tone. These
attributes are pitch, amplitude, and timbre.

Pitch
Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of tone. The notes of an ascending
scale (do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, ti, do) go up in pitch or are successively higher (Fig.
11.6). Conversely, in a descending scale (do, ti, la, sol, fa, mi, re, do), the notes go
down in pitch or are successively lower (Fig. 11. 7).
 Any series of notes can take one of only three possible directions in pitch.
They can ascend (Fig. 11.8A), descend (Fig. 11.8B), or remain the same (Fig.
11.8C).

Amplitude
Amplitude, a form of energy, refers to the volume or loudness of a sound.
Greater amplitude produces louder sounds whereas less amplitude produces softer
sounds. A sine wave is a way of representing a single frequency with no
harmonics. If a sine wave is used to measure the amplitude of a tone, the
amplitude is indicated by the distance from the point of equilibrium to the
outermost limit of the sine curve (Fig. 11.9).
 As is the case with any force, there is a gradual diminution of the energy as it
is confronted with resistance such as friction, absorption, or dispersion. Because
of this gradual decline in energy, the tone will dissipate or fade away.
Amplitude (volume) is one of the several physical components that goes into
the total character of a musical tone. Amplitude is the force with which the sound
is being produced and is commonly referred to as volume or loudness. The more
forceful the vibrations per second, the louder the sound. Conversely, the weaker
the vibrations per second, the softer the sound. Amplitude does not affect pitch.
Any pitch can be produced at any amplitude and, therefore, can sound at any
volume.

Timbre
Timbre is the product of the addition of tones to a fundamental pitch. These
additional sounds referred to as harmonics (overtones, or upper partials, Fig. 11.4)
result from the inherent acoustical characteristics of the sound-producing
mechanism, that is, the instrument producing the sound.
For the note, C, these sounds follow the harmonic sequence pictured in Figure
11.10 and are present in most tones. The same interval pattern would occur for
any note.
 The difference in timbre is the result of the strength (volume/amplitude) of the
additional sounds (harmonics), and how they relate in volume to the fundamental
pitch. The greater the strength, volume, or amplitude of the additional sounds
(harmonics) the more intense the nature or timbre of the sound of the instrument.
The less strength/volume/amplitude of the additional sounds (harmonics), the
less intense the timbre. An example is the oboe. Tones played on an oboe have
strong harmonics/upper partials producing a tone which can be identified as
having an intense timbre. The flute, on the other hand, has a comparatively weak
set of harmonics/upper partials and, therefore, produces a more mellow tone.

Summary
Sound occurs when a force excites vibrations in the atmosphere. When a tone
is generated on a musical instrument, it is almost always accompanied by a series
of related sounds or tones called harmonics, over-tones, or upper partials. These
secondary vibrations embellish the fundamental pitch giving it a distinctive sound
quality or timbre. This allows the listener to distinguish among the different
sounds. Pitch refers to the highness or lowness of tone. Amplitude refers to the
volume or loudness of a sound.
 Appendix

Instrument Diary

This diary is designed to document the history and maintenance of an

instrument. By entering all the relevant information on a regular basis, you will
have a reference for periodic maintenance, information for a possible sale in the
future, and a history of the instrument. Not every category listed will be relevant
to every instrument. Fill in those that are relevant and add any information that
suits your particular situation.

My (Instrument)_______________________________

Instrument’s History
Owner’s name_________________________________
Date of purchase ______________________________
Where purchased______________________________
Maker’s label_________________________________
Model name and number________________________
Date made ___________________________________
New [] previously owned []
Previous owner(s) name(s)
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
Identifying marks, label, serial number
_____________________________________________
_____________________________________________
 Seller’s information
Name________________________________________
Address______________________________________
Phone _______________________________________
Email________________________________________
Website______________________________________
List or asking price ____________________________
Price paid_____________________________________

Maintenance record

Be as inclusive as possible when making an entry. Include date, action, repair,

replacement or service, part serviced, brand or description of replacement part,
source, technician’s name and contact information, etc. Place invoices in the
envelope on the inside cover of this book.

The Instrument—General Service

Notes

Valve Repairs
 Notes

Body Repairs

Notes

Tuning Slide Service

Notes

Water Key Service

Notes
Valve Service

Notes

Valve Casing Service

Notes

Rotary Valve Linkage Service

Notes
Finish Service

Notes

General Bore Cleaning

Notes

Major repairs — Detail the damage, cause, how repaired, by whom, cost,
date.

Notes
 Glossary of Terms

Annealing Heating metal to the point where the microstructure becomes

malleable enough to be more easily shaped.

Bell The flared end of a brass instrument. The size and shape of a bell can affect
the timbre of the instrument. Smaller bells produce brighter sounds and larger
bells produce mellower sounds.

Bore The interior space of the tubing of a brass instrument. The term, inside
dimension (ID), is often used when referring to that space.

Boxed Spring A spring encased in a cylinder at the top of a piston valve.

Brass Instrument A wind instrument (labrosone) made of brass which produces

sound by blowing air and vibrating lips into a cup-shaped mouthpiece.

Cup-Shaped Mouthpiece The name ascribed to the concave shaped mouthpiece

used to play a brass instrument.

Cork Used in various shapes as gaskets and bumpers to muffle metal-to-metal

contact noise and seal openings such as those on water keys.

Embouchure The shape of one’s lips, teeth, mouth, and facial muscles when
combined to play a wind instrument.

Crook A length of tubing usually “U” shaped which makes up part of a brass
instrument. Crooks can be used in different sizes to change the pitch of a brass
instrument.
Ferrule A metal sleeve used to connect two sections of tubing.

Finger Button The disc attached to the top of a valve stem. Also known as a
touch piece.

Finish The final coating applied to a brass instrument to protect the metal and
prevent tarnishing. A finish can be lacquer, nickel-silver, sterling silver, or gold.

Fingering A term used to define the placement of a player’s fingers on an

instrument to produce a given note. In the case of brass instruments, fingering
refers to activating the valves.

Finger Ring/Hook An appropriately shaped metal ring or hook strategically

placed on a brass instrument to assist the player in holding and balancing the
instrument.

Geyer Wrap A configuration of tubing and valves for the French horn developed
by Carl Geyer. See chapter 3.

Grill A round-shaped lattice designed to fit in the bell of a tuba or sousaphone to

prevent any detritus from entering the instrument through the bell opening.

Hand The first word of a hyphenated term used to distinguish between an

instrument or part made by an individual craftsman as opposed to one made by
machine.

Hand-Hammered Bell The process of making a brass instrument bell by hand

rather than stamping it out in a high-pressure metal press. Hand hammering
makes it possible for the craftsman to accommodate for the individuality of a
piece of metal while working to shape the bell.

Hand-Lapped Valves A valve coated with a compound worked into its casing
until the fit is perfect and the valve moves easily. This process called lapping can
be performed by machine or by hand. When hand-lapping takes place, the
craftsman is in complete control of the process and can make the necessary
adjustments as he or she senses the need. Machines do not sense changes in need.

Intonation The accuracy with which a pitch is produced in relation to its

prescribed cycles per second.
Knuckle The first piece of tubing shaped like a bent knuckle that connects valve
casing to the remaining tubing on a brass instrument.

Kruspe Wrap A configuration of tubing and valves for the French horn
developed by Fritz Kruspe. See chapter 3.

Linkage — the mechanism that connects an instrument’s valve lever to a rotary

valve.

Leadpipe (Pronounced leed pipe) The first section of tubing on a brass

instrument into which the mouthpiece is placed.

Mouthpiece A solid metal device with a rim-surrounded cup attached to a shank

that fits into a brass instrument leadpipe. The mouthpiece is designed to contain
the buzzing lips of a brass instrument player.

Mouthpiece Adapter A metal cylinder designed to fit a mouthpiece shank of a

particular size into a leadpipe of a different size.

Monel A hard metal alloy composed of nickel and copper that resists corrosion.

Monel Valves Valves made of Monel alloy usually in step-up quality instruments.

Mute A device designed to alter the sound of a musical instrument. Different

mutes create different effects. On brass instruments, the mute is placed in or in
front of the bell to achieve the desired sound.

Piston Valve A metal cylinder set in a cylindrical casing, both having openings
that can be aligned. The cylinder can be pressed down or released up to realign
the openings and redirect the air to pass through different parts of an instrument.
Piston valves can be installed on an instrument so that they operate as top-action
or front-action valves. Top-action valves are installed so the player will push them
down in a vertical direction, whereas front-action valves are installed horizontally
so they must be pushed inward.

Pinky Rest A metal hook soldered onto the body of a brass instrument in an
appropriate place to hook the pinky finger as a stabilizing force when holding the
instrument.

Range The span of notes from the lowest to the highest.

Receiver See leadpipe.

Reverse Lead A tuning slide that has one slide shorter than the other giving the
player the sensation of a smoother air flow and producing a more intense brighter
sound

Rim The outer edge of a mouthpiece that comes in direct contact with the
player’s lips. Also, on a brass instrument a rim is created by soldering a metal
alloy wire around the outside edge of the instrument’s bell.

Rotary valve A metal rotor in a casing, both having openings that can be aligned.
By pressing a key, the rotor can rotate to realign the openings and redirect the air
to pass through different parts of an instrument.

Scientific Pitch Notation A system that uses an alphanumeric symbol, a

combination of letters and numbers to identify the location of a note in the
spectrum. See introduction for more on this.

Shank The end of a brass mouthpiece that enters the instrument’s leadpipe.

Solder An alloy of easy-melting lead and tin used to connect the parts of a brass
instrument.

String for French Horn A cord usually made of nylon used as the connecting
element on certain French horn linkages.

Slide Tubing on a brass instrument that is designed to fit snugly inside another
tubing. The inner tubing or slide can be extended to increase the size of the body
of the instrument. Slides are found on all lead pipes, valve casings, and on slide
trombones.

Slide Ring A metal ring soldered onto a slide. The player inserts his or her finger
in to the ring to facilitate moving the slide in or out.

Touchpiece See valve button.

Trigger A lever connected to a mechanism that moves a valve slide or controls

the airflow on a brass instrument such as a double or triple horn with more than
one pitch option.
Tuning Bit A short piece of tubing inserted between the mouthpiece and leadpipe
to extend the effective length of an instrument (usually a tuba) thereby lowering
its pitch.

Tuning Slide A “U” shaped telescopic section of tubing connected to the valve
casings and leadpipe of a brass instrument used to alter pitch.

Valve A piston or rotary shaped component on a brass instrument that, when

operated, opens or closes tubing in order to change pitches.

Valve Button The disc placed at the top of each valve stem upon which to place
fingers.

Valve Caps Threaded cylindrical caps that screw onto the bottom and top of a
valve casing.

Valve Slide The tubing connected to a valve casing that can be extended or
withdrawn to adjust pitch.

Valve Slide Rings Metal rings attached to valve slides into which fingers are
inserted to facilitate moving a tuning slide. Drawing a slide in will raise the pitch.
Extending the slide will lower the pitch.

Valve Stem A metal cylinder which connects the valve buttons to a piston valve.

Water Key (AKA Spit Valve) A mechanism on brass instruments which allows
the release of built-up condensation.

Water Key Cork The cork on a water key that seals the drain opening on a brass
instrument slide.

Water Key Spring The spring on a water key that returns the key to its closed
position after use.
 About the Author

Michael Pagliaro is certified by the New York State Department of Education

as a Teacher of Music (grades K-12), Supervisor of Secondary Education,
Secondary School Principal, and by the New York City Board of Education as
Teacher of Orchestral Music. He holds the degrees of B.S. in Music, M.A. in
Music Education, M.S. in School Administration and Supervision, and Sc.D. in
Musical Instrument Technology.
Dr. Pagliaro has devoted over six decades to teaching music, music education,
and the technology and science of acoustical orchestral and band instruments to
teachers, students, technicians, supervisors, and professionals in the field of
music. He has filled the role of professor of music, military band master, church
choir director, founder of two musical instrument companies still in operation,
inventor and patent holder of four music-related products sold world-wide, is
associate editor for the Italian Cultural Society of the Palm Beaches, and has had
twenty articles on musical instruments and music in general published in various
periodicals and professional house organs.
Dr. Pagliaro is the author of Everything You Should Know about Musical
Instruments (1992); The Violin: How It Works (2002); The Flute: How It Works
(2003); The Violin Workbook (2004); The Musical Instrument Desk Reference: A
Guide to How Band and Orchestral Instruments Work (Scarecrow Press, 2012);
The Instrumental Music Director’s Guide to Comprehensive Program
Development (Rowman and Littlefield, 2014); The String Instrument Owner’s
Handbook (Rowman and Littlefield, 2015); and Basic Elements of Music
(Rowman and Littlefield, 2016).