30

Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces

By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Lecture No. 11 (October 18, 2023)
We all recall the important and useful theorem from calculus “that functions which are continuous
on a closed and bounded interval take on a maximum and minimum value on that interval”. The
classic theorem of Heine-Borel-Lebesgue asserts that every covering of such an interval by open sets
has a finite sub-cover. In this section, we use this feature of closed and bounded subsets to define
the corresponding notion, compactness, in a general topological space. In addition, we consider
important variants of this notion: sequential compactness and local compactness.

4.1 Definition
Let 𝑆 be a non-empty subset of 𝑅. A family 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of subsets of 𝑅 is said to be a cover of
𝑆 if 𝑆 ⊆ ∪ 𝐺𝑖 . If 𝐺𝑖 ∈ 𝐺 is an open set, then the cover 𝐺 is called an open cover.
𝑖∈𝛺

Note (1):
i. If 𝐺 contains finite number of elements, then the cover 𝐺 is called finite cover.
ii. If 𝐺 contains infinite number of elements, then the cover 𝐺 is called infinite cover.
iii. If 𝐺 contains countable number of elements, then the cover 𝐺 is called countable cover.
iv. If 𝐺 contains uncountable number of elements, then the cover 𝐺 is called uncountable cover.

Note (2):
The classic theorem of Heine-Borel-Lebesgue asserts that, in 𝑅, every open cover of a closed bounded
subset has a finite sub-cover. This theorem has extraordinarily profound consequences and like most
good theorems, its conclusion has become a definition.

4.2 Definition
Let 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be a cover of 𝑆 and 𝐻 = {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , … } be a sub family of 𝐺 that covers 𝑆.
Then we say that 𝐻 is a sub-cover of 𝐺.

4.3 Definition
If the subcover 𝐻 contains finite number of elements, then it is called a finite sub-cover of 𝐺.

4.4. Example
If 𝑆 = [0,1], then 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆 = [0,1] ⊂ 𝑅, that is 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅, and hence {𝑥} ⊂ 𝑅. Then ⋃𝑥∈[0,1]{𝑥} ⊇ [0,1].
Let 𝐺𝑥 = {𝑥} such that the family 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑥 : 𝑥 ∈ [0,1]} and hence 𝐺 is a cover of 𝑆.
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Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
4.5. Example
Let 𝑆 = [−100,100]. Let 𝐺𝑛 = (−𝑛, 𝑛) for 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁. Then the family 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁} is an open
cover of 𝑆. Indeed: ⋃𝑛∈𝑁 𝐺𝑛 = (−1,1)⋃(−2,2)⋃(−3,3) … = (−∞, +∞) ⊃ S. Then, there exists
a finite sub family that covers 𝑆. Indeed: Let
𝐻 = {𝐺𝑛 : 1 ≤ 𝑛 ≤ 101}
= {(−1,1), (−2,2), … , (−101,101)}
such that ∪101
𝑛=1 𝐺𝑛 = (−101, 101) ⊃ [−100,100] = 𝑆. Hence, 𝐻 is a finite sub-cover of 𝐺.

4.6. Example
1 1
Let 𝑆 = {1,2,3, … }. Now for each 𝑛 ∈ 𝑆 take 𝐺𝑛 = (𝑛 − 2 , 𝑛 + 2) that is
1 3 1 1
1 ∈ ( , ) = (1 − , 1 + ) = 𝐺1
2 2 2 2
3 5 1 1
2 ∈ ( , ) = (2 − , 2 + ) = 𝐺2
2 2 2 2
.
.
.
1 1
𝑛 ∈ (𝑛 − 2 , 𝑛 + 2) = 𝐺𝑛 .

Therefore, the family 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑆} is an open cover of 𝑆. There does not exist any finite sub-
cover of 𝐺.

4.7 Definition
Let 𝑆 be a non-empty subset of 𝑅. The set 𝑆 is called a compact set if every open cover of 𝑆 has a
finite sub-cover.

Note (3) Technique of checking that a set is compact (or not a compact): We will take an arbitrary
open cover of the set and will try to prove that it has a finite sub-cover (or has no finite sub-cover).

4.8. Example
Ever finite sub-set of 𝑅 is compact.

Proof. Let 𝑆 = {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } be a finite subset of 𝑅. Let 𝐺 be an open cover of 𝑆. Then, for each
𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝑆, there exists an open set 𝐺𝑖 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑎𝑖 ∈ 𝐺𝑖 . Hence, the family {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , … , 𝐺𝑛 } is finite
sub-cover of 𝐺. Therefore, the open cover 𝐺 for 𝑆 has a finite sub-cover for 𝑆. Hence, every finite
sub-set of 𝑅 is compact.
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Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Lecture No. 12 (October 19, 2023)
4.9 Theorem
Any closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏] on the real line 𝑅 is compact.

Proof. Let 𝐼1 = [𝑎1 , 𝑏1 ] = [𝑎, 𝑏] and 𝐺 = {(𝑎𝑖 , 𝑏𝑖 ): 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be an open cover of 𝐼1 . Let 𝐼1 is not
compact, then no finite subclass of 𝐺 covers 𝐼1 . We divide 𝐼1 into two sub-intervals of equal lengths
as
𝑎1 +𝑏1 𝑎1 +𝑏1
[𝑎1 , ] and [ , 𝑏1 ]
2 2

Then by our assumption, at least one of these two intervals cannot be covered by a finite subclass of
𝐺. Let that particular interval is denoted by 𝐼2 , then
𝑎1 +𝑏1 𝑎1 +𝑏1
𝐼2 = [𝑎1 , ] or 𝐼2 = [ , 𝑏1 ]
2 2
𝑎1 +𝑏1
So, we let 𝐼2 = [𝑎1 , ] = [𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ]. Again, we divide the interval 𝐼2 = [𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ] into two equal
2

intervals
𝑎2 +𝑏2 𝑎2 +𝑏2
[𝑎2 , ] and [ , 𝑏2 ]
2 2

Since, no finite subclass of 𝐺 covers 𝐼2 = [𝑎2 , 𝑏2 ], so, at least one of these two intervals cannot be
covered by a finite sub-class of 𝐺. Let, that particular interval be
𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝐼3 = [𝑎2 ,] = [𝑎3 , 𝑏3 ]
2
We continue this procedure and obtain a sequence of nested closed intervals
𝛪1 ⊃ 𝛪2 ⊃ 𝛪3 ⊃ ⋯ ⊃ 𝛪𝑛 ⊃ 𝛪𝑛+1 ⊃ ⋯
such that

i. 𝛪𝑛 = [𝑎𝑛 , 𝑏𝑛 ] is closed for each 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁

ii. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙(𝐼𝑛 ) = 0 (where 𝑙(𝐼𝑛 ) denotes the length of 𝐼𝑛 )
𝑛→∞

iii. 𝛪𝑛 cannot be covered by a finite subclass of 𝐺

Now, by the property of nested intervals, there exists exactly one point belonging to each interval 𝐼𝑛 ,
that is,
𝑝 ∈ 𝐼𝑛 for each 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁
If 𝑛 → ∞, then 𝑙(𝐼𝑛 ) = 0 and therefore in this case, 𝐼𝑛 becomes a point interval and hence
𝑝 ∈ 𝐼𝑛 ⊂ (𝑝 − 𝜖, 𝑝 + 𝜖)
This implies, 𝐼𝑛 has a finite sub-cover of 𝐺, a contradiction with (iii) above. Therefore, we conclude
that 𝐼1 = [𝑎, 𝑏] has a finite sub-cover of 𝐺 and hence [𝑎, 𝑏] is compact.
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Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
4.10. Theorem
Any open interval (𝑎, 𝑏) is not compact.
1
Proof. If 𝐴𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑛 , 𝑏) for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, then each 𝐴𝑛 is an open set and (𝑎, 𝑏) ⊂∪∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛 .

Therefore, the set 𝐺 = {𝐴𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁} is an open cover of (𝑎, 𝑏). Let 𝐻 = {𝐴𝑛1 , 𝐴𝑛2 , … , 𝐴𝑛𝑝 } is a
1
finite subset of 𝐺 and 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥{𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , … , 𝑛𝑝 }. Then, (𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑚) ⊄∪𝑝𝑖=1 𝐴𝑛𝑖 and therefore,
1 1
(𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑚) ∪ (𝑎 + 𝑚 , 𝑏 ) ⊄∪𝑝𝑖=1 𝐴𝑛𝑖 , that is, (𝑎, 𝑏) ⊄∪𝑝𝑖=1 𝐴𝑛𝑖 . This implies, 𝐻 is not a subcover of

(𝑎, 𝑏) and thus (𝑎, 𝑏) is not a compact set.

4.11. Theorem
The unit open interval (0,1) is not compact.
1
Proof. If 𝐴𝑛 = (𝑛+1 , 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, then each 𝐴𝑛 is an open set and (0,1) =∪∞
𝑛=1 𝐴𝑛 . Therefore,

the set 𝐺 = {𝐴𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁} is an open cover of (0,1). Let 𝐻 = {𝐴𝑛1 , 𝐴𝑛2 , … , 𝐴𝑛𝑝 } is a finite subset
1 1 1
of 𝐺 and 𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥{𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , … , 𝑛𝑝 }. Then, (𝑚 , 1) ⊄∪𝑝𝑖=1 𝐴𝑛𝑖 and therefore, (0, 𝑚) ∪ (𝑚 , 1 ) ⊄

∪𝑝𝑖=1 𝐴𝑛𝑖 , that is, (0, 1) ⊄∪𝑝𝑖=1 𝐴𝑛𝑖 . It follows that, 𝐻 is not a sub-cover of (0,1). This shows that,
no finite subclass of 𝐺 can cover (0,1) and hence, (0,1) is not compact.

4.12. Example
The real line (𝑅) is not compact.

Proof. Take 𝐺 = {(−𝑛, 𝑛): 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁}. Now each member of 𝐺 is an interval and hence each member
of 𝐺 is an open set and 𝑅 ⊆ ∪ (−𝑛, 𝑛). Therefore, 𝐺 is an open cover for 𝑅. Next, we suppose
𝑛∈𝑁

that 𝐻 = {(−𝑛1 , 𝑛1 ), (−𝑛2 , 𝑛2 ), (−𝑛3 , 𝑛3 ), … , (−𝑛𝑘 , 𝑛𝑘 )} is a finite sub-family of 𝐺. Let 𝑘 =

𝑀𝑎𝑥{𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , … , 𝑛𝑘 }, then (−𝑛1 , 𝑛1 ) ∪ (−𝑛2 , 𝑛2 ) ∪ … ∪ (−𝑛𝑘 , 𝑛𝑘 ) = (−𝑘, 𝑘) ⊉ 𝑅. Indeed:
(−𝑘, 𝑘) is an open interval with finite and fixed end points and cannot cover 𝑅. A contradiction and
therefore 𝐺 does not have a finite sub-cover for 𝑅. Hence, 𝑅 is not compact.

4.13. Definition
A topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is said to be compact if and only if every open cover of 𝑋 has a finite sub
cover.
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Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
4.14. Example
Let (𝑋, 𝛵) be a topological space and 𝐴 is any finite subset of 𝑋. Then 𝐴 is compact.

Proof. Let 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 } ⊂ 𝑋 (a topological space). Let 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be an open cover of

𝐴 (𝐴 ⊂∪ 𝐺𝑖 ), then, there exist 𝐺𝑖1 , 𝐺𝑖2 , . . . , 𝐺𝑖𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 such that, 𝑥1 ∈ 𝐺𝑖1 ,𝑥2 ∈ 𝐺𝑖2 ,…,𝑥𝑖𝑛 ∈ 𝐺𝑖𝑛 . This
𝑖

implies, 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 } ⊂ 𝐺𝑖1 ∪ 𝐺𝑖2 ∪. . .∪ 𝐺𝑖𝑛 , that is, 𝐴 ⊂∪𝑛𝑘=1 𝐺𝑖𝑘 . Thus, the open cover
𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of 𝐴 has a finite sub cover 𝐻 = {𝐺𝑖𝑘 : 𝑘 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛} and hence 𝐴 is compact.

4.15. Example
A subset 𝐴 of a discrete space (𝑋, 𝛵) is compact if and only if it is finite.

Proof. If 𝐴 is finite, then it is compact by Example 4.14.

Conversely, let 𝐴 be compact and 𝐺 = {{𝑥𝑖 }: 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} such that 𝐴 ⊂ ∪ {𝑥𝑖 }, then 𝐺 is an open cover
𝑥∈𝐴

(the singletons are open sets in the discrete space) of 𝐴. As 𝐴 is compact, so, there exist {𝑥1 },
{𝑥2 },…, {𝑥𝑛 } such that
𝐴 ⊂∪𝑛𝑖=1 {𝑥𝑖 }
= {𝑥1 } ∪ {𝑥2 } ∪ … ∪ {𝑥𝑛 }
= {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 }
Hence, 𝐴 is a finite set.

4.16. Example
The co-finite topological space is compact.

Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝛵) be the co-finite topological space and 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be an open cover of 𝑋 (𝑋 ⊂
∪ 𝐺𝑖 ). Let 𝐺𝑖0 ∈ 𝐺, then 𝐺𝑖𝑐0 is finite, that is, 𝐺𝑖𝑐0 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 }. As, 𝐺𝑖𝑐0 ⊂ 𝑋 ⊂∪ 𝐺𝑖 , therefore,
𝑖 𝑖

{𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 } ⊂∪ 𝐺𝑖 . This implies, there exist 𝐺𝑖1 , 𝐺𝑖2 , 𝐺𝑖3 , . . . , 𝐺𝑖𝑛 ∈ 𝐺, such that 𝑥1 ∈ 𝐺𝑖1 ,𝑥2 ∈
𝑖

𝐺𝑖2 ,…,𝑥𝑖𝑛 ∈ 𝐺𝑖𝑛 and hence 𝐺𝑖𝑐0 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 } ⊂ 𝐺𝑖1 ∪ 𝐺𝑖2 ∪. . .∪ 𝐺𝑖𝑛 . Then, 𝑋 = 𝐺𝑖𝑐0 ∪ 𝐺𝑖0 ⊂
(∪𝑛𝑘=1 𝐺𝑖𝑘 ) ∪ 𝐺𝑖0 , that is, 𝑋 ⊂∪𝑛𝑘=0 𝐺𝑖𝑘 . Thus, the open cover 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of 𝑋 has a finite sub-
cover 𝐻 = {𝐺𝑖0 , 𝐺𝑖1 , . . . , 𝐺𝑖𝑛 } and hence 𝑋 is compact.

4.17. Theorem
Close subset of a compact space is compact.

Proof. Let 𝑋 is compact space and 𝐶 is close subset 𝑋. To show that 𝐶 is compact, we take an open
cover 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of 𝐶 (𝐶 ⊂∪ 𝐺𝑖 ). Since, 𝐶 𝑐 (by hypothesis 𝐶 is close) is open and 𝑋 = 𝐶 ∪
𝑖

𝐶 ⊂∪ 𝐺𝑖 ∪ 𝐶 . This implies, 𝐺 = 𝐺 ∪ 𝐶 𝑐 is an open cover of 𝑋. By hypothesis, 𝑋 is compact, so

𝑐 𝑐 ∗
𝑖
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Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
there exist, a finite sub-cover {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , . . . , 𝐺𝑚 } ∪ 𝐶 𝑐 of 𝑋 (𝑋 ⊂∪𝑚 𝑐
𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖 ∪ 𝐶 ). This implies, 𝐶 ∪

𝐶 𝑐 = 𝑋 ⊂∪𝑚
𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖 ∪ 𝐶
𝑐
and this implies 𝐶 ⊂∪𝑚 𝑐
𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖 (since 𝐶 ∩ 𝐶 = 𝜑) this shows that

{𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , 𝐺3 , . . . , 𝐺𝑚 } is a finite open sub-cover of 𝐶 and hence 𝐶 is compact.

4.18 Theorem
Continuous image of compact space is compact.

Proof. Let 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 be a continuous function from a compact space 𝑋 onto a topological space 𝑌.
Let 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be an open cover of 𝑌 (i.e., 𝑌 ⊂ ∪ 𝐺𝑖 ). Since, each 𝐺𝑖 is 𝑌-open and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌
𝑖∈𝛺

is continuous and onto, so 𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖 ) is 𝑋 open set and 𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌. It follows that

𝑓(𝑋) = 𝑌 ⊂ ∪ 𝐺𝑖
𝑖∈𝛺

that is

𝑋 ⊂ 𝑓 −1 ( ∪ 𝐺𝑖 ) = ∪ (𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖 ))
𝑖∈𝛺 𝑖∈𝛺

and hence, the set {𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖 ): 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is an open cover of 𝑋. This implies, the open cover
{𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖 ): 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} has a finite sub-cover of 𝑋 (since 𝑋 is compact). This implies, there exist
{𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖𝑘 ): 𝑘 = 1,2, … , 𝑛} ⊂ {𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖 ): 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} such that 𝑋 ⊂∪𝑛𝑘=1 (𝑓 −1 (𝐺𝑖𝑘 )). It follows that

𝑌 = 𝑓(𝑋) ⊂ 𝑓(∪𝑚 −1 𝑚 −1 𝑚
𝑖=1 (𝑓 (𝐺𝑖 ))) =∪𝑖=1 𝑓(𝑓 (𝐺𝑖 )) =∪𝑖=1 (𝐺𝑖 )

That is {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , . . . , 𝐺𝑚 } is a finite sub-cover of 𝑌 and hence, 𝑌 is compact.

4.19 Theorem
The unit closed interval [0,1] on the real line is compact.

𝛼−𝑎
Proof. Define a function ℎ: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [0,1] by ℎ(𝛼) = for all 𝛼 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. The function ℎ is well
𝑏−𝑎

defined. Indeed:
𝛼=𝛽
𝛼−𝑎 𝛽−𝑎
⇒ =
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
⇒ ℎ(𝛼) = ℎ(𝛽)
Let 𝑦 ∈ [0,1]. If 𝑦 = 0 in particular, then by hypothesis ℎ(𝑎) = 0, that is, ℎ(𝑎) = 0 = 𝑦. Hence, 𝑦
is the image of 𝑎 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. On the other hand, if 𝑦 = 1, then ℎ(𝑏) = 1 = 𝑦. This implies, 𝑦 is the
𝜃−𝑎
image of 𝑏 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. Let 𝑦 ∈ (0,1) and put 𝑦 = 𝑏−𝑎 for all 𝑎 < 𝜃 < 𝑏. Then
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Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑥−𝑎 𝜃−𝑎
⇒ =
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
⇒𝑥−𝑎 =𝜃−𝑎
⇒ 𝑥 = 𝜃 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏)
Hence, 𝑦 is the image of 𝑥 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏). Thus, in all cases 𝑦 is the image of an element 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏]. This
shows that ℎ: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [0,1] is onto. Moreover, being a polynomial ℎ: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [0,1] is continuous
and by Theorem 4.9 [𝑎, 𝑏] is compact and hence, [0,1] is also compact (by Theorem 4.18).

Lecture No. 13 (November 15, 2023)

4.20 Definition
A topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is said to be Hausdorff (𝛵2 -space) if for any pair of distinct points 𝑎, 𝑏 in
𝑋 there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈 and 𝑉 such that 𝑎 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑉.

4.21 Theorem
Let 𝐶 be a compact subset of a 𝛵2 -space 𝑋 and 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐶. Then there exist disjoint open
sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐻.

Proof. Let 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 (𝛵2 -space) such that 𝑝 ∉ 𝐶. If 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶, then 𝑥, 𝑝 ∈ 𝑋 and 𝑥 ≠ 𝑝 (since 𝑝 ∉ 𝐶).
Therefore, there exist disjoint open sets 𝑈𝑥 and 𝑉𝑥 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝑈𝑥 and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑉𝑥 . Then, the class
{𝑉𝑥 : 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶} is an open cover of 𝐶 (compact set), therefore this open cover has a finite sub-cover for,
that is, 𝐶 ⊂∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑉𝑥𝑖 . Let 𝑈𝑥1 , 𝑈𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑈𝑥𝑛 be the corresponding open sets containing 𝑝 and are
disjoint from the corresponding 𝑉𝑥𝑖′𝑠 . Let 𝐺 =∩𝑛𝑖=1 𝑈𝑥𝑖 and 𝐻 =∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝑉𝑥𝑖 , then 𝐺 and 𝐻 are disjoint
open sets such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐻.

4.22 Theorem
Compact sub-set of a 𝑇2 -space is closed.

Proof. Let 𝐶 be a compact sub-set of a 𝛵2 -space 𝑋. Let 𝑝 ∈ 𝐶 𝑐 , then 𝑝 ∉ 𝐶. Then there exist disjoint
open sets disjoint open sets 𝐺 and 𝐻 such that 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 and 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐻 (by Theorem 4.21). Therefore,
𝐺 ∩ 𝐶 ⊂ 𝐺 ∩ 𝐻 = 𝜑 and it follows that 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐶 𝑐 . Hence, 𝑝 ∈ 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐶 𝑐 that is 𝑝 is the interior of 𝐶 𝑐 .
Thus 𝐶 𝑐 contains each of its interior point and hence 𝐶 𝑐 is open that is 𝐶 is closed.

4.23 Theorem
A compact subset of 𝑅 is bounded.
 37
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Proof. If 𝐺𝑛 = (−𝑛, 𝑛) for all 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁, then 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑅 = ∪ 𝐺𝑛 . This implies, 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑁} is an
𝑛∈𝑁

open cover of 𝐴. Therefore, the open cover 𝐺 of 𝐴 (𝐴 is compact) has a finite sub-cover. Let 𝐻 =
{𝐺𝑛1 , 𝐺𝑛2 , . . . , 𝐺𝑛𝑠 } be the finite subclass of 𝐺 such that 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐺𝑛1 ∪ 𝐺𝑛2 ∪ 𝐺𝑛3 ∪. . .∪ 𝐺𝑛𝑠 . Let 𝑘 =
𝑚𝑎𝑥{ 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 , . . . , 𝑛𝑠 }, then 𝐺𝑛𝑖 ⊂ 𝐺𝑘 for 𝑖 = 1,2, . . . , 𝑠. Therefore,
𝐴 ⊂ 𝐺𝑛1 ∪ 𝐺𝑛2 ∪ … ∪ 𝐺𝑛𝑠
⊂ 𝐺𝑘
= (−𝑘, 𝑘)
⊂ [−𝑘, 𝑘]
and hence 𝐴 is bounded.

4.24 Theorem (Hein-Borel Theorem)

Every closed and bounded subset of 𝑅 is compact.

Proof. If 𝐴 is a closed and bounded subset of 𝑅, then 𝐴 ⊂ [𝑎, 𝑏], for some 𝑎 and 𝑏 in 𝑅. As [𝑎, 𝑏]
is compact (by Theorem 4.9) and 𝐴 is a closed subset of a compact set [𝑎, 𝑏], 𝐴 is compact.

4.25 Proposition (Converse of Heine-Borel Theorem)

Every compact subset of 𝑅 is closed and bounded.

Proof. If 𝐴 is compact subset of 𝑅 (𝑇2 -space), then it is bounded (by Theorem 4.23) and closed (by
Theorem 4.22).

4.26 Proposition
A subset 𝐴 of 𝑅 is compact, if and only if, 𝐴 is bounded and closed.

Proof. If 𝐴 is compact subset of 𝑅, then it is bounded and closed (by Proposition 4.25).
Conversely, if 𝐴 is bounded and closed, then it is compact (by Theorem 4.24).

4.27 Theorem
Continuous image of a compact set is closed and bounded.

Proof. If 𝑋 is compact and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑅 is continuous, then, 𝑓(𝑋) is compact subset of 𝑅 (by Theorem
4.18) and closed and bounded (by Proposition 4.25).

4.28 Problem
If 𝑋 is compact and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑅 is continuous, then 𝑓 attains its maximum and minimum values.
 38
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Proof. Let 𝑋 is compact and 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑅 is continuous, then 𝑓(𝑋) is closed and bounded and hence 𝑓
will attain its maximum and minimum values.

Lecture No. 14 (November 16, 2023)

4.29 Theorem
A topological space 𝑋 is compact if and only if every class {𝐶𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} of closed subsets of 𝑋 such
that ∩ 𝐶𝛼 = 𝜑, contains a finite subclass {𝐶𝛼1 , 𝐶𝛼2 , . . . , 𝐶𝛼𝑛 } with ∩𝑛𝑘=1 𝐶𝛼𝑘 = 𝜑.
𝛼∈𝛺

Proof. Let 𝑋 is compact and {𝐶𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} be a collection of closed subsets of 𝑋 such that ∩ 𝐶𝛼 =
𝛼∈𝛺

𝜑, then ∪ 𝐶𝛼𝑐 = 𝑋 (by De Morgan’s Law). It follows that 𝐺 = {𝐶𝛼𝑐 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} is an open cover of 𝑋.
𝛼∈𝛺

By hypothesis, 𝑋 is compact and therefore, 𝐺 has a finite sub-cover of 𝑋. That is, there exist
𝐶𝛼𝑐1 , 𝐶𝛼𝑐2 , . . . , 𝐶𝛼𝑐𝑛 ∈ 𝐺 such that 𝑋 ⊂∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝛼𝑐𝑖 , then

𝜑 = 𝑋 𝑐 ⊃ (∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝛼𝑐𝑖 )𝑐 =∩𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝛼𝑖

and this implies
𝜑 =∩𝑛𝑖=1 𝐶𝛼𝑖

Hence, {𝐶𝛼1 , 𝐶𝛼2 , . . . , 𝐶𝛼𝑛 } is a finite sub-class of {𝐶𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} with empty intersection.

Conversely, suppose every class {𝐶𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} of closed subsets of 𝑋 such that ∩ 𝐶𝛼 = 𝜑, contains
𝛼∈𝛺

a finite subclass {𝐶𝛼1 , 𝐶𝛼2 , . . . , 𝐶𝛼𝑛 } with ∩𝑛𝑘=1 𝐶𝛼𝑘 = 𝜑. Let {𝑂𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} be an open cover of 𝑋 (i.e.,
𝑋 ⊂ ∪ 𝑂𝛼 ), then
𝛼∈𝛺

𝜑 = 𝑋 𝑐 ⊃ ( ∪ 𝑂𝛼 )𝑐 = ∪ 𝑂𝛼𝑐
𝛼∈𝛺 𝛼∈𝛺

This implies,
∩ 𝑂𝛼𝑐 = 𝜑
𝛼∈𝛺

It follows that, {𝑂𝛼𝑐 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} is a class of closed sets with ∩ 𝑂𝛼𝑐 = 𝜑, so by hypothesis there exist
𝛼∈𝛺

{𝑂𝛼𝑐1 , 𝑂𝛼𝑐2 , . . . , 𝑂𝛼𝑐𝑛 } ∈ {𝑂𝛼𝑐 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} such that ∩𝑛𝑘=1 𝑂𝛼𝑐𝑘 = 𝜑. This implies

∪𝑛𝑘=1 𝑂𝛼𝑘 = (∩𝑛𝑘=1 𝑂𝛼𝑐𝑘 )𝑐 = 𝜑 𝑐 = 𝑋

It follows that, {𝑂𝛼1 , 𝑂𝛼2 , . . . , 𝑂𝛼𝑛 } is a finite sub-cover of the open cover {𝑂𝛼 : 𝛼 ∈ 𝛺} for 𝑋 and
hence, 𝑋 is compact.

4.30 Definition
 39
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Let (𝑋, 𝛵) be topological space and 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑋, then we call 𝐴 a compact subset, whenever, the subspace
(𝐴, 𝛵𝐴 ) is a compact space.

4.31 Theorem
Let (𝑋, 𝛵) be a topological space and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋. Then, 𝐴 is compact with respect to 𝛵 if and only if 𝐴
is compact with respect to the relative topology 𝛵𝐴 on 𝐴.

Proof. Let 𝐴 is compact with respect to 𝛵. Let 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be 𝛵𝐴 -open cover of 𝐴 (i.e., 𝐴 ⊂
∪ 𝐺𝑖 ). Since, each 𝐺𝑖 is 𝛵𝐴 -open set, therefore, there exist 𝛵-open set 𝐻𝑖 such that 𝐺𝑖 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 for
𝑖∈𝛺

all 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺. Then, 𝐺𝑖 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 ⊂ 𝐻𝑖 for all 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺 and hence 𝐴 ⊂ ∪ 𝐺𝑖 ⊂ ∪ 𝐻𝑖 . This shows that,

𝑖∈𝛺 𝑖∈𝛺

{𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is an open cover of 𝐴 with respect to 𝛵. Hence, the open cover {𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} has a finite
sub-cover of 𝐴 (by hypothesis, 𝐴 is compact with respect to 𝛵). Therefore, there exist
𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , . . . , 𝐻𝑚 ∈ {𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} such that 𝐴 ⊂∪𝑚
𝑖=1 𝐻𝑖 . Hence,

𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴 ∩ (∪𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑖=1 𝐻𝑖 ) =∪𝑖=1 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 ) =∪𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖

and therefore, {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , . . . , 𝐺𝑚 } is a finite 𝛵𝐴 sub-cover of 𝐴. Hence, 𝐴 is compact with respect to the
relative topology 𝛵𝐴 on 𝐴.

Conversely, let 𝐴 is compact with respect to the relative topology 𝛵𝐴 on 𝐴. Let, {𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} be an
open cover of 𝐴 with respect to 𝛵 (i.e., 𝐴 ⊂ ∪ 𝐻𝑖 ). It follows that
𝑖∈𝛺

𝐴 ⊂ 𝐴 ∩ ( ∪ 𝐻𝑖 ) = ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 )
𝑖∈𝛺 𝑖∈𝛺

Let 𝐺𝑖 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 for all 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺, then 𝐴 ⊂ ∪ 𝐺𝑖 and this implies {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is an open cover of 𝐴
𝑖∈𝛺

with respect to the relative topology 𝛵𝐴 on 𝐴. But 𝐴 is compact with respect to the relative topology
𝛵𝐴 on 𝐴, therefore, the open cover {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} has a finite sub-cover of 𝐴 that is there exist a finite
subclass {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , . . . , 𝐺𝑚 } of {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} such that 𝐴 ⊂∪𝑚
𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖 . This implies,

𝐴 ⊂∪𝑚 𝑚
𝑖=1 (𝐴 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 ) = 𝐴 ∩ (∪𝑖=1 𝐻𝑖 )

and it follows that 𝐴 ⊂∪𝑚

𝑖=1 𝐻𝑖 . This implies, {𝐻1 , 𝐻2 , . . . , 𝐻𝑚 } is a finite sub-cover of 𝐴 with respect

to 𝛵 and hence, 𝐴 is compact with respect to 𝛵.

4.32 Theorem
 40
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Let (𝑌, 𝛵 ) is a subspace of (𝑋, 𝛵) and 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑌 ⊂ 𝑋. Then, 𝐴 is 𝛵 compact if and only if 𝐴 is 𝛵 ∗
∗

compact.

Proof. Let 𝐴 is 𝛵 compact and 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is 𝛵 ∗ open cover of 𝐴. Since, 𝐺𝑖 ∈ 𝛵 ∗ and (𝑌, 𝛵 ∗ ) is
a subspace of (𝑋, 𝛵) so, there exist 𝐻𝑖 ∈ 𝛵 such that 𝐺𝑖 = 𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 for all 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺. Thus, 𝐺𝑖 = 𝑌 ∩
𝐻𝑖 ⊂ 𝐻𝑖 and this implies 𝐴 ⊂ ∪ 𝐺𝑖 ⊂ ∪ 𝐻𝑖 that is 𝐻 = {𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is 𝛵 open cover of 𝐴. By
𝑖∈𝛺 𝑖∈𝛺

hypothesis, 𝐴 is 𝛵 compact and hence, the open cover 𝐻 has a finite sub-cover {𝐻𝑖1 , 𝐻𝑖2 , … , 𝐻𝑖𝑘 } for
𝐴 that is 𝐴 ⊂∪𝑚
𝑘=1 𝐻𝑖𝑘 . This implies,

𝐴 =𝑌∩𝐴
⊂ 𝑌 ∩ (∪𝑚
𝑘=1 𝐻𝑖𝑘 )

=∪𝑚
𝑘=1 (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖𝑘 )

=∪𝑚
𝑘=1 (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖𝑘 )

= (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖1 ) ∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖2 ) ∪. . .∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖𝑚 )

= (𝐺𝑖1 ) ∪ (𝐺𝑖2 ) ∪. . .∪ (𝐺𝑖𝑚 )
This implies, the open cover 𝐺 with respect to 𝛵 ∗ of 𝐴 has a finite sub-cover for 𝐴 and hence 𝐴 is 𝛵 ∗
compact.
Conversely, let 𝐴 is 𝛵 ∗ compact and 𝐻 = {𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is 𝛵 open cover of 𝐴. Therefore,
𝐴 =𝑌∩𝐴

⊂ 𝑌 ∩ ( ∪ 𝐻𝑖 )
𝑖∈𝛺

= ∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖 )
𝑖∈𝛺

= ∪ 𝐺𝑖
𝑖∈𝛺

That is, {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is 𝛵 ∗ -open cover of 𝐴. By hypothesis, 𝐴 is 𝛵 ∗ compact and so the 𝛵 ∗ -open cover
{𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of 𝐴 has a finite sub-cover, that is,
𝐴 ⊂ 𝐺𝑖1 ∪ 𝐺𝑖2 ∪. . .∪ 𝐺𝑖𝑚
= (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖1 ) ∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖2 ) ∪. . .∪ (𝑌 ∩ 𝐻𝑖𝑚 )
= 𝑌 ∩ (𝐻𝑖1 ∪ 𝐻𝑖2 ∪. . .∪ 𝐻𝑖𝑚 )
= 𝑌 ∩ (∪𝑚
𝑘=1 𝐻𝑖𝑘 )

⊂∪𝑚
𝑘=1 𝐻𝑖𝑘

It follows that the 𝛵-open cover {𝐻𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of 𝐴 has a finite sub-cover and hence 𝐴 is 𝛵 compact.

4.33 Definition
 41
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Let (𝑋, 𝛵) is a topological space and 𝛽 is a base for 𝛵. If 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is an open cover of 𝑋 such
that 𝐺𝑖 ∈ 𝛽 for all 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺, then 𝐺 is called a basic open cover of 𝑋.

4.34 Theorem
A topological space 𝑋 is compact if and only if every basic open cover of 𝑋 has a finite sub-cover.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is compact and let 𝐻 = {𝐵𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is a basic open cover of 𝑋. Since, every open set is
a union of members of 𝐻, therefore, 𝐻 is an open cover of 𝑋. This implies {𝐵𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} has a finite
sub-cover.
Conversely, suppose every basic open cover of 𝑋 has a finite sub-cover. Let 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} is an
open cover of 𝑋. If 𝛽 is a base for 𝛵, then 𝑋 can be written as union of members of 𝛽, that is, 𝑋 =
∪ 𝐵𝑗 , where each 𝐵𝑗 ∈ 𝛽. This shows that, 𝛽 is basic open cover of 𝑋 and by hypothesis, every
𝑗∈𝛺
𝑛
basic open cover of 𝑋 has a finite sub-cover and therefore, we have 𝑋 ⊂∪𝑗=1 𝐵𝑗 . Now since 𝛽 is a
base, so for every 𝐺𝑖 ∈ 𝐺 there exits, 𝐵𝑗 ∈ 𝛽 such that 𝐵𝑗 ⊂ 𝐺𝑖 and this implies,
𝑛
𝑋 ⊂∪𝑗=1 𝐵𝑗 ⊂∪𝑛𝑖=1 𝐺𝑖
It follows that the open cover 𝐺 of 𝑋 has a finite sub-cover {𝐺1 , 𝐺2 , . . . , 𝐺𝑛 } and hence, 𝑋 is compact.

Lecture No. 15 (November 22, 2023)

4.35 Definition
A topological space (𝑋, 𝛵) is locally compact, if and only if, each point of X has a compact
neighborhood.

4.36 Examples
(i) The discrete space (𝑋, 𝐷) (with infinite set X) is clearly locally compact, since for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 the
singleton {𝑥} is a compact neighborhood of 𝑥 but not compact.
(ii) The space (𝑅, 𝛵) is locally compact, since for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 the interval [𝑥 − 1, 𝑥 + 1] is a compact
neighborhood of 𝑥.

4.37 Theorem
A compact space is locally compact, but the converse is not true.
Proof. Let X is compact and 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋, then every open cover 𝐺 = {𝐺𝑖 : 𝑖 ∈ 𝛺} of X has a finite sub-
cover, that is, 𝑥 ∈ X ⊂∪ni=1 Gi . This implies, 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑖0 ∈ 𝐺 for some 𝑖0 ∈ 𝛺. Now 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺𝑖0 ⊂ ̅̅̅̅
𝐺𝑖0 ⊂
𝐺. Since 𝐺̄𝑖0 is closed subset of a compact space 𝑋 and therefore, ̅̅̅̅
𝐺𝑖0 is compact (by Theorem 4.17).
Thus, an arbitrary point 𝑥 of 𝑋 has a compact neighborhood. Hence, X is locally compact.
Conversely, consider the real line R with the usual topology. For each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑅 we can find 𝛿 > 0, such
that 𝑥 ∈ (𝑥 − 𝛿, 𝑥 + 𝛿) ⊂ [𝑥 − 𝛿, 𝑥 + 𝛿] ⊂ 𝑅. This implies [𝑥 − 𝛿, 𝑥 + 𝛿] is the neighborhood of
 42
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
𝑥. Since [𝑥 − 𝛿, 𝑥 + 𝛿] is closed and bounded subset of R and so is compact (by Theorem 4.24).
Hence, each point 𝑥 of R has a compact neighborhood. It follows, that 𝑅 is locally compact. On the
other, hand 𝑅 is not compact (by Example 4.12).

4.38 Theorem
Any subspace of a locally compact space is locally compact.
Proof. Let (Y, Τ ∗ ) is a closed subspace of a locally compact space (X, Τ). Let y ∈ Y ⊂ X but 𝑋 is
locally compact and hence, each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 has a compact neighborhood. Therefore, there exists 𝐺 ∈ 𝛵
such that 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 ⊂ 𝐺̄ , where 𝐺̄ is compact. Since, 𝐺 ∈ 𝛵, so 𝐺 ∩ 𝑌 ∈ 𝛵 ∗ and hence y ∈ G ∩ Y ⊂
________ _______ ___ ________
G ∩ Y. Since, 𝐺 ∩ 𝑌 ⊂ 𝐺 (because 𝐺 ∩ 𝑌 ⊂ 𝐺), it follows that 𝐺 ∩ 𝑌 is compact (by Theorem 4.17).
Hence, each y ∈ Y has a compact neighborhood. Hence, (Y, Τ ∗ ) is locally compact.

4.39 Theorem
Let 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is continuous, open and onto. If 𝑋 is locally compact, then 𝑌 is locally compact.
Proof. Let 𝑋 is locally compact 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is continuous, open and onto. If y ∈ Y, then there exists
𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥). Since, 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 (𝑋 is locally compact), so we can write 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈 ⊂ 𝑈̄, where
𝑈 is 𝑋-open and 𝑈̄ is compact. By hypothesis, 𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑌 is open and so 𝑓(𝑈) is 𝑌-open and 𝑓(𝑥) ∈
𝑓(𝑈) (since 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈) also 𝑓(𝑈) ⊂ 𝑓(𝑈̄) (since 𝑈 ⊂ 𝑈̄). Hence, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ 𝑓(𝑈) ⊂ 𝑓(𝑈̄), where
𝑓(𝑈̄) is compact subset of 𝑌 (by Theorem 4.18). This shows that, each point of 𝑌 has a compact
neighborhood and hence 𝑌 is locally compact.

4.40 Definition
A subset 𝐴 of a topological space 𝑋 is countably compact if and only if every infinite subset 𝐵 of 𝐴
has an accumulation point in 𝐴.

4.41 Theorem (Bolzano-Weierstrass Theorem)

Every bounded infinite set of real numbers has an accumulation point.

Proof. Let 𝑆 be any bounded infinite set of real numbers. Let

𝑚 = inf 𝑆 and 𝑀 = sup 𝑆
That is
𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆
We define a set 𝑇
𝑡: 𝑡 ≥ 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 𝑜𝑟
𝑇 =: { }
𝑡 ≤ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆
 43
Lectures Fall 2023 Compactness in Topological Spaces
By Hidayat Ullah Khan
Since 𝑚 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 (for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆) and therefore, 𝑚 ∈ 𝑇 and
hence 𝑇 is non-empty. Again, since 𝑀 ≥ 𝑥 (for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆) and suppose 𝑡 ∈ 𝑇, then

𝑡 ≥ 𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑦 𝑎 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆

⇒ 𝑀 ≥ 𝑡 for all 𝑡 ∈ 𝑇 (since 𝑀 = sup 𝑆)
⇒ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑀 for all 𝑡 ∈ 𝑇
This implies 𝑀 is upper bound of 𝑇 and hence 𝑇 is bounded above. So, by ordered completeness
property, 𝑇 must have a supremum. Let
sup 𝑇 = 𝑝
Now we will prove that 𝑝 is limit point of 𝑆. For any 𝜀 > 0, we have
𝑝 ∈ (𝑝 − 𝜀, 𝑝 + 𝜀)
So, 𝑝 + 𝜀 > 𝑝 and 𝑝 is an upper bound of 𝑇 (since 𝑝 = sup 𝑇). This implies, 𝑝 + 𝜀 ∉ 𝑇 and thus

𝑝 + 𝜀 ≥ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆

that is
𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 ≤ 𝑝 + 𝜀 (4.1)

Since 𝑝 − 𝜀 < 𝑝 (where 𝑝 = sup 𝑇) and this implies 𝑝 − 𝜀 cannot be an upper bound of 𝑇. So,
there exists some of 𝑞 ∈ 𝑇 such that
𝑞 >𝑝−𝜀
Also
𝑞 ≤ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 (since, 𝑞 ∈ 𝑇)

Also, from (6.1) we have 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 ≤ 𝑝 + 𝜀 and thus

𝑝 − 𝜀 < 𝑞 ≤ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 ≤ 𝑝 + 𝜀

⇒ 𝑝 − 𝜀 ≤ 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑆 ≤ 𝑝 + 𝜀

This implies the neighborhood (𝑝 − 𝜀, 𝑝 + 𝜀) of 𝑝 contains infinite number of elements of 𝑆. Hence,

𝑝 is limit point of 𝑆.

4.42 Example
A bounded and close interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is countably compact. Indeed: If 𝐵 is an infinite subset of [𝑎, 𝑏],
then 𝐵 is also bounded and hence 𝐵 has an accumulation point (by Theorem 4.41) say 𝑝. Then 𝑝 ∈
[𝑎, 𝑏] (since [𝑎, 𝑏] is closed).

4.43 Example
1 1 1
The unit open interval (0,1) is not countably compact. Indeed: The infinite subset 𝐵 = {2 , 3 , 4 , . . . }
of (0,1) has exactly one limit point which is 0 ∉ (0,1).