MODULE 4: Consciousness, sleep, dreams,
hypnosis, and drugs
Consciousness is a person’s awareness of
everything that is going on around him or her at
any given moment
● Actively understands or is aware of
what’s happening; Consciousness can
be clear and organized
○ People can be conscious but in
an altered state. (perception and
sensory experience can be more
defined)
● Consciousness was also studied in
philosophy
● Similar to the functionalist perspective
Waking Consciousness is the state in which
thoughts, feelings, and sensations are clear,
organized and the person feels alert.
Altered state of Consciousness is the state in
which there is a shift in the quality or pattern
of mental activity as compared to waking
consciousness
● This does not mean the quality is lower;
either below or above the normal
consciousness is already altered
SLEEP
● A vital function of our body
Circadian rhythm - a cycle of bodily rhythm
that occurs over a 24-hour period
● Allows us to feel sleepy in the evening
and wake up naturally
● Synchronizes with environmental cues
such as light and temperature, but
continues even in the absence of cues
● Also dictates the release of hormones,
metabolism, etc.
Sleep-Wake Homeostasis tracks an individual’s
need for sleep and regulates sleep intensity
● Determining how strong the sleep drive
is and how much more sleep will be
needed after deprivation is a function of
sleep-wake homeostasis
● Factors affecting sleep-wake include
exposure ot light, medical conditions,
medication, stress, diet, and sleep
environment
Anatomy of Sleep
Hypothalamus - section of the brain influencing
the glandular system; houses the SCN
Suprachiasmatic nucleus is the internal clock
that tells people when to wake up and fall
asleep; receives info form the eyes to
determine circadian rhythms
Suprachiasmatic nucleus is located in the
hypothalamus
Brain Stem communicates with the
hypothalamus to control the transitions
between wake and sleep; production of GABA
to reduce activity in the hypothalamus and
brainstem;
Pons and medulla also signals the relaxation of
muscles in preparation for sleep
Thalamus is inactive during nREM sleep, but
active during REM sleep because of sending
images from the cortex
Hypothalamus tells the pineal gland to secrete
melatonin
Pineal gland releases melatonin which makes a
person sleepy/wake up
● The hypothalamus and suprachiasmatic
nucleus decide what time to release
melatonin
Basal Forebrain promotes sleep and
wakefulness; releases adenosine to support
sleep drive
Adenosine makes you sleepy, hence caffeine is
used to counteract is because it blocks
adenosine
Midbrain acts as an arousal system
The internal clock is influenced by biological
functions and environmental factors (times
when you eat, noises and light pollution)

The ideal number of hours of sleep cannot be
“bawi”; the body is unable to replenish energy
for the days with no sleep
Research on hours of sleep: too little will give
you a hard time waking up; too much
(oversleeping) can lead to migraines
Quality sleep is different than long sleep
Microsleeps are brief sidesteps into sleep
lasting only a few seconds.
Sleep deprivation is any significant loss of
sleep, resulting in problems in concentration
and irritability
Theories
Adaptive Theory proposes that animals and
humans evolved sleep patterns to avoid
predators by sleeping when predators are most
active
● Developed when evolution was in
process; Slept to play dead
Restorative Theory proposes that sleep is
necessary to the physical health of the body
and serves to replenish chemicals and repair
cellular damage
● Neurogenesis and neuroplasticity can
be facilitated with enough rest and sleep
● Sleep can affect the capability to retain
memory in the long term
● Appetite changes
● Replenishes energy regardless of the
amount of physical or stationary activity
Brain Wave Patterns
Electroencephalogram (EEG) allows scientists
to see brain wave activity as a person passes
through the various stages of sleep and to
determine what type of sleep the person has
entered
● The waves signal specific functions and
levels of the brain’s capability for sleep
and types of sleep
Kinds of Waves
● Beta waves alert and awake
consciousness
● Alpha waves indicate a state of
relaxation of light sleep
○ Not fully awake but active
awareness of the surroundings
still
○ Nangununa yung waking
consciousness
○ Altered state of consciousness
but with the capacity to return to
waking consciousness
○ Consistent kind of high frequency
● Theta waves indicate the early stages of
sleep
○ When you start seeing visual
elements; drifting from conscious
thoughts
○ Considered an altered state
○ Smoothing out a little
● Delta waves indicate the deepest stage
of sleep; long slow waves
○ Long and low frequency
NREM AND REM SLEEP
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) is the stage of
sleep in which the eyes move rapidly under the
eyelids and the person is typically experiencing
a dream
● Most important stage in sleep
● The time where your vital functions and
replenishment of energy occurs
● Dreams are indicative of your brain
trying to replenish energy; facilitate
restoration
○ Theories say that dreams are
indicative of subconscious
● Paradoxical sleep because of the high
brain activity
○ If awakened during REM, the
person remembers a dream
● REM Rebound is when there are
increased amounts of REM sleep after
 being deprived of REM sleep on earlier
nights
● Some old people don’t reach REM sleep
(only until stage 3)
○ This is the reason why they are
light sleepers
Non-Rapid Eye Movement (NREM/Non-REM) is
any of the stages of sleep that don’t include
REM
● Alpha, theta, and delta waves signify
levels of NREM sleep; leads to the REM
sleep
1 sleep cycle is around 1 and a half hours
6-7 sleep cycles for an average person
Neurotransmitters & Genes + Sleep
GABA is a neurotransmitter associated with
sleep, muscle relaxation, and sedation
Norepinephrine and orexin are
neurotransmitters associated with keeping
certain areas of the brain awake while asleep
(?)
Stages of Sleep
Non-REM Stage One is where you experience
hypnagogic images (vivid visual events) and
hypnic jerk (body jerks)
● Alpha waves
● Still have capacity to return to waking
consciousness
Non-REM Stage Two is sleep spindles (brief
bursts of brain activity only lasting a few
seconds)
● Shifting to exclude waking
consciousness
● Melatonin does not stop releasing
Non-REM Stages Three and Four have delta
waves
● Deep sleep is when 50% of waves are
delta waves
● Lucid dreaming is considered an altered
state of consciousness (different alert
level and still in sleep)
Sleep Disorders (REM or NREM)
Any physiological activity that goes beyond
sleeping could be considered as a disorder (if
its regular)
Polysomnograms are tests where the individual
spends the night at a sleep center/lab for their
breathing, heart rate, eye, and limb movements,
and brainwaves are being recorded throughout
the night.
Rem Sleep Disorders
● Nightmares are bad dreams occurring
during REM sleep
○ Elicits fear and negative
thoughts/emotions
● REM Behavior Disorder is a rare disorder
in which the mechanism that blocks the
movement of the voluntary muscle fails,
allowing the person to thrash around
and even get up and act out nightmares
○ Physiological reaction; acting out
the dream (not necessarily sleep
walking)
NonREM sleep disorders (stage four)
Somnambulism occurs during deep sleep,
where a person moves or walks around while
sleep
● More common in children
● People can appear awake; people will
also have no memory of sleepwalking
Night terrors are when a person experiences
fear and screams/runs during deep sleep
● appear in stage 4; stealing, etc.
Can sleepwalking be a criminal defense?
● Kenneth Parks, Scott Falater, Brian
Thomas
Problems During Sleep
Insomnia is the inability to get to sleep, stay
asleep, or get good quality sleep
● Any form of bad sleep
● Melatonin supplements depend on the
person; can be prescribed by a
psychologist
Sleep Apnea is a disorder where the person
stops breathing for nearly half a minute or
more
● Oxygen cannot reach parts of the brain
● Loud snoring and needs a positive
airway pressure device
Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder where people
fall to REM sleep without warning, during the
day
● Cataplexy - sudden loss of muscle
tone/cannot control muscle
● Some people are hard to wake up
Restless leg syndrome is when there are
uncomfortable leg sensations causing
movement and no sleep
Nocturnal leg syndrome is when there are
painful cramps in calf or foot muscles
Hypersomnia is excessive daytime sleepiness
● Linked to or an effect of insomnia
● Headache, hunger, migraines, lutang
Circadian rhythm disorders are disturbances of
sleep-wake cycle such as jet lag and workshifts
Enuresis is urinating while asleep
Sleep Paralysis can happen as a result of
insomnia or sleep deprivation; Can happen in
nonRem
● Medication
● Change sleeping habits
● Reduce stress
Biological Causes of Sleep Disorders
● Genetic inheritance, problems in the
release of hormones, and
neurotransmitters
Environmental Causes of Sleep Disorders
● Caffeine
● Working and exercising excessively
DREAMS
Freud said that dreams act as wish fulfillment;
dreams are door to the unconscious mind or
desires; dreams are eyes into the unconscious
● We cannot directly tackle unconscious
desires because they’re anxiety inducing
and therefore they reveal themselves to
us through dreams; What we dream
about is what we want (need for sex and
aggression)
● The tenets of Freud aren’t verifiable
because everything he hypothesizes
about is in the unconscious mind and is
inaccessible
● There is no direct way to the
unconscious
○ Manifest Content is the actual
dream itself; the visual image of
the dream with no interpretation
○ Latent Content is the true hidden
meaning of a dream; the
interpretation of the dream
DREAM MODELS
Activation Synthesis Hypothesis is a theory
about dreams proposing that dreams are
created by higher centers of the cortex to
explain the activation by the brain stem of
cortical cells during REM sleep periods
● Cortical cells activate our capacity to
dream
Activation Information Mode Model proposes
that information that is accessed during
waking hours can have an influence on the
synthesis of dreams
● AIM propose that what you do in the
waking consciousness affects
activation synthesis hypothesis
● Cannot account for specific experiences
1:32:00
Hypnosis is a state of consciousness is
especially susceptible to suggestion; an altered
state of consciousness
● Used for good or bad, used in
psychotherapy
Four Elements of Hypnosis
● Hypnotist tells the person to focu son
what is being said
● The person is told to relax and feel tired
● The hypnotist tells the person to “let go”
and accept suggestions easily
● The person is told to use vivid
imagination
Hypnotic Susceptibility is the degree to which a
person is a good hypnotic subject
● Stanford hypnotic susceptibility scale
Hypnotherapy is a psychotherapeutic approach
to treating psychological disorders
Effects of Hypnosis
● Create amnesia for the events occurring
under hypnosis for a brief time
● Relieve pain by taking away
consciousness of the pain
● Alter sensory perceptions
● Help people relax in stressful situations
False Memory Retrieval is when you form false
memories which you think are true
Basic Suggestion Effect is the tendency to act
as if their behavior is out of control, because it
places responsibility on the hypnotist
Theories of Hypnosis (why)
1. Hypnosis as dissociation (HIdden
Observer Hypothesis) proposes that
hypnosis works only in a person’s
immediate consciousness, while a
hidden observer remains aware of the
events
● Your body is different from your soul
and mind
● Some people have built in dissociative
identities
● Implies that consciousness is still there,
possessed by the observing personality
2. Social Cognitive Theory of Hypnosis
proposes that there is no actual altered
state and that subjects are playing the
role expected of them in hypnosis
● Not saying that they are conscious, but
they are active participants in their own
hypnosis
● You are made aware of your social role
● Provides an explanation for
psychotherapy, but not for voodoo or
crime
○ There’s no way to determine why
voodoo hypnosis happens;
possible with the necessary
biological and environmental
conditions
Altered state of consciousness and waking
consciousness are connected
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs create physical and
psychological dependence.
● Physical Dependence is when the body
becomes unstable to function without
the use of drugs; negative reinforcement
ensues
● Psychological dependence is when an
individual believes that they need drugs
in order to maintain an emotional high or
feeling; positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement
○ Can last forever :(
● Drug Tolerance is when an larger doses
of a drug are required to create the
same excitatory or inhibitory effect
● Withdrawal is a sign of a lack of an
addictive drug in a physicall dependent

Managing Addiction
Contingency-Management Therapy is an
operational conditioning strategy where
pateints earn rewards for negative drug tests
Cognitive Behavioral Interventions changes the
way people perceive their stresses and lives
Stimulants are drugs that increase nervous
system functioning
● Sympathetic division or CNS
● Called “uppers”
Kinds of Stimulants
Amphetamine is a stimulant that is
synthesized in laboratories instead of being
found in nature; Meth
● Methamphetamine is used to treat
ADHD or narcolepsy
● Can be used to stay up for long hours,
some are perscribed as diet pills
● Amphetamine Psychosis: addicts
become paranoid and violent
Cocaine is a stimulant that is a natural drug
found in cocoa leave plants
● Several physical complications such as
convulsions, and heightened risk of
learning and delayed language
development in offspring
● Don’t go through physical withdrawal
symptoms, but experience a mood
swing into depression
Nicotine is a stimulant that is mild but toxic,
raising blood pressure and accelerating the
heart
● Deadliest addiction with more deaths
than everything here combined
● Used to be an insecticide
● Extremely addictive, toxic, but mild; has
intense withdrawal symptoms
● More addictive than heroin and alcohol
Caffeine is a stimulant that is a natural
substance found in common drinks to maintain
alertness
● Can be added to pain relievers
● Does not help sobriety, and is bad for
acid
● Good in moderate amounts
Depressants are drugs that decrease the
functioning of the nervous system
Tranquilizers are depressants that include
barbiturates and benzodiazepines, used to
lower anxiety and reduce stress
● Baribiturates: sleep inducing effect; OD
can lead to the halt of breathing and
heart beat
● Benzodiazepines: mild depressant that
reduces anxiety and stress
Alcohol is a depressant that is the most
common; it is also used in the fermentation of
veggies
● Health risks to the liver, brain, heart
● Alcohol related deaths are not only from
the accidents but also alcohol poisoning
● Fourth leading cause of death in the US;
Fetal alcohol syndrome, osteoperosis,
and heart disease
● Alcohol stimulates the release of GABA,
a depressant which slows neural activity
○ Affected areas of the brain
include motor skills, reaction
time, speech, and association
areas for social inhibitions
Opiates are depressants that include morphine,
heroin, and opium; these suppress pain by
binding into endorphin receptors
● Opium: mimics endorphins, comes with
severe withdrawal symptoms; “God’s
own medicine”
● Morphine: opium dissolved in acid and
neutralized with ammonia; still used
today in controlled and short doses
 ● Heroin: a derivative of morphine; more
addictive than the former two
Hallucinogens are drugs that alter the brain’s
perceptions of sensory stimuli
Manufactured drugs are hallucinogens that
include LSD, PCP, and MDMA, producing
psychomotor effects and hallucination
● Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD):
synthesized from a grain fungus called
ergot found on rye; can lead to poor
decisions, flashbacks/spontaneous
hallucinations, and HPPD (hallucinogen
persisting perception disorder)
○ HPPD: repeated occurrence of
hallucinations, depression, and
physical discomfort
● Phenylcyclohexyl Piperidin/
Phencyclidine (PCP): very flexible drug
that can be a stimulant, depressant,
hallucinogen, analgesic drug depending
on dosage
○ Leads to violence or suicide ;
leaves its users with no warning
signals of pain
● MMDA: allows the brain to release a lot
of serotonin and inhibits reuptake;
damages S receptors; severe
dehydration and raises body temp
Natural Hallicinogens include cannabis, which
produces feelings of well-being and sensory
distortions
● Marijuana: extracted from cananbis
sativa; cannabinoids, TFC
○ Feelings of well-being,
intoxication and mild sensory
distortions
○ No physical dependency, but
some psychological dependency
○ Information processing, attention
and memory impairments while
high
○ Healthrisks are more related to
its implications on lung health
and cardiovascular disease
○ Used to aid post-chemo nausea,
chronic pain, depression, and
PTSD
Module 5: Learning
Learning denotes the capacity of a person to
acquire new behaviors through observing,
mirroring, or copying events occurring within
their external environment
Learning is a tenet of behaviorism, and
behaviorists believe that behaviors can
be learned, and maladaptive behaviors
can be unlearned
Pavlov and Conditioning
● Pavlov was able to study the classical
conditioning model through the
salivation of dogs
Classical conditioning is a type of learning
where a person or animal learns to elicit an
involuntary, reflex-like response to a new and
previously neutral stimulus
Reflex is an unlearned and involuntary
response to stimuli
Unconditioned Stimulus is an activity that
naturally or originally elicits a response
Sight of the dog food is the US
Unconditioned Response is the actual reaction
to an unconditioned stimulus
Dog salivation at the sight of food
Neutral Stimulus is the stimulus that originally
does not elicit a particular response, but will be
used in eliciting or changing behavior.
Ringing of the bell but the dog does not
bark
Conditioned Stimulus was originally the neutral
stimulus, but becomes this term when the new
activity could successfully lead to a particular outcome outcome
response.
The ringing of the bell is done along with
Requirements for Conditioning
presenting the food; it becomes a CS
1. reinforcement/punishment/neutral
when the dog salivates at the sound of
stimulus should be performed
the bell
immediately after the behavior
Conditioned Response is the new behavior that
2. More associations lead to stronger
results from the conditioned stimulus
behavioral change (more true in
The dog salivation at the sound of the
classical)
bell
3. In operant conditioning, the intensity of
Stimulus Discrimination is when subjects are
the reinforcements should be increased
able to tell the difference between specific
to continue altering the behavior
stimuli
Schedules of Reinforcement
Dogs responding to the correct sounding
Fixed Intervals are scheduled reinforcements
ticking noise
that come in intervals of time
Stimulus Generalization is when stimulus that
Ex. Every 2 days you study flashcards
are mistaken for the CS are responded to with
Variable Interval is a scheduled reinforcement
the CR
where intervals of time are varied for each
Operant Conditioning
reinforcement
● Applies to voluntary behavior
Ex. Random scolding by a parent (?) basta
● learning a voluntary behavior through a
unpredictable yung time
series of pleasant and unpleasant
Fixed Ratio is a scheduled reinforcement where
consequences initiated immediately and
a number is required per reinforcement
repeatedly after a particular behavior
Ex. a pizza party for every 20 lbs of newspaper
Reinforcements are responses that encourage
donated
a person to repeat a behavior
Variable Ratio is a reinforcement where a ratio
Punishments are responses that ensure that
of a response/stimuli is varied for each
behavior does not repeat
reinforcement
Ex. Claw Machine?
Positive Negative
Reinforcement is Reinforcement is Applications of Operant Conditioning
adding a pleasant removing unpleasant
Shaping is the reinforcement of steps to direct
stimulus to stimulus to
encourage same encourage a a subject to an end goal
behavior; strengthens behavior; strengthens
a behavior that brings a behavior that Behavior Modification is the application of
a good outcome removes a negative operant conditioning in forming new habits or
outcome behaviors
Positive Punishment Negative Punishment ● Token Economy is the utilization of
is adding unpleasant is removing a tokens to reinforce behavior
stimulus to pleasant stimulus to
discourage behavior; discourage behavior; Cognitive Learning Theory
weakens behavior weakens a behavior
that brings a bad that removes a good
Cognitive Learning Theory poses that cognitive
processes are behind learning, in a similar
manner to computers
Tolman’s Latent Learning is a CLT where
learned behaviors only arise when they are
needed; new behaviors are stored in a
mental/cognitive map
and cognitive skills such as motor skills and
coordination
Desire is an element of observational learning
where the learner must be motivated to imitate
the behavior; can be reinforced

Kohler’s Insight Learning is a CLT where

sudden perception or insight is essential in
engaging in new behaviors; not limited to trial
and error solutions

Seligman’s Learned Helplessness is a CLT that

reinforces failure to respond to stimuli as a
result of repeated failures; amygdala is
involved

Observational Learning
Observational learning (Bandura) is a subgroup
of behavioral learning where people learn
through imitation and observation.
Watching other people influences our behavior;
Bobo doll experiment where the children copied
the adults that beat up a doll; the closest was
when an adult was of the same sex; social
learning theory; how we learn changes as we
mature; capacity for reflection, identification,
and empathy
A model is the subject of observation, one that
is exhibiting the behavior to be imitated.

Elements of Observational Learning

Attention is an element of observational
learning where the learner must pay attention
to the activity
Memory is an element of observational
learning where the learner must be capable of
data/code retrieval in the mind
Imitation is an element of observational
learning where the learner must be capable of
copying the behavior; refers to both resources
MODULE 6: Memory
Memory is an active system that receives
sensory information, and utilizes or organizes
such information into usable forms for storage
and retrieval
Cognition is that which occurs whenever an
individual processes information in the brain
3 General Stages for Memory Models
1. ENCODING is the set of mental
processes that allows sensory
information to be understood by the
brain
2. STORAGE is where new information is
stored in the brain at different periods of
time, depending on the memory system
being used
3. RETRIEVAL is is the process of getting
information out of storage
Information Processing Model is where
● Short term memory is the processor:
small capacity; conscious of at the
present moment
● Long term memory is the hard drive
● Encoding is being able to translate short
term memory into long term memory
● Retrieval is being able to bring back
information from LTM to STM
For things to enter the STHM it must be
detected with our senses
Sensory memory
● Iconic memory
● Echoic memory
STM can get overwhelmed with too much
sensory information
● Selective Attention: filtering out
important information from
surroundings
○ Ignoring sounds in an area to
focus on studying
○ ADHD struggle in filtering,
unimportant stuff reaches STM
People may struggle to focus on more than one
auditory task at a time
● But you can combine visual and auditory
tasks
Working Memory is STM with a visual
component and an auditory component
● Phonological Loop
● Physiospatial Sketchpad
STM/Working Memory turns into LTM through
encoding
Selective Attention filters out what reaches
STM
Maintenance Rehearsal is a process that helps
retain information in the STM for the time
being until it reaches the LTM
Levels of Processing Model : Memory is based
on how much we process information
● Structural level of processing is when
you remember the physical features of
words
● Phonemic level of processing is when
you remember the sounds of words
● Semantic level of processing is when
you remember words/memory encoding
by meaning
● The more effort required to remember,
the more likely you are to remember
● Relating information to yourself makes
you more likely to remember
Adaptive Forgetting proposes that we forget
what we do not need in order to remember
important things
Curve of Forgetting Model proposes that we
tend to forget more things as time passes;
distributed practice is more effective than
mass practice
Why Do People Forget Things?
 ● Encoding Failure is when attention is not
enough to encode information
● Memory Decay Trace Theory is when
information not accessed for a period of
time decays in the brain
● Proactive Interference is when old
information interferes with the encoding
of new information
● Retroactive Interference is when the
encoding of new info interferes with the
retrieval of old info
Procedural Memory is when you remember
things you even if you don’t practice it
Encoding Specifity is the tendency to better
remember information because of the
circumstances/conditions present when
encoding the information
● State-Dependent Learning: retrieval is
based on mimicking physiological or
psychological states
● Context-Dependent Learning: retrieval is
based on mimicking surroundings
Serial Position Effect is the tendency to better
remember things at the start and ends of the
list rather than the middle
● Primacy Effect: Things at the start are
better remembered because there is
more time for maintenance rehearsal
● Recency Effect: Things at the end are
better remembered because it is still in
conscious/STM
Recall is the ability to retrieve information with
no external cues
Recognition is the ability to match information
with a stimulus
False Positives are false memory retrievals
when stimuli are similar to information stored
in memory
Automatic Encoding is when information is
stored in long-term memory with little to no
effort for maintenance rehearsal
Flashbulb memories are vivid memories of
events usually with strong emotional
associations
Reconstruction of Long-Term Memory
Constructive Processing is a theory proposing
that memory retrieval is partially inferred by
current knowledge
● Memory retrieval is problem solving:
current knowledge + what you
remember from before = what your
memory of the event is now
● With every retrieval, memory is altered
(either added to or partially removed)
Hindsight Bias is the tendency of people to
falsely believe that they would have known
abouts events or memories after the fact
● A by product of constructive processing
Memory Retrieval Problems
Misinformation Effect is when new information
can affect what is remembered, creating false
memories
● Information can become part of the
actual memory affecting memory
accuracy
False Memory Syndrome is the creation of
false memories by the influence of other
people
● Under hypnosis, false memories can be
formed; memory retrieval is also done
with more confidence
● False memories are created in the same
way as real memories
Biological Basis
Mediotemporal Lobes and Hippocampus are
crucial for memory
Explicit Memories are memories that are
conscious and long term
 ● Semantic Memories are memories that
contain bits of information and data;
facts
● Episodic Memories are memories that
contain events and experience
Anterograde Amnesia is inability to remember
new memories after getting amnesia while
remembering old memories
Retrograde Amnesia is inability to remember
old memories
Implicit Memories are learned motor skills like
walking and biking
● Memory Consolidation is the conversion
of short term memory into long term
memory
STM: Neural activity reverberates in closed
circuits, synapses change so that STM
becomes LTM
● Activation of a memory links it to other
memories
● STM is kept in hippocampus
● LTM is stored in cortical areas/storage
Place Cells are neurons that respond only when
a subject is recognized in a certain
location/context
Concept Cells are neurons that respond to
ideas and concepts instead of specific details
Hippocampus is responsible for spatial
navigation, association of abstract entities
(sound associations))
● Memories storage is diffuse and not
constrained in one area
● Memories become more resistant to
disruption over time
Inferotemporal Cortex is the part of the brain
responsible for the storage of visual memories
Amygdala is the part of the brain responsible
for emotion association with memories
Cerebellum is the part of the brain responsible
for learning and remembering motor skills
Striatum is the part of the brain responsible for
stimulus/response; habit formation
Synaptic Transmission can be strengthened
using long–term potentiation
● Synaptic Plasticity is when synapse
strength can change over time; strongly
correlated with memory and learning
● What fires together wires together
● Pathways that are repeated are
myelinated and better connected
○ It’s like using the same path on
grass repeatedly
● Neuroplasticity for learning skills is
dependent on pruning and myelinization
of neurons
Cognition is a mental actvity that goes on in
the brain when a person is processing info
● Mental images are mental
representations that stand for objects or
events
Concepts are ideas that represent a class or
category of objects or events
● Ex. Shapes comprise of circle, square,
triangle, etc.
● Formal Concepts are concepts that are
defined by specific rules of features
● Natural Concepts are concepts that
people form from experiences of the
real world
○ Fuzzy, smooth, sticky, scary
● Helps in problem solving and decision
making
● Prototypes is a concept that closely
matches the defining characteristics of
the concept
● Schemas are mental generalizations
about objects, places, people, etc.
○ Scripts are a kind of schema
involving a familiar sequence of
events
Executive Functions are the more complex
operations the brain is capable of
Higher-order thinking prompts the combination
of executive functions to perform operations
and solve problems
Examples of Higher Order Thinking
● Decision Making is a higher order
thinking involving identifying, evaluating,
and choosing the best between
alternatives
○ Involves choices
● Problem Solving is a higher order
thinking that involves reaching a goal by
thinking and behaving in certain ways
○ Involves a problem
Trial and Error is a problem solving method
where each possible solution is tried until
successful
● Mechanical inventions
● Can’t find the exact process in solving a
problem
Algorithms are a step by step solution or
procedure for solving a problem
● Ex. maths, driving, skin care routines
● Will always result in a correct solution
Heuristics are educated guesses based on
prior experiences that narrow down possible
solutions for a problem
● Representative Heuristic is assuming
that anything possessing specific
characteristics with members of a
category is also part of the category
● Availability Heuristic is using what is in
your available memory or stored
information
Insights are perceptions of possible solutions
Problems in Problem Solving
Functional Fixedness is a barrier to PS that
comes from thinking about objects only in
terms of their typical functions
● Common when given an object
Mental set is a barrier to PS which is the
tendency for people to insist on using PS
patterns that worked in the past for them
Confirmation Bias is the tendency to search for
evidence that fits one’s claim and ignoring
other evidence
Creativity is the process of solving problems by
combining ideas or behavior in new ways
(innovation involves a product, creativity can
come from scratch)
● Convergent thinking is the perception
that a problem only has one solution
○ Convergent thinking uses
previous knowledge and logic
● Divergent thinking is a form of creative
thinking where you begin with one point
and eventually arrive with different ideas
and possibilities
Intelligence
Intelligence is the ability to learn from one’s
experiences, acquire knowledge, and use
resources effectively in adapting to new
situations or solving problems
Spearman’s Theory/G
● G factor represents general intelligence
which is the ability to solve and reason
○ Foundational concept for
intelligence tests
● S factor represents excelling in specific
areas
The problem with the G theory is that it poses a
specific standard for intelligence
Intelligence
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences is a model
elaborating that intelligence composes of 8 or
9 areas for intelligence
● humanistic
Triarchich Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg) ● Norms are scores from the
claims that intelligence is a by-product of standardization group
analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and ● Not all reliable and valid tests are
practical intelligence standardized
● Analytical Intelligence is intelligence ● Is it culturally biased?
concerned with book smarts, and taking ● Normal curves
an analytical approach to a problem;
deconstruction
● Creative Intelligence is concerned with Deviation IQ scores is a measure of intelligence
the ability to perceive different assuming that IQ is normally distributed with a
perspectives and provide innovative and mean of 100 and a SD of 15
novel solutions ● 130 is 2 SDs above the mean
● Practical Intelligence is an individual’s ● 40 is 4 SDs below the mean
ability to navigate “life”; social Issues in IQ Tests
situations, wisdom, etc. street smart ● Culture Bias
● Culture Free/Culture Faor
Cattel-Horn-Carroll Theory (CHC) claims that
intelligence is rooted in a generalized form of Usefulness of IQ Tests
intelligence, and is composed of ● Generally valid for predicting academic
fluid/crystallized intelligence, memory, success
attention, comprehension, etc. has an empirical ● Neuropsychology
nature ○ Provide information about
learning disabilities,
IQ is a number representing intelligence neuropsychological disorders
compared across similar age groups around
the world Intellectual Disability is a neurodevelopmental
Wechsler Intelligence Test yields a verbal score disorder where IQ falls below 70 and issues in
and a performance score, as well as an overall adaptive behavior
score of intelligence ● Developmentally delayed
● Can be mild or profound
Development of IQ Tests ● Causes
● Reliability is the tendency of a test to ○ Deprived environments
produce the same scores when given to ○ Genetics
the same ppl Giftedness is when people have an IQ above
● Validity is the degree to which a test 130
correctly measures what is claims to ● Giftedness does not guarantee success
A test can be reliable but still invalid Emotional Intelligence is the awareness of and
All valid tests are reliable ability to manage one’s own emotions; ability to
Not all reliable tests are valid be self-motivated, to exercise empathy, and be
Standardization is the process of giving the socially skilled
test to a large group of people that represents
the intended population of the test design
Module 4 LOs
4.1 What does it mean to be conscious, and are
there different levels of consciousness?
4.2 Why do people need to sleep? How does
sleep work?
4.3 What are the different stages of sleep?
Which stage has dreaming? What is the
importance of dreams?
4.4 How do sleep disorders interfere with
normal sleep?
4.5 Why do people dream? What do they dream
about?
4.6 How does hypnosis affect consciousness?
4.7 What is the difference between
psychological dependence and physical
dependence
4.8 How do stimulants and depressants affect
consciousness and what are the dangers
associated with taking them?
4.9 What are some of the effects and dangers
of using hallucinogens, including marijuana?
Module 5 LOs
5.1 What does learning mean?
5.2 How was classical conditioning first
studied, and what are the important elements
and characteristics of classical conditioning?
5.3 What is a conditioned emotional response?
How do cognitive psychologists explain
classical conditioning?
5.4 How does operant conditioning occur, and
what were the contributions of Thordike and
Skinner?
5.5 What are important concepts in operant
conditioning?
5.6 What are the schedules of reinforcement?
5.7 What is punishment and how does it differ
from reinforcement?
5.8 What are some of the problems with using
punishment?
5.9 How do operant stimuli control behavior?
What are other concepts that enhance and limit
operant conditioning?
5.10 What is behavior modification? How can
behavioral techniques be used to modify
involuntary biological responses?
5.11 How do latent learning, insight, and
learned helplessness relate to cognitive
learning theory?
5.12 What is observational learning, and what
are the four elements of modeling?
Chapter 6 LOs
6.1 What are the three processes of memory
and the different models of how memory
works?
6.2 How does sensory memory work?
6.3 What is short term memory, and how does
it differ fom working memory?
6.4 How is long-term memory different from
other types of memory?
6.5 What are the various types of long-term
memory, and how is information stored in
long-term memory organized?
6.6 What kinds of cues help people remember?
6.7 How do the retrieval processes of recall
and recognition differ? How reliable are our
memories of events?
6.8 How are long-term memories formed? How
can this process lead to inaccuracies in
memory?
6.9 What is false memory syndrome?
6.10 Why do we forget?
6.12 How does amnesia occur?
Chapter 7 LOs
7.1 How are mental images and concepts
involved in the process of thinking?
7.2 What are the methods people use to solve
problems and make decisions?
7.3 Why does problem solving sometimes fail,
and what is meant by creative thinking?
7.4 How do psychologists define intelligence,
and how do various theories of intelligence
differ?
7.5 How is intelligence measured and
constructed? What role do these tests play in
neuropsychology?
7.6 What is intellectual disability and what are
its causes?
7.7 What defines giftedness, and how are
giftedness and emotional intellgence related to
success in life?

BRAIN ANATOMY AND ROLES/FUNCTIONS

APPLICABLE TO ALL MODULES
Hippocampus

Hypothalamus

Thalamus

Pons