ROCK DEFORMATION
Stress is the force acting on a body adjusted for the area over
which it is distributed
● When metamorphic rocks experience stress, they
reorient themselves make the maximum surface area
bigger to endure more stress (force over area)
The Types of Stress
● Uniform stress is when stress is equally distributed
across all directions
● Differential stress is when stress is applied at right angles
○ Compressional stress is when an object is
squished
○ Tensional stress is when an object is being pulled
apart
● Shear stress is when an object is being pulled along
parallel surfaces in opposite directions
Strain is the change, size shape or volume of rocks because of
stress
Types of Strain
● Reversible strain: elastic strain
○ Elastic limit is the maximum amount of strain that
an object can experience before the strain is
irreversible
○ Elastic rebound is the release of energy and the
breaking of an object to revert back to its original
shape
● Plastic strain refers to the irreversible, permanent
deformation of objects; when the stress goes away the
object does not go back to its original shape; observed in
rocks
Stages of Deformation
● Elastic deformation: the strain is not more than the elastic
limit
● Ductile deformation: plastic deformation
● Brittle deformation: breaking
Elastic and Ductile deformation is irreversible
Ductile Deformation
● How do objects/material flow; produces folds
● Folds are layers of rocks bent or curved, typically
associated with compressional stresses at depth
○ Depth is required because pressure + temperature
increase = ductile nature
○ Axial planes, fold axis, and limbs
● Kinds of Folds
○ Anticline: beds are tipping away, oldest at the
center
■ Domes and basins are formed from double
anticline
○ Syncline: beds are tipping towards , youngeset at
the center
■ Basins are formed from 2 synclines
○ Dome: oldest are at the center, youngest are away
○ Basin:
A plunging anticline has a hinge
U shaped
Plunging anticline is a syncline
● Attitude: how beds are oriented; tipping away; anti-cline
Ductile Deformation
● Fold:
○ Symmetric folds; are symmetric on a vertical axial
plane
○ Asymmetric folds; are inclined or tabingi axial
plane
○ Horizontal fold axis
○ Plunging fold; possess plunges or looks like
● Brittle Deformation
 ○ Permanent strain in the form of cracks and ○ Normal faults: hanging wall slides down the
fractures footwall; associated with extension and seen in
○ Fractures are broad breakages in rock in shallow divergent plate boundaries
parts of a fault; the 2 kinds of fractures are ■ Listric fault: is wehn the normal fault plane
■ Joint: no movement across a fracture is curved
■ Fault: movement across a fracture; ■ Horst and graben is when there are many
displacement normal faults
Kinds of Joints ○ Reverse fault: hanging wall is pushed up against
● Tectonic joints: are created because of tectonic stress; the foot wall associated with compression and
produces structures that look like patterns or in parallel seen in convergent plate boundaries
lines ■ Thrust fault: reverse fault less than 45
○ This tells the maximum stress direction degrees
○ Palawan ● Oblique-slip: combination of horizontal and vertical
● Exfoliation joints: formed from the exhumation of buried movement and displacement
rocks
○ Buried within the deeps interior causing increased
pressure and stress and is removed after
● Cooling jointsL formed from the cooling of lava, mud
cracks that stick together in recrystallization
Kinds of Faults
● Strike-slip: sliding past each other horizontally, where the
displacement is vertical
○ Sinistral strike slips are when the opposite block
moves to the left
○ Dextral strike slip faults are when the opposite
block moves to the right
○ Regardless of the reference block, it will always be
sinistral/dextral
● Dip-slip: sliding past each other vertically, creating
horizontal displacement, creating an inclined fault surface
○ Foot wall: pinapatungan; hanging wall: pinapatong
on top of foot wall; head and foot analogy
GEOHAZAZRDS - LAVA
Lava is extrusive form of magma with mineral fragments and
dissolved gases
● Flow: low naipon na dissolved gases; a’a
● Ballistic bombs/fragments: are ejected and projectile from
the vent, hazardous for near vent areas
○ Can also lead to fountaining
○ Leads to bombs when exposed to air
Tephra fall: is mostly ash, erupted to form an eruption colum and
cloud, which eventually falls from the sky and settles on the
ground
● Tephra fall has the largest range, reaching the
stratosphere, where fine materials can reach even
circulate all over the world; effects include
○ Respiratory issues
○ Structure collapses
○ Damages crops
○ Obscures sunlight
○ Disrupts transportation
Pyroclastic density currents: deadliest volcanic hazard which
are turbulent mass of volcanic materials comprising of ash and
rocks and hot gases that flow downslope at high speeds
● Permanent danger zones: determined by the distance of
PDCs from a certain location
○ You cannot outrun it!
● Can lead to
○ Burning
○ Burial
○ Asphyxiation
○ Filling valleys with pyroclastic materials
● Pompeii
Lahar: mixture of water and rock from volcanic events, typically
enters a river valley; the activity can be from several decades
ago
● More of a sedimentary process but involves volcanic
materials, happened in pinatubo and bicol
● Heavy outpour leads to remobilization of volcanic
materials from flooding and rain
Volcanic Gases: high concentrations of harmful gases from
volcanic activity
● You cannot see it; exsolved from magma
● Volcanic gases can come from
● Volcanic gases do not efficiently mix with the air hence
they become concentrated
● CO2: low lying areas, lethal to people and animals
○ 3% leads to headaches, dizziness, increased
heart rate and difficulty breathing
○ >15% leads to unconsciousness and death
● Hydrogen halids (HF, HCl, HBr) are strong toxic acids
○ Hydrogen halides have high solubility in water, in
volcanic plumes or in the atmosphere which are
eventually inhaled by humans
● SO2 leads to irritation
● H2S leads to irritation of upper respiratory tract, and
pulmonary edema in long exposure
○ 500 ppm of hydrogen sulfide can cause a human
to fall unconscious and die in less than an hour
GEOHAZARDS - EARTHQUAKE
Definitions of Earthquakes:
● Violent shaking of the ground
● Shaking of the earth’s surface
● Sudden slip on a fault and radiated seismic energy
Types of Earthquakes
● Tectonic earthquakes: sudden movement along faults,
release of energy from faults
● Volcanic earthquakes: produced by movement of magma
interacting with country rock, creating instability in the
 local area, creating seismic waves; can also be caused
by intrusive structures
● Volcano-tectonic: a kind of volcanic earthquake
associated with failrue or breakage of rock material along
faults and fractures beneath active volcanoes
○ VT earthquakes are triggered by excess heat and
pressure or adjust of crust around a magmatic
body
○ Slipping within a volcanic setting
What causes earthquakes
Elastic Rebound Theory: stress build up on rocks from plate
movement; strain is absorbed by the rocks until they need to
break, where energy is released and recoiled as
energy/movement; has stages
1. No stress/orig position
2. Applied stress leading to strain
3. Strain leads to deformation + converging
4. Elastic limit is reached, leading to permanent strain
5. Ductile zone is exceeded, leading to brittle deformation
6. Brittle deformation leads to faulting, then eventually
elastic rebound
How to describe an earthquake
Epicenter: the point on the earth’s surface above the
hypocenter; REFERS TO GEOGRAPHIC LOCATION
● Taken by triangulation; intersection of the seismic
centers/stations
● coordinates
Hypocenter: underground focus point of an earthquake;
REFERS TO DEPTH in KM
Focus: the point within the earth where an earthquake rupture
starts
● Focus is describe through both epoicenter and
hypocenter
Magnitude: number that characterizes the the relative size of an
earthquake based on ENERGY RELEASED
● logarithmic/exponential scale;
○ Mag 2 is 32x stronger than mag 1
■ Mag 3 is 1024x stronger than mag 1
● Higher mag earthquakes are less frequent than lower
magnitude
● Seismograph gets the amplitude
Intensity: perceived strength per earthquake varying per area
● Intensity is higher near the epicenter and depending on
the geology of the rocks in the local area
Fault trace: point or line where displacement is visible; seen as
a line
● Does not necessarily represent the hypocenter; is a
manifestation of faulting
Seismic waves
● Body waves; we don’t feel these as much
○ P waves: primary or pull-push waves that transmit
through gasses, liquids, or solids
■ First transmitted; compression/expansion
○ S waves; secondary waves/shear waves that
transmit thru solids lang
○ Needs direct contact (shear)
● Surface/seismic waves; the waves we feel, propagates
slower
○ Love waves: up and down motion
○ Rayleigh waves: rolling motion
Secondary Hazards of ground shaking
● Damage and casualites
● Landslides (mass wasting)
Liquifaction: grains are agitated to act like fluids
● Grain to grain contact is weakened because of water,
leading to instability of structures and collapse
Tsunami: series of big waves that are generated by earthquakes
under the sea

Before: prepare, extent is dependent on the area (slippage

rupture)
● Longer ruptures -> bigger earthquakes
● Longer time w/ no movement -> leads to higher
magnitude
● Most epicenters are along trenches; trenches are
offshore and can lead to tsunamis
GEOHAZARDS - MASS WASTING
Mass wasting is the downhill movement controlled by gravity
● Consists of unconsolidated rock material
● Mass wasting happens when slopes become unstable
● Stability depends on the balance of forces affecting
mass/material OR the properties of the mass/material
Forces Acting on a Material on a Slope
● There are 2 forces acting on a material on a slope,
○ gravity (force parallel to the slope; tangential to the
surface)
○ a force perpendicular to the slope/surface to keep
it in place
● The balance of the perpendicular vs parallel forces will,
determine if the block will slide or not
Slope Angle and Slope Stability
● Horizontal Slope:gravity is perpendicular to the surface
○ There is only perpendicular force, no tangential
force
● Tilted Slopes
○ Gentle slope: there is some tangential force but is
still less than perpendicular force
■ Gp > Gt; the block stays in place
○ Steep slope: tangential force > perpendicular force
Angle of Repose: max angle at which the sediment deposit
(unconsolidated) will remain stable; beyond this angle, the
materials will move downwards
● Angle of repose depends on the properties of the
sediments
● In general, bigger sediments have a steeper angle fo
repose than smaller sediments
○ This is because greater friction is produced by
bigger sediments, contributing to being able to
hold each other and increasing the angle of
repose
● Grain to grain contact/support influences angle of repose
Water and Slope Stability
● Friction supports grain to grain contact; but when water
percolates the grains, surface tension between the grain
increases
○ Surface tension increases the angle of repose
because it helps grains stick together (hence sand
castles)
○ Water saturated sand (too much water) pushes the
grains apart and lowers the angle of repose
Geology & Slope Stability
● Sedimentary, metamorphic and igneous rocks can form
along planar bodies
○ Planar contacts can be planes of weaknesses,
where they may fail
● When planar contacts are oriented opposite to the slope
> they are stable
● Planar contacts are oriented at the same angle (less than
the dip of the slope) > moderately stable
● Planar contacts are oriented in the same direction as the
slope > least stable (increasd likelihood of downwards
movement)
○ Also referred to as daylighting: planar
discontinuities in the same direction as the slope
Triggering Events
● Rainfall and earthquakes are pushing mechanisms for
material failure; causes the change in the slope
conditions
○ Rainfall: increases water
○ Earthquakes: triggers destabilization of slopes
from ground shaking ‘
 ● Oversteepening of slopes: going beyond the angle of
repose in construction; materials usually flow to restore a
more stable angle of repose
○ Not always anthropogenic
Types of Mass Movements
● Nature of the material/mass
○ Rock, debris, or earth
■ Rock fragments:
■ Course grain sediments aka debris: mass
movement
■ Finer grain sediments aka earth:
● Type of movement
○ Fall (hulog)
○ Topple (domino or falling forward)
○ Slide (sliding down; further subdivided into the
failure surface)
○ Spreads (gently oriented mass movement)
○ Flows (gentle but steeper than spreads and has
higher volume than spreads)
Fall: abrupt downward movement of rock, eart, or debris that
detach from steep slopes or cliffs
● Usually from overhanging materials that are triggered to
fall
Slides:
● Translational: involves a planar surface of failure
○ Rapid movements along a plane of distinct
weakness between the overlying slide material
and more stable underlying material
○ There is a weaker layer on top of a more stable
layer
○ Bedding and joint planes
● Rotational: curves surface of failure, involving the
download rotation of rock or regolith along a concave
upward surface
○ Rotational slump: a curved failure surface
○ Has a slumped mass, leaving arcuate scars or
depressions on the hill slope
Flow: rapidly moving mass-wasting events, occurring with an
increase in water saturation
● Increasing the grain to grain boundaries and decreasing
friction; higher saturation of water, leads to longer run
outs
● Debris flow: coarse material
○ Is a hazard when living near an alluvial fan
● Earth flow: fine material
○ Lahar flow is considered earth flow
Avalanche: rapid to very rapid landslides but does not require
water
● Triggered by edifice collapses, disintegration,
oversteepening or earthquakes
Soil creep: extremely slow downlope movement of
unconsolidated material
● Takes years; due to the expansion and contraction of
surface sediment and pull of gravity
○ Causes a subsidence, or an up and down
conveyor belt movement because of thermal
expansion and contraction
○ Is seen through leaning poles, cracked roads,a nd
bent trees
Landslide Mitigation
● Hard engineering measures
○ Modifying slopes to increase stability
○ Lessening impact of landslides by shielding or
rediverting landslide deposits
○ Benching: letting it destabilize in parts so the net
movement is less
○ Retaining wall: big concrete walls to block the
slopes
 ○ Ripraps: to aid against coastal erosion
○ Gabio walls
○ Shot cretes: dealing with bedrock depletion by
makign the surrounding rock more cohesive
● Soft measures
○ Hazard maps, education, early warning systems
HISTORICAL GEOLOGY: chronological sequence of physical
and bio events in the past
Absolute Dating and Relative Dating
Absolute dating: determining the age in years of geologic
events; the techniques include the ff
● Radiometric dating: based on the radioactive decay of
certain elements; does not work if the mineral is
metamorphosed or becomes an open system
○ Radioactive isotopes are a variant of an atom w/
dif. Mass numbers
○ Radioactive: spontaneous decay of atomic nuclei
■ Decay leads to an unstable parent isotope
which decays into a stable daughter isotope
○ Halflives: the amount of time it takes for half of the
nuclei to decay
■ Age is based on comparing the ratio of
parent and daughter isotopes in a mineral
compared to the supposed ratio when the
mineral was formed (in number of half lives)
○ The radioactive isotopes most abundant in the
crust as thorium, uranium, and potassium
● Optically stimulated Lumisecnece dating: when was the
last time a grain was exposed to light or heat
● ERS/Electron Spin Resonance dating: based on the
radiation dosage of a mineral compared ot the entombing
sediments
● Magnetostratigraphy: the recording of polarity reversals
Relative dating: only gives the order or sequence of geologic
events
Steno Laws/Principles
● Principle of Superposition: lowest layer is the oldest, the
ones on top are older
● Original Horizontality of Beds: sediments naturally are
deposited in a horizontal layer, any deformities indicate
that it is not in its original position
● Principle of Lateral Continuity: if strata look connected
you ca assume that they are but underwent erosion
○ Sediments spread out until they thin at the edge of
a depositional basin
● Principle of Cross-Cutting relationships: the structure that
cuts across is younger than the one that gets cut
○ Faults and intrusions that cut through rock are
younger than the surrounding rock
● Principle of Inclusions: sediments that accompany rocks
indicate that the rocks are older (xenoliths in magma)
○ A rock w/ an inclusion indicates that the
surrounding rock is younger and the inclusion is
older
 ● Disconformity: gap in the rock record representing a
Principle of Faunal Succession period of erosion, where there is no change in angle
● Different strata will have different assemblages/combos (eroded surface)
of fossils; every layer is characterized by index fossils ● Nonconformity: contact between metamorphic and
○ Fossil organisms succeed each other in a intrusive igneous rock and sedimentary rocks
determinable order; any time order has a ○ Happens when a volcano w/ intrusive and
corresponding fossil metamorphic structures erode and are eventually
○ Index fossils are used to define and identify covered by sedimentary strata
geologic periods w/ short vertical range, wide ● Paraconformity: no apparent unconformity but was
geographic distribution and rapid evolution identified because of missing or misplaced fossils
■ Fossils that go extinct quickly are good
indicators of the geologic time period
Amonite: mesozoic
Trylobite: permian
Correlation: the corresponding and matching up of rocks of
similar age in different regions but are geographically separated
● Based on the kinds of rocks or fossils in the strata to
match up discontinuous rocks
● Allows linkage between relative and absolute dating

Unconformities: represent a long

period of no deposition OR due to
erosion; gaps in the rock record
● Hiatus: the time in the gap w/ no
rock record bec of no deposition
● Vacuity: the time in the gap where
layers are eroded
● Diastem: short unconformity
Kinds of Unconformities according to
cause
● Angular unconformity: differences
in angle of the beds due to erosion;
differences in dip angles
Fossils: remains or traces of prehistoric life preserved in
sedimentary rocks that are typically older than 10,000 years old
● Requirements for fossilization (increases likelihood of
fossilization)
○ Rapid burial: shields the body from other
processes that can destroy it; “seals” the body
○ Protective cover: The burying material should be
protective
■ Mud, fine sand deposits, etc.
○ Possession of hard parts: mineralized parts
(bones, tests) increases the likelihood of being
fossilized
● Lagerstatten is the fossil site exhibiting extraordinary
preservation abilities; very conducive for preservation z
● Some fossil groups are easy to preserve because of their
biological characteristics
Fossil Types
● Body fossils: formed from remains and body parts of
prehistory animals and plants
○ Protists, cyanobacteria, etc.should represent the
body of the organism
○ Helps with taxonomy
● Trace fossils (ichnofossils): provides evidence about the
movement or activities of ancient organisms, even
includes poo
○ Movement traces
■ Tracks: animal foot prints in soft sediments
■ Burrows: tubes taht later become filled with
sediments and minerals
○ Feeding Traces
○ Digestive traces
■ Coprolites: fossil poo
■ Gastroliths:highly polished stomach stones
Fossil Types according to Composition
● Unaltered fossils: the organisms’ original composition is
retained
○ Unaltered hard parts, permafrost (sudden freezing
of substrate), amber (holographic/2D
representation of the original organism), tar pits
● Altered fossils: changes in composition from when the
organism was alive
○ Permineralization: when holes in the fossils are
filled up with secondary minerals like quartz,
calcite or pyrite, forming an internal cast
■ Pyritization
■ Silicification
○ Replacement: when secondary minerals replace
the original minerals in the remains, completely
changes the original framework and replaced by
another mineral
○ Petrifaction: permineralization + replacement
○ Recrystallization: the original minerals of the fossil
recrystallize to a more stable form
■ Opal to quartz, aragonite to calcite
○ Carbonization: low oxygen conditions led to the
residue of carbon films (its like the traces of pencil
writing)
■ Graptolites
● Molds and Casts
○ Mold: impression of a fossil
■ Internal mold: impression from inside the
shell
● What the dentist returns to you
● Steinkern: formed from sediments
filling up the inside of a shell that is
left when the shell si dissolved
 ■ External mold: impression from outside the
shell
● A void; a negative impression
■ Cast is the filling of the fold replacing the
original shell
● Dairy queen chocolate ice cream
Philippine Fossils and Importance
● Oldest fossils in the PH: late carboniferous
○ Rugose Coral Ghselia sp.
■ Extinct form of coral; late carboniferous,
clast in punso conglomerate
■ Late miocene to pliocene
○ Fusulinids: neoschwagerina, middle permian
■ Foraminefera, minilog limestone (palawan)
and the pacul limestone (romblon)
○ Ammonites:
■ Late jurassic to early cretaceous
■ Octopus, squids ancestors
■ Mansalay formation (mindoro)
■ Yop formation (catanduanes)
Relevance of Fossils
● Evolution
● Conservation: why did some organisms go extinct? What
trends occurred over time?
● Dating and correlation: fossils help the age of the rock
and how the different rock layers are related
● Paleoclimate and paleoenvironment: leaves and leaf
margin for the climate
● Energy sources: fossil fuels, coal,
Geologic Time Scale
1. Archean era: oldest fossils, cyanobacteria, prokaryotic
cells
2. Proterozoic era: oldest fossils for eukaryotes
a. This is when the oldest multicellular organisms
appeared
3. Cambrian explosion (oldest fossil fuels)
a. Produced mineralized fossils from animals
Chronostratigraphy: element of stratigraphy that deals with the
relative time relations and ages of rock bodies
● A layer represents a particular time period; Rock record
Geochronology: science of dating and determining the time
sequence of events in the history of the earth
● Geochronologic refers to the time period while
chronostratigraphic refers to the
○ Example: Epoch: time; series: rock
The major divisions in the geologic time period are divided by
large extinction events
Precambian
1. Hadean Eon: 80% of earth’s history, hell on earth
because of heavy bombardment
● Formation of solar system, moon, and earth
○ Collision of theia and earth hypothetically occurred
during this period
● Development of plate tectonics, atmosphere
● Moon was formed 50 ma after the formation of the solar
system
● Oldest rock fragments from this eon are the Isua
greenstone, Narryer gneiss, and the Acasta gneiss
● There are no rocks from the hadean eon because
because of intense volcanism, but only minerals and rock
fragments
2. Archean Eon: end of the late heavy bombardment
● Archean eon was the time of early life in the form of
unicellular prokaryotes and photosynthesis; domain
bacteria and archaea
○ Biogenic molecules were dated to 3.7 Ga
 ○ Stromatolites (fossils of cyanobacteria) were dated Our ancestors came into contact with geology through
to 3.48 Ga ● Cave shelter (resoruce extraction, art, etc.)
● Greenstone belts are a geological formation involving ● Tool making
layers of metamorphosed mafic-ultramafic volcanic and ● Geologic events
metasedimentary rocks; 5 Extinction Events
○ important in the development of crust and 1. End ordovician
continent formation; 2. Late devonian
○ they’re basically ancient island arcs from the old 3. End permian-triassic
plate tectonics 4. End triassic-jurassic
○ Possesses a spinifex texture, which is the habit of 5. End cretaceous-paleogene
olivine crystals because the mantle was very hot Paleozoic Era 541 - 252 ma yrs ago
during this time to allow for the crystallization of ● Cambrian explosion
komatiite ● Great ordovician biodiversification event
3. Proterozoic eon: characterized by the great oxygenation ● Carboniferous rainforest collapse
event, evolution of eukaryotes, multicellular eukaryotes, ● Formation of pangaea
and soft-bodied organisms (ediacaran biota) ● History of life
● The presence of oxygen sinks (iron and oxidizing metals) ○ First land plants
lead to iron band formation, until the balance between the ○ First terrestrial animals
2 reached equilibrium, leading to a net positive ○ Evolution of jawed fishes
production of oxygen ○ First tetrapods
● 2 supercontinents were formed; rodinia and pannotia ○ First winged insects
● 2 glaciations: Huronian and Cryogenian; possibility of ○ Great dying
glaciers all over the world Cambian period: first period with fossils, corresponding with the
● Eukaryotes such as acritarchs, fungi, rhodophyta, first time in earth’s history where organisms had skeletons
chlorophyta, and metazoans ● Lagerstatten, we came from pikaia gracilens
● Ordovician period: great ordovician biodiversification event
● Prior to ordovician period, organisms were limited to the
seafloor, but now they can move around the water
Phanerozoic Eon: visible life eon column; produced different water ecosystems
● Time period where fossils are first visible, youngest eon ○ Origin of scorpions: pentecopterus decorahensis
(including us) ● This was when plants started to show; spores and moss
○ Paleozoic era (538-252 ma yrs ago) Silurian Period: terrestrial colonization
○ Mesozoic (dinosaurs; 252-66 ma yrs ago) ● Arthropods; milipedes, arachnids, etc. were the first to
○ Cenozoic (us) colonize plants
Devonian period: age of fishes ● Formation of tethys ocean (equatorial sea)
● Age of corals, fishes, and the jawed fish who are our ● Ammonites (fishes of mesozoic seas)
ancestors Cretaceous period
● Development of trees and forests with lignin ● T-rex
Carboniferous period: mosses that turned into tree shaped ● A considerable number of flowering plants and
mosses coccolithophores (chalk)
● Arthoprods grew to large sizes because of the ● A lot of rudist bivalves
abundance of oxygen Mesozoic era ends with chicxulub impact
● First division of reptiles to this period
● Lots of coal because everyone died (?)
● Our coal deposits are cenozoic
Permian period: age of fusilinids (unicellular organisms)
● Pangaea was formed
● Rise of gymnosperms (seed bearing plants)
● Great dying
Mesozoic Era:
● Age reptiles
● Breaking up of pangaea
● History of life
○ First dinosaurs
○ First mammals
○ First pterosaurs
○ First birds
○ First angiosperms
○ K-Pg extinction event
Triassic Period
● Age of reptiles (dinosaurs, crocodiles relatives)
○ Pterosaurus was the first vertebrate
● Emergence of corals
○ Scleractinian corals (thekind of corals now)
Jurassic Period
● Domination of dinosaurs; largest land vertebrates to have
ever existed
○ Sauropod, therapod; ancestors of birds