Astro Physics

Large underground, liquid based dete tors for
astro-parti le physi s in Europe: s ienti ase and

prospe ts
arXiv:0705.0116v2 [hep-ph] 29 May 2007
D Autiero 1 , J Äystö 2 , A Baderts her 3 , L Bezrukov 4 ,

J Bou hez 5 , A Bueno 6 , J Busto 7 , J-E Campagne 8 ,
Ch Cavata 9 , L Chaussard 1 , A de Bellefon 10 , Y Dé lais 1 ,
J Dumar hez 11 , J Ebert 12 , T Enqvist 13 , A Ereditato 14 ,
F von Feilitzs h 15 , P Fileviez Perez 16 , M Göger-Ne 17 ,
S Gninenko 4 , W Gruber 3 , C Hagner 12 , M Hess 14 ,
K A Ho hmuth 17 , J Kisiel 18 , L Kne ht 3 , I Kreslo 14 ,
V A Kudryavtsev 19 , P Kuusiniemi 13 , T La henmaier 15 ,
M Laran hi 3 , B Leevre 1 0, P K Lightfoot 19 ,
M Lindner 20 , J Maalampi 2 , M Maltoni 21 , A Mar hionni 3 ,
T Marrodán Undagoitia 15 , J Marteau 1 , A Meregaglia 3 ,
M Messina 14 , M Mezzetto 22 , A Mirizzi 17,23 , L Mos a 9 ,
U Moser 14 , A Müller 3 , G Natterer 3 , L Oberauer 15 ,
P Otiougova 3 , T Patzak 10 , J Peltoniemi 13 , W Potzel 15 ,
C Pistillo 14 , G G Raelt 17 , E Rondio 24 , M Roos 25 ,
B Rossi 14 , A Rubbia 3 , N Savvinov 14 , T S hwetz 26 ,
J Sob zyk 27 , N J C Spooner 19 , D Stefan 28 , A Tonazzo 10 ,
W Trzaska 2 , J Ulbri ht 3 , C Volpe 29 , J Winter 15 ,
M Wurm 15 , A Zalewska 28 and R Zimmermann 12
1 IPNL, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS/IN2P3, 69622 Villeurbanne,
Fran e
2 Department of Physi s, University of Jyväskylä, Finland
3 Institut für Teil henphysik, ETHZ, Züri h, Switzerland
4 Institute for Nu lear Resear h, Russian A ademy of S ien es, Mos ow, Russia
5 CEA - Sa lay, Gif sur Yvette and APC Paris, Fran e
6 Dpto Fisi a Teori a y del Cosmos & C.A.F.P.E., Universidad de Granada,
Spain
7 Centre de Physique des Parti ules de Marseille (CPPM), IN2P3-CNRS et
Université d'Aix-Marseille II, Marseille, Fran e

8 LAL, Université Paris-Sud, IN2P3/CNRS, Orsay, Fran e
9 CEA - Sa lay, Gif sur Yvette, Fran e
10 Astroparti ule et Cosmologie (APC), CNRS, Université Paris VII, CEA,
Observatoire de Paris, Paris, Fran e

11 Laboratoire de Physique Nu léaire et des Hautes Energies (LPNHE),
IN2P3-CNRS et Universités Paris VI et Paris VII, Paris, Fran e

12 Universität Hamburg, Institut für Experimentalphysik, Hamburg, Germany
13 CUPP, University of Oulu, Finland
14 Laboratorium für Ho henergie Physik, Bern Universität, Bern, Switzerland
15 Te hnis he Universität Mün hen, Physik-Department E15, Gar hing,
Germany
16 Centro de Fisi a Teori a de Parti ulas, Instituto Superior Te ni o,
Departamento de Fisi a, Lisboa, Portugal

17 Max-Plan k-Institut für Physik (Werner-Heisenberg-Institut), Mün hen,
Germany
Large underground, liquid based dete tors for astro-parti le physi s in Europe 2
18 Institute of Physi s, University of Silesia, Katowi e, Poland

19 Department of Physi s and Astronomy, University of Sheeld, Sheeld,
United Kingdom
20 Max-Plan k-Institut fuer Kernphysik, Heidelberg, Germany
21 Departamento de Físi a Teóri a & Instituto de Físi a Teóri a, Fa ultad de
Cien ias C-XI, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblan o, Madrid, Spain

22 INFN Sezione di Padova, Padova, Italy
23 INFN Sezione di Bari and Dipartimento di Fisi a, Università di Bari, Bari,
Italy
24 A. Soltan Institute for Nu lear Studies, Warsaw, Poland
25 Department of Physi al S ien es, University of Helsinki, Finland
26 CERN, Physi s Department, Theory Division, Geneva, Switzerland
27 Institute of Theoreti al Physi s, Wro law University, Wro law, Poland
28 H. Niewodni zanski Institute of Nu lear Physi s, Krakow, Poland
29 Institut de Physique Nu leaire d'Orsay (IPNO), Groupe de Physique
Theorique, Université de Paris-Sud XI, Orsay, Fran e
E-mail: ampagnelal.in2p3.fr
Abstra t.
This do ument reports on a series of experimental and theoreti al studies
ondu ted to assess the astro-parti le physi s potential of three future large-s ale
parti le dete tors proposed in Europe as next generation underground observato-
ries. The proposed apparatus employ three dierent and, to some extent, om-
plementary dete tion te hniques: GLACIER (liquid Argon TPC), LENA (liquid
s intillator) and MEMPHYS (water Cherenkov), based on the use of large mass of
liquids as a tive dete tion media. The results of these studies are presented along
with a riti al dis ussion of the performan e attainable by the three proposed
approa hes oupled to existing or planned underground laboratories, in relation
to open and outstanding physi s issues su h as the sear h for matter instability,
the dete tion of astrophysi al- and geo-neutrinos and to the possible use of these
dete tors in future high-intensity neutrino beams.
Keywords : neutrino dete tors, neutrino experiments, neutrino properties, solar

and atmospheri neutrinos, supernova neutrinos, proton de ay, wimp
PACS numbers: 13.30.a,14.20.Dh,14.60.Pq,26.65.t+,29.40.Gx,29.40.Ka,29.40.M ,95.55.Vj,95.85.Ry,

97.60.Bw
Submitted to: Journal of Cosmology and Astroparti le Physi s

1. Physi s motivation
Several outstanding physi s goals ould be a hieved by the next generation of
large underground observatories in the domain of astro-parti le and parti le physi s,
neutrino astronomy and osmology. Proton de ay [1℄, in parti ular, is one of the
most ex iting predi tion of Grand Unied Theories (for a review see [2℄) aiming at
the uni ation of fundamental for es in Nature. It remains today one of the most
relevant open questions of parti le physi s. Its dis overy would ertainly represent a
fundamental milestone, ontributing to larifying our understanding of the past and
future evolution of the Universe.
Several experiments have been built and ondu ted to sear h for proton de ay
but they only yielded lower limits to the proton lifetime. The window between the
37
predi ted proton lifetime (in the simplest models typi ally below 10 years) and that
33
ex luded by experiments [3℄ (O (10 ) years, depending on the hannel) is within rea h,
and the demand to ll the gap grows with the progress in other domains of parti le
physi s, astro-parti le physi s and osmology. To some extent, also a negative result
from next generation high-sensitivity experiments would be relevant to rule-out some
of the theoreti al models based on SU(5) and SO(10) gauge symmetry or to further
onstrain the range of allowed parameters. Identifying unambiguously proton de ay
and measuring its lifetime would set a rm s ale for any Unied Theory, narrowing the
phase spa e for possible models and their parameters. This will be a mandatory step
to go forward beyond the Standard Model of elementary parti les and intera tions.
Another important physi s subje t is the physi s of astrophysi al neutrinos, as
those from supernovae, from the Sun and from the intera tion of primary osmi -
rays with the Earth's atmosphere. Neutrinos are above all important messengers
from stars. Neutrino astronomy has a glorious although re ent history, from the
dete tion of solar neutrinos [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10℄ to the observation of neutrinos from
supernova explosion, [11, 12, 13℄, a knowledged by the Nobel Prizes awarded to M.
Koshiba and R. Davis. These observations have given valuable information for a
better understanding of the fun tioning of stars and of the properties of neutrinos.
However, mu h more information ould be obtained if the energy spe tra of stellar
neutrinos were known with higher a ura y. Spe i neutrino observations ould give
detailed information on the onditions of the produ tion zone, whether in the Sun or
in a supernova. A supernova explosion in our galaxy would be extremely important
as the evolution me hanism of the ollapsed star is still a puzzle for astrophysi s.
An even more fas inating hallenge would be observing neutrinos from extragala ti
supernovae, either from identied sour es or from a diuse ux due to unidentied
past supernova explosions.
Observing neutrinos produ ed in the atmosphere as osmi -ray se ondaries
[14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20℄ gave the rst ompelling eviden e for neutrino os illation
[21, 22℄, a pro ess that unambiguously points to the existen e of new physi s.
While today the puzzle of missing atmospheri neutrinos an be onsidered solved,
there remain hallenges related to the sub-dominant os illation phenomena. In
parti ular, pre ise measurements of atmospheri neutrinos with high statisti s and
small systemati errors [23℄ would help in resolving ambiguities and degenera ies
that hamper the interpretation of other experiments, as those planned for future long
baseline neutrino os illation measurements.
Another example of outstanding open questions is that of the knowledge of the
interior of the Earth. It may look hard to believe, but we know mu h better what
happens inside the Sun than inside our own planet. There are very few messengers that
an provide information, while a mere theory is not su ient for building a redible
model for the Earth. However, there is a new unexploited window to the Earth's
interior, by observing neutrinos produ ed in the radioa tive de ays of heavy elements
in the matter. Until now, only the KamLAND experiment [24℄ has been able to study
these so- alled geo-neutrinos opening the way to a ompletely new eld of resear h.
The small event rate, however, does not allow to draw signi ant on lusions.
The fas inating physi s phenomena outlined above, in addition to other important
subje ts that we will address in the following, ould be investigated by a new
generation of multipurpose experiments based on improved dete tion te hniques. The
envisioned dete tors must ne essarily be very massive (and onsequently large) due
to the smallness of the ross-se tions and to the low rate of signal events, and able
to provide very low experimental ba kground. The required signal to noise ratio an
only be a hieved in underground laboratories suitably shielded against osmi -rays
and environmental radioa tivity. We an identify three dierent and, to large extent,
omplementary te hnologies apable to meet the hallenge, based on large s ale use
of liquids for building large-size, volume-instrumented dete tors
• Water Cherenkov. As the heapest available (a tive) target material, water is the
only liquid that is realisti for extremely large dete tors, up to several hundreds or
thousands of ktons; water Cherenkov dete tors have su iently good resolution
in energy, position and angle. The te hnology is well proven, as previously used
for the IMB, Kamiokande and Super-Kamiokande experiments.
• Liquid s intillator. Experiments using a liquid s intillator as a tive target provide

high-energy resolution and oer low-energy threshold. They are parti ularly
attra tive for low energy parti le dete tion, as for example solar neutrinos and geo-
neutrinos. Also liquid s intillator dete tors feature a well established te hnology,
already su essfully applied at relatively large s ale to the Borexino [25℄ and
KamLAND [26℄ experiments.
• Liquid Argon Time Proje tion Chambers (LAr TPC). This dete tion te hnology
has among the three the best performan e in identifying the topology of
intera tions and de ays of parti les, thanks to the bubble- hamber-like imaging
performan e. Liquid Argon TPCs are very versatile and work well with a wide
parti le energy range. Experien e on su h dete tors has been gained within the
ICARUS proje t [27, 28℄.
Three experiments are proposed to employ the above dete tion te hniques:
MEMPHYS [29℄ for water Cherenkov, LENA [30, 31℄ for liquid s intillator and
GLACIER [32, 33, 34, 35, 36℄ for Liquid Argon. In this paper we report on the study
of the physi s potential of the experiments and identify features of omplementarity
amongst the three te hniques.
Needless to say, the availability of future neutrino beams from parti le a elerators
would provide an additional bonus to the above experiments. Measuring os illations
with arti ial neutrinos (of well known kinemati al features) with a su iently long
baseline would allow to a urately determine the os illation parameters (in parti ular
the mixing angle θ13 and the possible CP violating phase in the mixing matrix). The
envisaged dete tors may then be used for observing neutrinos from the future Beta
Beams and Super Beams in the optimal energy range for ea h experiment. A ommon
example is a low-energy Beta Beam from CERN to MEMPHYS at Frejus, 130 km
Table 1. Basi parameters of the three dete tor (baseline) design.
GLACIER LENA MEMPHYS
Dete tor dimensions

type of ylinder 1 vert. 1 horiz. 3 ÷ 5 vert.
diam. (m) 70 30 65
length (m) 20 100 65
typi al mass (kton) 100 50 600 ÷ 800
A tive target and readout
type of target liq. Argon liq. s intillator water
(boiling) (opt. 0.2% GdCl3 )
readout type e− drift: 2 perp. 12 000 81 000
5
views, 10 hannels, 20" PMTs 12" PMTs
ampli. in gas phase; & 30% overage ∼ 30% overage
Cher. light: 27 000
8" PMTs, ∼ 20%
overage;
S int. light: 1000
8" PMTs
away [37℄. High energy beams have been suggested [38℄, favoring longer baselines of
up to O(2000 km). The ultimate Neutrino Fa tory fa ility will require a magnetized
dete tor to fully exploit the simultaneous availability of neutrinos and antineutrinos.
This subje t is however beyond the s ope of the present study.
Finally, there is a possibility of (and the hope for) unexpe ted dis overies. The
history of physi s has shown that several experiments have made their glory with
dis overies in resear h elds that were outside the original goals of the experiments.
Just to quote an example, we an mention the Kamiokande dete tor, mainly designed
to sear h for proton de ay and a tually ontributing to the observation of atmospheri
neutrino os illations, to the lari ation of the solar neutrino puzzle and to the
rst observation of supernova neutrinos [11, 39, 5, 15, 21℄. All the three proposed
experiments, thanks to their outstanding boost in mass and performan e, will ertainly
provide a signi ant potential for surprises and unexpe ted dis overies.
2. Des ription of the three dete tors

The three dete tors' basi parameters are listed in Tab. 1. All of them have a tive
targets of tens to hundreds kton mass and are to be installed in underground
laboratories to be prote ted against ba kground indu ed by osmi -rays. As already
said, the large size of the dete tors is motivated by the extremely low ross-se tion of
neutrinos and/or by the rareness of the interesting events sear hed for. Some details of
the dete tors are dis ussed in the following, while the matters related to the possible
underground site are presented in Se tion 3.
Figure 1. Artisti view of a 100 kton single-tank liquid Argon TPC dete tor.
The ele troni rates are lo ated at the top of the dewar.
2.1. Liquid Argon TPC

GLACIER (Fig. 1) is the foreseen extrapolation up to 100 kton of the liquid Argon
Time Proje tion Chamber te hnique. The dete tor an be me hani ally subdivided
into two parts, the liquid Argon tank and the inner dete tor instrumentation. For
simpli ity, we assume at this stage that the two aspe ts an be largely de oupled.
The basi idea behind this dete tor is to use a single 100 kton boiling liquid Argon
ryogeni tank with ooling dire tly performed with liquid Argon (self-refrigerating).
Events are re onstru ted in 3D by using the information provided by ionization in
liquid. The imaging apabilities and the ex ellent spa e resolution of the devi e
make this dete tor an "ele troni bubble hamber". The signal from s intillation
and Cherenkov light readout omplete the information ontributing to the event
re onstru tion.
As far as light olle tion is on erned one an prot from the ICARUS R&D
program that has shown that it is possible to operate photomultipliers (PMTs) dire tly
immersed in the liquid Argon [27℄. In order to be sensitive to DUV s intillation,
PMTs are oated with a wavelength shifter (WLS), for instan e tetraphenyl-butadiene.
About 1000 immersed phototubes with WLS would be used to identify the (isotropi
and bright) s intillation light. To dete t Cherenkov radiation about 27 000 8-
phototubes without WLS would provide a 20% overage of the dete tor surfa e. The
latter PMTs should have single photon ounting apabilities in order to ount the
number of Cherenkov photons.
Charge ampli ation and an extreme liquid purity against ele tronegative
ompounds (although attainable by ommer ial puri ation systems) is needed to
allow long drift distan es of the ionization/imaging ele trons (≈ 20 m). For this
reason, the dete tor will run in the so- alled bi-phase mode. Namely, drifting ele trons
produ ed in the liquid phase are extra ted into the gas phase with the help of an
ele tri eld and amplied in order to ompensate the harge loss due to attenuation
along the drift path. The nal harge signal is then read out by means of Large
Ele tron Multiplier (LEM) devi es, providing X-Y information. The Z oordinate is
given by the drift time measurement, proportional to the drift length. A possible
extension of the present dete tor design envisages the immersion of the sensitive
Figure 2. S hemati drawing of the LENA dete tor. Reprinted gure with the
permission from [40℄.
volume in an external magneti eld [36℄. Existing experien e from spe ialized
Liquied Natural Gases (LNG) ompanies and studies ondu ted in ollaboration with
Te hnodyne LtD UK, have been ingredients for a rst step in assessing the feasibility
of the dete tor and of its operation in an underground site.
2.2. Liquid s intillator dete tor

The LENA dete tor is ylindri al in shape with a length of about 100 m and 30 m
diameter (Fig. 2). The inner volume orresponding to a radius of 13 m ontains
approximately 5× 104 m3 of liquid s intillator. The outer part of the volume is lled
with water, a ting as a veto for identifying muons entering the dete tor from outside.
Both the outer and the inner volume are en losed in steel tanks of 3 to 4 m wall
thi kness. For most purposes, a du ial volume is dened by ex luding the volume
orresponding to 1 m distan e to the inner tank walls. The du ial volume so dened
amounts to 88 % of the total dete tor volume.
The main axis of the ylinder is pla ed horizontally. A tunnel-shaped avern
housing the dete tor is onsidered as realisti ally feasible for most of the envisioned
dete tor lo ations. In respe t to a elerator physi s, the axis ould be oriented towards
the neutrino sour e in order to ontain the full length of muon and ele tron tra ks
produ ed in harged- urrent neutrino intera tions in the liquid s intillator.
The baseline onguration for the light dete tion in the inner volume foresees
12 000 PMTs of 20 diameter mounted onto the inner ylinder wall and overing
about 30 % of the surfa e. As an option, light on entrators an be installed in front
of the PMTs, hen e in reasing the surfa e overage c to values larger than 50 %.
Alternatively, c = 30 % an be rea hed by equipping 8 PMTs with light on entrators,
thereby redu ing the ost when omparing to the baseline onguration. Additional
PMTs are supplied in the outer veto to dete t (and reje t) the Cherenkov light from
events due to in oming osmi muons. Possible andidates as liquid s intillator
material are pure phenyl-o-xylylethane (PXE), a mixture of 20 % PXE and 80 %
Dode ane, and linear Alkylbenzene (LAB). All three liquids exhibit low toxi ity and
provide high ash and inammation points.
Figure 3. Layout of the MEMPHYS dete tor in the future Fréjus laboratory.
2.3. Water Cherenkov

The MEMPHYS dete tor (Fig. 3) is an extrapolation of the water Cherenkov Super-
Kamiokande dete tor to a mass as large as 730 kton. The dete tor is omposed of up to
5 shafts ontaining separate tanks. 3 tanks are enough to total 440 kton du ial mass.
This is the onguration whi h is used hereafter. Ea h shaft has 65 m diameter and
65 m height representing an in rease by a fa tor 8 with respe t to Super-Kamiokande.
The Cherenkov light rings produ ed by fast parti les moving within the inner
water volume are re onstru ted by PMTs pla ed on the inner tank wall. The PMT
housing surfa e starts at 2 m from the outer wall and is overed with about 81 000 12"
PMTs to rea h a 30% surfa e overage, in or alternatively equivalent to a 40% overage
with 20" PMTs. The du ial volume is dened by an additional onservative guard of
2 m. The outer volume between the PMT surfa e and the water vessel is instrumented
with 8" PMTs. If not otherwise stated, the Super-Kamiokande analysis pro edures for
e ien y al ulations, ba kground redu tion, et . are used in omputing the physi s
potential of MEMPHYS. In USA and Japan, two analogous proje ts (UNO and Hyper-
Kamiokande) have been proposed. These dete tors are similar in many respe ts and
the physi s potential presented hereafter may well be transposed to them. Spe i
hara teristi s that are not identi al in the proposed proje ts are the distan e from
available or envisaged a elerators and nu lear rea tors, sour es of arti ial neutrino
uxes, and the and the depth of the host laboratory.
Currently, there is a very promising ongoing R&D a tivity on erning the
possibility of introdu ing Gadolinium salt (GdCl3 ) inside Super-Kamiokande. The
physi s goal is to de rease the ba kground for many physi s hannels by dete ting
and tagging neutrons produ ed in the Inverse Beta De ay (IBD) intera tion of ν̄e on
free protons. For instan e, 100 tons of GdCl3 in Super-Kamiokande would yield more
then 90% neutron aptures on Gd [41℄.
3. Underground sites
The proposed large dete tors require underground laboratories of adequate size and
depth, naturally prote ted against osmi -rays that represent a potential sour e of
ba kground events mainly for non-a elerator experiments, that annot exploit the
pe uliar time stamp provided by the a elerator beam spill.

Additional hara teristi s of these sites ontributing to their quali ation as
andidates for the proposed experiments are: the type and quality of the ro k allowing
the pra ti al feasibility of large averns at reasonable ost and within reasonable time,
the distan e from existing (or future) a elerators and nu lear rea tors, the type and
quality of the a ess, the geographi al position, the environmental onditions, et .
The presently identied worldwide andidate sites are lo ated in three
geographi al regions: North-Ameri a, far-east Asia and Europe. In this paper we
onsider the European region, where, at this stage, the following sites are assumed
as andidates: Boulby (UK), Canfran (Spain), Fréjus (Fran e/Italy), Gran Sasso
(Italy), Pyhäsalmi (Finland) and Sieroszewi e (Poland). Most of the sites are existing
national or international underground laboratories with asso iated infrastru ture and
experimental halls already used for experiments. The basi features of the sites are
presented on Tab. 2. For the Gran Sasso Laboratory a possible new (additional) site is
envisaged to be lo ated 10 km away from the present underground laboratory, outside
the prote ted area of the neighboring Gran Sasso National Park. The possibility of
under-water solutions, su h as for instan e Pylos for the LENA proje t, is not taken
into a ount here. The identi ation and measurement of the dierent ba kground
omponents in the andidate sites (muons, fast neutrons from muon intera tions, slow
neutrons from nu lear rea tions in the ro k, gammas, ele trons/positrons and alphas
from radioa tive de ays,. . . ) is underway, mainly in the ontext of the ILIAS European
(JRA) Network (http://ilias.in2p3.fr/).
None of the existing sites has yet a su iently large avity able to a ommodate
the foreseen dete tors. For two of the sites (Fréjus and Pyhäsalmi) a preliminary
feasibility study for large ex avation at deep depth has already been performed. For
the Fréjus site the main on lusion drawn from simulations onstrained by a series
of ro k parameter measurements made during the Fréjus road tunnel ex avation is
that the "shaft shape" is strongly preferred ompared to the "tunnel shape", as long
as large avities are required.
As mentioned above, several (up to 5) of su h shaft
3
avities with a diameter of about 65 m (for a orresponding volume of 250 000 m )
ea h, seem feasible in the region around the middle of the Fréjus tunnel, at a depth
of 4800 m.w.e. For the Pyhäsalmi site, the preliminary study has been performed
3
for two main avities with tunnel shape and dimensions of (20 × 20 × 120) m and
3
(20 × 20 × 50) m , respe tively, and for one shaft-shaped avity with 25 m in diameter
and 25 m in height, all at a depth of about 1430 m of ro k (4000 m.w.e.).
4. Matter instability: sensitivity to proton de ay

For all relevant aspe ts of the proton stability in Grand Unied Theories, in strings
and in branes we refer to [2℄. Sin e proton de ay is the most dramati predi tion
oming from theories of the uni ation of fundamental intera tions, there is a realisti
hope to be able to test these s enarios with next generation experiments exploiting the
above mentioned large mass, underground dete tors. For this reason, the knowledge
of a theoreti al upper bound on the lifetime of the proton is very helpful in assessing
the potential of future experiments. Re ently, a model-independent upper bound on
the proton de ay lifetime has been worked out [42℄
4 2
6.0 × 1039 MX /1016 GeV 0.003GeV 3

(Majorana)
τpupper = × × years(1)
2.8 × 1037 (Dirac) α2GUT α
Large underground, liquid based dete tors for astro-parti le physi s in Europe
Table 2. Summary of hara teristi s of some underground sites envisioned for the proposed dete tors.
Site Boulby Canfran Fréjus Gran Sasso Pyhäsalmi Sieroszowi e
Lo ation UK Spain Italy-Fran e border Italy Finland Poland

Dist. from CERN (km) 1050 630 130 730 2300 950
Type of a ess Mine Somport tunnel Fréjus tunnel Highway
tunnel Mine Shaft
Vert. depth (m.w.e) 2800 2450 4800 3700 4000 2200
Type of ro k salt hard ro k hard ro k hard ro k hard ro k salt & ro k
Type of avity shafts tunnel shafts
Size of avity Φ = 65 m (20 × 20 × 120)m3 Φ = 74 m
H = 80 m H = 37 m
−2 −1
µ Flux (m day ) 34 406 4 24 9 not available
10
14 15 16 17
10 10 10 10
1/10
34
10
36
10
1/15
αGUT
38
10
1/20 40
10
1/25 42
10
1/30
44
1/40 10
1/50
1/60
14 15 16 17
10 10 10 10
M X (GeV)
Figure 4. Isoplot for the upper bounds on the total proton lifetime in years in
the Majorana neutrino ase in the MX αGU T plane. The value of the unifying
oupling onstant is varied from 1/60 to 1/10. The onventional values for MX
and αGU T in SUSY GUTs are marked with thi k lines. The experimentally
ex luded region is given in bla k. Reprinted gure with permission from [42℄.
where MX is the mass of the superheavy gauge bosons mediating proton de ay, the
2
parameter αGUT = gGUT /4π , with gGUT the gauge oupling at the grand unied
s ale and α is the relevant matrix element. Fig. 4 shows the present parameter spa e
allowed by experiments in the ase of Majorana neutrinos.
Most of the models (Super-symmetri or non Super-symmetri ) predi t a proton
33−37
lifetime τp below those upper bounds (10 years). This is parti ularly interesting
sin e this falls within the possible range of the proposed experiments. In order to have
a better idea of the proton de ay predi tions, we list the results from dierent models
in Tab. 3.
No spe i simulations for MEMPHYS have been arried out yet. Therefore,
here we rely on the studies done for the similar UNO dete tor, adapting the results
to MEMPHYS, whi h, however, features an overall better PMT overage.
In order to assess the physi s potential of a large liquid Argon Time Proje tion
Chambers su h as GLACIER, a detailed simulation of signal e ien y and ba kground
sour es, in luding atmospheri neutrinos and osmogeni ba kgrounds was arried
out [58℄. Liquid Argon TPCs, oering high spa e granularity and energy resolution,
low-energy dete tion threshold, and ex ellent ba kground dis rimination, should yield
large signal over ba kground ratio for many of the possible proton de ay modes, hen e
34
allowing rea hing partial lifetime sensitivities in the range of 10 − 1035 years for
Table 3. Summary of several predi tions for the proton partial lifetimes (years).
Referen es for the dierent models are: (1) [43℄, (2) [44, 45℄, (3) [46℄, (4)
[47, 48, 49, 50℄, (5) [51, 52, 53, 54℄, (6) [55℄, (7) [56℄, (8) [57℄.
Model De ay modes Predi tion Referen es
Georgi-Glashow model - ruled out (1)
Minimal realisti all hannels τpupper = 1.4 × 1036 (2)

non-SUSY SU (5)
Two Step Non-SUSY SO(10) p → e+ π 0 ≈ 1033−38 (3)
Minimal SUSY SU (5) p → ν̄K + ≈ 1032−34 (4)
SUSY SO(10) p → ν̄K +

≈ 10 33−36
(5)
with 10H , and 126H
M-Theory(G2 ) p → e+ π 0 ≈ 1033−37 (6)
SU (5) with 24F p → π 0 e+ ≈ 1035−36 (7)
Renormalizable Adjoint SU (5) p → π 0 e+ ≈ 1035−36 (8)
exposures up to 1000 kton year. This an often be a omplished in quasi ba kground-

free onditions optimal for dis overies at the few events level, orresponding to
5
atmospheri neutrino ba kground reje tions of the order of 10 .
− + + + + −
Multi-prong de ay modes like p → µ π K or p → e π π and hannels
+ + 0 + 0
involving kaons like p → K ν̄ , p → e K and p → µ K are parti ularly appealing,
sin e liquid Argon imaging provides typi ally one order of magnitude e ien y in rease
for similar or better ba kground onditions, ompared to water Cherenkov dete tors.
+
Up to a fa tor of two improvement in e ien y is expe ted for modes like p → e γ and
+ 0
p → µ γ , thanks to the lean photon identi ation and separation from π . Channels
+ 0 + 0
su h as p → e π and p → µ π , dominated by intrinsi nu lear ee ts, yield similar
performan e as water Cherenkov dete tors.
An important feature of GLACIER is that thanks to the self-shielding and 3D-
imaging properties, the above expe ted performan e remains valid even at shallow
depths, where osmogeni ba kground sour es are important. The possibility of using
a very large-area, annular, muon-veto a tive shielding, to further suppress osmogeni
ba kgrounds at shallow depths is also a very promising option to omplement the
GLACIER dete tor.
In order to quantitatively estimate the potential of the LENA dete tor in
+
measuring proton lifetime, a Monte Carlo simulation for the de ay hannel p → K ν
has been performed. For this purpose, the GEANT4 simulation toolkit [59℄ has been
used, in luding opti al pro esses as s intillation, Cherenkov light produ tion, Rayleigh
s attering and light absorption. From these simulations one obtains a light yield of
∼ 110 p.e./MeV for an event in the enter of the dete tor. In addition, the semi-
empiri al Birk's formula has been introdu ed into the ode in order to take into a ount
the so- alled quen hing ee ts.
37
10
0
p→eπ sensitivity (90% CL)
36
10
Partial Lifetime (years)
35
detector (A) (Super-K)
10 effSK=44%
BGSK≈2.2ev/Mtyr
34
eff=3/4 x effSK
10 S/N=3/4 x (S/N)SK
eff=1/2 x effSK
S/N=1/2 x (S/N)SK
33
10
current status
33
79ktyr, 5.0 x 10 yrs
32
10
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10
Exposure (kton year)
Figure 5. Sensitivity to the e+ π 0 proton de ay mode ompiled by the UNO

ollaboration. MEMPHYS orresponds to ase (A). Reprinted gure with
Following studies performed for the UNO dete tor, the dete tion e ien y for
p → e+ π 0 is 43% for a 20" PMT overage of 40% or its equivalent, as envisioned for
MEMPHYS. The orresponding estimated atmospheri neutrino indu ed ba kground
is at the level of 2.25 events/Mton year.
From these e ien ies and ba kground levels,
35
proton de ay sensitivity as a fun tion of dete tor exposure an be estimated. A 10
years partial lifetime (τp /B ) ould be rea hed at the 90% C.L. for a 5 Mton year
exposure (10 years) with MEMPHYS (similar to ase A in Fig. 5 ompiled by the
UNO ollaboration [60℄). Beyond that exposure, tighter uts may be envisaged to
further redu e the atmospheri neutrino ba kground to 0.15 events/Mton year, by
sele ting quasi ex lusively the free proton de ays.
0
The positron and the two photons issued from the π gives lear events in the
0
GLACIER dete tor. The π is absorbed by the nu leus in 45% of the ases. Assuming
a perfe t parti le and tra k identi ation, one may expe t a 45% e ien y and a
ba kground level of 1
event/Mton year. For a 1 Mton year (10 years) exposure with
35
GLACIER one rea hes τp /B > 0.4 × 10 years at the 90% C.L. (Fig. 6).
+ 0
In a liquid s intillator dete tor su h as LENA the de ay p → e π would produ e
+ 0
a 938 MeV signal oming from the e and the π shower. Only atmospheri neutrinos
are expe ted to ause ba kground events in this energy range. Using the fa t that
showers from both e+ and π 0 propagate 4 m in opposite dire tions before being
stopped, atmospheri neutrino ba kground an be redu ed. Applying this method,
the urrent limit for this hannel (τp /B = 5.4 1033 years [61℄) ould be improved.
+
In LENA, proton de ay events via the mode p → K ν have a very lear signature.
36
10
Limit 90%CL (years)
proton
+ + +
neutron pge γ, µ γ
- +
nge K
35 +
pgK ν, µ π K
- + +
10 + 0 + 0
pgµ K , e K
+ 0
pge π
p g µ++ π-0
nge π
- +
ngµ π
34
10 +
pge π π
+ -
0
n g π+ ν
pgπ ν
33
10
32
10
2 3 4
1 10 10 10 10
Exposure (kton x years)
Figure 6. Expe ted proton de ay lifetime limits (τ /B at 90% C.L.) as a fun tion
of exposure for GLACIER. Only atmospheri neutrino ba kground has been taken
into a ount. Reprinted gure with permission from [58℄.
The kaon auses a prompt monoenergeti signal of 105 MeV together with a larger
delayed signal from its de ay. The kaon has a lifetime of 12.8 ns and two main de ay
+
hannels: with a probability of 63.43 % it de ays via K → µ+ νµ and with 21.13%,
+ + 0
via K →π π .
Simulations of proton de ay events and atmospheri neutrino ba kground have
been performed and a pulse shape analysis has been applied. From this analysis
an e ien y of 65% for the dete tion of a proton de ay has been determined and
4
a ba kground suppression of ∼ 2 × 10 has been a hieved [62℄. A detail study of
ba kground implying pion and kaon produ tion in atmospheri neutrino rea tions has
been performed leading to a ba kground rate of 0.064 year−1 due to the rea tion
ν µ + p → µ− + K + + p .
For the urrent proton lifetime limit for the hannel onsidered (τp /B = 2.3 ×
1033 year) [3℄, about 40.7 proton de ay events would be observed in LENA after ten
years with less than 1 ba kground event. If no signal is seen in the dete tor within ten
τp /B > 4 ×1034 years
years, the lower limit for the lifetime of the proton will be set at
at the 90% C.L.
For GLACIER, the latter is a quite lean hannel due to the presen e of a strange
meson and no other parti les in the nal state. Using dE/dx versus range as the
dis riminating variable in a Neural Network algorithm, less than 1% of the kaons are
mis-identied as protons. For this hannel, the sele tion e ien y is high (97%) for
an atmospheri neutrino ba kground < 1 event/Mton year. In ase of absen e of
signal and for a dete tor lo ation at a depth of 1 km.w.e., one expe ts for 1 Mton year
37
10
+
p→νK sensitivity (90% CL)
36
10
Partial Lifetime (years)
35
combined
10 sensitivity
current limit
34
79.3ktyr
33
10 1.6 x 10 yrs
µ spectrum
+ 0
π π
33
10 prompt γ
32
10
2 3 4 5 6
10 10 10 10 10
Exposure (kton year)
Figure 7. Expe ted sensitivity to the νK + proton de ay mode as a fun tion

of exposure ompiled by the UNO ollaboration whi h may be applied for the
MEMPHYS dete tor (see text for details). Reprinted gure with permission
from [60℄.
(10 years) exposure one ba kground event due to osmogeni sour es. This translates
into a limit τp /B > 0.6 × 1035 years at 90% C.L. This result remains valid even at
shallow depths where osmogeni ba kground sour es are a very important limiting
fa tor for proton de ay sear hes. For example, the study done in [58℄ shows that a
three-plane a tive veto at a shallow depth of about 200 m ro k overburden under a
p → K + ν̄ as a 3000 m.w.e. deep dete tor.
hill yields similar sensitivity for
+
For MEMPHYS one should rely on the dete tion of the de ay produ ts of the K
sin e its momentum (360 MeV) is below the water Cherenkov threshold of 570 MeV: a
+ 0
256 MeV/ muon and its de ay ele tron (type I) or a 205 MeV/ π and π (type II),
15
with the possibility of a delayed (12 ns) oin iden e with the 6 MeV N de-ex itation
prompt γ (Type III). Using the known imaging and timing performan e of Super-
Kamiokande, the e ien y for the re onstru tion of p → νK + is 33% (I), 6.8% (II)
and 8.8% (III), and the ba kground is 2100, 22 and 6 events/Mton year, respe tively.
For the prompt γ method, the ba kground is dominated by miss-re onstru tion.
As stated by the UNO Collaboration [60℄, there are good reasons to believe that
this ba kground an be lowered by at least a fa tor of two, orresponding to the
atmospheri neutrino intera tion νp → νΛK + . In these onditions, and taking into
a ount the Super-Kamiokande performan e, a 5 Mton year exposure for MEMPHYS
would allow rea hing τp /B > 2 × 1034 years (Fig. 7).
A preliminary omparison between the performan e of three dete tors has been
+ 0
arried out (Tab. 4). For the e π hannel, the Cherenkov dete tor gets a better
Table 4. Summary of the e+ π 0 and ν̄K + de ay dis overy potential for the three
dete tors. The e+ π 0 hannel is not yet simulated for LENA.
GLACIER LENA MEMPHYS
e+ π 0
ǫ(%)/Bkgd(Mton year) 45/1 - 43/2.25
τp /B (90% C.L., 10 years) 0.4 × 1035 - 1.0 × 1035
ν̄K +
ǫ(%)/Bkgd(Mton year) 97/1 65/1 8.8/3
τp /B (90% C.L., 10 years) 0.6 × 1035 0.4 × 1035 0.2 × 1035
limit due to the higher mass. However, it should be noted that GLACIER, although
ve times smaller in mass than MEMPHYS, an rea h a limit that is only a fa tor
two smaller. Liquid Argon TPCs and liquid s intillator dete tors obtain better results
+
for the ν̄K hannel, due to their higher dete tion e ien y. The te hniques look
therefore quite omplementary. We have also seen that GLACIER does not ne essarily
requires very deep underground laboratories, like those urrently existing or future
planned sites, in order to perform high sensitivity nu leon de ay sear hes.
5. Supernova neutrinos
The dete tion of supernova (SN) neutrinos represents one of the next frontiers of
neutrino physi s and astrophysi s. It will provide invaluable information on the
astrophysi s of the ore- ollapse explosion phenomenon and on the neutrino mixing
parameters. In parti ular, neutrino avor transitions in the SN envelope might be
sensitive to the value of θ13 and to the type of mass hierar hy. These two main issues
are dis ussed in detail in the following Se tions.
5.1. SN neutrino emission, os illation and dete tion

A ore- ollapse supernova marks the evolutionary end of a massive star (M & 8 M⊙ )
whi h be omes inevitably unstable at the end of its life. The star ollapses and eje ts
its outer mantle in a sho k-wave driven explosion. The ollapse to a neutron star
(M ≃ M⊙ , R ≃ 10 km) liberates a gravitational binding energy of ≈ 3 × 1053 erg, 99%
of whi h is transferred to (anti) neutrinos of all the avors and only 1% to the kineti
energy of the explosion. Therefore, a ore- ollapse SN represents one of the most
powerful sour es of (anti) neutrinos in the Universe. In general, numeri al simulations
0
of SN explosions provide the original neutrino spe tra in energy and time Fν . Su h
initial distributions are in general modied by avor transitions in the SN envelope,
0
in va uum (and eventually in Earth matter): Fν −→Fν and must be onvoluted with
the dierential intera tion ross-se tion σe for ele tron or positron produ tion, as well
as with the dete tor resolution fun tion Re and the e ien y ε, in order to nally get
observable event rates Ne = Fν ⊗ σe ⊗ Re ⊗ ε.
Regarding the initial neutrino distributions Fν0 , a SN ollapsing ore is roughly
a bla k-body sour e of thermal neutrinos, emitted on a times ale of ∼ 10 s. Energy
spe tra parametrizations are typi ally ast in the form of quasi-thermal distributions,
with typi al average energies: hEνe i = 9 − 12 MeV, hEν̄e i = 14 − 17 MeV, hEνx i =
18 − 22 MeV, where νx indi ates any non-ele tron avor.
Table 5. Values of the p and p̄ parameters used in Eq. 2 in dierent s enario of

mass hierar hy and sin2 θ13 .
Mass Hierar hy sin2 θ13 p p̄
Normal & 10−3 0 cos2 θ12

Inverted & 10−3 sin2 θ12 0
Any . 10−5 sin2 θ12 cos2 θ12
The os illated neutrino uxes arriving on Earth may be written in terms of the
energy-dependent survival probability p (p̄) for neutrinos (antineutrinos) as [63℄
Fνe = pFν0e + (1 − p)Fν0x

Fν̄e = p̄Fν̄0e + (1 − p̄)Fν0x (2)
4Fνx = (1 − p)Fν0e + (1 − p̄)Fν̄0e + (2 + p + p̄)Fν0x

where νx stands for either νµ or ντ . The probabilities p and p̄ ru ially depend
on the neutrino mass hierar hy and on the unknown value of the mixing angle θ13 as
shown in Tab. 5.
Gala ti ore- ollapse supernovae are rare, perhaps a few per entury. Up to now,
SN neutrinos have been dete ted only on e during the SN 1987A explosion in the Large
Magellani Cloud in 1987 (d = 50 kp ). Due to the relatively small masses of the
dete tors operational at that time, only few events were dete ted: 11 in Kamiokande
[11, 39℄ and 8 in IMB [64, 12℄. The three proposed large-volume neutrino observatories
an guarantee ontinuous exposure for several de ades, so that a high-statisti s SN
neutrino signal ould be eventually observed. The expe ted number of events for
GLACIER, LENA and MEMPHYS are reported in Tab. 6 for a typi al gala ti SN
distan e of 10 kp . The total number of events is shown in the upper panel, while the
lower part refers to the νe signal dete ted during the prompt neutronization burst,
with a duration of ∼ 25 ms, just after the ore boun e.
The ν̄e dete tion by IBD is the golden hannel for MEMPHYS and LENA.
In addition, the ele tron neutrino signal an be dete ted by LENA thanks to the
12
intera tion on C. The three harged- urrent rea tions would provide information
on νe and ν̄e uxes and spe tra while the three neutral- urrent pro esses, sensitive
to all neutrino avours, would give information on the total ux. GLACIER has
40
also the opportunity to dete t νe by harged- urrent intera tions on Ar with a very
low energy threshold. The dete tion omplementarity between νe and ν̄e is of great
interest and would assure a unique way of probing the SN explosion me hanism as well
as assessing intrinsi neutrino properties. Moreover, the huge statisti s would allow
spe tral studies in time and in energy domain.
We wish to stress that it will be di ult to establish SN neutrino os illation ee ts
solely on the basis of a ν̄e or νe spe tral hardening, relative to theoreti al expe tations.
Therefore, in the re ent literature the importan e of model-independent signatures has
been emphasized. Here we fo us mainly on signatures asso iated to the prompt νe
neutronization burst, the sho k-wave propagation and the Earth matter rossing.
The analysis of the time stru ture of the SN signal during the rst few tens
of millise onds after the ore boun e an provide a lean indi ation if the full νe
burst is present or absent, and therefore allows distinguishing between dierent mixing
Table 6. Summary of the expe ted neutrino intera tion rates in the dierent
dete tors for a typi al SN. The following notations have been used: CC, NC,
IBD, eES and pES stand for Charged Current, Neutral Current, Inverse Beta
De ay, ele tron and proton Elasti S attering, respe tively. The nal state nu lei
are generally unstable and de ay either radiatively (notation ), or by β /β
∗ − +
weak intera tion (notation −,+ ). The rates of the dierent rea tion hannels are
listed, and for LENA they have been obtained by s aling the predi ted rates from
[65, 66℄.
MEMPHYS LENA GLACIER

Intera tion Rates Intera tion Rates Intera tion Rates
ν̄e IBD 2 × 105 ν̄e IBD 9.0 × 103 νeCC (40 Ar, 40 K ∗ ) 2.5 × 104
(−)
νe CC (16 O, X) 1 × 104 νx pES 7.0 × 103 νxN C (40 Ar∗ ) 3.0 × 104
νx eES 1 × 103 νxN C (12 C ∗ ) 3.0 × 103 νx eES 1.0 × 103
νx eES 6.0 × 102 ν̄eCC (40 Ar, 40 Cl∗ ) 5.4 × 102
ν̄eCC (12 C, 12 B + ) 5.0 × 102
νeCC (12 C, 12 N − ) 8.5 × 101
Neutronization Burst rates
MEMPHYS 60 νe eES
LENA 70 νe eES/pES
GLACIER 380 νxN C (40 Ar∗ )
s enarios, as indi ated by the third olumn of Tab. 7. For example, if the mass ordering
is normal and θ13 is large, the νe burst will fully os illate into νx . If θ13 turns out
to be relatively large one ould be able to distinguish between normal and inverted
neutrino mass hierar hy.
As dis ussed above, MEMPHYS is mostly sensitive to the IBD, although the νe
− −
hannel an be measured by the elasti s attering rea tion νx + e → e + νx [67℄. Of
ourse, the identi ation of the neutronization burst is the leanest with a dete tor
exploiting the harged- urrent absorption of νe neutrinos, su h as GLACIER. Using
its unique features of measuring νe CC (Charged Current) events it is possible to
probe os illation physi s during the early stage of the SN explosion, while with NC
(Neutral Current) events one an de ouple the SN me hanism from the os illation
physi s [68, 69℄.
A few se onds after ore boun e, the SN sho k wave will pass the density region
in the stellar envelope relevant for os illation matter ee ts, ausing a transient
modi ation of the survival probability and thus a time-dependent signature in the
neutrino signal [70, 71℄. This would produ e a hara teristi dip when the sho k wave
passes [72℄, or a double-dip if a reverse sho k o urs [73℄. The dete tability of su h a
signature has been studied in a large water Cherenkov dete tor like MEMPHYS by the
IBD [72℄, and in a liquid Argon dete tor like GLACIER by Argon CC intera tions [74℄.
The sho k wave ee ts would ertainly be visible also in a large volume s intillator
su h as LENA. Su h observations would test our theoreti al understanding of the
ore- ollapse SN phenomenon, in addition to identifying the a tual neutrino mixing
s enario.
Nevertheless, the supernova matter prole need not be smooth. Behind the sho k-
wave, onve tion and turbulen e an ause signi ant sto hasti density u tuations
whi h tend to ast a shadow by making other features, su h as the sho k front,
unobservable in the density range overed by the turbulen e [75, 76℄. The quantitative
relevan e of this ee t remains to be understood.
A unambiguous indi ation of os illation ee ts would be the energy-dependent
modulation of the survival probability p(E) aused by Earth matter ee ts [77℄. These
ee ts an be revealed by pe uliar wiggles in the energy spe tra, due to neutrino
os illations in Earth rossing. In this respe t, LENA benets from a better energy
resolution than MEMPHYS, whi h may be partially ompensated by 10 times more
statisti s [78℄. The Earth ee t would show up in the ν̄e hannel for the normal mass
hierar hy, assuming that θ13 is large (Tab. 7). Another possibility to establish the
presen e of Earth ee ts is to use the signal from two dete tors if one of them sees
the SN shadowed by the Earth and the other not. A omparison between the signal
normalization in the two dete tors might reveal Earth ee ts [79℄. The probability
for observing a Gala ti SN shadowed by the Earth as a fun tion of the dete tor's
geographi latitude depends only mildly on details of the Gala ti SN distribution
[80℄. A lo ation at the North Pole would be optimal with a shadowing probability of
about 60%, but a far-northern lo ation su h as Pyhäsalmi in Finland, the proposed
site for LENA, is almost equivalent (58%). One parti ular s enario onsists of a large-
volume s intillator dete tor lo ated in Pyhäsalmi to measure the geo-neutrino ux
in a ontinental lo ation and another dete tor in Hawaii to measure it in an o eani
lo ation. The probability that only one of them is shadowed ex eeds 50% whereas the
probability that at least one is shadowed is about 80%.
As an important aveat, we mention that very re ently it has been re ognized
that nonlinear os illation ee ts aused by neutrino-neutrino intera tions an have a
dramati impa t on the neutrino avor evolution for approximately the rst 100 km
above the neutrino sphere [81, 82℄. The impa t of these novel ee ts and of their
observable signatures is urrently under investigation. However, from re ent numeri al
simulations [81℄ and analyti al studies [83℄, it results that the ee ts of these non-
linear ee ts would produ e a spe tral swap νe ν̄e ← νx ν̄x at r . 400 km, for inverted
neutrino mass hierar hy. One would observe a omplete spe tral swapping, while
ν spe tra would show a pe uliar bimodal split. These ee t would appear also for
astonishingly small values of θ13 . These new results suggests on e more that one
needs omplementary dete tion te hniques to be sensitive to both neutrino and anti
neutrino hannels.
Other interesting ideas have been studied in the literature, as the pointing of a SN
by neutrinos [84℄, determining its distan e from the deleptonization burst that plays
the role of a standard andle [67℄, an early alert for an SN observatory exploiting
the neutrino signal [85℄, and the dete tion of neutrinos from the last phases of a
presupernova star [86℄.
So far, we have investigated SN in our Galaxy, but the al ulated rate of supernova
explosions within a distan e of 10 Mp is about 1/year. Although the number of events
from a single explosion at su h large distan es would be small, the signal ould be
separated from the ba kground with the ondition to observe at least two events within
a time window omparable to the neutrino emission time-s ale (∼ 10 se ), together
with the full energy and time distribution of the events [87℄. In the MEMPHYS
dete tor, with at least two neutrinos observed, a SN ould be identied without opti al
onrmation, so that the start of the light urve ould be fore ast by a few hours,
along with a short list of probable host galaxies. This would also allow the dete tion
of supernovae whi h are either heavily obs ured by dust or are opti ally faint due to
prompt bla k hole formation.
Table 7. Summary of the ee t of the neutrino properties on νe and ν̄e signals.
Mass νe neutronization
Hierar hy sin2 θ13 peak Sho k wave Earth ee t
Normal & 10−3 Absent νe ν̄e

Inverted & 10−3 Present ν̄e νe
Any . 10−5 Present - both ν̄e νe
Table 8. DSNB expe ted rates. The larger numbers of expe ted signal events
are omputed with the present limit on the ux by the Super-Kamiokande
Collaboration. The smaller numbers are omputed for typi al models. The
ba kground from rea tor plants has been omputed for spe i sites for LENA
and MEMPHYS. For MEMPHYS, the Super-Kamiokande ba kground has been
s aled by the exposure.
Intera tion Exposure Energy Window Signal/Bkgd
GLACIER
0.5 Mton year
νe + 40 Ar → e− + 40 K ∗ [16 − 40] MeV (40-60)/30
5 years
LENA at Pyhäsalmi
ν̄e + p → n + e+
0.4 Mton year
n+p → d+γ [9.5 − 30] MeV (20-230)/8
10 years
(2 MeV, 200 µs)
1 MEMPHYS module + 0.2% Gd (with bkgd at Kamioka)
ν̄e + p → n + e+
0.7 Mton year
n + Gd → γ [15 − 30] MeV (43-109)/47
5 years
(8 MeV, 20 µs)
5.2. Diuse supernova neutrino ba kground

As mentioned above, a gala ti SN explosion would be a spe ta ular sour e of
neutrinos, so that a variety of neutrino and SN properties ould be assessed. However,
only one su h explosion is expe ted in 20 to 100 years by now. Waiting for the next
gala ti SN, one an dete t the umulative neutrino ux from all the past SN in the
Universe, the so- alled Diuse Supernova Neutrino Ba kground (DSNB). In parti ular,
there is an energy window around 10 − 40 MeV where the DSNB signal an emerge
above other sour es, so that the proposed dete tors may well measure this ux after
some years of exposure.
The DSNB signal, although weak, is not only guaranteed, but an also allow
probing physi s dierent from that of a gala ti SN, in luding pro esses whi h o ur
on osmologi al s ales in time or spa e. For instan e, the DSNB signal is sensitive
to the evolution of the SN rate, whi h in turn is losely related to the star formation
rate [88, 89℄. In addition, neutrino de ay s enarios with osmologi al lifetimes ould
be analyzed and onstrained [90℄ as proposed in [91℄. An upper limit on the DSNB
ux has been set by the Super-Kamiokande experiment [92℄
φDSNB
ν̄e < 1.2 cm−2 s−1 (Eν > 19.3 MeV). (3)
An upper limit based on the non observation of distortions of the expe ted
Figure 8. DSNB signal and ba kground in the LENA dete tor in 10 years
of exposure. The shaded regions give the un ertainties of all urves. An
observational window between ∼ 9.5 to 25 MeV that is almost free of ba kground
an be identied (for the Pyhäsalmi site). Reprinted gure with permission
from [40℄.
ba kground spe tra in the same energy range. The most re ent theoreti al estimates
(see for example [93, 94℄) predi t a DSNB ux very lose to the SK upper limit,
suggesting that the DSNB is on the verge of the dete tion if a signi ant ba kground
redu tion is a hieved su h as Gd loading [41℄. With a areful redu tion of ba kgrounds,
the proposed large dete tors would not only be able to dete t the DSNB, but to study
its spe tral properties with some pre ision. In parti ular, MEMPHYS and LENA
would be sensitive mostly to the ν̄e
omponent of DSNB, through ν̄e IBD, while
GLACIER would probe νe ux, trough νe +
40
Ar → e− + 40 K ∗ (and the asso iated
gamma as ade) [95℄.
The DSNB signal energy window is onstrained from above by the atmospheri
neutrinos and from below by either the nu lear rea tor ν̄e (I), the spallation produ tion
of unstable radionu lei by osmi -ray muons (II), the de ay of "invisible" muons into
ele trons (III), solar νe neutrinos (IV), and low energy atmospheri νe and ν̄e neutrinos
intera tions (V). The three dete tors are ae ted dierently by these ba kgrounds.
GLACIER looking at νe is mainly ae ted by types IV and V. MEMPHYS lled with
pure water is ae ted by types I, II, V and III due to the fa t that the muons may
not have enough energy to produ e Cherenkov light. As pointed out in [72℄, with the
addition of Gadolinium [41℄ the dete tion of the aptured neutron releasing 8 MeV
gamma after ∼ 20 µs (10 times faster than in pure water) would give the possibility
to reje t the "invisible" muon (type III) as well as the spallation ba kground (type
+
II). LENA taking benet from the delayed neutron apture in ν̄e + p → n + e , is
mainly on erned with rea tor neutrinos (I), whi h impose to hoose an underground
Figure 9. Possible 90% C.L. measurements of the emission parameters of

supernova ele tron antineutrino emission after 5 years running of a Gadolinium-
enhan ed SK dete tor or 1 year of one Gadolinium-enhan ed MEMPHYS tanks.
Reprinted gure with permission from [96℄.
site far from nu lear plants. If LENA was installed at the Center for Underground
Physi s in Pyhäsalmi (CUPP, Finland), there would be an observational window from
∼ 9.7 to 25 MeV that is almost free of ba kground. The expe ted rates of signal and
ba kground are presented in Tab. 8. A ording to urrent DSNB models [89℄ that are
using dierent SN simulations ([97, 98, 99℄) for the predi tion of the DSNB energy
spe trum and ux, the dete tion of ∼10 DSNB events per year is realisti for LENA.
Signal rates orresponding to dierent DSNB models and the ba kground rates due to
rea tor and atmospheri neutrinos are shown in Fig. 8 for 10 years exposure at CUPP.
Apart from the mere dete tion, spe tros opy of DSNB events in LENA will
onstrain the parameter spa e of ore- ollapse models. If the SN rate signal is known
with su ient pre ision, the spe tral slope of the DSNB an be used to determine
the hardness of the initial SN neutrino spe trum. For the urrently favoured value of
the SN rate, the dis rimination between ore- ollapse models will be possible at 2.6σ
after 10 years of measuring time [40℄. In addition, by the analysis of the ux in the
energy region from 10 to 14 MeV the SN rate for z < 2 ould be onstrained with
high signi an e, as in this energy regime the DSNB ux is only weakly dependent on
the assumed SN model. The dete tion of the redshifted DSNB from z>1 is limited
by the ux of the rea tor ν̄e ba kground. In Pyhäsalmi, a lower threshold of 9.5 MeV
resuls in a spe tral ontribution of 25% DSNB from z > 1.
The analysis of the expe ted DSNB spe trum that would be observed with a
Gadolinium-loaded water Cherenkov dete tor has been arried out in [96℄. The
possible measurements of the parameters (integrated luminosity and average energy)
of SN ν̄e emission have been omputed for 5 years running of a Gd-enhan ed

Super-Kamiokande dete tor, whi h would orrespond to 1 year of one Gd-enhan ed
MEMPHYS tank. The results are shown in Fig. 9. Even if detailed studies on the
hara terization of the ba kground are needed, the DSNB events provide the rst
neutrino dete tion originating from osmologi al distan es.
6. Solar neutrinos
In the past years water Cherenkov dete tors have measured the high energy tail
8
(E > 5 MeV) of the solar B neutrino ux using ele tron-neutrino elasti s attering
[8℄. Sin e su h dete tors ould re ord the time of an intera tion and re onstru t the
energy and dire tion of the re oiling ele tron, unique information on the spe trum and
time variation of the solar neutrino ux were extra ted. This provided further insights
into the "solar neutrino problem, the de it of the neutrino ux (measured by several
experiments) with respe t to the ux expe ted by solar models, ontributing to the
assessment of the os illation s enario for solar neutrinos [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10℄ .
With MEMPHYS, Super-Kamiokande's measurements obtained from 1258 days
of data taking ould be repeated in about half a year, while the seasonal ux
variation measurement will obviously require a full year. In parti ular, the rst
measurement of the ux of the rare hep neutrinos may be possible. Elasti neutrino-
ele tron s attering is strongly forward peaked. In order to separate the solar neutrino
signal from the isotropi ba kground events (mainly due to low radioa tivity), this
dire tional orrelation is exploited, although the angular resolution is limited by
multiple s attering. The re onstru tion algorithms rst re onstru t the vertex from
the PMT timing information and then the dire tion, by assuming a single Cherenkov
one originating from the re onstru ted vertex. Re onstru ting 7 MeV events in
MEMPHYS seems not to be a problem, but de reasing this threshold would imply
serious onsideration of the PMT dark urrent rate as well as the laboratory and
dete tor radioa tivity level.
7 3
With LENA, a large amount of neutrinos from Be (around ∼ 5.4 × 10 /day,
6
∼ 2.0 × 10 /year) would be dete ted. Depending on the signal to ba kground
7
ratio, this ould provide a sensitivity to time variations in the Be neutrino ux of
∼ 0.5% during one month of measuring time. Su h a sensitivity an give unique
information on helioseismology (pressure or temperature u tuations in the enter of
the Sun) and on a possible magneti moment intera tion with a timely varying solar
magneti eld. The pep neutrinos are expe ted to be re orded at a rate of 210/day
(∼ 7.7×104 /y). These events would provide a better understanding of the global solar
neutrino luminosity, allowing to probe (due to their pe uliar energy) the transition
region of va uum to matter-dominated neutrino os illation.
The neutrino ux from the CNO y le is theoreti ally predi ted with a large
un ertainty (30%). Therefore, LENA would provide a new opportunity for a detailed
study of solar physi s. However, the observation of su h solar neutrinos in these
dete tors, i.e. through elasti s attering, is not a simple task, sin e neutrino events
annot be separated from the ba kground, and it an be a omplished only if the
dete tor ontamination will be kept very low [100, 101℄. Moreover, only mono-energeti
sour es as those mentioned an be dete ted, taking advantage of the Compton-like
shoulder edge produ ed in the event spe trum.
8
Re ently, the possibility to dete t B solar neutrinos by means of harged- urrent
13
intera tion with the C [102℄ nu lei naturally ontained in organi s intillators has
Table 9. Number of events expe ted in GLACIER per year, ompared with
the omputed ba kground (no os illation) from the Gran Sasso ro k radioa tivity
(0.32 10
−6 n cm−2 s−1 (> 2.5 MeV). The absorption hannel has been split into
the ontributions of events from Fermi and Gamow-Teller transitions of the

40 Ar
to the dierent
40 K ex ited levels and that an be separated using the emitted
gamma energy and multipli ity.
Events/year
Elasti hannel (E ≥5 MeV) 45 300

Neutron ba kground 1400
Absorption events ontamination 1100
Absorption hannel (Gamow-Teller transition) 101 700
Absorption hannel (Fermi transition) 59 900
Neutron ba kground 5500
Elasti events ontamination 1700
been investigated. Even if signal events do not keep the dire tionality of the neutrino,
they an be separated from ba kground by exploiting the time and spa e oin iden e
13
with the subsequent de ay of the produ ed N nu lei. The residual ba kground
−4
amounts to about 60/year orresponding to a redu tion fa tor of ∼ 3 × 10 ) [102℄.
Around 360 events of this type per year an be estimated for LENA. A deformation
due to the MSW matter ee t should be observable in the low-energy regime after a
ouple of years of measurements.
For the proposed lo ation of LENA in Pyhäsalmi (∼ 4000 m.w.e.), the osmogeni
ba kground will be su iently low for the above mentioned measurements. Noti e that
the Fréjus site would also be adequate for this ase (∼ 4800 m.w.e.). The radioa tivity
−17
of the dete tor would have to be kept very low (10 g/g level U-Th) as in the
KamLAND dete tor.
Solar neutrinos an be dete ted by GLACIER through the elasti s attering
νx + e− → νx + e− (ES) and the absorption rea tion νe + 40 Ar → e− + 40 K ∗ (ABS)
followed by γ -ray emission. Even if these rea tions have low energy threshold (1.5 MeV
for the se ond one), one expe ts to operate in pra ti e with a threshold set at 5 MeV
on the primary ele tron kineti energy, in order to reje t ba kground from neutron
apture followed by gamma emission, whi h onstitutes the main ba kground for some
of the underground laboratories [28℄. These neutrons are indu ed by the spontaneous
ssion and (α,n) rea tions in ro k. In the ase of a salt mine this ba kground an
be smaller. The fa t that salt has smaller U/Th on entrations does not ne essarily
mean that the neutron ux is smaller. The ux depends on the ro k omposition sin e
(alpha,n) rea tions may ontribute signi antly to the ux. The expe ted raw event
rate is 330 000/year (66% from ABS, 25% from ES and 9% from neutron ba kground
indu ed events) assuming the above mentioned threshold on the nal ele tron energy.
By applying further oine uts to purify separately the ES sample and the ABS
sample, one obtains the rates shown on Tab. 9.
A possible way to ombine the ES and the ABS hannels similar to the NC/CC
ux ratio measured by SNO ollaboration [9℄, is to ompute the following ratio
N ES /N0ES
R= (4)
1
N Abs−GT /N0Abs−GT + N Abs−F /N0Abs−F

2
where the numbers of expe ted events without neutrino os illations are labeled
Sensitivity of LBL+ATM data to the octant of θ23

50
40
∆χ of the wrong octant
ATM
30
-only
20
T2H
SPL
2
10 3σ
2σ
0
0.4 0.5 0.6
2
true value of sin θ23
Figure 10. Dis rimination of the wrong o tant solution as a fun tion of
sin2 θ23
true , for true = 0.
θ13 We have assumed 10 years of data taking with a 440
kton dete tor. Reprinted gure with permission from [37℄.
8
with a 0). This double ratio has two advantages. First, it is independent of the B
total neutrino ux, predi ted by dierent solar models, and se ond, it is free from
experimental threshold energy bias and of the adopted ross-se tions for the dierent
hannels. With the present t to solar neutrino experiments and KamLAND data,
one expe ts a value of R = 1.30 ± 0.01 after one year of data taking with GLACIER.
The quoted error for R only takes into a ount statisti s.
7. Atmospheri neutrinos
Atmospheri neutrinos originate from the de ay hain initiated by the ollision of
primary osmi -rays with the upper layers of Earth's atmosphere. The primary osmi -
rays are mainly protons and helium nu lei produ ing se ondary parti les su h π and
K, whi h in turn de ay produ ing ele tron- and muon- neutrinos and antineutrinos.
At low energies the main ontribution omes from π mesons, and the de ay hain
π → µ + νµ followed by µ → e + νe + νµ produ es essentially two νµ for ea h νe . As
the energy in reases, more and more muons rea h the ground before de aying, and
therefore the νµ /νe ratio in reases. For Eν & 1 GeV the dependen e of the total
−γ
neutrino ux on the neutrino energy is well des ribed by a power law, dΦ/dE ∝ E
with γ=3 for νµ and γ = 3.5 for νe , whereas for sub-GeV energies the dependen e
be omes more ompli ated be ause of the ee ts of the solar wind and of Earth's
magneti eld [103℄. As for the zenith dependen e, for energies larger than a few
GeV the neutrino ux is enhan ed in the horizontal dire tion, sin e pions and muons
an travel a longer distan e before losing energy in intera tions (pions) or rea hing
the ground (muons), and therefore have more han es to de ay produ ing energeti
neutrinos.
Histori ally, the atmospheri neutrino problem originated in the 80's as
a dis repan y between the atmospheri neutrino ux measured with dierent
experimental te hniques and the expe tations. In the last years, a number of dete tors
had been built, whi h ould dete t neutrinos through the observation of the harged
lepton produ ed in harged- urrent neutrino-nu leon intera tions inside the dete tor
material. These dete tors ould be divided into two lasses: iron alorimeters, whi h
re onstru t the tra k or the ele tromagneti shower indu ed by the lepton, and water
Cherenkov, whi h measure the Cherenkov light emitted by the lepton as it moved
faster than light in water lling the dete tor volume. The rst iron alorimeters,
Frejus [18℄ and NUSEX [14℄, found no dis repan y between the observed ux and
the theoreti al predi tions, whereas the two water Cherenkov dete tors, IMB [17℄ and
Kamiokande [16℄, observed a lear de it ompared to the predi ted νµ /νe ratio. The
problem was nally solved in 1998, when the already mentioned water Cherenkov
Super-Kamiokande dete tor [21℄ allowed to establish with high statisti al a ura y
that there was indeed a zenith- and energy-dependent de it in the muon-neutrino
ux with respe t to the theoreti al predi tions, and that this de it was ompatible
with the hypothesis of νµ → ντ os illations. The independent onrmation of this
ee t from the alorimeter experiments Soudan-II [19℄ and MACRO [104℄ eliminated
the original dis repan y between the two experimental te hniques.
Despite providing the rst solid eviden e for neutrino os illations, atmospheri
neutrino experiments suer from two important limitations. Firstly, the sensitivity of
an atmospheri neutrino experiments is strongly limited by the large un ertainties
in the knowledge of neutrino uxes and neutrino-nu leon ross-se tion. Su h
un ertainties an be as large as 20%. Se ondly, water Cherenkov dete tors do not
allow an a urate re onstru tion of the neutrino energy and dire tion if none of the
2
two is known a priori. This strongly limits the sensitivity to ∆m , whi h is very
sensitive to the resolution of L/E .
During its phase-I, Super-Kamiokande has olle ted 4099 ele tron-like and 5436
muon-like ontained neutrino events [20℄. With only about one hundred events ea h,
the a elerator experiments K2K [105℄ and MINOS [106℄ already provide a stronger
2
bound on the atmospheri mass-squared dieren e ∆m31 . The present value of the
mixing angle θ23 is still dominated by Super-Kamiokande data, being statisti ally the
most important fa tor for su h a measurement. However, large improvements are
expe ted from the next generation of long-baseline experiments su h as T2K [107℄
and NOν A [108℄, sensitive to the same os illation parameters as atmospheri neutrino
experiments.
Despite the above limitations, atmospheri neutrino dete tors an still play a
leading role in the future of neutrino physi s due to the huge range in energy (from
100 MeV to 10 TeV and above) and distan e (from 20 km to more than 12 000 km)
overed by the data. This unique feature, as well as the very large statisti s expe ted
for a dete tor su h as MEMPHYS (20 ÷ 30 times the present Super-Kamiokande event
rate), will allow a very a urate study of the subdominant modi ation to the leading
os illation pattern, thus providing omplementary information to a elerator-based
experiments. More on retely, atmospheri neutrino data will be extremely valuable
for
2σ sensitivity to normal hierarchy from LBL + ATM data

0.05
+
(p.dr.)
NOνA 4 MW
νA
T2K@
O
0.04
N
true sin 2θ13
0.03 βB
2
SP
L βB
SPL
0.02 T2HK
βB+SPL
βB+SPL T2HK
0.01
0
0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
true δCP fraction of true δCP values
Figure 11. 2
Sensitivity to the mass hierar hy at 2σ (∆χ = 4) as a fun tion
of sin2 2θ13
true true (left), and the fra tion of true values of δ true (right).
δCP
and CP
The solid urves are the sensitivities from the ombination of long-baseline and
atmospheri neutrino data, the dashed urves orrespond to long-baseline data
only. We have assumed 10 years of data taking with a 440 kton mass dete tor.
0.015
right octant of θ23 wrong octant of θ23 combined
Sensitivity to sin 2θ13
2
0.01
3σ 3σ 3σ
2σ 2σ
2σ
0.005
1σ 1σ 1σ
0.0
2σ
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
2 2 2
True value of sin θ23 True value of sin θ23 True value of sin θ23
Figure 12. Sensitivity to sin2 2θ13 as a fun tion of sin2 θ23

true for LBL data only
(dashed), and the ombination beam and atmospheri neutrino data (solid). In
the left and entral panels we restri t the t of θ23 to the o tant orresponding
true and π/2 − θ true , respe tively, whereas the right panel shows the overall
to θ23 23
sensitivity taking into a ount both o tants. We have assumed 8 years of beam
and 9 years of atmospheri neutrino data taking with the T2HK beam and a
1 Mton dete tor. Reprinted gure with permission from [109℄.
• Resolving the o tant ambiguity. Although future a elerator experiments are

expe ted to onsiderably improve the measurement of the absolute value of the
2
small quantity D23 ≡ sin θ23 − 1/2, they will have pra ti ally no sensitivity
on its sign. On the other hands, it has been pointed out [110, 111℄ that the
νµ → νe ∆m221 an
onversion signal indu ed by the small but nite value of
resolve this degenera y. However, observing su h a onversion requires a very
long baseline and low energy neutrinos, and atmospheri sub-GeV ele tron-like
events are parti ularly suitable for this purpose. In Fig. 10 we show the potential
of dierent experiments to ex lude the o tant degenerate solution.
• Resolving the hierar hy degenera y. If θ13 is not too small, matter ee t will
produ e resonant onversion in the νµ ↔ νe hannel for neutrinos (antineutrinos)
if the mass hierar hy is normal (inverted). The observation of this enhan ed
onversion would allow the determination of the mass hierar hy. Although a
magnetized dete tor would be the best solution for this task, it is possible to
extra t useful information also with a onventional dete tor sin e the event
rates expe ted for atmospheri neutrinos and antineutrinos are quite dierent.
This is learly visible from Fig. 11, where we show how the sensitivity to the
mass hierar hy of dierent beam experiments is drasti ally in reased when the
atmospheri neutrino data olle ted by the same dete tor are also in luded in the
t.
• Measuring or improving the bound on θ13 . Although atmospheri data alone

are not expe ted to be ompetitive with the next generation of long-baseline
experiments in the sensitivity to θ13 , they will ontribute indire tly by eliminating
the o tant degenera y, whi h is an important sour e of un ertainty for beam
true ◦
experiments. In parti ular, if θ23 is larger than 45 then the in lusion of
atmospheri data will onsiderably improve the a elerator experiment sensitivity
to θ13 , as an be seen from the right panel of Fig. 12 [109℄.
In GLACIER, the sear h for ντ appearan e is based on the information provided

by the event kinemati s and takes advantage of the spe ial hara teristi s of ντ CC
and the subsequent de ay of the produ ed τ lepton when ompared to CC and NC
intera tions of νµ and νe , i.e. by making use of P~candidate and P~hadron . Due to the large
ba kground indu ed by atmospheri muon and ele tron neutrinos and antineutrinos,
the measurement of a statisti ally signi ant ex ess of ντ events is very unlikely for
the τ →e and τ →µ de ay modes.
The situation is mu h more advantageous for the hadroni hannels. One an
± 0 0
onsider tau-de ays to one prong (single pion, ρ) and to three prongs (π π π and
three harged pions). In order to sele t the signal, one an exploit the kinemati al
variables Evisible , ybj (the ratio between the total hadroni energy and Evisible ) and
QT (dened as the transverse momentum of the τ andidate with respe t to the total
measured momentum) that are not ompletely independent one from another but show
some orrelation. These orrelations an be exploited to redu e the ba kground. In
order to maximize the separation between signal and ba kground, one an use three
dimensional likelihood fun tions L(QT , Evisible , ybj ) where orrelations are taken into
a ount. For ea h hannel, three dimensional likelihood fun tions are built for both
S S S B B B
signal (Lπ , Lρ , L3π ) and ba kground (Lπ , Lρ , L3π ). In order to enhan e the
separation of ντ indu ed events from νµ , νe intera tions, the ratio of likelihoods is
S B
taken as the sole dis riminant variable ln λi ≡ ln(Li /Li ) where i = π, ρ, 3π .
To further improve the sensitivity of the ντ appearan e sear h, one an ombine
the three independent hadroni analyses into a single one. Events that are ommon to
at least two analyses are ounted only on e and a survey of all possible ombinations,
for a restri ted set of values of the likelihood ratios, is performed. Table 10 illustrates
the statisti al signi an e a hieved by several sele ted ombinations of the likelihood
ratios for an exposure equivalent to 100 kton year.
The best ombination for a 100 kton year exposure is a hieved for the following
set of uts: ln λπ > 3, ln λρ > 0.5 and ln λ3π > 0. The expe ted number of NC
ba kground events amounts to 25 (top) while 25+22 = 47 are expe ted. Pβ is the
Poisson probability for the measured ex ess of upward going events to be due to
a statisti al u tuation as a fun tion of the exposure. An ee t larger than 4σ is
obtained for an exposure of 100 kton year (one year of data taking with GLACIER).
Last but not least, it is worth noting that atmospheri neutrino uxes are
Table 10. Expe ted GLACIER ba kground and signal events for dierent
ombinations of the π, ρ and 3π analyses. The onsidered statisti al sample
orresponds to an exposure of 100 kton year.
ln λπ ln λρ ln λ3π Top Bottom Pβ (%)

Cut Cut Cut Events Events
0.0 0.5 0.0 223 223 + 43 = 266 2 × 10−1 (3.1σ )

1.5 1.5 0.0 92 92 + 35 = 127 2 × 10−2 (3.7σ )
3.0 −1.0 0.0 87 87 + 33 = 120 3 × 10−2 (3.6σ )
3.0 0.5 0.0 25 25 + 22 = 47 2 × 10−3 (4.3σ)
3.0 1.5 0.0 20 20 + 19 = 39 4 × 10−3 (4.1σ )
3.0 0.5 −1.0 59 59 + 30 = 89 9 × 10−3 (3.9σ )
3.0 0.5 1.0 18 18 + 17 = 35 1 × 10−2 (3.8σ )
themselves an important subje t of investigation, and in the light of the pre ise
determination of the os illation parameters provided by long baseline experiments,
the atmospheri neutrino data a umulated by the proposed dete tors ould be used
as a dire t measurement of the in oming neutrino ux, and therefore as an indire t
measurement of the primary osmi -rays ux.
The appearan e of subleading features in the main os illation pattern an also be
a hint for New Physi s. The huge range of energies probed by atmospheri data will
allow to set very strong bounds on me hanisms whi h predi t deviation from the 1/E
law behavior. For example, the bound on non-standard neutrino-matter intera tions
and on other types of New Physi s (su h as violation of the equivalen e prin iple, or
violation of the Lorentz invarian e) whi h an be derived from present data is already
the strongest whi h an be put on these me hanisms [112℄.
8. Geo-neutrinos
The total power dissipated from the Earth (heat ow) has been measured with thermal
te hniques to be 44.2 ± 1.0 TW. Despite this small quoted error, a more re ent
evaluation of the same data (assuming mu h lower hydrothermal heat ow near mid-
o ean ridges) has led to a lower gure of 31 ± 1 TW. On the basis of studies of
hondriti meteorites the al ulated radiogeni
power is thought to be 19 TW (about
238 232
half of the total power), 84% of whi h is produ ed by U and Th de ay whi h
in turn produ e ν̄e by beta-de ays (geo-neutrinos). It is then of prime importan e
to measure the ν̄e ux oming from the Earth to get geophysi al information, with
possible appli ations in the interpretation of the geomagnetism.
The KamLAND ollaboration has re ently reported the rst observation of the
geo-neutrinos [24℄.
The events are identied by the time and distan e oin iden e
+
between the prompt e and the delayed (200 µs) neutron apture produ ed by
+
ν̄e + p → n + e and emiting a 2.2 MeV gamma. The energy window to sear h for
the geo-neutrino events is [1.7, 3.4] MeV. The lower bound orresponds to the rea tion
threshold while the upper bound is onstrained by nu lear rea tor indu ed ba kground
events. The measured rate in the 1 kton liquid s intillator dete tor lo ated at the
Kamioka mine, where the Kamiokande dete tor was previously installed, is 25+19
−18 for
a total ba kground of 127 ± 13 events.
The ba kground is omposed by 2/3 of ν̄e events from the nu lear rea tors in
Japan and Korea. These events have been a tually used by KamLAND to onrm
and pre isely measure the Solar driven neutrino os illation parameters (see Se tion
6). The residual 1/3 of the events originates from neutrons of 7.3 MeV produ ed in
13 16
C(α, n) O rea tions and aptured as in the IBD rea tion. The α parti les ome
210 222
from the Po de ays, a Rn daughter whi h is of natural radioa tivity origin. The
+3.9 −31
measured geo-neutrino events an be onverted in a rate of 5.1−3.6 × 10 ν̄e per
6 −2 −1
target proton per year orresponding to a mean ux of 5.7 × 10 cm s , or this an
−30
be transformed into a 99% C.L. upper bound of 1.45 × 10 ν̄e per target proton per
7 −2 −1
year (1.62 × 10 cm s and 60 TW for the radiogeni power).
In MEMPHYS, one expe ts 10 times more geo-neutrino events but this would
imply to de rease the trigger threshold to 2 MeV whi h seems very hallenging with
respe t to the present Super-Kamiokande threshold, set to 4.6 MeV due to high level
of raw trigger rate [113℄. This trigger rate is driven by a number of fa tors as dark
urrent of the PMTs, γs from the ro k surrounding the dete tor, radioa tive de ay in
the PMT glass itself and Radon ontamination in the water.
In LENA at CUPP a geo-neutrino rate of roughly 1000/year [114℄ from the
+
dominant ν̄e + p → e + n IBD rea tion is expe ted. The delayed oin iden e
measurement of the positron and the 2.2 MeV gamma event, following neutron apture
on protons in the s intillator provides a very e ient tool to reje t ba kground events.
The threshold energy of 1.8 MeV allows the measurement of geo-neutrinos from the
40
Uranium and Thorium series, but not from K. A rea tor ba kground rate of about
240 events per year for LENA at CUPP in the relevant energy window from 1.8 MeV
to 3.2 MeV has been al ulated. This ba kground an be subtra ted statisti ally using
the information on the entire rea tor neutrino spe trum up to ≃ 8 MeV.
As it was shown in KamLAND, a serious ba kground sour e may ome from radio
210
impurities. There the orrelated ba kground from the isotope Po is dominating.
However, with an enhan ed radiopurity of the s intillator, the ba kground an be
signi antly redu ed. Taking the radio purity levels of the Borexino CTF dete tor at
210 3
Gran Sasso, where a Po a tivity of 35 ± 12/m day in PXE has been observed, this
ba kground would be redu ed by a fa tor of about 150 ompared to KamLAND and
would a ount to less than 10 events per year in the LENA dete tor.
9
An additional ba kground that fakes the geo-neutrino signal is due to Li, whi h is
12
produ ed by osmi -muons in spallation rea tions with C and de ays in a β -neutron
9
as ade. Only a small part of the Li de ays falls into the energy window whi h is
relevant for geo-neutrinos. KamLAND estimates this ba kground to be 0.30 ± 0.05
[24℄.
At CUPP the muon rea tion rate would be redu ed by a fa tor ≃ 10 due to
better shielding and this ba kground rate should be at the negligible level of ≃ 1 event
per year in LENA. From these onsiderations it follows that LENA would be a very
apable dete tor for measuring geo-neutrinos. Dierent Earth models ould be tested
with great signi an e. The sensitivity of LENA for probing the unorthodox idea
of a geo-rea tor in the Earth's ore was estimated, too. At the CUPP underground
laboratory the neutrino ba kground with energies up to ≃ 8 MeV due to nu lear
power plants was al ulated to be around 2200 events per year. A 2 TW geo-rea tor
in the Earth's ore would ontribute 420 events per year and ould be identied at a
statisti al level of better than 3σ after only one year of measurement.
Finally, in GLACIER the ν̄e +
40
Ar → e+ + 40 Cl∗ has a threshold of 7.5 MeV,
whi h is too high for geo-neutrino dete tion.
# Events
100 kton LAr, 10 years of data taking

10 3
min
Eν = 10 GeV
2
10
MWIMP = 20 GeV
MWIMP = 50 GeV
MWIMP = 100 GeV
10
-1 Atmospheric Neutrino Background

10
-2
10
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10 10
Elastic Scattering Cross Section (pb)
Figure 13. Expe ted number of signal and ba kground events as a fun tion
of the WIMP elasti s attering produ tion ross-se tion in the Sun, with a ut
of 10 GeV on the minimum neutrino energy. Reprinted gure with permission
from [115℄.
9. Indire t sear hes for the Dark Matter of the Universe

The Weakly Intera ting Massive Parti les (WIMPs) that likely onstitute the halo of
the Milky Way an o asionally intera t with massive obje ts, su h as stars or planets.
When they s atter o su h an obje t, they an potentially lose enough energy that they
be ome gravitationally bound and eventually will settle in the enter of the elestial
body. In parti ular, WIMPs an be aptured by and a umulate in the ore of the
Sun.
As far as the next generation of large underground observatories is on erned,
although not spe i ally dedi ated to the sear h for WIMP parti les, one ould dis uss
the apability of GLACIER in identifying, in a model-independent way, neutrino
signatures oming from the produ ts of WIMP annihilations in the ore of the Sun
[115℄.
Signal events will onsist of energeti ele tron- (anti)neutrinos oming from the
de ay of τ leptons and b quarks produ ed in WIMP annihilation in the ore of the Sun.
Ba kground ontamination from atmospheri neutrinos is expe ted to be low. One
annot onsider the possibility of observing neutrinos from WIMPs a umulated in the
Earth. Given the smaller mass of the Earth and the fa t that only s alar intera tions
ontribute, the apture rates for our planet are not enough to produ e a statisti ally
signi ant signal in GLACIER.
The sear h method takes advantage of the ex ellent angular re onstru tion and
10 3
Years of data taking for Discovery
5 σ and 50% CL 100 kTon Liquid Argon Detector
MWIMP = 100 GeV

10 2 MWIMP = 50 GeV
MWIMP = 20 GeV
10
-1
10
min
Eν = 10 GeV
-2
10 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10
Elastic Scattering Cross Section (pb)
Figure 14. Minimum number of years required to laim a dis overy WIMP signal
σelastic for three values of
from the Sun in a 100 kton LAr dete tor as fun tion of
the WIMP mass. Reprinted gure with permission from [115℄.
superb ele tron identi ation apabilities GLACIER oers in looking for an ex ess of
energeti ele tron- (anti)neutrinos pointing in the dire tion of the Sun. The expe ted
signal and ba kground event rates have been evaluated, as said above in a model
independent way, as a fun tion of the WIMP elasti s attering ross-se tion for a
range of masses up to 100 GeV. The dete tor dis overy potential, namely the number
of years needed to laim a WIMP signal has been dis overed, is shown in Figs. 13
and 14. With the assumed set-up and thanks to the low ba kground environment
provided by the LAr TPC, a lear WIMP signal would be dete ted provided the
elasti s attering ross-se tion in the Sun is above ∼ 10−4 pb.
10. Neutrinos from nu lear rea tors

The KamLAND 1 kton liquid s intillator dete tor lo ated at Kamioka measured the
2
neutrino ux from 53 power rea tors orresponding to 701 Joule/ m [26℄. An event
rate of 365.2 ± 23.7 above 2.6 MeV for an exposure of 766 ton year from the nu lear
rea tors was expe ted. The observed rate was 258 events with a total ba kground of
17.8 ± 7.3.The signi ant de it, interpreted in terms of neutrino os illations, enables
a measurement of θ12 , the neutrino 1-2 family mixing angle (sin2 θ12 = 0.31+0.02
−0.03 ) as
2 −5 2
well as the mass squared dieren e ∆m12 = (7.9 ± 0.3) × 10 eV .
Future pre ision measurements are urrently being investigated. Running
2
KamLAND for 2-3 more years would gain 30% (4%) redu tion in the spread of ∆m12
147 kt yr MEMPHYS-Gd
0.8
Nosc / Nno-osc
0.6
0.4
44 kt yr LENA
0.2
0
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Ep [MeV]
Figure 15. The ratio of the event spe tra in positron energy in the ase of
os illations with ∆m221 = 7.9 × 10−5 eV2 and sin2 θ12 = 0.30 and in the absen e
of os illations, determined using one year data of MEMPHYS-Gd and LENA
lo ated at Frejus. The error bars orrespond to 1σ statisti al error. Reprinted
gure with permission from [116℄.
(θ12 ). Although it has been shown in Se tions 5 and 8 that ν̄e originated from nu lear
rea tors an be a serious ba kground for diuse supernova neutrino and geo-neutrino
dete tion, the Fréjus site an take benet of the nu lear rea tors lo ated in the Rhne
2 2
valley to measure ∆m21 and sin θ12 . In fa t, approximately 67% of the total rea tor
ν̄e ux at Fréjus originates from four nu lear power plants in the Rhone valley, lo ated
at distan es between 115 km and 160 km. The indi ated baselines are parti ularly
suitable for the study of the ν̄e ∆m221 . The authors of [116℄
os illations driven by
have investigated the possibility of using one module of MEMPHYS (147 kton du ial
mass) doped with Gadolinium or the LENA dete tor, updating the previous work
of [117℄. Above 3 MeV (2.6 MeV) the event rate is 59 980 (16 670) events/year for
MEMPHYS (LENA), whi h is 2 orders of magnitude larger than the KamLAND event
rate.
In order to test the sensitivity of the experiments, the prompt energy spe trum is
subdivided into 20 bins between 3 MeV and 12 MeV for MEMPHYS-Gd and Super-
Kamiokande-Gd, and into 25 bins between 2.6 MeV and 10 MeV for LENA (Fig. 15). A
χ2 analysis taking into a ount the statisti al and systemati al errors shows that ea h
of the two dete tors, MEMPHYS-Gd and LENA if pla ed at Fréjus, an be exploited
2
to yield a pre ise determination of the solar neutrino os illation parameters ∆m21 and
2 2 2
sin θ12 . Within one year, the 3σ un ertainties on ∆m21 and sin θ12 an be redu ed
respe tively to less than 3% and to approximately 20% (Fig. 16). In omparison,
the Gadolinium doped Super-Kamiokande dete tor that might be envisaged in a near
future would rea h a similar pre ision only with a mu h longer data taking time.
Several years of rea tor ν̄e data olle ted by MEMPHYS-Gd or LENA would allow a
2 2
determination of ∆m21 and sin θ12 with un ertainties of approximately 1% and 10%
at 3σ , respe tively.
40
30 current solar +Kamland

22.5 kt yr SK-Gd
2
∆χ
20 147 kt yr MEMPHYS-Gd
44 kt yr LENA
10
0
9
3σ contours
∆m21 [10 eV ]
2
-5
8 ★
2
7
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 10 20 30 40
2 2
sin θ12 ∆χ
Figure 16. A ura y of the determination of ∆m2 2

21 and sin θ12 , for one year
data taking of MEMPHYS-Gd and LENA at Frejus, and Super-Kamiokande-
Gd, ompared to the
urrent pre ision from solar neutrino and KamLAND data.
The allowed regions at 3σ (2 d.o.f.) in the ∆m221 − sin2 θ12 plane, as well as
2
the proje tions of the χ for ea h parameter are shown. Reprinted gure with
However, some aveat are worth to be mentioned. The prompt energy trigger
of 3 MeV requires a very low PMT dark urrent rate in the ase of the MEMPHYS
dete tor. If the energy threshold is higher, the parameter pre ision de reases as an
be seen in Fig. 17. The systemati un ertainties are also an important fa tor in the
experiments under onsideration, espe ially the determination of the mixing angle, as
those on the energy s ale and the overall normalization.
Anyhow, the a ura y in the knowledge of the solar neutrino os illation
parameters, whi h an be obtained in the high statisti s experiments onsidered here,
are omparable to those that an be rea hed for the atmospheri neutrino os illation
parameters∆m231 and sin2 θ23 with the future long-baseline Super beam experiments
su h as T2HK or T2KK [118℄ in Japan, or SPL from CERN to MEMPHYS.
Hen e, su h rea tor measurements would omplete the program of the high pre ision
determination of the leading neutrino os illation parameters.
11. Neutrinos from parti le a elerator beams

Although the main physi s goals of the proposed liquid-based dete tors will be in
the domain of astro-parti le physi s, it would be e onomi al and also very interesting
from the physi s point of view, onsidering their possible use as "far" dete tors for
the future neutrino fa ilities planned or under dis ussion in Europe, also given the
large nan ial investment represented by the dete tors. In this Se tion we review
0.25
Memphys-Gd 147 kt yr
0.2
2
sin θ12
spread @ 3σ CL
0.15
0.1
0.05 2
∆m21
0
2.4 2.6 2.8 3 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4
threshold of Evis [MeV]
Figure 17. The a ura y of the determination of ∆m2

2
21 and sin θ12 , whi h an
be obtained using one year of data from MEMPHYS-Gd as a fun tion of the
prompt energy threshold.
the physi s program of the proposed observatories when using dierent a elerator
neutrino beams. The main goals will be pushing the sear h for a non-zero (although
very small) θ13 angle or its measurement in the ase of a dis overy previously made
by one of the planned rea tor or a elerator experiments (Double-CHOOZ or T2K);
sear hing for possible leptoni CP violation (δCP ); determining the mass hierar hy
(the sign of ∆m231 ) and the θ23 o tant (θ23 > 45◦ or θ23 < 45◦ ). For this purpose
we onsider here the potentiality of a liquid Argon dete tor in an upgraded version
of the existing CERN to Gran Sasso (CNGS) neutrino beam, and of the MEMPHYS
dete tor at the Fréjus using a possible new CERN proton driver (SPL) to upgrade to 4
MW the onventional neutrino beams (Super Beams). Another s heme ontemplates
a pure ele tron- (anti)neutrino produ tion by radioa tive ion de ays (Beta Beam).
Note that LENA is also a good andidate dete tor for the latter beam option. Finally,
as an ultimate beam fa ility, one may think of produ ing very intense neutrino beams
by means of muon de ays (Neutrino Fa tory) that may well be dete ted with a liquid
Argon dete tor su h as GLACIER.
The determination of the missing Ue3 (θ13 ) element of the neutrino mixing matrix
is possible via the dete tion of νµ → νe os illations at a baseline L and energy E
given by the atmospheri neutrino signal, orresponding to a mass squared dieren e
E/L ∼ ∆m2 ≃ 2.5 × 10−3 eV 2 . The urrent layout of the CNGS beam from CERN
to the Gran Sasso Laboratory has been optimized for a τ -neutrino appearan e sear h
to be performed by the OPERA experiment [119℄. This beam onguration provides
limited sensitivity to the measurement of Ue3 .
Therefore, we dis uss the physi s potential of an intensity-upgraded and energy-

reoptimized CNGS neutrino beam oupled to an o-axis GLACIER dete tor [120℄.
This idea is based on the possible upgrade of the CERN PS or on a new ma hine
(PS+) to deliver protons of 50 GeV/ with a power of 200 kW. Post a eleration to
SPS energies followed by extra tion to the CNGS target region should allow to rea h
MW power, with neutrino energies peaked around 2 GeV. In order to evaluate the
physi s potential one assumes ve years of running in the neutrino horn polarity plus
ve additional years in the anti-neutrino mode. A systemati error on the knowledge
0
of the νe omponent of 5% is assumed. Given the ex ellent π parti le identi ation
0
apabilities of GLACIER, the ontamination of π is negligible.
An o-axis beam sear h for νe appearan e is performed with the GLACIER
o
dete tor lo ated at 850 km from CERN. For an o-axis angle of 0.75 , θ13 an be
2
dis overed for full δCP overage for sin 2θ13 > 0.004 at 3σ (Fig. 18). At this rather
modest baseline, the ee t of CP violation and matter ee ts annot be disentangled.
In fa t, the determination of the mass hierar hy with half- overage (50%) is rea hed
2
only for sin 2θ13 > 0.03 at 3σ . A longer baseline (1050 km) and a larger o-axis angle
o
(1.5 ) would allow the dete tor to be sensitive to the rst minimum and the se ond
maximum of the os illation. This is the key to resolve the issue of mass hierar hy. With
this dete tor onguration, full overage for δCP to determine the mass hierar hy an
be rea hed for sin2 2θ13 > 0.04 at 3σ . The sensitivity to mass hierar hy determination
an be improved by onsidering two o-axis dete tors: one of 30 kton at 850 km
o 0
and o-axis angle 0.75 , a se ond one of 70 kton at 1050 km and 1.5 o-axis. Full
2
overage for δCP to determine the mass hierar hy an be rea hed for sin 2θ13 > 0.02
at 3σ (Fig. 19). This two-dete tor onguration rea hes very similar sensitivities to
the ones of the T2KK proposal [118℄.
Another notable possibility is the CERN-SPL Super Beam proje t. It is a
onventional neutrino beam featuring a 4 MW SPL (Super- ondu ting Proton Lina )
+
[122℄ driver delivering protons onto a liquid Mer ury target to generate an intense π
−
(π ) beam with small ontamination of kaons. The use of near and far dete tors will
allow both νµ disappearan e and νµ → νe appearan e studies. The physi s potential
of the SPL Super Beam with MEMPHYS has been extensively studied [37, 123, 124℄.
However, the beam simulations will need some retuning after the forth oming results
of the CERN HARP experiment [125℄ on hadro-produ tion.
After 5 years exposure in νµ disappearan e mode, a 3σ a ura y of (3-4)% an
be a hieved on ∆m231 , and an a ura y of 22% (5%) on sin2 θ23 if the true value is
0.5 (0.37), namely in ase of maximal or non-maximal mixing (Fig. 20). The use of
atmospheri neutrinos an ontribute to solving the o tant ambiguity in ase of non-
maximal mixing as it is shown in Fig. 20. Note however, that thanks to a higher energy
beam (∼ 750 MeV), the T2HK proje t‡ an benet from a mu h lower dependen e on
the Fermi motion to obtain a better energy resolution.
In appearan e mode (2 years νµ plus 8 years ν̄µ ), a 3σ dis overy of non-zero
θ13 , irrespe tive of the a tual true value of δCP , is a hieved for sin2 2θ13 & 4 10−3
◦ true
(θ13 & 3.6 ) as shown in Fig. 21. For maximal CP violation (δCP = π/2, 3π/2) the
2 −4 ◦
same dis overy level an be a hieved for sin 2θ13 & 8 10 (θ13 & 0.8 ). The best
sensitivity for testing CP violation (i.e the data annot be tted with δCP = 0 nor
δCP = π ) is a hieved for sin2 2θ13 ≈ 10−3 (θ13 ≈ 0.9◦ ) as shown in Fig. 22. The
‡ Here, we to the proje t where a 4 MW proton driver is built at KEK to deliver an intense neutrino
beam dete ted by a large water Cherenkov dete tor.
CNGS - θ13 Discovery

90% C.L. 3σ C.L.
1
fraction δ CP coverage
(ν+anti ν) run
0.9 no systematics anti ν run only
0.8 ν run only
0.7
0.6 (ν+anti ν) run

free parameters
0.5
0.4

fixed parameters
0.2
0.1
0 -3
10-4 10 10-2 10-1
sin2 (2θ13)
Figure 18. GLACIER in the upgraded CNGS beam. Sensitivity to the dis overy
ofθ13 : fra tion of δCP overage as a fun tion of sin2 2θ13 . Reprinted gure with
CNGS - 2 detectors - Mass hierarchy exclusion

90% C.L. 3σ C.L.
1
fraction δ CP coverage
(ν+anti ν) run
0.9 no systematics

fixed parameters
0.7
ν run only
0.6
0.5
anti ν run only
0.4
0.3

free parameters
0.1
0 -3
10-4 10 10-2 10-1
sin2 (2θ13)
Figure 19. Upgraded CNGS beam: mass hierar hy determination for a two
dete tor onguration at baselines of 850 km and 1050 km. Reprinted gure with
5 yrs ν-data, 99% CL (2 d.o.f.)

T2K-I
T2HK
SPL
3 SPL+ATM
test point 2
∆m31 [10 eV ]
2
-3
2.5
2
SK +
2
test point 1
K2K
all
ow
ed
1.5
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
2
sin θ23
Figure 20. Allowed regions of ∆m2 2

31 and sin θ23 at 99% C.L. (2 d.o.f.) after
5 years of neutrino data taking for ATM+SPL, T2K phase I, ATM+T2HK,
and the ombination of SPL with 5 years of atmospheri neutrino data in the
MEMPHYS dete tor. For the true parameter values we use ∆m2 31 = 2.2 (2.6) ×
10−3 eV2 and sin2 θ23 = 0.5 (0.37) for the test point 1 (2), and θ13 = 0 and
the solar parameters as: ∆m2 −5 eV2 , sin2 θ
21 = 7.9 × 10 12 = 0.3. The shaded
region orresponds to the 99% C.L. region from present SK and K2K data [121℄.
maximum sensitivity is a hieved for sin2 2θ13 ∼ 10−2 where the CP violation an be
true
established at 3σ for 73% of all the δCP .
Although quite powerful, the proposed SPL Super Beam is a onventional
neutrino beam with known limitations due to the low produ tion rate of anti-neutrinos
ompared to neutrinos whi h, in addition to a smaller harged- urrent ross-se tion,
imposes to run 4 times longer in anti-neutrino mode, and implies di ulty to set up an
a urate beam simulation, and to design a non-trivial near dete tor setup mastering
the ba kground level. Thus, a new type of neutrino beam, the so- alled Beta Beam
is being onsidered. The idea is to generate pure, well ollimated and intense νe (ν̄e )
beams by produ ing, olle ting, and a elerating radioa tive ions [126℄. The resulting
Beta Beam spe tra an be easily omputed knowing the beta-de ay spe trum of the
parent ion and the Lorentz boost fa tor γ, and these beams are virtually free from
18 6
other ba kground avors. The best ion andidates so far are Ne and He for νe and
ν̄e , respe tively. A baseline study for the Beta Beam has been initiated at CERN, and
is now going on within the European FP6 design study for EURISOL.
The potential of su h Beta Beam sent to MEMPHYS has been studied in the
18 6
ontext of the baseline s enario, using referen e uxes of 5.8 × 10 He useful
18 18
de ays/year and 2.2 × 10 Ne de ays/year, orresponding to a reasonable estimate
Sensitivity to a non-zero θ13 at 3σ

-2
10
σsyst = 2%−5%
T2HK T2HK
sin 2θ13
-3
SPL SPL
10
2
βB
L
+SP
βB
βB
L
βB+SP
-4
10 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 0 1
0.25 0.5 0.75
Figure 21. 3σ dis overy sensitivity to sin2 2θ13 for Beta Beam, SPL, and T2HK
as a fun tion of the true value of δCP (left panel) and as a fun tion of the fra tion
δCP (right panel). The width of the bands orresponds
of all possible values of
to values for the systemati al errors between 2% and 5%. The dashed urve
orresponds to the Beta Beam sensitivity with the uxes redu ed by a fa tor 2.
Sensitivity to CP violation at 3σ
2π
2
∆χ (δCP = 0, π) = 9
T2HK
SPL
3π/2 βB
true δCP
π/2
σsyst = 2%−5%
0
-4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10
2
true sin 2θ13
Figure 22. CP violation dis overy potential for Beta Beam, SPL, and T2HK:
For parameter values inside the ellipse-shaped urves CP onserving values of δCP
2
an be ex luded at 3σ (∆χ > 9). The width of the bands orresponds to values
for the systemati errors from 2% to 5%. The dashed urve is des ribed in Fig. 21.
by experts in the eld of the ultimately a hievable uxes. The optimal values is
a tually γ = 100 for both spe ies, and the orresponding performan e have been
re ently reviewed in [37, 123, 124℄.
In Figs. 21,22 the results of running a Beta Beam during 10 years (5 years
with neutrinos and 5 years with anti-neutrinos) is shown and prove to be far better
ompared to an SPL Super beam run, espe ially for maximal CP violation where a
3σ for sin2 2θ13 & 2 10−4 (θ13 & 0.4◦ ). Moreover, it
non-zero θ13 value an be stated at
is noti eable that the Beta Beam is less ae ted by systemati errors of the ba kground
ompared to the SPL Super beam and T2HK.
Before ombining the two possible CERN beam options, relevant for the proposed
European underground observatories, let us onsider LENA as potential dete tor.
LENA, with a du ial volume of ∼ 45 kton, an as well be used as dete tor for a
low-energy Beta Beam os illation experiment. In the energy range 0.2 − 1.2 GeV,
the performed simulations show that muon events are separable from ele tron events
due to their dierent tra k lengths in the dete tor and due to the ele tron emitted in
the muon de ay. For high energies, muons travel longer than ele trons, as the latter
undergo s attering and bremsstrahlung. This results in dierent distributions of the
number of photons and the timing pattern, whi h an be used to distinguish between
the two lasses of events. For low energies, muons an be re ognized by observing the
ele tron of its su eeding de ay after a mean time of 2.2 µs. By using both riteria,
an e ien y of ∼ 90 % for muon appearan e has been al ulated with a eptan e of
1 % ele tron ba kground. The advantage of using a liquid s intillator dete tor for
su h an experiment is the good energy re onstru tion of the neutrino beam. However,
neutrinos of these energies an produ e ∆ resonan es whi h subsequently de ay into
a nu leon and a pion. In water Cherenkov dete tors, pions with energies under the
Cherenkov threshold ontribute to the un ertainty of the neutrino energy. In LENA
these parti les an be dete ted. The ee t of pion produ tion and similar rea tions is
urrently under investigation in order to estimate the a tual energy resolution.
We also mention a very re ent development of the Beta Beam on ept [38℄ based
on a very promising alternative for the produ tion of ions and on the possibility of
having mono hromati , single-avor neutrino beams by using ions de aying through
the ele tron apture pro ess [127, 128℄. In parti ular, su h beams would be suitable to
pre isely measure neutrino ross-se tions in a near dete tor with the possibility of an
energy s an by varying the γ value of the ions. Sin e a Beta Beam uses only a small
fra tion of the protons available from the SPL, Super and Beta Beams an be run at
the same time. The ombination of a Super Beam and a Beta Beam oers advantages
from the experimental point of view sin e the same parameters θ13 and δCP an be
measured in many dierent ways, using 2 pairs of CP related hannels, 2 pairs of T
related hannels, and 2 pairs of CPT related hannels whi h should all give oherent
results. In this way, the estimates of systemati errors, dierent for ea h beam, will
be experimentally ross- he ked. Needless to say, the unos illated data for a given
beam will provide a large sample of events orresponding to the small sear hed-for
signal with the other beam, adding more handles to the understanding of the dete tor
response.
The ombination of the Beta Beam and the Super Beam will allow to use neutrino
modes only: νµ for SPL and νe for Beta Beam. If CPT symmetry is assumed, all the
information an be obtained as Pν̄e →ν̄µ = Pνµ →νe and Pν̄µ →ν̄e = Pνe →νµ . We illustrate
this synergy in Fig. 23. In this s enario, time onsuming anti-neutrino running an be
avoided keeping the same physi s dis overy potential.
3σ discovery of a non-zero θ13 within 5 yrs

-2
10
y
L5
βB
5y
SP
L
5y
5y
SP
βB
sin 2θ13
-3 T2H 10y
10 K1 T2HK
2
0y 5y
SPL
5y
SPL
βB +
+
βB
-4
10 0 π/2 π 3π/2 2π 0 1
0.25 0.5 0.75
Figure 23. Dis overy potential of a nite value of sin2 2θ13 at 3σ (∆χ2 > 9)
for 5 years neutrino data from Beta Beam, SPL, and the ombination of Beta
Beam + SPL ompared to 10 years data from T2HK (2 years neutrinos + 8 years
antineutrinos). Reprinted gure with permission from [37℄.
One an also ombine SPL, Beta Beam and the atmospheri neutrino experiments
to redu e the parameter degenera ies whi h lead to dis onne ted regions on the multi-
dimensional spa e of os illation parameters. One an look at [129, 130, 131℄ for the
denitions of intrinsi , hierar hy, and o tant degenera ies. As we have seen above,
atmospheri neutrinos, mainly multi-GeV e-like events, are sensitive to the neutrino
mass hierar hy if θ13
is su iently large due to Earth matter ee ts, whilst sub-GeV
e-like events provide sensitivity to the o tant of θ23 due to os illations with ∆m221 .
The result of running during 5 years in neutrino mode for SPL and Beta Beam,
adding further the atmospheri neutrino data, is shown in Fig. 24 [37℄. One an
appre iate that pra ti ally all degenera ies an be eliminated as only the solution with
2
the wrong sign survives with a ∆χ = 3.3. This last degenera y an be ompletely
eliminated by using a neutrino running mode ombined with anti-neutrino mode and
2
ATM data [37℄. However, the example shown is a favorable ase with sin θ23 = 0.6
2
and in general, for sin θ23 < 0.5, the impa t of the atmospheri data is weaker. So,
as a generi ase, for the CERN-MEMPHYS proje t, one is left with the four intrinsi
degenera ies. However, the important observation in Fig. 24 is that degenera ies
have only a very small impa t on the CP violation dis overy, in the sense that if
the true solution is CP violating also the fake solutions are lo ated at CP violating
values of δCP . Therefore, thanks to the relatively short baseline without matter ee t,
even if degenera ies ae t the pre ise determination of θ13 and δCP , they have only a
small impa t on the CP violation dis overy potential. Furthermore, one would quote
expli itly the four possible sets of parameters with their respe tive ondential level.
2
It is also lear from the gure that the sign(∆m31 ) degenera y has pra ti ally no ee t
on the θ13 measurement, whereas the o tant degenera y has very little impa t on the
determination of δCP .
Some other features of the atmospheri neutrino data are presented in Se . 7. In
order to fully exploit the possibilities oered by a Neutrino Fa tory, the dete tor
should be apable of identifying and measuring all three harged lepton avors
produ ed in harged- urrent intera tions and of measuring their harges in order to
identify the in oming neutrino heli ity. The GLACIER on ept in its non-magnetized
option provides a ba kground-free identi ation of ele tron-neutrino harged- urrent
tr tr tr wr wr tr wr wr
95% CL regions for the (H O ), (H O ), (H O ), (H O ) solutions
π
βB + SPL 5y βB 5y SPL 5y
π/2
δCP
-π/2
★ ★ ★
-π
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
2 2 2
sin 2θ13 sin 2θ13 sin 2θ13
Figure 24. Allowed regions in sin2 2θ13 and δCP for 5 years data (neutrinos only)
from Beta Beam, SPL, and the ombination. Htr/wr (Otr/wr ) refers to solutions
with the true/wrong mass hierar hy (o tant of θ23 ). For the olored regions in
the left panel also 5 years of atmospheri data are in luded; the solution with the
2
wrong hierar hy has ∆χ = 3.3. The true parameter values are δCP = −0.85π ,
sin2 2θ13 = 0.03, sin2 θ23 = 0.6. For the Beta Beam only analysis (middle panel)
an external a ura y of 2% (3%) for |∆m2 31 | (θ23 ) has been assumed, whereas for
the left and right panel the default value of 10% has been used. Reprinted gure
with permission from [37℄.
events and a kinemati al sele tion of tau-neutrino harged- urrent intera tions. We
an assume that harge dis rimination is available for muons rea hing an external
magnetized-Fe spe trometer.
Another interesting and extremely hallenging possibility would onsist in
magnetizing the whole liquid Argon volume [132, 36℄. This set-up would allow the
lean lassi ation of events into ele trons, right-sign muons, wrong-sign muons and
no-lepton ategories. In addition, high granularity permits a lean dete tion of quasi-
elasti events, whi h provide a sele tion of the neutrino ele tron heli ity by dete ting
the nal state proton, without the need of an ele tron harge measurement. Table 11
summarizes the expe ted rates for GLACIER and 1020 muon de ays at a neutrino
fa tory with stored muons having an energy of 30 GeV [133℄. Ntot is the total number
of events and Nqe is the number of quasi-elasti events.
Figure 25 shows the expe ted sensitivity in the measurement of θ13 for a baseline of
7400 km. The maximal sensitivity to θ13 is a hieved for very small ba kground levels,
sin e one is looking in this ase for small signals; most of the information is oming
from the lean wrong-sign muon lass and from quasi-elasti events. On the other
hand, if its value is not too small, for a measurement of θ13 , the signal/ba kground
ratio ould be not so ru ial, and also the other event lasses an ontribute to this
measurement.
A Neutrino Fa tory should aim to over- onstrain the os illation pattern, in order
to look for unexpe ted new physi s ee ts. This an be a hieved in global ts of the
parameters, where the unitarity of the mixing matrix is not stri tly assumed. Using
a dete tor able to identify the τ lepton produ tion via kinemati means, it is possible
to verify the unitarity in νµ → ντ and νe → ντ transitions.
The study of CP violation in the lepton system probably is the most ambitious
goal of an experiment at a Neutrino Fa tory. Matter ee ts an mimi CP violation;
however, a multi-parameter t at the right baseline an allow a simultaneous
determination of matter and CP violating parameters. To dete t CP violation ee ts,
the most favorable hoi e of neutrino energy Eν and baseline L is in the region of
Table 11. Expe ted events rates for GLACIER in a Neutrino Fa tory beam,
assuming no os illations and for 1020
muon de ays (Eµ =30 GeV). Ntot is the
total number of events and Nqe is the number of quasi-elasti events.
Event rates for various baselines
L = 732 km L = 2900 km L = 7400 km

Ntot Nqe Ntot Nqe Ntot Nqe
νµ CC 2260 000 90 400 144 000 5760 22 700 900
µ− νµ NC 673 000 41 200 6800
1020 de ays νe CC 871 000 34 800 55 300 2200 8750 350
νe NC 302 000 19 900 3000
ν µ CC 1010 000 40 400 63 800 2550 10 000 400

µ+ ν µ NC 353 000 22 400 3500
1020 de ays νe CC 1970 000 78 800 129 000 5160 19 800 800
νe NC 579 000 36 700 5800
-2
Eµ = 30 GeV, L = 7400 km
10
(eV )
2
2 x 10 µ
19
23
2
(background)
∆m
SUPER-K
ALLOWED 2 x 1019 µ
(no background)
-3
10
2 x 1020 µ
(background)
2 x 1020 µ
(no background)
90% ALLOWED
-4
10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10 10 1
2
sin 2Θ13
Figure 25. GLACIER sensitivity to the measurement of θ13 . Reprinted gure

with permission from [133℄.
-3
x 10
∆m122 (eV2)
0.1
0.09
0.08
0.07
θ13 free
θ13 free
0.06
0.05
0.04
θ13 fixed
0.03
θ13 fixed
χ2 + 4.6 contour lines
min
0.02
L = 730 km, E = 7.5 GeV, 10 20 µ
L = 2900 km, E = 30 GeV, 1019 µ
0.01
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
δ (rad)
Figure 26. GLACIER 90% C.L. sensitivity on the CP -phase δCP as a fun tion
of ∆m221 for the two onsidered baselines. The referen e os illation parameters
2
are ∆m32 = 3 × 10
−3 eV2 , sin2 θ 2 2
23 = 0.5, sin θ12 = 0.5, sin 2θ13 = 0.05 and
δCP = 0. The lower urves are made xing all parameters to the referen e values
while for the upper urves θ13 is free. Reprinted gure with permission from [134℄.
the rst maximum, given by (L/Eν )max ≃ 500 km/GeV for |∆m232 | = 2.5 × 10−3 eV2
[134℄. To study os illations in this region, one has to require that the energy of
√ max
the "rst-maximum be smaller than the MSW resonan e energy: 2 2GF ne Eν .
2
∆m32 cos 2θ13 . This xes a limit on the baseline Lmax ≈ 5000 km beyond whi h
matter ee ts spoil the sensitivity.
As an example, Fig. 26 shows the sensitivity to the CP violating phase δCP
for two on rete ases. The events are lassied in the ve ategories previously
mentioned, assuming an ele tron harge onfusion of 0.1%. The ex lusion regions
in the∆m212 − δCP plane are determined by tting the visible energy distributions,
provided that the ele tron dete tion e ien y is ∼ 20%. The ex luded regions extend
up to values of |δCP | lose to π, even when θ13 is left free.
12. Con lusions and outlook

In this paper we dis uss the importan e of outstanding physi s phenomena su h
as the possible instability of matter (proton de ay), the produ tion of neutrinos in
supernovae, in the Sun and in the interior of the Earth, as well as the re ently
dis overed pro ess of neutrino os illations, also dete table through arti ial neutrinos
produ ed by nu lear rea tors and parti le a elerators.

All the above physi s subje ts, key issues for parti le physi s, astro-parti le
physi s, astrophysi s and osmology, all for a new generation of multipurpose,
underground observatories based on improved dete tion te hniques.
The envisioned dete tors must ne essarily be very massive (and onsequently
large) and able to provide very low experimental ba kground. The required signal to
noise ratio an only be a hieved in underground laboratories suitably shielded against
osmi -rays and environmental radioa tivity. Some andidate sites in Europe have
been identied and we are progressing in assessing in detail their apabilities.
We have identied three dierent and, to a large extent, omplementary
te hnologies apable of meeting the hallenge, based on large s ale use of liquids for
building large-size, volume-instrumented dete tors. The three proposed large-mass,
liquid-based dete tors for future underground observatories for parti le physi s in
Europe (GLACIER, LENA and MEMPHYS), although based on ompletely dierent
dete tion te hniques (liquid Argon, liquid s intillator and water Cherenkov), share a
similar, very ri h physi s program. For some ases of interest their dete tion properties
are quite omplementary. A summary of the s ienti ase presented in this paper is
given for astro-parti le physi s topi s in Table 12.
A knowledgments
We wish to warmly a knowledge support from all the various funding agen ies. We
wish to thank the EU framework 6 proje t ILIAS for providing assistan e parti ularly
regarding underground site aspe ts ( ontra t 8R113-CT-2004-506222).
Large underground, liquid based dete tors for astro-parti le physi s in Europe
Table 12. Summary of the physi s potential of the proposed dete tors for astro-parti le physi s topi s. The (*) stands for the ase where
Gadolinium salt is added to the water of one of the MEMPHYS shafts.
Topi s GLACIER LENA MEMPHYS

100 kton 50 kton 440 kton
Proton de ay
+ 0
e π 0.5 × 1035 1.0 × 1035
ν̄K + 1.1 × 1035 0.4 × 1035 0.2 × 1035
SN ν (10 kp )
CC 2.5 × 104 (νe ) 9.0 × 103 (ν̄e ) 2.0 × 105 (ν̄e )
NC 3.0 × 104 3.0 × 103
ES 1.0 × 103 (e) 7.0 × 103 (p) 1.0 × 103 (e)
DSNB ν (S/B 5 years) 40-60/30 9-110/7 43-109/47 (*)
Solar ν (Evts. 1 year)

8 B ES 4.5 × 104 1.6 × 104 1.1 × 105
8 B CC 360
7 Be 2.0 × 106
pep 7.7 × 104
Atmospheri ν (Evts. 1 year) 1.1 × 104 4.0 × 104 (1-ring only)
Geo ν (Evts. 1 year) below threshold ≈ 1000 need 2 MeV threshold
Rea tor ν (Evts. 1 year)) 1.7 × 104 6.0 × 104 (*)
Dark Matter (Evts. 10 years) 3 events

(σES = 10−4 ,M > 20 GeV)
46
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Large underground, liquid based dete tors for

astro-parti le physi s in Europe: s ienti ase and

D Autiero 1 , J Äystö 2 , A Baderts her 3 , L Bezrukov 4 ,

Université d'Aix-Marseille II, Marseille, Fran e

Observatoire de Paris, Paris, Fran e

IN2P3-CNRS et Universités Paris VI et Paris VII, Paris, Fran e

Departamento de Fisi a, Lisboa, Portugal

18 Institute of Physi s, University of Silesia, Katowi e, Poland

Cien ias C-XI, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblan o, Madrid, Spain

Theorique, Université de Paris-Sud XI, Orsay, Fran e

Keywords : neutrino dete tors, neutrino experiments, neutrino properties, solar

PACS numbers: 13.30.a,14.20.Dh,14.60.Pq,26.65.t+,29.40.Gx,29.40.Ka,29.40.M ,95.55.Vj,95.85.Ry,

Submitted to: Journal of Cosmology and Astroparti le Physi s

• Liquid s intillator. Experiments using a liquid s intillator as a tive target provide

Table 1. Basi parameters of the three dete tor (baseline) design.

GLACIER LENA MEMPHYS

Dete tor dimensions

2. Des ription of the three dete tors

2.1. Liquid Argon TPC

2.2. Liquid s intillator dete tor

2.3. Water Cherenkov

pe uliar time stamp provided by the a elerator beam spill.

4. Matter instability: sensitivity to proton de ay

Site Boulby Canfran Fréjus Gran Sasso Pyhäsalmi Sieroszowi e

Lo ation UK Spain Italy-Fran e border Italy Finland Poland

Model De ay modes Predi tion Referen es

Georgi-Glashow model - ruled out (1)

Minimal realisti all hannels τpupper = 1.4 × 1036 (2)

Minimal SUSY SU (5) p → ν̄K + ≈ 1032−34 (4)

SUSY SO(10) p → ν̄K +

SU (5) with 24F p → π 0 e+ ≈ 1035−36 (7)

Renormalizable Adjoint SU (5) p → π 0 e+ ≈ 1035−36 (8)

exposures up to 1000 kton year. This an often be a omplished in quasi ba kground-

Figure 5. Sensitivity to the e+ π 0 proton de ay mode ompiled by the UNO

Figure 7. Expe ted sensitivity to the νK + proton de ay mode as a fun tion

GLACIER LENA MEMPHYS

5.1. SN neutrino emission, os illation and dete tion

Table 5. Values of the p and p̄ parameters used in Eq. 2 in dierent s enario of

Mass Hierar hy sin2 θ13 p p̄

Normal & 10−3 0 cos2 θ12

Fνe = pFν0e + (1 − p)Fν0x

4Fνx = (1 − p)Fν0e + (1 − p̄)Fν̄0e + (2 + p + p̄)Fν0x

MEMPHYS LENA GLACIER

Normal & 10−3 Absent νe ν̄e

Intera tion Exposure Energy Window Signal/Bkgd

5.2. Diuse supernova neutrino ba kground

Figure 9. Possible 90% C.L. measurements of the emission parameters of

of SN ν̄e emission have been omputed for 5 years running of a Gd-enhan ed

the ontributions of events from Fermi and Gamow-Teller transitions of the

gamma energy and multipli ity.

Elasti hannel (E ≥5 MeV) 45 300

Sensitivity of LBL+ATM data to the octant of θ23

2σ sensitivity to normal hierarchy from LBL + ATM data

Figure 12. Sensitivity to sin2 2θ13 as a fun tion of sin2 θ23

• Resolving the o tant ambiguity. Although future a elerator experiments are

• Measuring or improving the bound on θ13 . Although atmospheri data alone

In GLACIER, the sear h for ντ appearan e is based on the information provided

ln λπ ln λρ ln λ3π Top Bottom Pβ (%)

0.0 0.5 0.0 223 223 + 43 = 266 2 × 10−1 (3.1σ )

100 kton LAr, 10 years of data taking

-1 Atmospheric Neutrino Background

9. Indire t sear hes for the Dark Matter of the Universe

5 σ and 50% CL 100 kTon Liquid Argon Detector

MWIMP = 100 GeV

astro-parti le physi s in Europe: s ienti ase and

Table 5. Values of the p and p̄ parameters used in Eq. 2 in dierent s enario of

5.2. Diuse supernova neutrino ba kground

Figure 25. GLACIER sensitivity to the measurement of θ13 . Reprinted gure

Atmospheri ν (Evts. 1 year) 1.1 × 104 4.0 × 104 (1-ring only)

Rea tor ν (Evts. 1 year)) 1.7 × 104 6.0 × 104 (*)

Dark Matter (Evts. 10 years) 3 events

T600 dete tor Nu l. Instrum. Meth. A527 (2004) 329410.

holonomy Adv. Theor. Math. Phys. 7 (2003) 577617 [hep-th/0211269 ℄.

neutrinos Phys. Lett. B456 (1999) 204213 [hep-ph/9902312 ℄.