CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

Agricultural waste is recognized as agro-waste consists of animal waste (manure animal carcasses)
food processing waste (only 20% of maize is canned and 80% is waste) crop waste (maize cob
sugarcane bagasse husk, culls from fruits and veggies). Agricultural residue includes all leaves, straw
and husks left in the field after harvest, hulls and shells removed during processing of crop at the
mills, as well as animal dung. (khan et al., 2021). The Populace of agricultural waste springing up
are rare, however they are typically contributing a huge percentage of the total waste count number in
the developed world. Increasing agricultural manufacturing has naturally resulted in accelerated
portions of farm animals waste, crop residues and agro-industrial by-products. There is likely to be a
massive expansion in agricultural wastes globally if growing nations proceed to intensify farming
structures. It is estimated that about 998 million tonnes of agricultural waste is produced every 12
months. (Wilson et al., 2015). Crop wastes can be estimated up to 80% of the complete robust wastes
generated in any farm (Brown and Root 1997) and of which manure production can amount up to 527
kg\day,1000 kg stay weight on a moist weight basis. Alternatively, they are excessive in fibre and low
in protein with low nutritive feed for ruminants (karunanandaa et al., 1995).

Lignocellulosic materials are the most promising raw material, herbal and renewable resources
quintessential to the functioning of cutting-edge industrial societies. Out of 4 billion tonnes of agro-
Waste product generated in the world, 0.7 billion tonnes are generated in India which accounts for
17.5% of world average (Phillipoussis, 2011 and Hiloidhari et al., 2014). The major sources of agro-
waste products are cereals, sugarcane, oilseed and pulses, cotton and jute and horticultural crops
(Hiloidhari et al., 2014). Billions of tonnes of this agro-waste products currently go to waste each
year, which could be converted into chemical energy or other useful fermentation. The lignocellulosic
composition varies with agro-waste products (Nigam et al., 2009; Kumar et al., 2016) A full-size
quantity of such substances as waste by-products are being generated via agricultural practices
generally from various agro-based industries (Pe´ rez, et al., 2002). Sadly, a lot of the lignocellulosic
material is regularly disposed of by means of burning, which is now not controlled by growing
international countries alone. Recently lignocellulosic substances have received growing lookup
pastimes and specific importance because of their renewable nature (Asgher, et al., 2013). Therefore,
the large amounts of lignocellulosic biomass can probably be transformed into one-of-a-kind high-
value products which includes bio-fuels, value added fine chemicals and cheap electricity sources for
microbial fermentation and enzyme production (Asgher et al., 2013; Iqbal, et al., 2013; Irshad et al.,
2013; Isroi et al., 2011). Lignocellulosic materials inclusive of agricultural wastes, forestry residues,
grasses and woody substances have super potential for bio-fuel production. Typically, most of the
agricultural lignocellulosic materials consists of of about 10-25% lignin, 20-30% hemicellulose, and
40-50% cellulose (Iqbal, et al., 2011; Kumar, et al., 2009; Malherbe et al., 2002). In general, the
composition of lignocellulose exceptionally relies upon on its source whether or not it is derived from
the hardwood, softwood, or grasses.

In Nigeria, ruminant animal suffers from malnutrition especially at some stage in the dry seasons due
to insufficient of fodder and additionally because of low nutritive value of on hand crop residues. The
reachable residues such as maize cob, maize Stover, sorghum threshed top, maize husk, rice straw,
cereal straws, coffee, peanut, coconut and castor oil plant, as well as banana stem, cassava stem and
sugarcane bagasse, among others (Mendes et al., 2010a; Mendes et al., 2010b.) etc. are unable to
meet the dietary necessities of ruminants. (Akinfemi et al. 2009). These residues, which are both
burned, ploughed into the soil or dump into the water which cause huge trouble to the aquatic
animals, climate–relevant emissions, pollution, minimize in soil fertility and may also additionally be
detrimental to human health. (Jonathan et al.,2008). Sorghum threshed and other different agricultural
waste product carries 60-70% of carbohydrates and are comparable to good quality hay in chemical
composition which makes the carbohydrates of these lignocellulosic less accessible to microbial
attack in the rumen. Although these lignocellulosic by-products are used as staple ruminant feed in
many countries, however there are some difficulties related with this practice e.g. poor palatability,
low digestibility and inadequate nutrient availability to the animals. In order to increase the
digestibility of lignocellulose, physical, chemical and organic techniques of delignification can be
used according (Sundstol et al., 1984; Flachowsky,1987; Zadrazil et al.,1996) .

The culture of growing Pleurotus spp was once added during the West from China and during World
War 1. Germany efficiently developed cultivation techniques for the manufacturing of pleurotus
ostreatus and pleurotus florida as a new and valuable feed source to defeat starvation (Piska et al.,
2016). The presence of quint essential amino acids such as arginine glutamine and glutamic acid as
well as vitamins and minerals are the characteristics of pleurotus species (Da silva et al., 2012). The
most popular among them is pleurotus ostreatus additionally known as hiratake is an ordinary fit for
human consumption enormously nutritious mushroom with a nutrient-rich dietary composition
(Gregori Svagelj and Pohleven, 2007). This mushroom has an excessive dietary price due to its
excessive protein fiber and carbohydrate contents. Besides its significance in the worldwide
agriculture and food industry, oyster mushrooms also were considered to exhibit low fat and sodium
contents (Patil et al., 2010) Because of low lipid awareness and sugar. Pleurotus species are
classified as low-energy food products (kalac 2016). White-rot fungi species are the most suitable for
delignification due to the manufacturing of ligninolytic extracellular oxidative enzymes. Most
farmers make use of cereal grains to feed their animals (Madibela et al., 2002) with sorghum, millets
as fundamental diets while cowpea and groundnut hulls are fed as a protein supplement (Diphheko
2015) Then again sorghum threshed top are relatively terrible in nutritive cost and of low digestibility
(Dzowela 1987) but vast availability giant portions handy and low priced procurement and giant
cellulose and hemicellulose reserves enhance their utilization as power sources in ruminant feed
alternatively. Crop residues have shown poor degradability so they require some treatments first
before they can have an effect on the animal diet (Smith et al., 1988). The use of these by-products
for improving farm animals feeding is justified when the forage furnish is insufficient for animal
wishes both in terms of existence or greatness. (Preston et al.,1987 and Aina, 2012). Consequently,
crop residues such as sorghum threshed are low in protein digestibility, lots of lignin, nutritional
vitamins and minerals, but however, excessive in fiber (kuhad et al., 2013). As a consequence, these
initiatives was conducted to evaluate the impact of using in vitro gas production methods in
enhancing nutritive cost of sorghum threshed top in feed resources of ruminants after biodegradation
with white rot fungi

OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

General objectives

To develop livestock feeds based on crop residue

Specific objective

 To determine changes in the proximate composition and crude fiber fraction

 To determine the invitro gas production for a period of 24 hours
  To estimate the organic matter digestibility (OMD), short chain fatty acid (SCFA) and
metabolizable energy (ME) from the results of the proximate composition and in vitro
digestability gas production

Justification of the Study

Feeding as a factor of production is the major challenge to ruminant animal production in Nigeria.
The situation is worse during the long dry season when animals are unable to meet their protein and
energy needs from available low-quality herbage which consequently results in the reduction in
general performance of animals (Darrag, 1995), increased susceptibility of animals to diseases (Bredo
et al.,1999), reduced palatability and acceptability of available forage (Adegbola, 2002), reduced
digestibility of consumed forage (Fondevila et al, 1995), migration of flock and herds men (Folakemi,
2009), overcrowding and overgrazing of available graze land, sales of ruminants at loss, increased
cost of production (Roy, 1999). etc. The low quantity and quality supply of forages in dry season
results in slower developments of ruminants and placed a greater demand for livestock products in
Nigeria. Future hope of feeding the nations and safe guarding their food security will depend on the
better utilization of wastes and agro-industrial by-products as feed resources for ruminants (Makkar,
2002; Fajemisin et al., 2014).

As a consequence, these initiatives was conducted to evaluate the impact of using in vitro gas
production methods in enhancing nutritive cost of sorghum threshed top in feed resources of
ruminants after biodegradation with white rot fungi.
 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW

The following literature will be reviewed

2.1 Ruminant Production in Nigeria

2.2 Problem of Ruminant production

2.3 Ruminants feed and alternative feed resources available

2.4 Agricultural waste product

2.5 Description of Maize (zea mays) and Rice (oryza sativa)

2.6 Maize and rice production in Nigeria

2.7 How maize cob and rice straw is generated

2.8 Supplement of poor quality roughages with legumes

2.9 Effect of Supplement on Intake and Digestibility

3.0 Evaluation of feedstuffs and diets

3.1 Cultivation of mushroom

3.2 Agricultural wastes materials used in mushroom cultivation

3.3 White rot fungi

3.4 Digestibility

3.5 Proximate Composition

3.6 Intro gas production method

3.7 Advantages of in-vitro gas production

3.8 Buffer

3.9 inoculation

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Location of the experiment

The experiment will be conducted in the laboratory of Animal Production Technology Department,
Yaba College of Technology, Epe Campus, Lagos State Nigeria. The laboratory is located on the
(Latitude 3°58’ E and Longitude 6°47’N) (Google earth, 2022)

Test substrate

Dried maize cob and rice straw will be obtained from Yaba College Teaching and Research Farm Epe
Lagos State. Samples will be grinded and treated in oven at 65°c to constant weight for dried matter
determination.

Substrate Preparation
Pleurotus ostreatus (POT) and pluerotus florida (PF) will be obtained from University of Ibadan Oyo
State, Nigeria. Using procedure of Jonathan and Fasidi cited by (Akinfemi et al., 2009) these are
tissue cultured to obtain fungi mycelia; the substrate will be moist using distilled water and will be
thoroughly mixed in order to obtain the optimum moisture content for inoculation, there after bagged
and sterilized using autoclave.

Experimental designs

1kg of dried milled sample of maize cob and rice straw will be rationed to four treatments with four
replicates per treatment each with 5g

T1- control – untreated maize cob and rice straw

T2- maize cob and rice straw treated with pleurotus ostreatus (MC& RS POT)

T3-maize cob rice straw treated with pleurotus florida (MC &RS PF)

T4- Maize cob and rice straw treated with both pleurotus ostreatus and pleurotus florida (MC & RS
PC)

Inoculation

After sterilization the samples will be inoculated at the Centre each with Pleurotus ostreatus (POT)
and pluerotus florida (PF) and combination of both (POT) and (PF) of 2% mycelia disc and will be
tied immediately (Jefari et al 2007). They will be kept in the dark cupboard in the laboratory at 30°c
and 100% relative humidity (RH). After 21days for POT, PF and combination of POT and PF, the
substrates will be harvested by autoclaving to terminate the mycelia growth and they will be oven
dried to constant weight prior to chemical analysis, in vitro gas production technique and in vitro
digestibility.

Chemical composition
The proximate composition such as Dry Matter (DM), crude protein (CP), CRUDE FIBRE (CF),
ether extract(EE) and ash content of the samples will be determined by the standard procedures of
AOAC (2012). Another set of samples will be analyzed for fibre (Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF),
Acid Detergent Lignin (ADL) and Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) according to the procedure of Van
Soest et al., (1991). Every analysis will be done in duplicate.

Statistical Analysis

Data collected will be subjected to one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and significant
differences among means were compared using Duncan Multiple Range Test (SAS, 2002) package.

Statistical Model

The statistical model is shown below

YIJ= U + TI + EIJ

Where;
YIJ= Observed value of dependent variable
U= Population mean
TI = Mean effect of selected browse plants (forages)
EIJ= Random residual error

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