DIPLOMACY

Diplomacy is the process of representation and negotiation by which states deal with one
another in terms of peace. The Oxford English Dictionary defines diplomacy as the
management of international relations by negotiations or the methods by which these
relations are adjusted and managed. According to Ernest Settle, diplomacy is the
application of intelligence and tact to the conduct of official relations between the
governments of independent states. In a technical sense, diplomacy can be described as
the business of communicating between governments. Quincy Wright observed that
diplomacy in the popular sense means the employment of tact, shrewdness, and skill in
any negotiation or transaction. It is the application of tact and intelligence to international
policies through negotiation, persuasion, and compromise. Diplomacy is the method
employed by states in the resolution of conflict. Some have a cynical view of diplomacy,
describing diplomats as honest men sent abroad to lie for their country.

In summary, we can say diplomacy is the means by which states, through their formal
and other representatives, as well as other actors, articulate, coordinate, and secure
particular or wider interests using correspondence, private talks, exchange of views,
lobbying, visits, persuasions, and other related activities.

Functions of Diplomacy
It functions through foreign offices, embassies, consulates, and special missions, thus, a
diplomat is the eyes and ears of his government. He is an agent of mutual adjustment
between ideas and the forces upon which nations act. Whether diplomacy is carried out
with honour or deceit, it is carried out by officials with various titles, such as president,
prime minister, special envoy, and ambassador. It is therefore important for us to explore
the roles that these officials play in promoting national interests.
The first is Representation:
A diplomat is the normal agent of communication between his own foreign office and
that of the state to which he is accredited. This representation is of three kinds: symbolic,
legal, and political. It is symbolic because he is the official representative of the state,
which it is a legal agent because he represents the government of the state; his actions
possess legal value. He casts votes on behalf of his government at international
conferences. He contributes to the shaping of the foreign policy of his state.

The second is Negotiation:

Diplomats are, by definition, negotiators. Negotiation is the pursuit of agreement through
compromise and direct personal contact. Their duty is to draft a wide variety of bilateral
and multilateral agreements, treaties, conventions, protocols, and other documents of a
political, social, and economic nature.

The third is Reporting:

Diplomats are required to keep their governments posted on developments in accredited
states or countries. Their reports are the raw materials for foreign policy.

The fourth is the Protection of National Interest:

The fundamental duty of diplomats is to look after national interests as interpreted by
policymakers and according to treaties and principles of international law.

The fifth is to promote friendly relations between his government and foreign
governments:
The nature of diplomacy: is that it consists of the techniques and procedures for
conducting relations among states. In fact, it is the normal means of conducting relations.
Diplomacy itself, like any other machinery, is neither moral nor immoral. Its usefulness
and value depend upon the intentions and abilities of those who practice it. Diplomacy
functions through foreign offices, embassies, legations, consulates, and special missions
all over the world. Diplomacy is usually bilateral in nature or character. Today, because
of the increasing importance of international conferences, international organizations,
regional arrangements, and collective security measures, diplomacy has become more
multilateral in nature and increasingly significant. Nation-states deal with one another on
a bilateral basis in pursuit of their common interests.

In the modern international system or society, diplomacy has become more than an
instrument of communication and negotiation. It is an activity, even if it is often abused.
It is aimed at the resolution of conflict. Diplomacy, with its ever-increasingly intricate
modalities, and techniques in all fields of human activity in our contemporary time, has
transformed itself into a well-organized scientific discipline, and its effectiveness in
international politics cannot be overemphasized.

At its core, diplomacy is a basic human activity. In other words, it is the desire of man to
resolve/solve problems that is at the center of diplomacy. That is why we say that
diplomacy's core function is negotiation, which will provide a channel for the peaceful
resolution of disputes or conflicts.

DIPLOMATIC SETTING.
The nature of diplomacy and how it is carried out are also affected by its setting. The
settings are divided into three.

The first is The International System.

It is often described as anarchical in nature. This is because it creates an arena in which
self-interested actors pursue their diplomatic goals by using power to ensure the
actualization of their goals. In international relations, nations pursue their national
interests, which are defined in terms of power, i.e., their capabilities, and potentialities,
which translate to high-quality diplomacy.
The second is The Diplomatic Environment
This is determined by the relationships among the various actors involved in a particular
matter. This environment is divided into 4 parts:

a. Hostile Diplomacy: This occurs when one or more countries are engaged in
armed conflict or clashes, or when there is a possibility of actual warfare. Under these
circumstances, diplomacy is seen as being conducted in a hostile environment, e.g.
Afghanistan and the US following the 2001 terrorist attack.
b. Adversarial Diplomacy: This is a situation whereby diplomacy occurs at a less
confrontational level, especially when two or more countries' interests clash but there is
no possibility of armed conflict, mostly for economic dominance. E.g., a great deal of
diplomacy is involved in economic issues between China and the US, which may not lead
to armed conflict. Russia's and US's interests may conflict without necessarily involving
armed confrontation.
c. Coalition Diplomacy: This is a situation whereby a number of countries have
similar interests, often in opposition to the interests of one or more states. It then becomes
a significant aspect of international activity. National leaders spend a great deal of time
and effort building coalitions that will support the foreign policy initiatives of their
country or of other international actors (the formation of Alliances/Spreading or
spreading spheres of Influence). E.g. Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. The US
and other countries of the UN formed a coalition force to save Kuwait.
d. Mediation Diplomacy: Unlike hostile, adversarial, or coalition diplomacy, the use
of mediation occurs when a country is not directly involved in the conflict and therefore
can serve as a mediator (Third Party Mediating/Negotiating). E.g. US mediation efforts
between Israel and Palestine.

The third aspect of the diplomatic Setting is called Domestic Connection.

Domestic politics provides the third part of the Diplomatic Setting. It can be understood
by looking at the concept of two-level games theory, which holds that to be successful, a
country's diplomat must find a solution that is acceptable to both the other countries at the
international level and at the domestic level, especially the political actors, the
parliament, media, public opinion, and interest groups. These are sub-state actors that can
influence the foreign policy of the state, so leaders try to satisfy both domestic and
external interests.

FOREIGN POLICY AND DIPLOMACY

We should not confuse the two concepts. Foreign Policy is the substance/ingredient/raw
material diplomacy uses. Foreign Policy is made at home, while diplomacy is the process
through which the foreign policy of a state is carried out abroad. Therefore, diplomacy is
the method for actualizing the foreign policy of a state. Diplomacy is the agency through
which foreign policy seeks to attain its purpose through agreement rather than war.
It is rather wrong to think that diplomacy only exists in times of war; rather, the idea of
diplomacy is to stop or resolve the war. Diplomacy is carried out in different ways. E.g.,
the Russian/Ukrainian war. You now design a new diplomatic tactic to address the
ongoing war.

There are two major stages in the process of making foreign policy-making:
1. Process of Making
2. Process of Implementation

Foreign Policymaking is the exclusive business of the government, and foreign policy is
articulated to achieve the national interest of a state. The President is the chief foreign
policy implementer/spokesperson on whose behalf the Minister speaks.
When the government makes policy, it will have an effect /impact when we have
diplomatic relations with other countries. The foreign policy principles of a state do not
change. e.g., Nigeria’s principles of Non-alignment, Afrocentrism, Non-interference etc.,
while the foreign policy objectives of a state change from time to time with different
regimes.
MEASURES OF DIPLOMACY TO ACHIEVE FOREIGN POLICY
Political/Legal Measures
• The recognition of a state and its government:
It is an important aspect of making a state a subject of international law. We have juris
and de facto recognition (conferring statehood to a new state under international law).
Recognition is not an act of law but confers legitimacy. A state can be legitimate while
the government isn't. The recognition of a state can also be withdrawn, but that doesn’t
mean the state has ceased to exist.

• Exchange of Diplomatic Representation

It is part of the instruments that foreign policy uses to support diplomacy.

• Negotiation of Treaties
It is an agreement. And it can be bilateral or multilateral. A treaty becomes a legal
instrument when it is signed.
• Declaration of Neutrality and Neutralism
This is the basis of the movement toward non-alignment. And it does not also mean
isolationism.
• The Declaration of a Diplomat as Persona Non Grata.
This means that the diplomat has committed a misdemeanor. The ambassador can be
recalled due to this.

• The Use of Recognized Channels of Negotiation.

We talk about good offices in international relations (means a person of influence who
can meditate on an issue)

Economic Measures
This has to do with:
• the raising and lowering of tariffs
• adopting quotas or barriers
• applying concessionary measures
• giving discriminatory loans, credit and currency control
• the use of blockades
• imposing embargo or trade bigotry
• giving rewards
• foreign aid.

Military Measures
These include;
• military intervention
• guerrilla warfare
• demonstration of force
• coup d’états
• financing and organizing of political leaders
• organizing, training, and arming nationals with the aim of overthrowing their
governments.

Social Psychology or Propaganda Measures

This is an instrument of diplomacy. It involves engaging in name and carrying out or
spreading unreal things about other states. They use propaganda, as a way of distorting
information to their advantage. These all have bandwagon effects.

Diplomats and chief diplomats (ambassadors or presidents) deploy different measures

economic, political, and propaganda and when all these fail, they employ military
measures. Military measures will be the last resort for achieving foreign policy.
CONDUCT OF DIPLOMACY
Diplomacy is as old as man. Before the birth of modern states (modern states: after the
Treaty of Westphalia in 1648), diplomacy has always existed; where we have dukes,
kings, emperors, princes, and their accredited representatives engaged in external
relations between empires and kingdoms.

The evolution of modern states gradually reduced, if not displaced, these diplomatic
actors from the diplomatic scene, and in their place today we have presidents, prime
ministers, monarchs, foreign ministers, and other diplomatic personnel performing the
role of diplomats.
The city-states in ancient Greece introduced a diplomatic system that had some
remarkable features of modern diplomacy. 15th-century Italian city-state where
permanent embassies and commissions were first established. Thereafter diplomatic
system developed with some distinctive features. These can be characterized under the
following headings:
• Structures
• Process
• Agenda.

Structure
Traditional diplomacy can be distinguished from its predecessors in ancient, medieval,
and modern times primarily because it constituted a communication process between
recognizable modern states rather than between other forms of political organization like
the Catholic Church. Under that structure, the political leaders negotiate with each other
on a regular basis, but because of the distance, there has to be a kind of indirect
relationship. Gradually, diplomats were sent abroad because diplomacy is a state-based
activity, and is central to the structure of traditional diplomacy.
The diplomatic agents acting on behalf of the state became institutionalized and
constitutionalized. Diplomacy became professionalized.
Institutionalization simply means that a particular institution emerged that focused on
carrying out diplomatic functions. Diplomacy is no longer an irregular activity.
Embassies became an important embodiment of state interest. Besides, we now have
networks of permanent embassies that are linked to specialized foreign departments in the
home state.

Process
In the traditional system, diplomacy was organized largely on a bilateral basis and usually
undertaken in secrecy (a major difference from modern diplomacy). The development of
relationships between the two states for their mutual benefit makes it necessary to have a
normal exchange of permanent missions and to conduct diplomacy through those
missions on a state-to-state basis.

Under traditional diplomacy, secrecy is warranted because the relationship is limited to

two parties (bilateral). And the reason for this bilateral diplomacy is that they want to
keep the agreement secret.
The traditional process of diplomacy also drew upon the rules and procedures of the early
diplomatic system. From the 15th century on, diplomacy became not only a regular
process, but it became regularized. The procedural rules known as diplomatic protocols
were developed, which include ostentatious ceremonies. E.g., mode of dressing for
diplomatic events.

One of the principles, one must note as a diplomat, which began in the traditional era, is
that diplomats should conduct their business without fear or hindrance. It goes with the
saying "Don't shoot the messenger". When you are a diplomat, you should be protected
(Diplomatic Immunity). It also simply means that you can't blame a messenger who has
come to deliver a message, and it shows the importance of safeguarding the old system of
communication between international actors.

The second principle was derived from the idea that the ambassador is the direct
representative of a sovereign monarch and therefore should be treated with the same
consideration that a monarch will receive (Extra Territorial Protection). Today, the same
practice exists.

Agenda
We can characterize traditional diplomacy by its agenda, i.e. what issues diplomats
negotiate about. Usually, it is the political leaders that set the agenda. For many years,
foreign policy was seen as the exclusive preserve of the leaders. The monarchs set the
agenda of foreign policy in traditional diplomacy and it is based on the ambition and
interest of the leader not the interest of the state. If it is an issue of acquisition of territory
or an issue of war and peace, those are issues of discussion in the Agenda.

In the traditional setting, because the diplomats were sent by the monarchs so, the issues
that were addressed were set out by the monarchs. Because of the desire to get results,
there is this cynical notion that diplomats are innocent representatives sent abroad to lie
on behalf of the country. It must also be noted that honesty is more effective in achieving
objectives than deceit.
Traditional diplomacy reached its most developed form as an effective system of
organizing international relations in 19th-century law which we can refer to as the
century of peace in Europe.

Features of Traditional Diplomacy

Woodrow Wilson tried to identify the key elements of traditional diplomacy, which he
criticized.
• Secrecy- Traditional diplomacy was characterized by secret contact between kings
and emperors, where treaties were signed without the knowledge of either actor.
• Exchange of permanent representatives between the friendly empires or states
since physical distance and communication medium and transportation system were not
properly developed, which made contact between leaders/rulers to be difficult.
Wilson criticized traditional diplomacy on the basis that it was the cause of the First
World War because of the secrecy among leaders, dishonesty, unrepresentativeness, and
lack of accountability.

Those who tried to defend old diplomacy believe that the secret agreements between the
great powers before and during the First World War were carried out by politicians and
not diplomats. Those diplomats were merely called to make the necessary arrangements.
The dishonesty of diplomats was because they were acting on instructions. Normally,
diplomats are very honest and truthful people. They are only meant to tell lies to promote
their national interests because an attempt, to tell the truth, will be very damaging to their
national interests.

The unrepresentativeness and unaccountability of traditional diplomacy were because

diplomats represented the upper middle class in Western Europe, and in the US, it was
meant for the wealthy class, while in the 3rd world countries, it was meant for trustees of
political parties.

Again, traditional diplomacy was shielded from the public because the public was neither
knowledgeable nor interested enough in the intricacies of diplomacy, and they could
easily be biased.

New/Modern Diplomacy
It is assumed that old diplomacy has failed because it was not able to promote peace,
order, and stability, especially with the advent of the First World War. It was commonly
believed that new diplomacy came into existence after the end of the First World War,
even though some elements of this new form of diplomacy were already evident in the
19th century or even before. In a nutshell, the new diplomacy can be seen as having been
established in the 20th century.

What is actually new about the New Diplomacy?

The new diplomacy emerged from 2 important ideas:
• The demand that diplomacy should be more open to public scrutiny and control
(No Secrecy).
• The importance of establishing an international organization that will provide a
platform for nations to come together and solve common problems, especially the
problem of war, led to the establishment of the League of Nations after the First World
War, and it was to serve as a deterrent to another world war by the threat of collective
action against aggressors.

The Structure of New Diplomacy

States are no longer the only actors involved in diplomatic activities; rather, non-state
actors like international organizations and nongovernmental organizations are now
involved in diplomatic activities. The states are now more concerned with issues of the
welfare of their citizens.

The Process of New Diplomacy

The involvement of more actors makes diplomacy more complex. States continue to
negotiate bilaterally and multilaterally under the umbrella of international organizations
like the United Nations and the NGOs that seek to influence the behaviour of states to
achieve their objectives.

There is also a shift from permanent diplomatic representation to shuttle or personal

diplomacy, in which heads of state and their representatives can move from their state
headquarters to other state headquarters or maintain constant contact through
communication satellites.
There is also a shift from general friendship and diplomatic contact among states to
specialized diplomatic contact, which involves the services of experts, high delegations,
study groups, and other specialists in the act of diplomatic relations.

New diplomacy today is more complex than old diplomacy because of the protocols,
practices, and cumbersome processes involved in diplomatic activities.

The universalization of democracy has made new diplomacy more pronounced.

Elitism in diplomacy-diplomacy is a career for aristocrats and elites.
Secret diplomacy has also not disappeared, on the side-line; there could be meetings
between heads of state.

Types of Diplomacy
• Democratic Diplomacy: Those appointed to represent the people take decisions
on behalf of the people and are accountable to the people. Diplomats are appointed by
these representatives. People react and give their opinion on the actions and policies of
the government.
• Totalitarian Diplomacy: A replica of close Diplomacy Diplomacy that is not
open like that of the then USSR or even now in Russia, a state rooted in secrecy. A state
that controls the political economy and social life of the people, trying to use fear to
command obedience. Using their clique to terrorize people
• Conference Diplomacy/Public or public diplomacy: Where conferences are
organized by states, such as Planet Change These conferences are organized to address
specific issues of common concern, e.g. UN-Adhoc Conference
• Quiet Diplomacy: It is connected with the UN, whereby nations meet and discuss
issues quietly. E.g., a discussion of war between 2 warring countries on neutral ground.
Diplomacy is carried out behind the scenes without any satellites pinned on it.
• Preventive Diplomacy: diplomacy that seeks to prevent a crisis or conflict before
it fully escalates into war.
• Summit/Personal Diplomacy: Direct participation of heads of state in the
diplomatic negotiation.
• Economic Diplomacy: When a country makes economic policies to attract
foreign investors.
• Resource Diplomacy: A country using its natural resources as a bargaining
instrument to get what it wants

THE MODERN DIPLOMATIC PRACTICES

Organization and the Management of Diplomatic Activities
Diplomatic activity is being managed through the embassies (diplomatic service). Not all
diplomatic activities are carried out by diplomats. In the professional sense, diplomacy
includes two main groups: diplomatic officers and consular officers.
The success of any diplomatic mission depends on the choice of diplomatic officers, their
ability, their confidence, and their competence to discharge their duties. The top positions
in the missions are those of the ambassadors or ministers.
The ranks given to those officers are based on the agreed rules of the Congress of Vienna
in 1815 and the Second Vienna Congress in 1961.
According to the Congress of Vienna of 1815, there are four classes of diplomatic
hierarchy:
• The Ambassador, The Papal Legate, Nuncios, and High Commissioners.
• Envoys extraordinaire and Minister Plenipotentiary
• Minister Resident
• Charges affairs
Later on, the second and third categories were merged together as a single class known as
ministers plenipotentiary and envoy extraordinary. This followed the Vienna Congress of
1961, which deleted the class of minister resident. However, ambassadors and ministers
constitute a fraction of the total number of diplomats, most of whom are career diplomats
or officials, as well as non-career officials.

There are lesser diplomatic ranks that are recognized. These are the counselors of
embassies or legations who rank highest among the staff. The second is the secretary of
an embassy, ranked as the first, second, and third secretary. The third is attaches that are
also part of the lesser diplomatic ranks and maybe junior career officers or non-career
persons serving on a temporary basis, e.g. commercial attaches, defence attaches, press
attaches, cultural attaches, etc.

Ambassadors, however, serve as the head of the mission. They are the personal
representatives of the government of their state. That's why it goes with the title His/Her
Excellency and because they can have an audience at all times with the president or head
of state and government of the state to which they are accredited.
Ministers and envoys, on the other hand, are not seen as personal representatives of their
state in the sense that they cannot seek an audience at all times with the president or head
of state of the country in which they are accredited. Hence, they will not enjoy all the
special honors accorded to ambassadors.

Charge d'affaires, unlike the others, are accredited from one head of government to
another rather than from one foreign office to another, and their level of honor is lower as
well.
The dean, or doyen, of the diplomatic corps, is the head of all diplomats in a country and
is usually the oldest diplomat in service. This arrangement is necessary so the conduct,
issues, rights, and privileges of these diplomats can be properly addressed.

Paradiplomacy: In recent times, subnational units have established diplomatic relations

with other subnational units in other countries, e.g., the Lagos – Taipei relationship.
Diplomatic missions all over the world are headed by ambassadors with well-spelt out
duties, e.g., organizing the reception of new envoys or other dignitaries to the country of
their accreditation.
A country with big missions will have a deputy head of mission, e.g. the US or the United
Kingdom.
The head of the chancery is usually the next ranking officer to the ambassador, but for
big missions, the deputy head of mission comes next. The head of the chancery is the
administrative head. He is in charge of the finances of the embassy. He authorizes
expenditures, and signs cheques together with the finance attaché. He also supervises the
staff, recruits local staff, and submits regular reports to the headquarters.
Nigeria, as a commonwealth country, has high commissioners, and for non-
commonwealth countries, we have ambassadors.
Deputy Head of Mission:
• Coordinates all reports of various sections of the embassy
• Prepares budget
It is the duty of the chancery to maintain our building
First/Second Secretary:
• Political and economic affairs
• Political reports
• Economic report in collaboration with commercial attaches
• They issue clearance to aircraft and handle protocol matters
Bilateral relationships:
• Conventional bilateral relationship: Embassies
• Unconventional bilateral relationship: When the country does not have a mission
in another country. Front mission/interest section/Consular Post/Liaison Office
The severance of a diplomatic relationship does not end a consular relationship.
An interest section is generally understood to consist of diplomats of one state working
under the flag of a second state on behalf of a third state; e.g., shortly after the outbreak
of the gulf war in 1991, an interest section of Iraq was attached to the embassy of Jordan
in London, the capital of the UK. Until the mid-1960s, this practice was very common.
The usual custom is for estates that lack a resident mission for that state to entrust the
protection of any intensive exclusively to a diplomat of a third state. This state was
known as a protected power, water, and this is usually arranged through a tri-lateral
agreement, i.e., the agreement between this power, the protected power, and the local
power. This was contained in the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations.
In Article 45, it states that if diplomatic relations are broken between two states or if a
mission is permanently or temporarily recalled:
• The receiving state must in the case of armed conflict respect and protect the
premises of the mission together with its properties and its archives.
• The sending state may entrust the custody of the premises of the mission, its
properties, and its archives to a third state acceptable to the receiving state.
• The sending state may entrust the protection of its interests and those of its
nationals to a third state acceptable to the receiving state.
The interest section, in summary, consists of diplomats of protected powers operating
under the legal auspices of the protecting power, whether physically within the embassies
of the protecting power or in their own embassy, which may be temporarily closed as a
result of a breach of diplomatic relations.

Consular Post and Section: Consular functions are performed at the consular post
established in major cities and ports away from the capital city, as well as in the consular
section of embassies.
NB: There is also a long tradition of employing this post as the usual device for
conducting resident diplomacy in the absence of diplomatic relations. The Vienna
Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 made it clear that Consular relations would
not depend on the existence of diplomatic relations. Article 2 of that convention states as
follows:
• The establishment of consular relations between states takes place by mutual
consent.
• The consent given to the establishment of diplomatic relations between two states
implies unless otherwise stated, consent to the establishment of consular relations.
• The severance of diplomatic relations shall not, by that very fact, lead to the
severance of consular relations.
Article 17 states that where the sending state has no diplomatic mission and is not
represented by a diplomatic mission of a third state, a consular officer may, with the
consent of the receiving state and without affecting its consular status, be authorized to
perform diplomatic acts. The performance of such an act by a consular office shall not
confer upon him any right to claim diplomatic privileges or immunities.

Front Mission: This is distinct from the representative office or the liaison office by
virtue of their genuine cover function. Front Missions come in different forms; it may be
trade missions, commercial offices, information or tourist agencies, travel agencies,
scientific missions, or cultural affairs offices.
For instance, the Holy See Apostolic Delegate, whose mission in foreign countries is
purely religious, has also served as a diplomatic conduit in states where the Vatican was
unable to accredit a political nuncio.
Front Mission - Cover-Up Function: Some travel agencies work for their government
and carry out functions for their government, but they must be well approved by the state.
E.g., Alliance Français, Goethe Institut.

Representative or Liaison Office: This is a mission that looks like and operates like an
embassy, e.g., a Taipei trade mission in Lagos. The only difference is its informality. The
personnel enjoy diplomatic immunities. The chief of missions will be treated as an
ambassador and conduct all exchanges between the two governments. They will not be
part of the official diplomatic corps.

Consular Relations
Consular relations are the next class of diplomatic officials. They are part of the
diplomatic officials (consuls); most times, they perform diplomatic functions as well as
consular functions. Their duty is different, a console cannot be seen as an ambassador
(They enjoy the honour accorded to an ambassador). They form a separate branch of the
foreign service, even though diplomatic and consular officials are used interchangeably.
Consular services are older than diplomatic services since they are concerned with two
important functions that existed before the rise of the nation-state system and the
beginning of organized diplomacy. This function pertains to commercial and business
relations and services to nationals.
The specific duties under the general functions include;
1. The promotion of trade
2. Providing periodic and special reports
3. Response to trade dispute
4. Settlement of trade dispute
5. Certification of invoices for goods shipped to the country.
The consular officials try to enforce the provisions of treaties of commerce and
navigation and regulations regarding plants, animals, quarantines, sanitation, the
protection and promotion of shipping clearance of ships and air-crafts and other related
international commerce. We can also see the functions of consular to include welfare,
funeral arrangements, settlement of the estate of nationals dying, and providing service to
nationals who for any reason run far from local authorities or violate the laws of the local
community in which they are staying. Rotation and relief of sema, notary services to
patrons, and so on Consular services are usually divided into five classes
● The consular general,
● Consul
● Vice consuls of career
● Vice Consul, not of career
● Consular agent
The first class is seen as career foreign service officers who are assigned duties as consul
general, consul, or vice-consul.
Consular service
Consular functions are predicted based on the relationship between the sending state and
the receiving state. Consular relationships can be true or honorary. A consul who has no
formal training as a consul or diplomatic officer may be appointed from among the
nationals of the sending state who are nationals of the receiving state. A citizen of the
host county or state who has business in whatever relation with the sending state may
also be appointed an honorary consul or a non-career consul. Note that the auction of
consular status is through a letter of authorization. That letter of authorization, which is
known as an "exequatur, will have no legal effect until the receiving state grants the letter
of authorization.
A consul is any person duly appointed by the sending state to execute a consular function
in the receiving state, either as consul general, consul, vice consul, or consular agent. And
that person is authorized to execute these functions by the recognition of the receiving
state. We also define the consul as an agent of the state entitled to exercise its rights in
the territory of another state with the permission of the government of that state to
execute consular functions in the interest f its own state nationals or in connection with
the administration of its laws. National interest is defined in terms of power.

Establishment and conduct of consular relations

Article 2 of the Gene Convention on Consular Relations of 1963 states that the
establishment of consular relations between states takes place by mutual consent. That
same article states that the severance of diplomatic relations shall not lead to or involve
the severance of consular relations.
Consulates are mini or embassies established to protect the interests of the sending state,
promote trendy events, and develop commercial, economic, cultural, and scientific
relations. Article 5, Sections A and B, of that convention, provides the right of the
sending state to observe the developments in the host state and report them to his own
government. The consulate is seen as part of the communication network between the
sending state and the receiving state. The major function of these consulates s to issue
visas, passports, etc.

The basic ingredients of cultural diplomacy

1. Recognition
Each country recognizes the distinct cultural dynamics of the other. None is superior to
the other.
2. Understanding
The parties gain an understanding of the traditions, history, language, and general way of
life that is pertinent to the engaging party. This does not mean that all aspects of foreign
culture must be accepted.
3. Dialogue
Cultural diplomacy respects the traditional communication requirements of listeners
versus speakers. This entails that while the other person is speaking, the other(s) should
listen. In terms of dance, this means that while the other party is presenting her
performance, the other should watch.

Cultural exchanges
This plays a critical role in the cultural diplomacy of a government. It seems to develop
cultural understanding between citizens of different countries. For instance, the United
States Bureau of Education and Cultural Affairs of the United States department of State
sponsors partially or completely many exchange programs e.g., the Fulbright program
and the international visitors leadership program.
In 1988, Tony Momoh the then information minister pioneered a policy. " National
Cultural Policy"
The policy shall serve to mobilize and motivate the people by disseminating and
propagating ideas which promote national pride, solidarity and consciousness. The new
cultural policy shall serve to evolve from our publicity a national culture, the stamp of
which will be reflected in Africa and world affairs.

The policy shall promote an educational system that motivates and stimulates creativity
and draws largely on our traditions and values especially in the respect of human dignity
and humanity. The dignity of labour and respect for positive Nigerian moral and religious
values.
Diplomatic immunity
Vienna Convention of 1961, article 22
The inviolability of the premises of the mission. It states that the agent of the receiving
state may not be allowed to enter those premises except with the consent of the head of
the mission. Please note, that respecting the laws and regulations of the receiving state is
important.

The premises of the mission must not be used in any manner incompatible with the
functions of the mission as laid out in the present Convention.
The receiving state is under obligation to protect the premises of the mission against
damage, danger or intrusion.
The premises of the embassy or mission can not be used for illicit acts, it can't also be
used as a haven for rebels against the receiving state, such actions can lead to the closure
of the mission.

Diplomatic agents enjoy absolute immunity from arrest or detention by the agent of the
receiving state. If the diplomatic agent commits a criminal act such as rape or murder, the
agent of the receiving state may physically restrain him from continuing with the
commission of such acts. If that agent is to be arrested and resists the arrest, force can be
applied to ensure compliance, and at that point, it will not be seen as a violation of his/her
immunity.
Also note that under Article 41, it is clearly stated that a Diplomatic agent is not above
the law, therefore, when he commits a criminal offense such as rape, murder, or drug
trafficking, he can't be prosecuted by the receiving state, but the sending state can waive
the diplomatic immunity to allow the receiving state to try the person in a court of law.
Protocols
It simply refers to the organization, service, or office in charge/ of the problems regarding
the preparation and progress of official activities, e.g., the protocol service in the foreign
affairs ministry.
Distinction between protocol and etiquette
Etiquette means the formalization of individual relations. It can also mean a set of rules
accepted by everyone for the smooth functioning of society. Each delegate is expected to
act based on rules of etiquette. When following etiquette, one should basically express
the values one believes in as a member of a greater collective. Among these values are
politeness, and respect.

Elements of Etiquette to note

● Treat the other party the way you would love to be treated.
● Respect other people's privacy, and don't comment on or impose on others your
taste or liking. Respect people based on seniority.
● Be tolerant and discreet toward other individuals.
● Be punctual at all times.

Write a report from the perspective of a foreign diplomat in Abuja analyzing the principal
foreign policy issues of the president as reflected in his inaugural speech or address on
May 29, 2023.