Chapter 03

3
The Z Transform
Exercises 3.2.3
1(a)
∞
(1/4)k 1 4z
F (z) = = = if | z |> 1/4
zk 1 − 1/4z 4z − 1
k=0
1(b)
∞
3k 1 z
F (z) = = = if | z |> 3
zk 1 − 3/z z−3
k=0
1(c)
∞
(−2)k 1 z
F (z) = = = if | z |> 2
zk 1 − (−2)/z z+2
k=0
1(d)
∞
−(2)k 1 z
F (z) = =− =− if | z |> 2
zk 1 − 2/z z−2
k=0
1(e)
z
Z{k} = if | z |> 1
(z − 1)2
from (3.6) whence
z
Z{3k} = 3 if | z |> 1
(z − 1)2
2
k
uk = e−2ωkT = e−2ωT
whence
z
U (Z) =
z − e−2ωT

c Pearson Education Limited 2004
160 Glyn James: Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, Third edition
Exercises 3.3.6
3
1 z 1 z
Z{sin kωT } = ωT
−
2 z − e 2 z − e−ωT
z sin ωT
=
z2 − 2z cos ωT + 1
4 k
1 2z
Z{ }=
2 2z − 1
so
1 2z 2
Z{yk } = 3
× = 2
z 2z − 1 z (2z − 1)
Proceeding directly
∞
∞
xk−3 xr 1 2
Z{yk } = = = × Z {xk } =
zk r=0
z r+3 z3 z 2 (2z − 1)
k=3
5(a)
∞
r
1 −1 5z 1
Z − = = | z |>
5 r=0
5z 5z + 1 5
5(b)

{cos kπ} = (−1)k
so
z
Z {cos kπ} = | z |> 1
z+1
6 k
1 2z
Z =
2 2z − 1
By (3.5)
z
Z (ak ) =
z−a
so
z
Z (kak−1 ) =
(z − a)2

Glyn James: Advanced Modern Engineering Mathematics, Third edition 161
thus
az
Z (kak ) =
(z − a)2
whence
k
1 2z
Z k =
2 (2z − 1)2
7(a)
1 α k 1 −α k
sinh kα = (e ) − (e )
2 2
so
1 z z z sinh α
Z {sinh kα} = α
− =
2 z−e z − e−α z2 − 2z cosh α + 1
7(b)
1 α k 1 −α k
cosh kα = (e ) + (e )
2 2
then proceed as above.
8(a)
k z
uk = e−4kT = e−4T ; Z {uk } =
z − e−4T
8(b)
1  kT
uk = e − e− kT
2

1 z z z sin T
Z {uk } =  T
− − T
= 2
2 z − e z−e z − 2z cos T + 1
8(c)
1  2kT
uk = e + e− 2kT
2
then proceed as above.
9 Initial value theorem: obvious from definition.

9 Final value theorem

∞

−1 xr − xr−1
(1 − z )X(z) =
r=0
zr
x1 − x0 x2 − x1 xr − xr−1
= x0 + + 2
+ ... + + ...
z z zr
lim
As z → 1 and if r→∞ xr exists, then
lim (1 − z −1 )X(z) = lim xr

z→1 r→∞
∞ xk
10 Multiplication property (3.19): Let Z {xk } = k=0 z k = X(z) then
∞

k ak xk
Z a xk = = X(z/a)
zk
k=0
10 Multiplication property (3.20)

∞ ∞
d d xk kxk
−z X(z) = −z = = Z {kxk }
dz dz zk zk
k=0 k=0
The general result follows by induction.
Exercises 3.4.2
11(a)
z
; from tables uk = 1
z−1
11(b)
z z
= ; from tables uk = (−1)k
z+1 z − (−1)
11(c)
z
; from tables uk = (1/2)k
z − 1/2

11(d)
z 1 z 1
= ←→ (−1/3)k
3z + 1 3 z + 1/3 3
11(e)
z
; from tables uk = ( )k
z−
11(f )
z z √
√ = √ ←→ (− 2)k
z+ 2 z − (− 2)
11(g)
1 1 z 0; k = 0
= ←→
z−1 zz−1 1; k > 0
using first shift property.
11(h)
z+2 1 z 1; k=0
=1+ ←→ k−1
z+1 zz+1 (−1) ; k >0

1; k=0
= k+1
(−1) ; k>0
12(a)
1 1 1 1
Y (z)/z = −
3z−1 3z+2
so
1 z 1 z 1
Y (z) = − ←→ 1 − (−2)k
3z−1 3z+2 3
12(b)
1 z z 1 k
Y (z) = − ←→ (3) − (−1/2)k
7 z − 3 z + 1/2 7
12(c)
1 z 1 z 1 1
Y (z) = + ←→ + (−1/2)k
3 z − 1 6 z + 1/2 3 6

12(d)
2 z 2 z 2 2
Y (z) = − ←→ (1/2)k − (−1)k
3 z − 1/2 3 z + 1 3 3
2 2
= (1/2)k + (−1)k+1
3 3
12(e)
1 z z
Y (z) = −
2 z −  z − (− )

1 z z
= −
2 z − e π/2 z − e− π/2
1
←→ (e π/2 )k − (e− π/2 )k = sin kπ/2
2
12(f )
z
Y (z) = √ √
z − ( 3 + ) z − ( 3 − )

1 z z
= √ − √
2 z − ( 3 +  ) z − ( 3 −  )

1 z z
= −
2 z − 2e π/6 z − 2e− π/6
1
k  kπ/6 k − kπ/6
←→ 2 e −2 e = 2k sin kπ/6
2
12(g)
5 z 1 z 1 z
Y (z) = 2
+ −
2 (z − 1) 4z−1 4z−3
5 1
←→ k+ 1 − 3k
2 4
12(h)
z 1 1
Y (z)/z = = − 2
(z − 1)2 (z 2 − z + 1) (z − 1)2 z −z+1
so
z 1 z z
Y (z) = − √ √ − √
(z − 1)2 3 z− 1+ 3
z− 1− 3
2 2


z 1 z z
= 2
−√ −
(z − 1) 3 z−e π/3 z − e− π/3
2 2
←→ k − √ sin kπ/3 = k + √ cos(kπ/3 − 3π/2)
3 3
13(a)
∞
xk 1 2
X(z) = = + 7
zk z z
k=0
whence x0 = 0 , x1 = 1 , x2 = x3 = . . . = x6 = 0 , x7 = 2 and xk = 0, k > 7 .
13(b) Proceed as in Example 13(a).
13(c) Observe that

3z + z 2 + 5z 5 1 3
5
=5+ 3 + 4
z z z
and proceed as in Example 13(a).
13(d)
1 1 z
Y (z) = 2
+ 3+
z z z + 1/3
←→ {0, 0, 1, 1} + {(−1/3)k }
13(e)
3 1 1/2
Y (z) = 1 + + 2−
z z z + 1/2

1 0, k = 0
←→ {1, 3, 1} −
2 (−1/2)k , k ≥ 1
 1, k = 0  1, k = 0

 5/2, k = 1 
 5/2, k = 1
= =

 5/4, k=2 
 5/4, k=2
1 1
− 2 (−1/2)k−1 , k ≥ 3 − 8 (−1/2)k−3 , k ≥ 3

13(f )
1 2 1
Y (z) = − +
z − 1 (z − 1)2 z−2

0, k = 0
←→
1 − 2(k − 1) + 2k−1 , k ≥ 1

0, k = 0
=
3 − 2k + 2k−1 , k ≥ 1
13(g)
2 1
Y (z) = −
z−1 z−2

0, k = 0
←→
2 − 2k−1 , k ≥ 1
Exercises 3.5.3
14(a) If the signal going into the left D-block is wk and that going into the right
D-block is vk , we have
1
yk+1 = vk , vk+1 = wk = xk − vk
2
so
1
yk+2 = vk+1 = xk − vk
2
1 1
= xk − vk = xk − yk+1
2 2
i.e.
1
yk+2 + yk+1 = xk
2
14(b) Using the same notation
1 1
yk+1 = vk , vk+1 = wk = xk − vk − yk
4 5

Then
1 1
yk+2 = xk − yk+1 − yk
4 5
or
1 1
yk+2 + yk+1 + yk = xk
4 5
15(a)
z 2 Y (z) − z 2 y0 − zy1 − 2(zY (z) − zy0 ) + Y (z) = 0
with y0 = 0, y1 = 1
z
Y (z) =
(z − 1)2
so yk = k, k ≥ 0 .
15(b) Transforming and substituting for y0 and y1
2z − 15
Y (z)/z =
(z − 9)(z + 1)
so
3 z 17 z
Y (z) = −
10 z − 9 10 z + 1
thus
3 k 17
yk = 9 − (−1)k , k ≥ 0
10 10
15(c) Transforming and substituting for y0 and y1
z
Y (z) =
(z − 2 )(z + 2 )

1 z z
= −
4 z − 2e π/2 z − 2e− π/2
thus
1 k  kπ/2
yk = 2 e − e− kπ/2 = 2k−1 sin kπ/2, k ≥ 0
4

15(d) Transforming, substituting for y0 and y1 , and rearranging
6z − 11
Y (z)/z =
(2z + 1)(z − 3)
so
z z
Y (z) = 2 +
z + 1/2 z − 3
thus
yk = 2(−1/2)k + 3k , k ≥ 0
16(a)
6yk+2 + yk+1 − yk = 3, y0 = y 1 = 0
Transforming with y0 = y1 = 0 ,
3z
(6z 2 + z − 1)Y (z) =
z−1
so
3
Y (z)/z =
(z − 1)(3z − 1)(2z + 1)
and
1 z 9 z 2 z
Y (z) = − +
2 z − 1 10 z − 1/3 5 z + 1/2
Inverting
1 9 2
yk = − (1/3)k + (−1/2)k
2 10 5
16(b) Transforming with y0 = 0, y1 = 1 ,

z
(z 2 − 5z + 6)Y (z) = z + 5
z−1
whence
5 z 7 z z
Y (z) = + −6
2z−1 2z−3 z−2
so
5 7 k
yk = + (3) − 6 (2)k
2 2
16(c) Transforming with y0 = y1 = 0 ,

z
(z 2 − 5z + 6)Y (z) =
z − 1/2

so
4 z 2 z 2 z
Y (z) = − +
15 z − 1/2 3 z − 2 5 z − 3
whence
4 2 2
yn = (1/2)k − (2)k + (3)k
15 3 5
16(d) Transforming with y0 = 1, y1 = 0 ,
z
(z 2 − 3z + 3)Y (z) = z 2 − 3z +
z−1
so
z z
Y (z) = − 2
z − 1 z − 3z + 3
z 1 z z
= −√ √ − √
z−1 3j z − 3+ 3j
z − 3− 3j
2 2

z 1 z z
= −√ √ − √
z−1 3j z − 3ejπ/6 z − 3e−jπ/6
so
2 √ ejnπ/6 − e−jnπ/6 √
yn = 1 − √ ( 3)k = 1 − 2( 3)n−1 sin nπ/6
3 2j
16(e) Transforming with y0 = 1, y1 = 2
z z
(2z 2 − 3z − 2)Y (z) = 2z 2 + z + 6 2
+
(z − 1) z−1
so
z z+5
Y (z) = +z 2
z−2 (z − 1) (2z + 1)(z − 2)
12 z 2 z z z
= − − −2
5 z − 2 5 z + 1/2 z − 1 (z − 1)2
so
12 n 2
yn = (2) − (−1/2)n − 1 − 2n
5 5
16(f ) Transforming with y0 = y1 = 0 ,
z z
(z 2 − 4)Y (z) = 3 2
−5
(z − 1) z−1

so
z z 1 z 1 z
Y (z) = − 2
− −
z − 1 (z − 1) 2z−2 2z+2
and
1 1
yn = 1 − n − (2)n − (−2)n
2 2
17 Write the transformed equations in the form

z − 3/2 1 c(z) zC0
=
−0.21 z − 1/2 e(z) zE0
Then
c(z) 1 z − 1/2 −1 zC0
= 2
e(z) z − 2z + 0/96 0.21 z − 3/2 zE0
Solve for c(z) as
z z
c(z) = 1200 + 4800
z − 1.2 z − 0.8
and
Ck = 1200(1.2)k + 4800(0.8)k
This shows the 20% growth in Ck in the long term as required.

Then
Ek = 1.5Ck − Ck+1
= 1800(1.2)k + 7200(0.8)k − 1200(1.2)k+1 − 4800(0.8)k+1
Differentiate wrt k and set to zero giving
k
0.6 log(1.2) + 5.6x log(0.8) = 0 where x = (0.8/1.2)
Solving, x = 0.0875 and so
log 0.0875
k= = 6.007
log(0.8/1.2)
The nearest integer is k = 6 , corresponding to the seventh year in view of the

labelling, and C6 = 4841 approx.
18 Transforming and rearranging
z−4 1
Y (z)/z = +
(z − 2)(z − 3) (z − 1)(z − 2)(z − 3)

so
1 z z 1 z
Y (z) = + −
2z−1 z−2 2z−3
thus
1 1
yk = + 2k − 3k
2 2
19
Ik = Ck + Pk + Gk
= aIk−1 + b(Ck − Ck−1 ) + Gk
= aIk−1 + ba(Ik−1 − Ik−2 ) + Gk
so
Ik+2 − a(1 + b)Ik+1 + abIk = Gk+2
Thus substituting
1
Ik+2 − Ik+1 + Ik = G
2
Using lower case for the z transform we obtain
1 z
(z 2 − z + )i(z) = (2z 2 + z)G + G
2 z−1
whence
1 2
i(z)/z = G 2 +
z − z + 12 z−1

2 1
=G +
z − 1 (z − 1+ 1−
2 )(z − 2 )
so
z 2 z z
i(z) = G 2 + −
z − 1 2 z− √1 e π/4 1
z − √2 e− π/4
2
Thus
2 1 k  kπ/4 − kπ/4
Ik = G 2 + (√ ) e −e
2 2
k
1
= 2G 1 + √ sin kπ/4
2

20 Elementary rearrangement leads to
in+2 − 2 cosh α in+1 + in = 0
with cosh α = 1 + R1 /2R2 . Transforming and solving for I(z)/z gives
zi0 + (i1 − 2i0 cosh α)

I(z)/z =
(z − eα )(z − e−α )
α
1 i0 e + (i1 − 2i0 cosh α) i0 e−α + (i1 − 2i0 cosh α)
= −
2 sinh α z − eα z − e−α
Thus
(i0 eα + (i1 − 2i0 cosh α))enα − (i0 e−α + (i1 − 2i0 cosh α))e−nα
ik =
2 sinh α
1
= {i1 sinh nα − i0 sinh(n − 1)α}
sinh α
Exercises 3.6.5
21 Transforming in the quiescent state and writing as Y (z) = H(z)U (z) then
21(a)
1
H(z) =
z2 − 3z + 2
21(b)
z−1
H(z) =
z2 − 3z + 2
21(c)
1 + 1/z
H(z) =
z3 − z 2 + 2z + 1
22 For the first system, transforming from a quiescent state, we have
(z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25)Y (z) = U (z)
The diagram for this is the standard one for a second order system and is shown
in Figure 3.1 and where Y (z) = P (z), that is yk = pk .

Figure 3.1: The block diagram for the basic system of Exercise 22.
Transforming the second system in the quiescent state we obtain
(z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25)Y (z) = (1 − 0.6)U (z)
Clearly
(z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25)(1 − 0.6z)P (z) = (1 − 0.6z)U (z)
indicating that we should now set Y (z) = P (z) − 0.6zP (z) and this is shown in
Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: The block diagram for the second system of Exercise 22

23(a)
1
Yδ (z)/z =
(4z + 1)(2z + 1)
so
1 z 1 z
Yδ (z) = −
2 z + 1/4 2 z + 1/2
1 1
yk = (−1/4)k − (1/2)k
2 2
23(b)
z
Yδ (z)/z =
z2 − 3z + 3
whence √ √
3 + 3 z 3 − 3 z
Yδ (z) = √ √ − √ √
2 3 z − (3+ 3 ) 2 3 z − (3− 3 )
2 2
so √ √
3 + 3 √ k  kπ/6 3 − 3 √ k − kπ/6
yk = √ ( 3) e − √ ( 3) e
2 3 2 3
√
√ k 3 1
= 2( 3) sin kπ/6 + cos kπ/6
2 2
√
= 2( 3)k sin(k + 1)π/6
23(c)
z
Yδ (z)/z =
(z − 0.4)(z + 0.2)
so
2 z 1 z
Yδ (z) = +
3 z − 0.4 3 z + 0.2
then
2 1
yk = (0.4)k + (−0.2)k
3 3
23(d)
5z − 12
Yδ (z)/z =
(z − 2)(z − 4)
so
z z
Yδ (z) = +4
z−2 z−4
and
yk = (2)k + (4)k+1

24(a)
1
Yδ (z) =
z2 − 3z + 2
1 1
= −
z−2 z−1

0, k = 0
yk =
2k−1 − 1, k > 0
24(b)
1
Yδ (z) =
z−2
so
0, k = 0
yk =
2k−1 , k > 0
25 Examining the poles of the systems, we find
25(a) Poles at z = −1/3 and z = −2/3 , both inside | z |= 1 so the system is

stable.
25(b) Poles at z = −1/3 and z = 2/3 , both inside | z |= 1 so the system is

stable.
√
25(c) Poles at z = 1/2 ± 1/2 , | z |= 1/ 2, so both inside | z |= 1 and the
system is stable.
√
25(d) Poles at z = −3/4 ± 17/4 , one of which is outside | z |= 1 and so the
system is unstable.
25(e) Poles at z = −1/4 and z = 1 thus one pole is on | z |= 1 and the other is
inside and the system is marginally stable.

26 To use the convolution result, calculate the impulse response as yδ,k − (1/2)k .
Then the step response is
k
k

k−j k 1 − (2)k+1
yk = 1 × (1/2) = (1/2) 1 × (2)j = (1/2)k
j=0 j=0
1−2
= (1/2)k (2k+1 − 1) = 2 − (1/2)k
Directly,
z 2 1
Y (z)/z = = −
(z − 1/2)(z − 1) z − 1 z − 1/2
so
yk = 2 − (1/2)k
27 Substituting
yn+1 − yn + Kyn−1 = K/2n
or
yn+2 − yn+1 + Kyn = K/2n+1
Taking z transforms from the quiescent state, the characteristic equation is
z2 − z + K = 0
with roots
1 1√ 1 1√
+
z1 = 1 − 4K and z2 = − 1 − 4K
2 2 2 2
For stability, both roots must be inside | z |= 1 so if K < 1/4 then
1 1√
z1 < 1 ⇒ + 1 − 4K < 1 ⇒ K > 0
2 2
and
1 1√
z2 > −1 ⇒ − 1 − 4K > −1 ⇒ k > −2
2 2
If K > 1/4 then
1 1√
+ | 4K − 1 |2 < 1 ⇒ K < 1
2 2
The system is then stable for 0 < K < 1 .
When k = 2/9 we have
2 1
yn+2 − yn+1 + yn =
9 9

Transforming with a quiescent initial state
2 1 z
(z 2 − z + )Y (z) =
9 9 z − 1/2
so
1 1
Y (z) = z
9 (z − 1/2)(z − 1/3)(z − 2/3)
z z z
=2 +2 −4
z − 1/3 z − 2/3 z − 1/2
which inverts to
yn = 2(1/3)n + 2(2/3)n − 4(1/2)n
28
z 2 + 2z + 2 = (z − (−1 +  ))(z − (−1 +  ))
establishing the pole locations. Then
1 z 1 z
Yδ (z) = −
2 z − (−1 +  ) 2 z − (−1 −  )
√
So since (−1 ±  ) = 2e±3 π/4 etc.,
√
yk = ( 2)k sin 3kπ/4
Exercises 3.9.6
29
1
H(s) =
s2 + 3s + 2
2 z−1
Replace s with to give
∆ z+1
∆2 (z + 1)2
H̃(z) =
4(z − 1)2 + 6∆(z 2 − 1) + 2∆2 (z + 1)2
∆2 (z + 1)2
=
(4 + 6∆ + 2∆2 )z 2 + (4∆2 − 8)z + (4 − 6∆ + 2∆2 )

This corresponds to the difference equation
(Aq 2 + Bq + C)yk = ∆2 (q 2 + 2q + 1)uk
where
A = 4 + 6∆ + 2∆2 B = 4∆2 − 8 C = 4 − 6∆ + 2∆2
Now put q = 1 + ∆δ to get
(A∆2 δ 2 + (2A + B)∆δ + A + B + C)yk
= ∆2 (∆2 δ 2 + 4∆δ + 4)uk
With t = 0.01 in the q form the system poles are at z = 0.9048 and z = 0.8182 ,
inside | z |= 1 . When t = 0.01 these move to z = 0.9900 and z = 0.9802 ,
closer to the stability boundary. Using the δ form with t = 0.1 , the poles are at
ν = −1.8182 and ν = −0.9522 , inside the circle centre (−10, 0) in the ν -plane
with radius 10 . When t = 0.01 these move to ν = −1.9802 and ν = −0.9950 ,
within the circle centre (−100, 0) with radius 100 , and the closest pole to the
boundary has moved slightly further from it.
30 The transfer function is
1
H(s) =
s3 + 2s2+ 2s + 1
2 z−1
To discretise using the bi-linear form use s → to give
T z+1
T 3 (z + 1)3
H̃(z) =
Az 3 + Bz 2 + Cz + D
and thus the discrete-time form
(Aq 3 + Bq 2 + Cq + D)yk = T 3 (q 3 + 3q 2 + 3q + 1)uk
where
A = T 3 + 4T 2 + 8T + 8, B = 3T 3 + 4T 2 − 8T − 3,
C = 3T 3 − 4T 2 − 8T + 3, D = T 3 − 4T 2 + 8T − 1

2δ
To obtain the δ form use s → giving the δ transfer function as
2 + ∆δ
(2 + ∆δ)3
Aδ 3 + Bδ 2 + Cδ + D
This corresponds to the discrete-time system
(Aδ 3 + Bδ 2 + Cδ + D)yk = (∆3 δ 3 + 2∆2 δ 2 + 4∆δ + 8)uk
where
A = ∆3 + 4∆2 + 8∆ + 8, B = 6∆2 + 16∆ + 16,
C = 12∆ + 16, D=8
31 Making the given substitution and writing the result in vector-matrix form
we obtain
0 1 0
ẋ(t) = x(t) + u(t)
−2 −3 1
and
y(t) = [1, 0]x(t)
This is in the general form
ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + bu(t)
y = cT x(t) + d u(t)
The Euler discretisation scheme gives at once
x((k + 1)∆) = x(k ∆) + ∆ [Ax(k ∆) + bu(k ∆)]
Using the notation of Exercise 29 write the simplified δ form equation as

2 12 + 8∆ 8 1 2 2
δ + δ+ yk = ∆ δ + 4∆δ + 4 uk
A A A
Now, as usual, consider the related system

2 12 + 8∆ 8
δ + δ+ pk = u k
A A

and introduce the state variables x1 (k) = pk , x2 (k) = δpk together with the
redundant variable x3 (k) = δ 2 pk . This leads to the representation
 
0 1
 0
δx(k) = 8 12 + 8∆  x(k) + u(k)
− − 1
A A

4 8∆2 4∆ (12 + 8∆)∆2 ∆2
yk = − 2 , − x(k) + u(k)
A A A A2 A
or
x(k + 1) = x(k) + ∆ [A(∆)x(k) + bu(k)]
yk = cT (∆)x(k) + d(∆)uk
Since A(0) = 4 it follows that using A(0) , c(0) and d(0) generates the Euler
Scheme when x(k) = x(k∆) etc.
32(a) In the z form substitution leads directly to
12(z 2 − z)
H(z) =
(12 + 5∆)z 2 + (8∆ − 12)z − ∆
When ∆ = 0.1 this gives
12(z 2 − z)
H(z) =
12.5z 2 + −11.2z − 0.1
(b) The γ form is given by replacing z by 1 + ∆γ . Substitution and

rearrangement gives
12γ(1 + ∆γ)
H̃(γ) =
γ 2 ∆(12 + 5∆) + γ(8∆ − 12) + 12
when ∆ = 0.1 this gives
12γ(1 + 0.1γ)
H̃(γ) =
1.25γ 2 − 11.2γ + 12

Review exercises 3.10
1
z
Z {f (kT )} = Z {kT } = T Z {k} = T
(z − 1)2
2

k ak (e kω − e− kω )
Z a sin kω = Z
2
1
= Z (ae ω )k − (ae− ω )k
2

1 z z
= −
2 z − ae ω z − ae− ω
az sin ω
= 2
z − 2az cos ω + a2
3 Recall that
z
Z ak =
(z − a)2
Differentiate twice wrt a then put a = 1 to get the pairs
z 2z
k ←→ k(k − 1) ←→
(z − 1)2 (z − 1)3
then
2z z z(z + 1)
Z k2 = 3
+ 2
=
(z − 1) (z − 1) (z − 1)3
4
3z 2z
H(z) = +
z − 1 (z − 1)2
so inverting, the impulse response is
{3 + 2k}

5
z
YSTEP (z) =
(z + 1)(z + 2)(z − 1)
1 z 1 z 1 z
=− + +
2z+1 3z+2 6z−1
Thus
1 1 1
ySTEP,k = − (−1)k + (−2)k +
2 3 6
6
1 1 1
F (s) = = −
s+1 s s+1
which inverts to
f (t) = (1 − e−t )ζ(t)
where ζ(t) is the Heaviside step function, and so

z z
F̃ (z) = Z {f (kT )} = −
z − 1 z − e−T
Then
e−sT F (s) ←→ f ((t − T ))
which when sampled becomes f ((k − 1)T ) and

∞
f ((k − 1)T ) 1
Z {f ((k − 1)T )} = = F̃ (z)
zk z
k=0
That is
1
e−sT F (s) → F̃ (z)
z
So the overall transfer function is

z−1 z z 1 − e−T
− =
z z − 1 z − e−T z − e−T
7
s+1 2 1
H(s) = = −
(s + 2)(s + 3) s+3 s+2
yδ (t) = 2e−3t − e2t −→ {2e−3kT − e2kT }
so
z z
H̃(z) = 2 −3T
−
z−e z − e−2T

8(a) Simple poles at z = a and z = b . The residue at z = a is
zn an
lim (z − a)z n−1 X(z) = lim (z − a) =
z→a z→a (z − a)(z − b) a−b
bn
The residue at z = b is similarly and the inverse transform is the sum
b−a
of these, that is n
a − bn
a−b
8(b)
(i) There is a only double pole at z = 3 and the residue is
d zn n−1
lim (z − 3)2 = n3
z→3 dz (z − 3)2
√
1 3
(ii) There are now simple poles at z = ±  . The individual residues are
2 2
thus given by n
√
1 3
2 ± 2 
lim√ ± √
z→(1/2± 3/2 ) 3
Adding these and simplifying in the usual way gives the inverse transform
as
2
√ sin nπ/3
3
9
z z
H(z) = −
z+1 z−2
so
z z z
YSTEP (z) = −
z+1 z−2 z−1
3z
=−
(z − 1)(z + 1)(z − 2)
3 z 1 z z
= + −2
2z−1 2z+1 z−2
so
3 1
ySTEP,k = + (−1)k − 2k+1
2 2

10
z2 1 z
Y (z) = × 1− =
(z + 1)(z − 1) z z+1
so
yk = (−1)k
11
z2 α+β αβ
Y (z) = × 1− + 2 =1
(z − α)(z − β) z z
so
yk = {δk } = {1, 0, 0, . . .}
z
The response of the system with H(z) = is clearly given by
(z − α)(z − β)
Y (z) = 1/z , which transforms to
yk = {δk−1 } = {0, 1, 0, 0, . . .}
s
12 From H(s) = the impulse response is calculated as
(s + 1)(s + 2)
yδ (t) = (2e−2t − e−t ) t ≥ 0
Sampling gives

{yδ (nT )} = 2e−2nT − enT t
with z transform
z z
Z {yδ (nT )} = 2 −2T
− = D(z)
z−e z − e−T
Setting Y (z) = T D(z)X(z) gives

z z
Y (z) = T 2 − X(z)
z − e−2T z − e−T
Substituting for T and simplifying gives

1 z − 0.8452
Y (z) = z 2 X(z)
2 z − 0.9744z + 0.2231
so
(z 2 − 0.9744z + 0.2231)Y (z) = (0.5z 2 − 0.4226z)X(x)

leading to the difference equation
yn+2 − 0.9744yn+1 + 0.2231yn = 0.5xn+2 − 0.4226xn+1
As usual (see Exercise 22), draw the block diagram for
pn+2 − 0.9744pn+1 + 0.2231pn = xn
then taking yn = 0.5pn+2 − 0.4226pn+1
yn+2 − 0.9744yn+1 + 0.2231yn = 0.5pn+4 − 0.4226pn+3
−0.9774(0.5pn+3 − 0.4226pn+2 ) + 0.2231(0.5pn+2 − 0.4226pn+1 )
= 0.5xn+2 − 0.4226xn+1
13
yn+1 = yn + avn
vn+1 = vn + bun
= vn + b(k1 (xn − yn ) − k2 vn )
= bk1 (xn − yn ) + (1 − bk2 )vn
so
yn+2 = yn+1 + a[bk1 (xn − yn ) + (1 − bk2 )vn ]
(a) Substituting the values for k1 and k2 we get
1
yn+2 = yn+1 + (xn − yn )
4
or
1 1
yn+2 − yn+1 + yn = xn
4 4
Transforming with relaxed initial conditions gives
1
Y (z) = X(z)
(2z − 1)2

A
(b) When X(z) = ,
z−1

A z z z
Y (z) = 4 −4 −2
4 z−1 z − 1/2 (z − 1/2)2
then
A
yn = 4 − 4(1/2)n − 2n(1/2)n−1
4
14 Substitution leads directly to
yk − 2yk−1 + yk−2 yk − yk−1

2
+3 + 2yk = 1
T T
Take the z transform under the assumption of a relaxed system to get
z3
[(1 + 3T z + 2T 2 )z 2 − (2 + 3T )z + 1]Y (z) = T 2
z−1
The characteristic equation is thus
(1 + 3T z + 2T 2 )z 2 − (2 + 3T )z + 1 = 0
with roots (the poles)

1 1
z= , z=
1+T 1 + 2T
The general solution of the difference equation is a linear combination of these
together with a particular solution. That is
k k
1 1
yk = α +β +γ
1+T 1 + 2T
This can be checked by substitution which also shows that γ = 1/2 . The
yk − yk−1
condition y(0) = 0 gives y0 = 0 and since y (t) → , y (0) = 0
T
implies yk−1 = 0 . Using these we have
1
α+β+ =0
2
1
α(1 + T ) + β(1 + 2T ) + = 0
2

with solution α = −1 , β = 1/2 so
k k
1 1 1 1
yk = − + +
1+T 2 1 + 2T 2
The differential equation is simply solved by inverting the Laplace transform

to give
1 −2t
y(t) = (e − 2e−t + 1), t ≥ 0
2
Figure 3.3: Response of continuous and discrete systems in Exercise 14 over

10 seconds when T = 0.1


15 Substitution for s and simplifying gives
[(4 + 6T + 2T 2 )z 2 + (4T 2 − 8)z + (4 − 6T + 2T 2 )]Y (z)

= T 2 (z + 1)2 X(x)
The characteristic equation is
(4 + 6T + 2T 2 )z 2 + (4T 2 − 8)z + (4 − 6T + 2T 2 ) = 0
with roots
8 − 4T 2 ± 4T
z=
2(4 + 6T + 2T 2 )
That is
1−T 2−T
z= and z =
1+T 2+T

The general solution of the difference equation is then

k k
1−T 2−T
yk = α +β +γ
1+T 2+T
This can be checked by substitution which also shows that γ = 1/2 . The
yk − yk−1
condition y(0) = 0 gives y0 = 0 and since y (t) → , y (0) = 0
T
implies yk−1 = 0 . Using these we have
1
α+β+ =0
2
1+T 2+T 1
α +β + =0
1−T 2−T 2
with solution
1−T 2−T
α= β=−
2 2
Thus k k
1−T 1−T 2−T 2−T 1
yk = +− +
2 1+T 2 2+T 2


Figure 3.6: Response of continuous and discrete systems in Exercise 14 over 10

seconds when T = 0.05
16

f (t) = t2 , {f (k∆)} = k 2 ∆2 , k ≥ 0
Now
d z z(z + 1)
Z{k 2 } = −z 2
=
dz (z − 1) (z − 1)3
So
z(z + 1)∆2
Z{k 2 ∆2 } =
(z − 1)3
To get D -transform, put z = 1 + ∆γ to give
(1 + ∆γ)(2 + ∆γ)∆2
F∆ (γ) =
∆3 γ 3
Then the D -transform is
(1 + ∆γ)(2 + ∆γ)
F∆ (γ) = ∆F∆ (γ) =
γ3


Chapter 03

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3

9 Initial value theorem: obvious from deﬁnition.

9 Final value theorem

lim (1 − z −1 )X(z) = lim xr

10 Multiplication property (3.20)

The general result follows by induction.

whence x0 = 0 , x1 = 1 , x2 = x3 = . . . = x6 = 0 , x7 = 2 and xk = 0, k > 7 .

13(b) Proceed as in Example 13(a).

13(c) Observe that

14(b) Using the same notation

15(b) Transforming and substituting for y0 and y1

15(c) Transforming and substituting for y0 and y1

15(d) Transforming, substituting for y0 and y1 , and rearranging

16(b) Transforming with y0 = 0, y1 = 1 ,

16(c) Transforming with y0 = y1 = 0 ,

16(d) Transforming with y0 = 1, y1 = 0 ,

16(e) Transforming with y0 = 1, y1 = 2

16(f ) Transforming with y0 = y1 = 0 ,

17 Write the transformed equations in the form

This shows the 20% growth in Ck in the long term as required.

= 1800(1.2)k + 7200(0.8)k − 1200(1.2)k+1 − 4800(0.8)k+1

Diﬀerentiate wrt k and set to zero giving

Solving, x = 0.0875 and so

The nearest integer is k = 6 , corresponding to the seventh year in view of the

18 Transforming and rearranging

= aIk−1 + b(Ck − Ck−1 ) + Gk

= aIk−1 + ba(Ik−1 − Ik−2 ) + Gk

20 Elementary rearrangement leads to

in+2 − 2 cosh α in+1 + in = 0

with cosh α = 1 + R1 /2R2 . Transforming and solving for I(z)/z gives

zi0 + (i1 − 2i0 cosh α)

22 For the ﬁrst system, transforming from a quiescent state, we have

(z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25)Y (z) = U (z)

Transforming the second system in the quiescent state we obtain

(z 2 + 0.5z + 0.25)Y (z) = (1 − 0.6)U (z)

25 Examining the poles of the systems, we ﬁnd

25(a) Poles at z = −1/3 and z = −2/3 , both inside | z |= 1 so the system is

25(b) Poles at z = −1/3 and z = 2/3 , both inside | z |= 1 so the system is

= (1/2)k (2k+1 − 1) = 2 − (1/2)k

Taking z transforms from the quiescent state, the characteristic equation is

Transforming with a quiescent initial state

establishing the pole locations. Then

This corresponds to the diﬀerence equation

(Aq 2 + Bq + C)yk = ∆2 (q 2 + 2q + 1)uk

Now put q = 1 + ∆δ to get

(A∆2 δ 2 + (2A + B)∆δ + A + B + C)yk

= ∆2 (∆2 δ 2 + 4∆δ + 4)uk

30 The transfer function is

and thus the discrete-time form

(Aq 3 + Bq 2 + Cq + D)yk = T 3 (q 3 + 3q 2 + 3q + 1)uk

This corresponds to the discrete-time system

(Aδ 3 + Bδ 2 + Cδ + D)yk = (∆3 δ 3 + 2∆2 δ 2 + 4∆δ + 8)uk

C = 12∆ + 16, D=8

This is in the general form

ẋ(t) = Ax(t) + bu(t)

The Euler discretisation scheme gives at once

x((k + 1)∆) = x(k ∆) + ∆ [Ax(k ∆) + bu(k ∆)]

Using the notation of Exercise 29 write the simpliﬁed δ form equation as

Now, as usual, consider the related system

32(a) In the z form substitution leads directly to

When ∆ = 0.1 this gives

(b) The γ form is given by replacing z by 1 + ∆γ . Substitution and

when ∆ = 0.1 this gives

Review exercises 3.10