Ancient History

Theme 1 Sources of Early India and Prehistory

V.RAMSAIRAHUL M.A.
History

• Scientific and objective study of the past is known as history

• History is different from mythology which is based on legends with
minimal historical accuracy whereas history relies on objective collection,
assessment and analysis of the information in the sources.
• Greek author Herodotus is regarded as the father of scientific history
writing, though India has great antiquity in literature the Indian authors has
not developed the tradition of objective history different court chronicles
and eulogistic proses.
• Kalhana is considered as the foremost Indian history in the true sense he
looked the past in objective way and provided guidelines on how to study
the past. His work Rajatarangini is an imp source of Kashmir history
• British colonial historians made significant attempt to present
scientific history of India.
• A greater understanding of Indian pasts was necessitated by the
acquisition of diwani rights of Bengal by EIC in 1757 which
transformed it into a territorial power. They studied the texts in order
to understand the Indian psyche and ensure sound British governance
• Warren Hastings - Calcutta madarasa 1781
• Jonathan Duncan - Sanskrit college 1791
• William jones – Asiatic society of Bengal 1784
• N.B. Halhed translated manudharmasastra
• John wilkins translated bagavathgita
• H.h. Wilson translated Rigveda
• Maxmueller published sacred books of the east series
• J.S.Mill started periodisation of Indian history into
• Hindu, Islamic and Christian periods essentially to add communal
colour to the past and highlight the British conquest as an act of divine
providence
• V.A. Smith present first comprehensive history of India under the book
Early History of India, it was purely an imperialist text glorifying the
Aryan and alexanders invasions denying the native historical traditions
• Post independence scientific historiography started and periodisation
transformed into ancient, medieval and modern based on the
significant changes which led to transformation in the past
• Modern Marxist historiography emphasised on socioeconomic
processes comprehensive study of diverse aspects of the past
SOURCES OF EARLY INDIA
• Historical source is an original record of the past, it includes texts,
inscriptions, artefacts, material remains and intangible evidences
• Every artefact from the past cannot be considered as historical source
it should be an original record with evidentiary value
• The information should be juxtaposed and corroborated by other
sources and subjected to minimal tampering by later authors.
• Sources with objective information are more important than heresay
and folklore
Types of sources
• Primary sources: these provide first hand information of the past and
provide account of the historical event, fact or process
• These are specific to particular period and have greater detailing,
subjected to minimal interpretation by later authors
• Archaeological remains, inscriptions, coinage and original historical
texts form primary sources, they are rare
• Secondary sources: they provide general information based on the
study of primary sources and cover large periods of the history, the
subjective analysis of the author is reflected as he views the past
through his lens from contemporary perspective
 SOURCES

Archaeological sources literary sources

Materials coins inscriptions indigenous foreign

punchmarked scientific secular religious

Monuments mounds votive prasasti landgrants royal edicts

Secular religious
Archaeological sources
• Oldest and primary records of historical pasts, they have existed subjected
to vagaries of time and nature.
• Bori in maharastra earliest evidence of human ancestors in india dates back
to 1.4 million years
• Our study of prehistory is based entirely on archaeological sources
• Th material remains are put to different uses in diverse periods of the
ancient past providing imp pieces of information from various periods
• Indus valley civilisation is largely based on archaeological evidences
• They depict the material culture, settlement, burial practice, dietary
practices, society and politics
• Material remains include historic monuments temples, forts, old habitations,
artefacts
Coinage
• numismatics is the scientific study of coins
• Seals and sealings discovered from IVC sites
• Nishka and satamana referred to in vedic sources are not coins but
bullion
• Punch marked coins emerged in 6th c bce.
• Indo-greeks first issued scientific coins with names of the king,
legend, year
• Kushanas issued the purest form of gold coins
• Satavahanas issued coins made of lead, potin and silver
• Guptas issued the greatest no of gold coins in different types
• The decline of the coinage and their debasement during the Gupta
period signified the decline of external trade and commerce and
transformation to medieval economy.
• Coins significance
• Political history in the past, the ruling dynasties, name of the rulers,
political conquest and decline of empires
• Ex. Gupta coins are the major source regarding ramagupta, kacha
gupta
• Gautamiputra satakarni conquest over nahapana is depicted through
coinage
• The debased coins of budhagupta and bhanugupta explain the decline
of guptas
• Economic history; the coins depict trade patterns, trade routes and
economic prosperity, they acted as medium of exchange and store of value
• Ex. Location of coin hoards in south india testify brisk trade with romans,
coin hoards along the path of uttarapatha and dakshinapatha, foreign coins
depicted external trade
• Satavahana coins depict ships indicating maritime trade
• Religious and cultural history
• Kushans and gupta coins depict image of gods buddha, siva, Lakshmi,
Vishnu and garuda emblem.
• Kushan coins depicted the kings as devaputra and showcase the central
Asian cultural influences in long coat, shoes
• Gupta coins of Chandragupta kumaradevi signify political and matrimonial
alliances
• Samudragupta coin types veena player,asvamedha tiger type depict culture
• They speak about the language, script of the period and geographical
extent of empire
Inscriptions
• They are permanent records inscribed on stones, pillars, copper plates,
temple walls. They constitute the primary sources providing direct
information from the historic period
• Earliest inscriptions date back to harappans clay tablet of harappan
seals in dolavira
• James prince deciphered the asokan inscriptions
• Types
• Eulogy/prasasti they were composed on royal orders in praise of the
reigning authority depicts the political exploits
• Ex. Allahabad prasasti of samudragupta, aihole prasasti of pulakesin ii
• Copper plates depicted landgrant charters these account for the
largest no of inscriptions depicting the sale cum gift deed of land by
donors
• Royal edicts/sasanas these are the royal orders engraved on the
permanent surfaces. Asokan edicts come under this category
• Ex. Motupalli abhayasasana of ganapatideva
• Votive inscriptions: these depict the voluntary donations made by
large no of people, trade guilds, merchant and communities to
religious and secular organisations temples, sanghas, education
centres
• Chandragupta Maurya was the earliest ruler who issued inscriptions
at wadali, piraurha and mahasthangarh in prakrit language n brahmi
script
• Emperror Ashoka issued the largest no of inscriptions
• Saka rudradaman issued the earliest Sanskrit inscription at Junagarh
• Hathigumpha inscription of kalinga kharavela speaks of popularity of
Jainism in odisha
• Parantaka chola’s uttaramerur inscription refers to local self government
under cholas
• Asokan inscriptions are inscribed in brahmi, Greek, Aramaic and kharoshti
scripts.
• Babru, maski and gurjara edicts depict the name of Ashoka as ruler of
Magadha. His portrait was discovered from kanganahalli in Karnataka
• Inscriptions depict sociocultural and economic history apart form political
events
• Eran inscription depicts the earliest archaeological evidence of sati
• Besnagar inscription of heliodorus speaks about popularity of bagavatism
• They depicted the historical past from the lens of the author subjected to
royal bias
Literary sources
• They are available in both oral and written formats in manuscripts,
texts, they include both primary and secondary sources
• Historically they are late from vedic age we have greater presence of
literature, they are subjective and depends on the perspective of the
author
• Indigenous sources
• India has great literary tradition tracing back to IVC, the Harappans
developed pictographic script though it has not been deciphered. The
vedic age largely depends on the literary sources though
archaeological remains do exist
Religious sources
• Early Indian historical sources are mostly religious sources which
intermixed society, economy and political conditions of the past along
with religion.
• Vedic literature
• Brahmanical literature
• Buddhist literature
• Jain literature
Vedic literature
Its known as Sruthi literature which is heard and known as
apaurusheyas
• Vedas
• Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda
• Brahmanas contain explanation for the Vedic hymns
• Aranyakas
• Upanishads
• Vedangas
• Upavedas
vedas
• Rigveda earliest consists 10 mandalas and 1028 hymns dates to 1500-
1000bce
• Every veda consists four parts the Samhita, brahmana, Aranyaka and
upanishads
• Brahmana expert in Rigveda is known as hota
• It includes the socioeconomic and political conditions of early vedic Aryans
apart from early vedic religious beliefs, it includes sacrifices and marriage
ceremony
• Purushasukta in 10 mandala regarding varna classification belongs to later
date
• The gayatri mantra composed by visvamitra is addressed to goddess savitar.
• The aitareya, kaushitak and samkhyana brahmanas are associated with
Rigveda
• Dhanurveda is an upaveda associated with rigveda
• Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda date back to later vedic period
1000bce
• Yajurveda consists of the sacrificial formulae in prose to be recited by
the priest in the performance of sacrifice and rituals.
• It includes the earliest references to geometry and observational
astronomy refereed in the construction of fire altars.
• Brahmana specialised in Yajurveda is known as adhvaryu
• Shilpaveda is upaveda of Yajurveda
• Divided into sukla or sweta Yajurveda and Krishna Yajurveda,
satapatha brahmana and taiteriya brahmana are associated with above
sukla and Krishna Yajurveda respectively.
Samaveda consists the Rigvedic hymns which are to be recited in rhythm
forming the basis for Indian music tradition. It’s a veda of melodies and
chants.
brahmana expert in Samaveda is known as udgatar
Gandarvaveda is the upaveda of Samaveda
Chandogya and kena Upanishads are associated with Samaveda

Atharvaveda
Consists of magical spells and chants associated with popular religious
practices rather than earlier three vedas depicting hierarchical religion.
It includes the hymns for daily rituals of marriage, upanayana and funerals
Ayurveda is the upaveda of Atharvaveda
Mundaka, mandukya and prashna Upanishads are associated with
atharvaveda
• Brahmanas and aranyakas contain explanatory verse to the vedic
hymns
• Upanishads contain the philosophical concepts of the vedas.
• They are called as Vedanta forming the latest form of vedic literature
• There are 18 important Upanishads chandogya, brihadaranyaka,
taiteriya, kaushitaki and kena are the earliest Upanishads

• Vedangas limbs of veda

• Shiksha – phonetics
• Kalpa – ritual
• Chandas – metric
• vyakarana – grammar
• Jyotisha – astronomy
• Nirukta – etymology of words
Brahmanical literature
• These are composed by the brahmanas in the post vedic period and referred
as smrithi literature
• It includes the dharmasastras legal codes,
• codes on domestic rituals grihyasutras
• Srauthasutras code on public rituals and large sacrifices
• Suluvasutras include scientific measurements for construction of sacrificial
altars
• Smrithi include legal codes by scholars manusmrithi, yajnavalkyasmrthi,
parasarasmrithi, naradasmrithi they depicted the changing society and rules
in different periods
• Puranas form imp component of Brahmanical literature they date from 3rd
century ce to 10th century
• Amarasimha amarakosa refers to five important components of
puranas
• Sarga cosmology or creation of the world
• Pratisarga dissolution and recreation
• Vamsa genealogy of the gods, sages and kings
• Vamsanucarita account of royal dynasties
• Manvantara cosmic cycles
• They are 18 (1 mahapurana, 17 mukya puranas) and 18 upapuranas
• The puranas mix biographies, myths, geography, medicine, astronomy
and history.
• Bagavatha purana is the most prominent one with rise of bagavatism
• Sthalapuranas give great information on regional geography mixed
with mythology leading to sacred landscape of tirthayatras
• Vishnupurana tells about the rise of mauryas
• matsyapurana – satavahanas
• Vayupurana – guptas
• Puranas provide great information on chronology and hindu
conception of time into yugas, mahayuga and kalpa
• Agnipurana provides information on astronomy, geography, grammar,
law and medicine
• Garudapurana speaks about astronomy, cosmography, medicine, niti
politics and knowledge of precious stones
• Vishnudharmottarapurana provides information on Indian painting
• Ramayana and mahabharatha the great Indian epics also form part of
Brahmanical literature
• Mahabharatha transformed from jayasamhita with 10000 verses to
satasahasrasamhita with more than 1 lakh verse over period of five
centuries.
• Mahabharatha consists of descriptive, normative and didactic portions
making it significantly complex.
• At the core of mahabharatha lies bagavadgita the essence of bagavata
philosophy

• Buddhist literature
• Classical pali canonical texts
• Tripitakas
• Suttapitaka composed by Ananda contains the teachings of buddha, it
includes 5 components
• Dighanikaya
• Majjhimanikaya
• Kuddhakanikaya
• Samyukthanikaya
• anguttaranikaya
• Vinayapitaka composed by upali speaks about the buddhist monastic code
of conduct
• Kandhaka
• Suttavibangha (Mahavibangha, bikkunivibangha)
• Parivara

• Abidamma pitaka it’s a collection of canonical texts contains the

philosophical doctrines of buddhism
• Jataka tales part of kuddakanikaya, apadana literature are other imp
buddhist pali literature
• Ceylonese buddhist chronicles deepavamsa, Mahavamsa
• Asvagosha’s buddhacharita and sariputraprakarana
• Lalitavistara, mahavastu and divyavadana, aryamanjusrimulakalpa are other
important buddhist literatures
Jaina literature
• Agama sutras canonical literature written in ardhamagadhi
• Adipurana by jinasena mentions about the life of Adinatha first
tirthankara
• The early literature consists of 14 purvas preached by all tirthankaras
which was lost
• Later the jain doctrines were composed by digambara saint badrabahu
into kalpasutras
• Svetambara saint stulabahu composed 12 angas
• Parisishtaparvan composed by hemachandra
• Bhagavatisutra speaks about 16 mahajanapadas
Secular literature
• It includes diverse collection of historical texts ranging from politics, music,
poetry, maths, medicine, astronomy
• Kautilya-arthashastra
• Charakasamhita, susruthasamhita
• Panini ashtadhyayi, Patanjali mahabhashya
• Bhasa’s swapnavasavadatta
• Brihatsamhita by varahamihira
• Kalahana rajatarangini
• Gathasaptasati by hala
• Kamandaka nitisara
Foreign sources
• Greek sources
• Megasthanese ambassador of selucus nicator to Chandragupta Maurya,
he composed indica which is distorted n only available in later
accounts of classical authors
• Daimachos and donysius are the ambassadors who visited court of
bindusara
• Pliny natural history
• Periplus of erythrean sea
• Plutarch, arrian and Strabo wrote about india
• Chinese sources
• Fahien visited india during the reign of kumaragupta he composed fu-
kuo-ki on his travels, he speaks about buddhism under guptas and
refers to gupta society, presence of untouchability
• Huen tsang visited india during the reign of harsha and visited several
places associated with buddhism. He wrote see-yu-ki on his Indian
travels
• Itsing visited india in 672 ad he speaks about maharaja srigupta as
founder of guptas
• Al Suleiman 815 ad referred o rashtrakutas, gurjara pratiharas and
palas
• Al masudi 967 ad wrote about gurjara pratiharas, mihir bhoja.