Ancient History Final (PDF) - 08-12 - 26569407 - 2023 - 12 - 28 - 22 - 52

ANCIENT HISTORY Contact us: 8143414455
CSB IAS ACADEMY
Ancient-History
1. Sources
History- Scientific and Objective study of the past without any bias.
- Relies on objective collection, assessment and
analysis of info in sources.
- Mythology-based on legends with minimal

historical accuracy. Herodotus: father of Scientific
History
Indian-literature
i. Subjective bias - High
ii. Objective bias – Low
 Kalhana – History is objective work and provided
guidelines on how to study the past. His famous Work
“Rajatarangini” – important source of Kashmir History.
 Britishers – to study literature of India – Translated

the Literature Warren Hastings – Calcutta
Madrasa 1781
Jonathan Duncan – Sanskrit

college 1791 William Jones –
Asiatic society of Bengal 1784
 N. B. Halhed – translated – Manudharmasastra
 John Wilkins – translated –Bhagavathgita
 H. h. Wilson – translated – Rigveda
Email : csbiasacademy@gmail.com 1 www.csbias.com

Max Muller published ‘Sacred Books of East Series’.
 J. S. Mill- Periodization of Indian History
Hindu, Islamic & Christian periods

i, e., Colonial interpretation – to high light British conquest
as an act of divine providence.
V. A. Smith – 1st comprehensive history of India- book-
“Early History of India”.
Sources of Early India
Historical source – Original record of past- texts, artefacts –
inscriptions- material remains & intangible evidences.
- Sources with objective information – more important
Types of Sources:
Primary Source:
- Provide 1st hand info of past & provide
detailed account of historical event, fact / process.
- Specific to
particular period
Secondary source:
- Provide general info based on study of primary sources.
- Covers large periods of history.
Sources
Archaeological Literary sources
1. Material remains 1. Indigenous
monuments secular sources
coins Religious – Vedas

inscriptions 2. Foreign sources
Material remains
Monuments
1. secular buildings ex. Forts 2. Religious buildings

ex. Temples Mounds - Excavated Beneath the earth
surface ex. mohenjodaro Coins:
Punch marked,
scientific coins
Inscriptions: (permanent records written-

permanent rocks Votive
Prasasti
Land grants
Royal edicts
Archaeological sources- Oldest and primary records of Historical

past
 Bori (Maharastra)- Evidence of human ancestors in

India - 6 lakh years back
 Prehistory-based entirely on Archaeological sources
 Indus valley civilization – largely based on Archaeological
sources
- These sources depict – Material culture,

settlement, burial practice, dietary practices,

society and politics.
Coinage:
- Numismatics- study of coins

- Seals and sealings – discovered from IVC sites used
in trades and commerce
- In Vedic sources – Nishka and Satamana not
coins, they are Bullion
- Punch marked coins- emerged in 6th cen. Bce.
- Indo-Greeks issued 1st – Scientific coins- with king
name, Legend year
- Kushanas-Issued- purest form of Gold coins
- Satavahanas- issued Lead, potin and silver coins
- Guptas – greatest no. of gold coins’ different types.
- Gupta period – decline of coinage and their
debasements-decline of external trade and commerce and
transformation to medieval economy
- Gautamiputra satakarni conquest over
Nahapana is depicted through coinage
- Kushans and Gupta coins- image of gods Buddha,
shiva, Lakshmi Vishnu, and Garuda emblem
- Kushana coins- depicted the kings as devaputra
- Gupta coins Chandragupta-I Kumaradevi-signify
political and matrimonial alliances. Kumardevi is a
lichchavi princess
- Samudra gupta – Issued coins of numerous types -
veena player, Asvamedha, tiger type

Inscription: Permanent records inscribed on stones,

pillars, Copper plates, temple walls etc.
Clay tablet of harappan seals- Dolavira earliest inscription
 “James Princep” deciphered the

Asokan inscription Types:
1. Eulogy / Prasasti: Praise of ruling authority by the
official court chroniclers, it depicts the political exploits
of the king.
Ex. Allahabad Prasasti – by Harisena

Aihole Prasasti of pulakesin ii – by Ravikeerthi
2. Copper plates: depicts land grant charters – sale cum
gifts deed of land by donors.
3. Royal edicts/Sasanas: royal orders engraved on
permanent surfaces
Ex. Ashokan edicts

Motupalli Abhayasasana of kakatiya Ganapati deva)
4. Votive inscriptions – depicts the voluntary
donations made by large no. of people
Early inscriptions in India
- Chandragupta Maurya – 1st issued

inscriptions at Wadali, Piraurha, Mahasthangarh
- Emperor Ashoka – Issued highest nuber of

inscriptions 1st Sanskrit inscription – Saka
rudradaman at Junagarh
a) Hathigumpha inscription issued by Kalinga

kharevela-speaks popularity of Jainism in Odisha

b) Uttaramerur inscription – Parantaka chola – local self-
government under cholas.
Ashokan inscriptions are inscribed in Brahmi, Greek, Aramaic,

Kharosti
scripts
 The name of Ashoka as ruler of Magadha
depicted at Babru, Maski and Gurjara.
His portrait was discovered from “Kanganahali” in Karnataka.

 “Eran inscription”- depicts the earliest archaeological
evidence of
“Sati”
 Besnagar inscription – of Heliodorus – speaks
popularity of Bhagavatism.
Literary Sources:
Indigenous sources
1. Religious sources
Vedic
literature
Brahmanical
literature
Buddhist
literature
Jain
literature
Vedic / Sruthi literature: Which is heard and known as
Apaurusheyas –

which are not created by humans.

Structure of vedic literature. Every vedic corpus
involves four components
Veda samhita – it contains hymns of the veda
Brahmanas – contains explanation for Vedic hymns,
explains eastward shift of Aryans.
Aranyakas – forest books which explain some of the
philosophical concepts in vedas mysticism & meditation.
Upanishads – philosophical quotient also called as Vedanta
Veda Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Priest

upaveda
Rigveda Aitareya/kaushitaki/sankhyana Aitareya/kaushitaki
Aitareya/kaushitaki hotri dhanurveda
yajurve da Taittriya/sathapata Taittriya
Taittriya, isa, katha, brihadaranyaka adhva ryu silpaveda
samaveda Panchavimsa/tandya, jaiminiya
Jaiminiya,chandogya Kena,chandogya udgatar
gandharvaveda
atharva naveda Gopatha - Mandukya,
mundaka,prashna Brah ma ayurveda
Rig Veda- Earliest one (1500-1000 Bce)- 10 mandalas, 1028

hymns Brahmana expert in Rigveda is known as Hotri
- Purushasukta – 10th mandala explains about the
varna system brahmana, Kshatriya, vaishya & sudra
- Gayatri mantra – by visvamitra is addressed to Goddess
“Savitar”

Rig veda explains about the sacrificial rituals and life

sketch of early vedic Aryans.
Yajur veda
Two subdivisions
Shukla yajurveda- vajasneyi samhita explains
about the performance of yajnas and hymns
assosciated with yajnas Krishna yajurveda
Brahmanas – specialized in this – Adhvaryu
Earliest references to Geometry and observational
astronomy referred in construction of fire altars.
Upaveda – Shilpaveda
Samaveda
Consists of Rigveda hymns in rhythm forming

basis for Indian music tradition
Veda of
melodies and
chants
Brahmana –
udgatar
Upaveda –
Gandarva veda
Sama veda- chandogya, kena Upanishads.
Atharvana veda
Hymns for daily rituals of marriages, Upanayana and

funerals Upaveda – Ayurveda
Upanishads – Mundaka, Mandukya, (satya
meva jayathe), Prashna.

Upanishads / Vedanta
Upanishad means to sit

down near guru Contain
philosophical concepts of
vedas. Total 108 prominent
10 Upanishads.
Constitute the jnanakanda of the vedic corpus, deals with
knowledge, salvation and creation of
universe, concept of brahmam etc.
Upanishads explain about darsanas systems of knowledge
Katha Upanishad – reference to story of yama-
nachiketa dialogue Mundaka Upanishad – slogan
satyameva jayate
Chandogya Upanishad – deals with 3 asramas and
types of marriage
Vedangas six auxillary disciplines for better

understanding of the vedic corpus.
Vedangas – limbs of veda Darsanas- deals about philosophy
1. Shiksha-Phonetics Nyaya
2. Kalpa-ritual Sankya
3. Chands-metric Vaiseshika
4. Vyakarana- Grammar Voga
5. Jyokisha- astronomy Mimamsa
6. Nirukta- Etymology of words Vedanta
Brahmanical literature
Composed in post vedic period i.e., (800 bc to 600 bc)

by brahmanas called as Smrithi literature distinct
from vedic sruthi literature, they are composed based
on vedic essence and remembrance(smrithi).

- It includes- Dharmasastras legal codes

- Code on domestic rituals (Grihyasutras)
- Code on public rituals & large sacrifices (srauthasutras)
- Scientific measurements for construction of
sacrificial altars (Suluvasutras)
- Smrithi includes legal codes by scholars –
manusmrithi naradasmrithi etc.
Puranas:
Religious texts composed by brahmanas around 1st-4th century

ad.
They involve combination of history, mythology, regional
geography and diverse secular aspects of art, chronology,
crafts etc.
1. Sarga-cosmology/creation of world
2. Pratisarga- dissolutionand recreation
3. Vamsa- Genealogy ofGods, sages, & kings
4. Vamsanucharita- Account of royaldynasties
5. Manvantara- cosmiccycles
Amarasimha amarakosa- refers to 5 important components of puranas

18 puranas – 1-mahapurana, 17 mukya purana and 18 Upa
puranas Bagavatha Purana-rise of Bagavatism
Sthalapuranas-Info on regional geography mixed with
mythology leading to sacred landscape of Tirthayatras
Vishnu purana-
rise of mauryas
Matsyapurana –
Satavahanas
Vayupurana –
Guptas
Vishnudharmottara purana – Info on Indian painting

Epics or itihasas two great epics

Mahabharatha- composed by vedavyasa largest epic
explains the conflict between kauravas and pandavas for
control over kuru kingdom
over a period of 5 centuries, transformed from
jayasamhita (10000 verses)- (>1lakh verses)
It consists of descriptive, normative and didactic portions
Ramayana- composed by valmiki explains the story of rama
the prince of ayodhya
Buddhist literature: pali canonical literature
Tripitakas
I Suttapitaka- composed by Ananda – teachings of

Buddha has five components
Kuddhakanikaya
– Jataka tales
Sanyukthanikaya
Anguttaranikaya
II Vinayapitaka – composed by Upali, it deals with
the Buddhist monastic code of conduct. It has three
components
Kandhaka
Suttavibangha- Mahavibangha,
bikkunivibongha parivara
III Abiddama pitaka – composed by mogaliputta tissa, it
deals about the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism
“Apadana literature” – important Buddhist pali

literature. Ceylonese Buddhist chronicles –

Deepavamsa, Mahavamsa
Asvagosha composed prominent works on
Buddhism Buddhacharitha, Sariputra prakarana
Other names of Buddha-Manjusri, Avalokiteshwara
Jaina Literature
- Agama sutras- canonical literature written in “Ardhamagadhi”.

- Adipurana- by Jinasena mentions about life of
Adinatha – 1st tirthankara
- Early – 14 purvas – lost
- Later – Jain doctrines were composed by
Digambara saint Badrababu into Kalpasutras
- Svetambara saint – stulabahu composed 12 Angas
- Bhagavatisutra – speaks about 16 mahajanapadas
1. Secular literature: they are not associated with religious discourses or
philosophy and primarily deal with economy, society, literature etc.
Kautilya- Arthashastra
Bhasa’s-
swapnavasavadetta
Kalahana –
Rajatarangini
Hala –
gathasaptasati
Kamandaka -

Nitisara
Varahamihira – Brihatsamhita
Foreign
sources:
Greeks
Stupas
Magasthanese – Indica explais about the

mauryan court and administration under
Chandra gupta maurya
Daimachos - ambassador sent by Ptolemy the king of Egypt to
the court of bindusara.
Dionysius- Ambassador sent by Antiochus of Syria who visited
“court of Bindusara”
Pliny- Natural History
Periplus of erythrean sea work by anonymus greek sailor who
explained about indian sea ports.
Plutarch, Arrian and Strabo are greek classical authors who
wrote about India
Chinese sources:
1. Fahien- Buddhist monk who visited India during reign

of Kumaragupta. He recorded the presence of
untouchability during guptas
2. Huien tsang – visited india during the reign of harsha
3. Itsing – visited in (672 ad) – refers to
Maharaja Srigupta as founder of Guptas
Arab sources
Al suleman (815 ad)—rashtrakutas, Gurjara

Prathiharas, Palas Al masudi (967 ad) visited the
court of Mihir Bhoja

2.Prehistory
Prehistory: The period before the advent of writing or no
written records were available
Proto history: It is a period between prehistory & Historical

period where the prehistoric cultures existence is records
by contemporary literary cultures.
 Prehistory is divided into 5 distinct periods-
Paleolithic age Mesolithic, Neolithic, chalcolithic,
iron age.
 Man evolved in Pleistocene epoch between 2 mn
years to 10,700 bce.
 In India, earliest evidence of Human ancestor date back to
“6,00,000 years bce at Bori in Maharastra”,
“5,00,000 years bce at hunasagi in Karnataka”.
Early evidence of modern man is from hathnora narmada
valley.
Age Years
Paleolithic 5,00,000 bce to 10, 000 bce
Mesolithic 10, 000 bce to 6000 bce
Neolithic 6000 to 2000 bce
Chalco 2000 to 700 bce
Iron 1500 to 200 bce
Paleolithic Age
 Paleolithic culture developed in the Pleistocene period

of ice age. the period witnessed the global envelope of ice
sheets particularly in high altitudes, but the tropical regions
except the mountains were free from ice and they

underwent a period of great rainfall.

 Early men used tools of stone roughly dressed by
crude chipping, found in all over India except the ganga
plain.
 Paleolithic man survived on – Hunting and food
gatherings tools- made of stones (core technique)
 Patne (Maharastra) – an engraving on Ostrich
eggshell was identified
 Bhimbetka Adamgarh- MP- important for pre
historic rock paintaings.
 Flake technique- in upper Paleolithic age.
Lower Paleolithicage Middle Paleolithicage Upper Paleolithic age

500000-50000 bceGreater part of ice ageSlowly climate transformation
started and became less humidArea: sohan valley – Punjab, belan valley,
bimbetka, A.P., didwana (rajasthan) 50000-40000bceGreater
transformation in climate and more conducive for human
habitationArea: region corresponds to lower Paleolithic and extends
tonarmada and 40000-10000bceCoincides with the last phase of
ice age and warm congenial environment boost human livingArea:
Kurnool, meralbhavi, patne(maharastra), bhimbetka
Acheulian culture tungabadra river
valleys
Hand axes, cleavers, Blades, points, Harpoons, blades and
choppers borers and scrapers burins found in
Stone tools are used Flake technique and Andhra,
for chopping, crude pebble Karnataka,U.P. Bihar.
digging & skinning. industry emerged Appearance of
Rock shelters are contemporary with modern
used as seasonal 3rd ice age man(hathnora)
camps Age of neandarthal Flint industries
Stone tools based 200 rock shelters in Caves and rock
on core technique bhimbetka shelters at bhimbetka

Mesolithic Age
The climate became warm and dry around 9000 bce.

Mesolithic sites baghore in rajasthan, langnaj, loteshwar in Gujarat.
For the first time man started living in the northern plains at kalpi
(uttar Pradesh)
Mesolithic age is transitional phase btw Paleolithic and
Neolithic age People lived on fishing, Hunting & Gathering,
later they started domestication of plants and animals.
People started living in Artificial habitations close to
river valley. Use of fire:
This age is characterized by discovery of fire
which enabled greater security for life, it enabled
humans to have cooked or fried food.
The age is characterized by the presence of “Microliths”
Bhimbetka cave paintings most of them belong to
Mesolithic age.they depict hunting, fighting scenes
and communal dancing. Coarse handmade pottery
found in adamgarh
Neolithic age
settled human habitation & emergence of early villages.

Neolithic cultures spread across the country from north
west to north east spanning different periods from 6000
bce to 2000 bce.
Geographical location, local climate and vegetation, the
resource base played crucial role in the emergence of
Neolithic cultures of distinct regions and significant
variation in their time period.
1st Neolithic site in subcontinent is mehrgarh in
Pakistan. They cultivated Cotton & Barley (6000

bce)
**Earliest evidence of rice cultivation – Koldihwa (UP) (6000 bce)
** Rise of Hand made pottery for

storage of Grains. In Kashmir –
Burzaham and Gufkral – (2500 bce)
Hunting, fishing and
pit dwellings
Domestication of
Dog
Evidence – Dogs are buried along with their masters in
(Burzahom) Bone Tools - Chirand (Bihar)- 2200 bce – Rice,
Barley, Wheat
Neolithic sites in Odissa – Barudhi & Kuchai -2000 bce –
stone tools and pottery.
Neolithic cultures in north east – daojali hading and
sarutaru in assam and napchik in Manipur known for
Neolithic cultures. They involved
cultivation of barley, use of charcoal, stone tools and
domesticated goat and sheep.
Neolithic cultures in deccan - they lived south of Godavari
river and used stone axes with oval sides and pointed butt.
Maski, brahmagiri, hallur and utnoor are the prominent
neolitihic sites in the deccan.
They used rubbing stone querns, domesticated cattle, sheep and

goat. Produced wheat, barley & ragi, used red ware pottery.
 Neolithic Pottery: Black and red ware, Burnished

ware & mat slipped ware.

Neolithic celts, stone hoes and choppers were used.
Neolithic age is known for invention of wheel and rise
of wheel made pottery
Chalcolithic Cultures:
Technologically chalcolithic cultures involved the first use

of metal by the man along with stone tools. Copper is the
first metal used by man and gave rise to metallurgy and
new crafts.
In India the chalcolithic cultures predates the bronze age
civilization of indus valley in the northwest region but in other
regions they emerged late as contemporaries and junior

successors of the harappans.

They are grouped into three periods.
Pre harappan – (2800 bce) at Amri, Kotdiji &
kalibangan Contemporary – kayatha culture
Post harappan – malwa and jorwe cultures.
Chalcolithic Cultures in India:
1. Ganeshwar – Jodhpura culture – Rajasthan
2. Banas’s culture (contemporary) – Ahar (Gilund) – RJ & MP
3. Malwa culture (MP) – navdatoli & eran (post.H)
4. kayatha Cultures (contemporary)
5. Savalda Culture
6. Jorwe cultures (post.harappan)
Ahar culture (2100-1500bce) people made distinctive black

and red ware. They grew rice, jowar, bajra, ragi, lentils,
green and black gram.people lived in stone built houses.
People practiced copper smelting, they used stone tools
and weapons. People used burnt bricks in gilund. They
domesticated cow, sheep, goats, buffaloes and hunted
deer.
Ganeshwar regional culture of ahar in rajasthan produced
copper artefacts arrowheads, spearheads, fish hooks, celts
and bangles. They belonged to mature harappan phase and
supplied copper to harappans.
Kayatha culture (2000-1880bce) people made sturdy red
slipped ware, red painted buff ware. Necklace of semi-
precious stones (steatite and carnelian) found as grave
goods. Stylized bull terracotta and burials were found
indicating religious practices.

Malwa culture (1700-1200bce) flourished in Gujarat,

rajasthan & madhya pradesh. Navdatoli and eran
prominent sites. They produced black and red ware
pottery with painted lines. They practiced agriculture and
domesticated animals.
Navdatoli prominent centre with houses made of mud
bricks, wattle and daub. They produced wheat, rice, bajra,
lentils, black gram. People knew the art of spinning and
weaving, spindle whorls were identified.
Jorwe culture (1400-700bce) flourished in maharastra.
Nevasa, jorwe, daimabad and inamgaon were prominent
centres.
Daimabad and inamgaon had urban settlements located in

urban and semi urban areas with babul vegetation. Flat
rectangular copper axes were found in jorwe. Distinctive
pottery channel spouted pots, dish on stand were produced.
Cotton, ragi, bajra and millets were cultivated in lower deccan.
Daimabad is the largest site with mud walls and rubble

bastions. Inamgaon has mud houses with ovens.
Rectangular house with five rooms found in next phase.
The settlement has a granary and moat. Potters,
blacksmiths, ivory carvers, lime makers are found at
inamgaon. Terracotta images of mother goddess indicate
religious cult.
Settlement pattern and burial practices indicate rise in social
inequality, two tier habitations, heirarchy in settlements.
Crop rotation, irrigation, ploughs wee identified at inamgaon.

Megalithic age it flourished in the deccan and south india
post the Neolithic transition. The megaliths derive their

name from their distinctive largescale burial practices. The

megalithic people aslo used the iron tools and implements
which corresponds with iron age in the deccan around
1000bce.
Distinctive features are large burial stones called menhirs,
capstones and cairns. The megaliths cultivated cereals and
pulses, ashmounds indicate domestication of animals and
clearance of forests by fire.
Early sangam tribal polities of chola, chera and

pandyas were descendants of these megalithic
cultures.
3.Harappan Civilization
What is a civilization - It signifies a stage of highest

material & cultural development of a society in an
Age.
1826 – British archeologist Charles discovered an
old city Local villagers told the city was Harappa
which was 1000 years old.
1872 – Alexander Cunningham Director general of ASI
He also thought that its nothing but an old city
(1000 years old) 1922-24:
- Sir John Marshall-he discovered the city and
proclaimed that it belonged to ancient civilization older
than 5000 years
How he found this date:

1. The Harappa seals, pottery & Artefacts are similar to
the artefacts of Mesopotamia dating 3000 bce.

2. The Harappan artefacts are found in numerous other

places – Mohenjo-Daro on Banks of Indus & there is
remarkable similarity & uniform measures in pottery &
Bricks.
These are not isolated cultures or early villages but part of

a well- developed civilization with a form of centralized
political authority.
3. In Archaeology the date of a monument or city can be
ascertained by digging several layers of the earth.
If we dig deeper into the earth the age increases

compared to the surface.
In Mohenjo-Daro we have seven different layers of
settlements indicating the Age of the city to be
around 3000-2500 bce.
Naming – why it is called IVC?
The majority of Harappan sites were located along the
Indus basin signifying its name as the indus valley
civilization. It extended much beyond the indus valley,
there by it may also be considered as harappan
civilization.
Harappan civilization - because Harappa, being the
earliest city discovered which led to discovery of a
new civilization.
The Mesopotamia seals referred to a place called as Meluha

which corresponds to the indus valley region.
Time scale of Harappan civilization:
i. 5500 – 3500 bce – Neolithic phase

Mehgrah – first village in NW India in

Baluchistan Kili gul Muhammad in
Pak
They constitute the pre harappan phase
ii. 3500 – 2600 bce Early harappan phase
- We have large scale villages in NW region
- Use of wheat, plough & identical pottery over these
villages (Black & red ware)
- Amrit, Kotdiji, Kalibangan are early harappan sites.
iii. 2600-1800 bce - Mature phase of Harappan civilization
- Large scale cities with town planning
- Trade, script, uniform weights and measures
- Great granaries, drainage system
- Major sites – Harappa, mohenjodaro, chanhudaro,
lothal,dolavira.
iv. 1800 bce decline & late harappan phase
- Urban decay, shift to villages
- The people shifted to Gujarat and rajasthan. In the
northeast they shifted towards western uttar Pradesh.
IVC – location and physical extent. It was located along the west
and northwestern portions of the subcontinent forming one of the
largest civilisations in the bronze age.

East-
Alamgripur
in Up West
– Sutkagen
Dor North
– Manda in
J & K South
- Daimabad
in MH
Northwest – shortugai in afghanistan
These are boundaries of Harappan civilization
This civilization is spread over India, Pakistan and Afghanistan.
Geographical features which influenced the rise of
indus valley civilization.
Himalayas
Hindukush Suleiman salt range &
kirtar range Great Indian desert
like Arabian sea, Indus river
basin, Sindh plain
The Diverse geographical Base led to rise of distinct groups
of people with diverse resources nd occupations which
supported the rise of towns and cities.
Led to rise of diverse subsistence’s base for Harappans

Early Harappan Phase:
- This phase is characterized by the presence of

numerous villages & their transformation into
rudimentary townships.
- This phase is marked by rising Agrarian surplus &
population expansion leading to rise of secondary
activities because of larger subsistence base.
- It also witnessed the rise of identical pottery black
& red ware, emergency of motifs of Humped bull, pipal
tree, emergency of crafts like Brick, early evidence of
copper smelting & trading activity, Bead making
- Building activity also started with Mud brick houses,
granaries & defensive walls.
Important places are

1. Mehrgarh in Baluchistan: - Emerged as minor towns,
they traded with Mesopotamians & also engaged in
collecting rare and precious stones Lapis lajuli & carnelian
from afghan & central Asia.
2. Amri in Sindh: - It has a granary & a defensive wall,
it’s a large collection centre where people hoarded their
grains to prevent flooding, attacks from outsiders.
3. Kotdiji: Near Mohenjo-Daro on banks of Indus, it has
mud houses & evidence of wheel turned pottery &
Terracotta motifs of humped bull
4. Kalibangan in RJ: - Black bangles, this place is known
for evidence of ploughed field, esixtence of fire altars,
Terracotta bangles & Bead making industry.

Mature Harappan Phase: (2600-1900 bce)
- This phase is characterized by phenomenal rise of

urban centres which indicate town planning, large scale
construction activity the development of sewage,
knowledge of script and large scale presence of seals.
- Also indicates the presence of large centralized
political authority over a vast-area.
- Presence of Long distance internal and international trade
- It includes the largest Geographical extent of civilization
- Evidence of clear markers of harappan society & religion
- Large scale rise of arts & crafts activity.
Major sites:
1. Harappa: On banks of river Ravi, it is the earliest site
excavated by Dayaram Sahani
- It extends around 3 sq miles
- It has defensive wall around the city & there are two
portions in town – Citadel, Lower town
- There is a great granary located here, which is
divided into 6 parts.
2. Mohenjo-Daro in Sindh – excavated by R.D Banerjee,
it can be considered as the capital/ most important town
of the civilization
- In this town we have identified “Great Bath” & also great
granary
- Several large buildings of public importance like Assembly
hall.
- We identified the famous “Bronze Dancing Doll”, the bust of

Bearded man
3. Lothal – Gujarat excavated by S.R. Rao
- The city has a Dockyard
- The town has no differentiation into a citadel and lower town
4. Dolariva located in Gujarat – excavated by J.P.Joshi, R.S. Bhist
- The citadel & defensive walls are made of stone instead of
Bricks
- Town is divided into 3 portions
- Presence of water management & storage structures in
Dolavira
- Dolavira recognized as the unesco world heritage site.
5. Rakhighari: Largest excavated Harappan site In india.
- The DNA analysis from the Burial mounds, proved
that “Aryan invasion theory” of Aryans behind the
Harappan culture is wrong.
- The people are purely indigenous
6. Surkotada-Gujarat
- Known for the only evidence of existence of
Horse during the Harappan civilization.
7. Sutkagendor- Pakistan.
- Farthest town of the Harappans located at the Iran – Pak
Border.
- Frontier town of the Harappans & acted as port
8. Chanudaro - rajasthan
- Important factory site for bead making, Bangles & seals.

Material Characteristics:
- Town planning
- Pottery
- Seals
- Script, trade
- Arts & Crafts
Town Planning:
Unity of Conception:
- It indicates uniformed planning by central
Authority and also indicates (or) regulated production
activity
- Bricks used have remarkable size 4:2:1
- The towns were made using both burnt & dried
bricks for public buildings and residences respectively.
- Even the brick making has emerged as major organized
industry
- The Harappan towns are divided into 2 parts
1. Citadel
- A fortified place built on a raised platform

- Consisted major public buildings like Granary, Great Bath
- It also had very large houses indicating the residency
of important official/rich people
- Citadel has double defensive wall
2. Lower town:
- It is divided into numerous Blocks/grids

transacted by perpendicular roads

- Houses were opened to the lanes

- There are several houses with 2, 3 & 5 roomed houses.
- Multi stored Buildings
- Every lane has a well
- There is evidence of series of small roomed
hutments probably used for labors.
- The harappan town planning signifies remarkable
unity & greater importance for utility & Hygiene
- The large public buildings like Great Bath &
Granaries were built with greater precision & there is
Artistic detailing.
- In the Great bath there is a provision for
pumping Hot H2O & removed of cold H2O, the base is
plastered with Bitumen & Gypsum to prevent
seepage of H2O
- There is evidence of Mohenjo-Daro built over a
vast period of time.
- Burial places are located out of the town especially
in Harappa & Rakhighari (cemetery)
Location of Cities & Towns:
1. That region has great food supply resources ex.

Mohenjodaro located in the indus plain.
2. Their location along the trade routes & transport
network ex. Harappa on the banks of ravi river.
3. Existence of Mineral resources
- Largely urban areas engage in nonfood producing

activity so they need large food surplus to sustain them. It’s

ideal for a town/city to be located in the regions of large
food surplus. Ex. Shortugai in Afghanistan.
Pottery:
The Harappans excelled in developing a uniform style over

the vast region & it developed similar to modern industry
- “Black & Red ware” pottery made using wheel
- Diverse shapes & sizes of pots & utensils created
from utilization & ritual purposes.
- Their pottery also reflects their culture because we
have the motifs of animals, pipal tree & several Geometric
symbols painted on their wares.
Other Arts & Crafts Are:
Terracotta: - Developed as very important art form

- Even though the Harappans knew the art of copper &
Bronze smelting, the terracotta figurines constitute the
largest portion of artefacts.
- Terracotta images of Mother Goddess, Bulls, Bullocks
Cart, Toys & Images of humped bull.
- Crafts activity in “tool Making”, especially for
pottery, Blacksmiths, Agri implements & tools to make
bricks, Bangles making.
- Remarkably all the tools were identical in size and
material over this vast area indicating centralized
regulation of these activities.
- Bricks making, making of seals and sealing’s, bangles
beads, made of carnelian and Jewellery made from CU,
Bronze, Gold & Silver, Smelting of copper and carpentry.

- Head of priest King – Weaving, Bangles, and Bead Making.
Seals & Sealing’s:
- The Harappans used to mark their right of ownership of

Goods.
- The seals may be used as Medium of exchange
- The possession of seals also indicates a privileged
position in the society.
- These seals also reflected the socio-economic &
religious practice of the Harappans.
- The seals are made from Steatite, CU,
Gold, Bronze and terracotta.
- Seals are cylindrical, circular, rectangular & square shapes.
- These seals have images of pasupati, mother
goddess, Animals unicorn humped bull, bison, elephants,
deer & rhino’s images of Boats.
Script:
- the Harappans developed Pictographic script

which is written from Right to left.
- They have several small clay tablets depicting this
script, even the Mesopotamian cities also record of
harappan script through the Seals & clay Tablets.
- we have not deciphered their Script Successfully.
In Mesopotamia there is evidence official interpreter of
Meluhen language.

Trade and Transport Economy:
Transport
River
åêêà [type of Bullock ant]

Indus system with its tributaries formed the major transport link
Sea ports. Lothal, Sutkagendor, Nageshwar & Bagatrav
- Trade: The harappan developed both Intra & Inter regional
trade
- The people traded their resources/surplus from
one region to other
- Ex. Salt, Honey & Forest produces etc...
* Inter regional trade:
- Trade Harappans bought copper from “Khetri mines” under the

Ahar
culture, Jodhpura-Ganeshwar culture.
Gold from kolar Gold mines

(Karnataka], Kashmir. Agate
(quartzite) from afghanistan
Silver - Central Asia & Afghanistan
Precious stones - lapis lazuli, carnelian, steatite from afghanistan
- Cowries & sea shells – from Gujarat coastal region,
- rock salt from salt range & sea coasts
- The harappans exported food grains, pottery,
terracotta, textiles, CU & Bronze tools.
- Foreign trade largely with Mesopotamia, the

Mesopotamians exported leather items, oils, garments &

different commodities of Usage.
Agriculture, Crops & Dietary habits:
- The Harappans had wide subsistence base

and produced numerous crops.
- People in Gujarat and maharastra produced-Rice,
Millets and lentils, pulses.
Sindh region produced wheat, barley & cotton.
- They used honey as a sweetener produced
groundnut, sesame seeds for oil
- cattle rearing for dairy & meat.
- They consumed different kinds of meat, they had a
large non-veg diet, they used mortar & pestle.
Political Authority/Polity:
- Historians assumed 3 ruling classes –
Administrators, Traders & Merchants, Priests.
- There is also evidence of municipal authority for every town
Religion & Society:
- As we are inhibited due to limitations of literary

sources we largely depend on Archaeological sources
for religion.
- Terracotta seals, Archaeological Buildings &
Constructions, pottery shards given information
about Harappan religion.
- Deities: Seal image of a seated figure in yogic posture
with horned headdress, surrounded by several Animals is
depicted as [pasupati] lord of beasts.

- The image of mother goddess made of terracotta

indicating the predominance of fertility cult.
- The image of mother goddess included the images of
plant, water & human sprouting out from the womb indicating
reproduction & grant of resources by the earth.
- Animal form of worship- especially the Bull, unicorn &
mythical animals like human head & Goat body, lion body
with human face unicorn, bison because of its masculinity.
- We also identified the images of phallic emblem of
Shiva, the linga in Harappan sites.
- Tree spirits pipal tree is worshipped by Harappans.
- Presence of series of fire pits/alters & presence
of charred animal’s bones Indicated presence of cult
of fire & animal sacrifices similar to Vedic system.
- Indication / Existence of specialized structures like Great Bath
- Buildings indicating a temple Mohenjo-Daro
reflected the Harappan religion.
- Great Bath can be a ceremonial public bath for a great temple
- We have identified an image of PasuPati seated on
raised platform in central hall of building in Mahenjo
daro close to the great bath.
- The Indus people believed in Ghosts & animals spirits
because we have identified several amusers to ward off
the spirits
- The harappan burial practices & evidence of grave
goods including pottery breads copper utensils indicate
their belief in after life.
Harappan Society:
- Through town planning and evidence of several

types of houses we can substantiate the presence of

social inequality
- The Harappans enjoyed Dancing, dice & Gambling as
amusements
- Even they have enjoyed bullock cart races as
terracotta toys and figurines depicted them.
Are Harappans warriors?

- Most of their sites had large fortifications & the
existence of Citadel indicated Greater need/
Protection & defenses.
**In Mohenjo-Daro, we identified severed dead bodies

with cut marks lying on the roads indicating an onslaught.
- Even the development of Tools & specialized tools
might indicate defensive equipment.
- The Harappans were beauty conscious, they wore
numerous Jewellery made of beads, shells, Gold and
silver. both men & women had long hair & stylized in
different Pattern
- The woman wore a Saree cloth. men a dhoti & loin
cloth to cover their upper body
- * Bronze casting we have the Bronze image of dancing
girl. Bullock Cart
- Decline & Diffusion: 1900 bce.
- * Decline signifies the disappearance of urban phase
but not the Collapse of entire civilization.
- This phase is Characterized by

disappearance of Cities Theories of decline:

- The cities declined due to repeated Flooding &

earth quakes by Indus river & seismic disturbances
- the city of Mohenjo-Daro has been flooded more
than 7 times over a period of 500-600 yrs.
- The city was rebuilt on Submersed Portions &
every new layer indicated declining Quality & Planning
of the city.
- Criticism: The floods ravaged only the cities on their
bank but the civilization is spread over much larger area.
2. shifting rivers change their courses over a period

time. So major rivers Indus & Gaggaer Hekra
(saraswati) – changed their course which affected the
drinking needs and irrigation capacity leading to decline
in food production and consequently their urban life
Criticism: the river shifting is not a ubiquitous phenomenon
3. Barbaric Invasions:
Mortimer wheeler opined the Harappans were

attacked & their forts destroyed by the invading Aryans
Evidence: In Rig Veda “Indra” is mentioned as purandara, who

destroyed the city of Hariyupia
- In Mohenjo-Daro, we have the evidence of several

dead bodies with cut marks lying on the street suggest
their attack by Aryans.
- Criticism / Analysis: Indra is personification of thunder
storms and rains.
- The Harappans already started leaving the cities by
1900 bce & the Aryans entered India by1500 bce. There is

significant time gap to consider their invasion & even the

aryans attacked the already depopulated remnants of the
old mighty cities.
- Significantly from 1900 bce onwards, the Mesopotamian
records
don’t refer to Meluha
Rakhi Ghari:
Burial DNA samples released the genetic differences

between Harappans & Aryans there was no
interaction between them.
4. Most reasonable theory regarding the decline of
Harappans was given by Prof free serves, Rafiq Mughal
- The civilization declined because of gradual ecological
degradation and disturbance of the subsistence base on
which the entire civilization relied.
- Starting from 5000 bce to 1900 bce, NW region is
under continuous exploitation & unchecked deforestation
for timber & agriculture affected the subsistence base of
the region.
- This new region is semi Avid & Avid region.
- Phenomenal increase in population, increased the
pressure on the land resources.
- The urbanity was created because of the surplus
generated by the country side.
- When the Agri surplus was affected, the whole
edifice of urban 2 degrees was disturbed
- Gradually they migrated to GJ and RJ & started living in
villages.

- After the decline, the Harappan remnants can be

visible in post Harappan rural cultures of Amri, Jukkar,
Jankar & Sindh region.
4.Vedic Age
Aryans spoke Indo-European languages. They are a group
of central Asian tribes migrated from steppes.Stretching
from S-Russia to central Asia to Iran, Afghanistan, India as
explained by Diffusion theory of Gordan Childe (1700-1500
bce).
Balagangadhar Tilak – said that Aryan came from Arctic Region.
Aryans
– 1st inhabited at sapta-sindhu region (NW region).
Mortimer wheeler – suggested Aryan invasion theory.
Rigveda provides the major information regarding the advent
of Aryans.
Indus-Sindhu
Saraswati-Ghaggar hakra (In

Rigveda-Naditama) Parushni-Ravi.R
Askini -Chenab R
Vipasa - Beas.R
Vitasta- Jhelum
Sutudri-Sutlej
**Brahmavartha-place between Sutlej and Yamuna River.
 Before coming to India, Aryans lived in
Afganistan along the Rivers
1. Gomal (Gomati in Rig veda)
2. Kabul (Kubha in R)

3. Kruma rivers (kruma in R)

Chief
occupation:
Pastoralism
- Cultivated Rice (vrihi), Barley
(yava), Wheat Aryans 2 types:
Dasas- those who came to India before

1500 bce Rig Vedic Aryans who came
to India in 1500bce. Dasyu – original
inhabitants of India
Panis – Cattle lifters & who did not believe in Rigvedic gods,
they are also aboriginals.
Conflicts:
- Inter-tribal (between Aryans & Native) – Dasyuhatya
- Intra tribal (among the Aryans)-Dasaraja battle
between confederation of ten tribal kings against bharata
clan chief sudasa who became victorious.
Family:
- Basic unit known as “Kula”
- Head of the family-kulapa
- Grama-head of Grama-Gramani
- Vis-headed by vispati
Jana / tribe – leader – Gopajanasya – has only control over

men & not over the territory

 Sources of Revenue:
- Bali-voluntary contribution made by tribe members
- BAGHA – share of leader in warbooty.
 Political assemblies during early vedic age
- Sabha (all members including female)
- Samiti (elders only)
 Vidatha (tribal assembly mainly for sharing of war
booty among the tribe)
Major Crafts:
- Charoit making, carpentry, Gold & copper smiths, pottery.
- Later;1500-1000 bce
- Agriculture expansion started during last
phases of rig Vedic period.
- Fire is used for destruction of forests & promoted Agriculture.
- Rig Veda mentions use of wooden ploughshare
known as sita & it refers to 5 seasons.
- Population started increasing in later periods, several
indigenous tribals were assimilated into Aryan fold.
- Tribal leader transformed into hereditary ruler
- King (or) Monarch, priests supported the rajan
as hereditary monarch.
- Religion is a great force to give legitimacy to
political authority (Divine theory of kingship).
Economy
- Pastoralism – Chief occupation
- Greater emphasis on cattle & horse

- Cow & Horse has both economic & religious significance

- Godhuli: Measure of time
- Gotra – The people who lived in the same cow shed
- Gavisthi – Battle for cows
- Gaveshana – Searching for cows
- There is community ownership of resources
- Important crop – Yava-Barley, Vrihi-Rice
- Redistribution of resources through bali & Bagha
- Region is Sapta Sindhu region
- Brahma Vartha – between rivers Satluj & Yamuna
Early Vedic Society
Early Vedic Society is largely

egalitarian Society Family / kula –
Basic unit of social organization
Family head – kulapa.
The women had some greater rights
w.r.t men Participated in sabha
Access to education and there were prominent
women scholars Gargeyi
Two types of women

Scholars Visvavandins – life
long woman scholars
Sadyavadu – educated until
marriage
No child marriage existed, post puberty marriages, women
has the right to chose here husband. It is the precursor of

Swayamvara system.
Remarriage of widows - Niyoga marriage
The society in general was liberal and

materialistic The Society based on
kinship her and don relations
Social structure
Initially there is no Varna

The society divided b/w non aryans and Aryans
Dasyus – Original inhabitants they are referred as black and having
dark complexion – Krishna
Dasas- Pre aryans who entered before vedic Aryans.Dasarajnayudha
–
the king of bharata clan Sudasa belonging to dasa.
The purusha sukta in 10th mandala of Rigveda – Refers
to 4 fold vrna system: Brahmana, Kstiatriya, Vaishya,
Sudra.
In Rigveda, there is no rigid differentiation of society into

four varnas. Ex: A family of 4 included as father – doctor
Son- priest Mother – house old activity, Other son- Trade
In early vedic period varna is largely based on their
occupation and it changed frequently.
Brahmana’s – Education and performance of religious
sacrifices. The Brahmanas in this period were amongst a
group of 16 types of priests who didn’t emerge as powerful
community.
Kshatriyas – Fighting class

Vaishyas – initially engaged in Pastoralism and shifting

cultivation Sudras – developed later as distinct varna when
Agriculture become important activity. Verna is not rigid,
Inter varna marriage and inter Varna dining is frequent and
no restrictions.
Panis and Dasyus were treated with contempt by the Aryans they
were mentioned as akratu who did not practice vedic religion.
Marriage
Monogamy – was prevalent

Polygamy and polyandry – were visible, not ubiquitous. In
this period, marriage system institutionalized as sacrament
and sacred ritual.
Types of Marriage
1. Brahma type – Father searches for Bride and

the brides father performs Kanyadana to groom
with gifts.
2. Daiva type : The Bride’s Father gives away the daughter
as
Dakshina to priest during a sacrifice
3. Arsha type : Bride’s Father gives his daughter in marriage
to
rishi/sage where grooms father in exchange
gives 2 cows
4. Prajapatya type - simple diff b/w this and
Brahma type There is no exchange of Gifts
5. Asura Type – transaction where the father of
Bride gives her in Exchange for wealth from the
groom. Precursor of bride price and kanyasulka.
6. Gandharva type – Groom and Bride – love
each other – Elope and marriage

7. Rakhsasa type – the Groom vanquishes other

contenders and abducts the bride with his force
8. Paisacha – Groom molests/Sexually assaults
a girl and out of compulsion she is married to
him
Downry in modern sense mean – the groom
demands from the bride.
Asura type can be considered as precursor for the
rise of Bride price – Kanyasulkam.
Early Vedic religion / Vedic Dharma
The early Vedic religion is based on Natural forms of

worship and primitive animism.
The Aryans worshipped Natural forces by giving human
attributes to them.
Indra – god of rain and Tunder
- Worshipped as war lord
- Rigveda – Describes Indra as the destroyer of
city hariyupiya [Hareppa]
Destroyer of Vritra [ the dams which barricaded the

rives]. Nearly 250 hymns of rigveda are attributed
to indra.
Agni – agnihotra or havyavahana
- 2nd Imp. God
- Purifier of Soul
- Associated with purity
- He is the principle receiver of all the sacrificial gifts

- Referred to the domestic fire ‘Garhapatya’

in the home Varuna
- Identified with water bodies not essentially rain.
- Mainly responsible for maintenance of universal order ‘rita’
Soma
- Plant
- Also means ‘moon’
- Soma plant is Associated with religious offerings and
Aryans believed in drinking Soma juice for material gains
and during sacrifices. Soma and Sura are Intoxicating
drinks consumed by Aryans, mainly during sacrifices
Sun God
He is given so many attributes
Different positions of the sun in a day is attributed
with different names
Ushas- sunrise
Sandhya / Savita – sunset
Sarasvati Riven is mentioned as Naditama or the most

sacred river. Animal worship
- Cow is the chief sacred Animal
- It is also the principle sacrificial Animal
- Horse – Especially in Aswamedha yajna – the
principle sacrificial Animal.
- In the Vedic sacrifices,, there is reference to sacrifice
or slaughter of Animals – Essentially the old Animals
- There is evidence of beef consumption in early Vedic period.

- In Early Vedic period, the people performed

sacrifices, mainly for material gains, there is no
spiritual linkage
1. Praja – Fertility for good sons
2. Pasu – greater cattle wealth
3. For victory in battles
Non Aryans gods Rudra – Worshipped by Non Aryans, he is

related with Pasupati of Harappa and later shiva.
Pushan worshipped by sudras initially cattle herders.

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ANCIENT HISTORY Contact us: 8143414455

CSB IAS ACADEMY

- Mythology-based on legends with minimal

 Britishers – to study literature of India – Translated

Jonathan Duncan – Sanskrit

Email : csbiasacademy@gmail.com 1 www.csbias.com

Max Muller published ‘Sacred Books of East Series’.

 J. S. Mill- Periodization of Indian History

Hindu, Islamic & Christian periods

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inscriptions 2. Foreign sources

1. secular buildings ex. Forts 2. Religious buildings

Inscriptions: (permanent records written-

Archaeological sources- Oldest and primary records of Historical

 Bori (Maharastra)- Evidence of human ancestors in

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settlement, burial practice, dietary practices,

- Numismatics- study of coins

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Inscription: Permanent records inscribed on stones,

 “James Princep” deciphered the

Ex. Allahabad Prasasti – by Harisena

Ex. Ashokan edicts

Early inscriptions in India

- Chandragupta Maurya – 1st issued

- Emperor Ashoka – Issued highest nuber of

a) Hathigumpha inscription issued by Kalinga

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kharevela-speaks popularity of Jainism in Odisha

Ashokan inscriptions are inscribed in Brahmi, Greek, Aramaic,

His portrait was discovered from “Kanganahali” in Karnataka.

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which are not created by humans.

Veda Brahmana Aranyaka Upanishad Priest

Rig Veda- Earliest one (1500-1000 Bce)- 10 mandalas, 1028

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Rig veda explains about the sacrificial rituals and life

Consists of Rigveda hymns in rhythm forming

Hymns for daily rituals of marriages, Upanayana and

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Upanishad means to sit

Vedangas six auxillary disciplines for better

Composed in post vedic period i.e., (800 bc to 600 bc)

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- It includes- Dharmasastras legal codes

Religious texts composed by brahmanas around 1st-4th century

Amarasimha amarakosa- refers to 5 important components of puranas

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Epics or itihasas two great epics

Buddhist literature: pali canonical literature

I Suttapitaka- composed by Ananda – teachings of

“Apadana literature” – important Buddhist pali

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literature. Ceylonese Buddhist chronicles –

- Agama sutras- canonical literature written in “Ardhamagadhi”.

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Magasthanese – Indica explais about the

1. Fahien- Buddhist monk who visited India during reign

Al suleman (815 ad)—rashtrakutas, Gurjara

court of Mihir Bhoja

Proto history: It is a period between prehistory & Historical

 Paleolithic culture developed in the Pleistocene period

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