a6 contoured plans and longitudinal sections of il | ridges with span 9 m or more 8 8 suitable sca ans of station yards. Scale 1m = 50m, petaited drawings of buildings and bridges. Scale: 1 maim. pons of level crossings. oF grade separated crossings geale stem = $0.m. etais of allimportant features such as bridges, rivers, roads, canals airbases, etc. lying within 300 m on either sie of centre line should be supplied and prepared to suitable scale, 1x the end of the railway project, the engineer must prepare the projectreport under following headings + Introduction : Historical and geographical background. + Alignment Elements : Gauge, obligatory points, gradients, curves, lengths and levels of different points ‘© Alignment : Basic requirements and factors to be considered for good alignment. «Alternate Routes for Alignment : Their merits and demerits with economic consideration ‘+ Proposed Alignment : Detailed survey, preparation of rawings, nd collection of information. * Construction : Standard of construction, depending upon type and potential of trafic, locomotive ferfomance and economic considerations, must be escrbed and discussed. * Conclusions and recommendations. * Estimation of Railway project : Finally an estimate of Project considering all capital investments and working “epenses should be prepared. DESCRIPTION OF PERMANENT WAY * Reonsists of two parallel rails having specified distance if between and fastened to sleepers, which are ‘bedded in a laye of ballast of specified thickness ‘$P'ead over the formation. The rails sre joined each Wher by fh-plates and bolts (in case of fish-pated ry OF by welding (in case of SW.R, LW.R. and C. "Ras discussed later) and these are fastened 10 Fig: 1.1: Various components of track ach component of the track has » basic function to Perform. The rails act as girders to transmit the wheel loads of trains to the sleepers. The sleepers hold the ‘alls in proper position and provide a correct gauge ‘and transfer the loads to the ballast. The ballast is placed on level ground known as formation The sleepers are embedded in ballast, which gives 3 Uniform level surface, provide drainage and transfer the load to a larger area of formation. The formation ‘ives 2 level surface, where the ballast rests and takes the total load ofthe track and trains moving on it. The description of above components of track are described in coming chapters. Fig. 1.1 shows various ‘components of track [1.6 REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD TRACK ‘A good track or permanent way should allow for comfortable and safe ride at maximum permissible speed ‘with minimum maintenance cost. For achieving the above ‘objectives, a good permanent way should have the following characters The gauge should be correct and uniform. «+The rails should have proper cross levels Ina straight track, the two rails must be at the same level On curves, the outer rail should have proper super elevation and there should be proper transition at junction ofa stright and a curve. «+The alignment should be correct. In straight vack the alignment should be free from kinks and i case of curves, a proper transition should be provided tween straight track and the curve 4 The gradient stout be uniform and 27 NEE OL grant shoul be owed by smoot vei ee ve a smooth ride. : vr ork shoul be reset and esi et 12 Ie and vibrations ofunning Wack:Gono corawrneers causes Wearenc tear due to fe, con Itis however, useful as ing action. helos the vehicle to negotiate a curve smoothly. gives smooth riding duces wear and tear of wheel flanges. DIFFERENT TYPES OF SLEEPERS epers which are mostly in use on Indian Railways "as:lron Sieepers. orcrete Sleepers 1 Need for Development of Different Types of Sleepers in India Wooden sleepers are ideal sleepers for fish-plated track. Hence, they were used profusely initially. But since last few decades, there is a chronic shortage of wooden sleepers. Also, they have a short life of 15 - 20 yeas. In view of this cast iron and steel trough sleepers ‘were used extensively. The consumption of these metal sleepers at present is quite high and the Indian Raiways consume about 40 p.c. of entire pig-iron preduction in the country. There is need to reduce the pig iron consumption by the railways so that the same can be made available in large quantities for defence purpose and for other heavy. Engineering Industries. in addition, the introduction of higher speeds, welding of rails and instalation of long welded rails have recently been taken up ina big way by Indian Railways. * Sleeper for lorg welded track has to be heavy and Sturdy and should be capable of offering adequate lateral fesistance to the track. Wooden and steel sep were found to be lacking to meet their ae fully. Both these considerations led to "vestigations for selecting a suitable type of ‘rere sleeper for use on Indian Railways, Tn view of thi i = Gf this wooden sleepers are discussed below ir a advantages and disadvantages only). Steel anc 5 it i Ton sleepers are discussed bit in more detail. Ir 22 of be deg tet sleepers even manufacturing will lsc discussed, Advantages : * Cheap and easy to manufacture * Absorbs shocks and has got good capacity to dampe the vibrations thereby retains packing well * Easy handling without damage * Suitable for track circuited sections, * Suitable for areas having yielding formations. * Alignment can be easily corrected * More suitable for modern methods of maintendince. * Can be used with or without ballast * Can be used on bridges and ash pits also. Disadvantages : * Lesser life due to wear, decay and attack by vermin. * Liable to mechanical wear with beater packing. * Difficult to maintain gauge. Susceptible to fire hazards, Size of Wooden Sleepers : The size of sleepers for B. G, M. G. and N, G.is as follows. Table 1.11 Gauge Size (cm) BG. 215 x25x 13 MG. 180x20%11.5 NG. 150% 18x 115 Wooden sleepers required for bridges and points and crossings are of thicker section i.e, 25 x 18 cm, 1.14.3 Steel Sleepers ‘+ Non-availability of durable species of timber and the poor life of wooden sleepers in tropical regions led to the laying of long lengths of track with steel sleepers in Africa, India and the far east. In India, about 30 per cent of the track is laid on steel sleepers. «Broadly steel sleepers are of two types (a) steel trough sleepers on mainline and{(b) steel sleepers for turnouts. Steel Trough Sleepers for Mainline : ‘+ They are made from rolled trough sections of steel, cut, to proper length and hot pressed to obtain the desired shape and cant of 1: 20 at the rail seats. There are three different rolled sections of sigeper plates from which the standard sleepers for various B.G. and MG. rail sections are pressed Plate 13 mm thick at rail seat for 52 kg and 90 R rails (8G), weighing 2866 kg/m length. Total weight : 79kg.ao oe oN a he e> ole eg IPlates Tie bars Cotes Keys Pande cps Rubber pads 1.21 BALLAST. Ballast i a layer of Broken stone, gravel, moorum, Of any tty material placed and packed below and around ther sleepers for distributing the load from the sleepers to the oration and for providing drainage as well as giving ateral and longitudinal stability to the track 1.21.1 Functions of Ballast * To transfer and distribute the load from sleepers to a large area of formation To provide elasticity and resilience to the track for getting proper riding comfort. To give necessary resistance to track for longitudinal and lateral stability To give effective drainage to track. To provide effective means of maintaining evenness and alignment of the track 1.21.2 Types of Ballast Following types of ballast are used on Indian Railways: 1. Sand Ballast: Itis primarily used for C1. posts. In areas where traffic is very low, it can also be used with wooden and ST. sleepers. Being light, it blows off, but has good drainage properties. It also causes excessive ‘wear of rail top and moving part of the rolling stock Moorum Ballast : It is normally used as an initial ballast in new constructions and also as sub-ballast. As it prevents water from percolating into the formation, itis also used as a blanketing material for black cotton so Coal Ash or Cinder : It is usually used in yards and. sidings or as an initial ballast in new constructions, being very cheap and easily available It is harmful for steel sleepers and fittings because of its corrective action, This type of ball Broken Stone Ballast used on Indian Railways. It is generally procured from hard stones like granite, quartzite and hard trop et The quality of stone should be such that it is neither Lis month y porous nor flakes off under vagaries of weather Previously 50 m size ballast was specified for fat bottom sleepers like concrete and wooden sleepers and 40 mm size was specified for metal sleepers like CST-9 and trough sleepers. For uniformity sake, now 50 mm size ballast is to be adopted universally for all types of sleepers In case of points and crossings, these are subjected to heavy blows of moving loads and are maintained to a high degree of precision. Smal size ballast (25 mm) is, therefore, preferable because of its fineness for smo!» adjustments, better compaction and more fricvional area of the ballast 1.21.3 Requirements of Good 4+ It should be touch and wear resistant ‘+ It should be hard without getting crushed under the moving loads. It should be cubical having sharp edges. It should be non-porous and non-absorbent of water It should resist corrosion. It should be durable and should not get pulverized under the weather conditions. + Itshould provide good drainage of water, 4 It should be cheap and economical in service 1.21.4 Specifications of Stone Ballast Following are specifications generally followed on Indian Railways, © Quality of Stone Ballast : The stone ballast shall be hard, durable, resistant to impact and free from adherent coatings. Materials likely to disintegrate last@2eos Shot on vivo Z1Pro Sea Ao tla lelaT) Ara O08 ENP i ak-YA NCO de ole) Lyte fats id fs rams have emerged as 2 crucial Component east in India, addressing the growing oa a reeds of densely populated urban areas, A eee consists of electric-powered tyains that BS ack! tracks, often underground, elevated, or a fog Besson of both. These systems provide a reliable, tan relatively fast mode of transportation within oping to reduce traffic congestion, air pollution, | Bevavaltire inroduction of metro rail systems in India has been a nificant step towards modernizing urban transportation Ls improving the quality of life for residents. Some key sacs of the metro rail systems in India include: Uban Congestion Relief: Indian cities have faced sigificant challenges related to traffic congestion and inadequate public transportation. Metro systems provide a way to alleviate congestion on roads by offering an alternative mode of transportation that is not affected by traffic jams. Eficent Transportation: Metro systems are known for their punctuality and speed. They provide a faster means of travel compared to other modes of "ransporttion, especially during peak hours. Environmental Benefits: Metro systems contribute to reducing air pollution and greenhouse gas emissions 8y encoureging people to switch from private vehicles {© public transportation, metro systems help mitigate the envi-onmental impact of urban transportation. Economic Development: Metro systems often spur , onomic growth by facilitating efficient movement of pcre within cities. They can lead to increased ‘estmant and development around metro stations, boosting local econor nee Connectivity: Metro systems enhance the ana "within a city, making it easier for people to TT One part of the city to another without the “sl of changing multiple modes of transportation. ae Metio stations are designed to be ts tan People with disabilities and these who ersure ay MOblity This promotes inclusivity and ble vance,’ Wier range of individuals can use Ne transportation. POINTS, CROSSINGS ano Modern Infrastructur, 3 and technologically a RAIL re: Metro systems bring modern advanced infrastructure to urban idvanced signaling systems, smart Ind state-of-the. “art stations, Reduced Travel Time: Metro systems are designed 1 foilow dedicated routes, often taking the most ta path between stations. This feduces travel time Compared to other modes of transportation that are subject to road conditions, Major cities in India that have established or are in the Process of establishing metro rail systems include Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, and Pune. Each metro system is customized to the specific needs of the city and its population density 2.7.2_ Options of Mass Ray India Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS) encompass a variety of transportation options designed to move a large number of people quickly and efficiently within urban areas. These systems aim to alleviate traffic congestion, reduce pollution, and provide convenient and sustainable modes of transportation. Here are some common options for Mass Rapid Transit Systems: * Metro Rail: Metro systems consist of electric trains that run on dedicated tracks, often underground or elevated, connecting various parts of a city. They offer high capacity, speed, and frequent services, making them a popular choice for densely populated urban areas. + Light Rail Transit (LRT): LAT systems are similar to metro systems but typically have shorter train lengths, lower capacity, and a mix of at-grade and elevated tracks, LRTs are often used to connect suburbs and other areas not well-served by metro systems. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT): BRT systems use dedicated bus lanes to provide fast and efficient bus services. BRT. stations often resemble train stations and_ offer features such as pre-paid fare systems, priority’ ignaling, and level boarding. . joe Monoral systems use trains tat run on 3 single elevated track. Monoals ae often desloyed areas with limited space and are known for thet futuristic appearance. J Mass Rapid Transit Systems (MRTS) encompass * ime transportation options designed casa mr ly and efficiently within ‘ ree vt Tr eviate traffic congestion ear palin Yo provide convenient and sustainable monk pollution, anenartation, il ticketing solutions, awot the ling nay ind ‘at, an, + Provisions of good beaching ground, ample quay * The entrance of the harbour, the depth and Ships often req and an a fer those sorretimes at a premium in abscure por, 3.1.3 Harbour Fig. 2 Large vessels are economic means of transport of ca from stormy weather, in navigable waters well protected naturally or artificially and is situated along sea shore or river estuary or lake or canal connected to sea, 3.2, REQUIREMENTS OF HARBOURS'AND PORTS Following are the requirements of harbours and ports: * A careful considevation and survey of the area with @ view of ascertain ng what type of stones, gravel ec. are present and also the water. ‘space easily accessible by road or rail is important especially in smaller classes of harbour. shculd be sutfident to cope up with the density of traffic, degree of protection and the basic purpose the harbour The depth of weter in the approach channel must sufficient for navigation of vessel. However, when sv ideal conditions do not persist, proper considerations in the designing must be done DOCK AND HARBOUR ENGINEER IG they do ‘and gocds. However to unload this cargo the vessel needs to be protected from the fury of sea, And this is done ina harbour where ships, boats, and barges can seek sheter h manoeuvring of the ship jn, in which ma 1g of the ship area so that the vessel can | should be of rinuors headway without the help of tug, ‘area rust be clam and thereby contribute ur ‘cf vesseby providing breakwaters, silty g ground and secure anchorage at various a ro ‘commercial purposes including fishing ed equadeor of warships ane Harbour management should zr an ret serous rm to people and rmeasut jon forthe marine environment. sa TON OF HARBOURS | SAICATION OF HARBOURS] d Sere are chssified based upon : 1. Protection needed, 2. ublity and include ton a Clstfication of Harbours based upon the Protection Needed _ presse harbours are classified, based upon the protection jzeded as follows: 1. Artif cial Harbour, 2. Natural Harbour and 3. Semi-Natural Harbour. {Artificial Harbour : An artificial harbour is a man- made ha-bour deliberately constructed breakwaters, sea walls, or jetties, or otherwise, they could have been coiistructed by dredging, and these require maintenance by further periodic dredging. These types. of harbours are also called as man-rnade harbours. Protected and fn — Protected and de2p enough for anchorage. Madras harbour is an artificial harbour. The comporents of harbour like breakwater, berth, etc. are shown in Fig. 3.3. Fig, 3.3: Artificial Harbour ‘Natural Harbour : ‘Natural harbour is protected from storms and waves by prominences of land. The natural harbour consists of a part of body of water which is Vizhir show. anSRS RE ad PE ee + They are also used to help prevent beach erosion. The most common breakwater used has a core of small rocks oF rubble with @ covering of large rocks to keep: the core from being washed eway by the sea, + The larger the rocks used in the cover, the more likely they will remain in place. Unfortunately the cost of the breakwater increases with the size of the rocks because ‘of the cost of moving them into place and maintaining them. + The breakwaters may be small structures, placed one to three hundred feet offshore in relatively shallow water, designed to protect a gently sloping beach. Breakwaters may be either fixed or floating, the choice depends on normal water depth and tidal range. + Breakwater construction is usvally parallel_or perpendicular to the coast to maintain tranquility condition in the port + Most of the breakwater construction depends upon wave approach and considering some - other environmental parameters. Sreakwaters are subject to damage. and overtopping by big storms can lead t0 problems of drainage of water that gets behind them. + The wall also serves to encourage erosion of beach deposits fram the foot of the wall and can increase long shore sediment transport. 3.5.1 Types of Breakwaters 1. Rubble Mound Breakwater (Structure) : Consist of interior graded layers of stone and an outer armor layer, Armor layer may be of stone or specially shaped concrete units + Adaptable to 2 wide range of water depths, ssitable on nearly all foundation. ‘+ .ayering provides better economy (large stones gre more expensive) and the structure does not ypcaly fal catastroohiclly 2 protection continues to be provided after damage and repairs ‘nay be mace after the storm passes} © Radi repaired Samer units are large enough to rest wave attack, 2et Blow high wave enesgy tansmission thence the layering to rectuce tansmission). Graded layers selow the amor layer absorb wave energy and REENGINEERING (OBATUCCIVIL) 3.5) 2. Composite or Wall-Type Breakwaters : Typiczlly DOCK AND HARBOUR ENGINECRING prevent the finer soll n the foundation from being undermined. + Sloped structure produces less reflected wave gf action than the wall type. ‘+ Require larger amounts of material then most other types. Harbour side Fig. 3.9: Rubble mound breskwater supplemented by ‘concrete blocks and patented blocks consist of cassions (2 concrete or stee! shee! filed with sand or gravel) sitting on a gravel base (also known as vertical wall breakwater). Exposed faces are verti slightly inclined (weali-type). © Sheetpile walls and sheetpile cals of vas shapes are in common use. . ioe tei ce eee structure are important considerations fora vertical structures. es yr . If forces permit and foundation is suitable. $#% sheeple svuctures may be used in depths 42° about 40 fect. iis ‘© When foundation conditions are suitable. $ sheet pies may be used fonm a caer, FOF )) type structure without penesration of the pies) the bottorn materialINFRASTRUCTURE ENGINEERING (DBATU CIVIL) 5. River Basins ; A river harbour where basins have been excavated to accommodate ships, often parallel to the flow of the river. This confers the advantage of additional berth space without impeding fluvial navigation, 77 (2.6%) such ports exist, including Bremen, Germany: 6, River Tide Gates : A river harbour behind a set of locks or other mechanical devices built “to insure sufficient water levels in the harbour for all tide levels Such harbours tend to be located close to the ocean, such as in a river delta or estuary for the case of Bremenhaven, Germany (estuary of the river Weser) ‘Only 47 (1.0%) such ports exist 7. Canal or Lake : A harbour located along an artificial canal or by a river accessible through a navigable waterway. 67 (1.4%) such ports exist, including Brugge, Belgium: 8 Open Roadstead : A harbour with no natural or artificial protection is called open roadstead harbour. They are often built to accommodate very large ships (such as oll tankers) or are in a setting where there are limited tides, implying that sheltering infrastructure are much less required (Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Gulf of Mexico). 580 (125%) ports are in this category, including Ra's at Tannurah, Saudi Arabia, a major oil port in the Persian Gulf 3.4 SELECTION OF SITE FOR HARBOUR Optimization of planning, site selection and design processes are essential, as mitigation or restoration during or after construction can be prohibitively expensive. While socio-economic factors are important determinants in site selection, environmental aspects must also be considered Following various types of surveys and maps are required before deciding upon the site for a harbour. (i) Topographic Map : This is a map showing all the relevant land details near the proposed. shelter Features such as the village, pathways, roads, wells, beaches rocky outcrops, vegetation the electricity supply cables appear on a topographic map. (ii) Contour Map : This shows the sea-bottom depths in ‘and around the proposed shelter. Depths are shown either in grid form or as contours. (ill) Tide Survey + This is a table showing the maximum and minimum tide levels at the proposed location. (ay DOCK AND HARBOUR INGINEERING * Tidal Stream Map : location, direction and strength of tidal strearn + Wave Height Survey intensity or heights of waves are showing in tabular This is a map showirg the The direstion, frequency and form for the proposed area, Following factors are required to be considered for selection of site for harbour () Port facilities not only requirs lerge areas of coastal land and waters for their construction, conversion oF extension, but also for the operation of all port installations, accompanying irdustrial and commercial installations and transport systems (i) Connections to land transportation such as highways, railways and pipelines, (ii) Faciities capable of sccommodating large containerships require long berth lengths, large cranes ‘and railway or highway access (jv) Specific attention should be given to the potential loss of critical habitat and to morphological changes including coastal erosion and degradation of water quality () Careful site selection may reduce the potentially hazardous environmental impacts and the cost of mitigation and/or restoration, as well as lessen public controversy (Wi) Depending upon the type =f rarbour, the type of vessel visiting the harbour, the depth for draft of the vessel must be decided. (Wi) A clear survey about the strata available must be done (vilThe site must be selected in suct a way that it must be able to provide maximum facilities to all the vessels visiting 3.5 BREAKWATERS M ing calm water concitions in harbour is very important for the various activicies scheduled for the vessels. However, apart from ratural harbours, artificial harbours need to provide with breakwaters, Breakwaters protect the ship berthed inside the harbour from the action of Feavy and strong waves of sea. Breakwater is to break momentum of water by means of wave breakers, + The height of a breakwater depands upon its ourpose. extent of enclosed water area and the nature of ‘existing shipping work Generally, the height of breakwater is kept as equivelent to 1.2 to 1.25 times the height of the waves expected VP meAIRPORT ENGINEER, —_——————— IG al ge are ous Pele aa ent | [4.2_AIRPORT COMPONENT a ‘An airport has to major components nd] 1. Airside ke | 2. Landside Distinction on | 1 Airside | The following arside features are depicted on the (irpon layout plan) ALP ; id | * Runways, runway shoulders, blast pads, runway marking 'S | © Taxiways, taxiway shoulders, aprons. ir} Navigational Aids (ILS, PAPI, MALS, MALSR, rotating 5 beacon, segmented circle). * Boundaries and dimensions associated with Object h Free Areas (OFA’s), Runway Safety areas (RSA), Runway Protection Zones (RPZ's), Building Restriction, ‘ Lines (BRL's), Glide Slope Critical Areas. 2. Landside : The following landside features are depicted on the ALP: * Major buildings with building identification numbers. ‘+ Parking areas, fencing. * On-airport access roads, adjacent off-airport roadways: railroads. contours, stream lines, the earthen dam and 1] Creek Reservoir for hangars and other aviation related structures. = an * Other physical features including ten-foot topogrephic | Terminal ouldngs Passerge Vehicular b enclave | ating facies 3 ‘aor roads ad vansporaton aces "Ripon ground ccess system Fig. 4.2 4 a + Runway, the most essential component of an air-por, ‘enables landing and take-off of airplanes. For all but the crudest airports, itis @ paved strip. Many ai-ports have more than one runway. Parallel runways are two runways laid out in the same direction to accommodate operations when the capacity of a single runway is exceeded. * Taxiways Provide a convenient ineans for air-craft to ‘enter and exit a runway. They are usually paved strips Connecting runways with each otner and with aircraft parking area, * Parking Aprons are typically paved areas adjacent to terminal building that aircraft uses as an approach to the building and to stop to permit passengers and rae to enter or exit the aircraft. Aprons usually incorporate fuel systems, electrical power supply, and ‘acities for servicing aircraft. eel Building usvally is incorporated in an ree to provide a transition for passengers and crew Sound to air and vice versa. It houses waiting es for passengers and facilities for baggage and Also, ral_contains_ airline