Real-Time Estimation of Queue at Signalized Intersec-

tion using RFID Sensors under Mixed Traffic Conditions

Abstract: Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) rely on automated sensor data from
roads/vehicles to provide adequate traffic management solutions. Radio Frequency Identification
(RFID) technology for detecting vehicles with RFID tags is currently being used for data collec-
tion. There are many challenges in adopting this technology in mixed traffic conditions, where
the traffic stream compose of vehicles of different categories that move without any lane disci-
pline. The effectiveness of RFID sensors for data collection under mixed traffic conditions in
Kerala, India, is assessed in this study. Data from RFID sensors were used to develop real-time
prediction models for estimating queues at a signalized intersection for different traffic scenarios.
The estimated queues were compared with actual queues, and the results were promising. Thus
the study devised techniques for constructing real-time estimation models that could be applied
in Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) operating in mixed traffic settings.
Keywords: Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS), RFID technology, mixed traffic, queue,
Kalman Filter estimation.
INTRODUCTION
Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) rely on various sensors to gather
information about vehicle parameters and movements. Initially developed for traffic
flow management in homogeneous traffic conditions with lane discipline, most ITS
technologies utilized loop detectors for data collection worldwide. However, loop de-
tectors' intrusive nature caused installation, maintenance, and pavement removal prob-
lems, resulting in traffic disruptions. To address these challenges, numerous non-intru-
sive sensing technologies were introduced as part of ITS development. However, the
situation in India is characterized by vehicles moving without adhering to lane disci-
pline and having a significant degree of heterogeneity among them, which raises con-
cerns about the performance of several of these sensors. As a solution, the estimation
of travel time currently relies on the utilization of GPS (Global Positioning System)
technology and Bluetooth sensors. Using an RFID reader to measure travel time repre-
sents a cutting-edge technology in the realm of travel time studies. Four-wheelers sold
in India after October 2014 come equipped with RFID tags. The quantum of research
that focuses on using data obtained from RFID sensors for real-time traffic data collec-
tion and queue estimation is limited and presents a relatively new research opportunity.
In the context of traffic state estimation of spatial variables such as density,
the queue can be considered as another variable that cannot be directly measured in
real-time using existing detection technology. Therefore, one must rely on estimates
based on measurements from other location-based sensors. For this study, the queue
was estimated using data collected from RFID sensors for various scenarios of queue
formation. In this study, the queue for an intersection approach is characterized as the
number of vehicles that have stopped at the end of the red period during each signal
cycle.
2

LITERATURE REVIEW
Traffic state estimation is a critical task for traffic management and control. Traffic state
estimation refers to the process of inferring the current state of traffic on a roadway
network using available data. This is a critical traffic management and control task, as
it allows for timely and effective responses to congestion and incidents. Various ap-
proaches have been proposed in the literature, including model-based, data-driven, hy-
brid, Bayesian, Kalman filtering, and particle filtering. Each approach has its strengths
and weaknesses, and the choice of approach will depend on the application's specific
requirements.
Kalman filter models have been widely used in queue estimation due to their ability
to estimate the state of a system based on incomplete and noisy measurements. The
following section summarizes some of the recent research on applying Kalman filter
models for queue estimation. Jena et al. (2012) evaluated the performance of the Kal-
man filter-based approach in terms of estimation accuracy for wireless networks and
showed that it outperforms other methods, such as the moving average filter and the
exponential weighted moving average filter. Zhang et al. (2019) proposed a Kalman
filter model to estimate the size of queues in an intelligent transportation system. The
model uses real-time traffic data and can adapt to changes in the traffic flow. The results
showed that the Kalman filter approach outperformed traditional queue estimation
methods. Sakthivel et al. (2020) used data from multiple sensors to estimate the real-
time queue length using Kalman Filter estimation. The results showed that the Kalman
filter approach was more accurate than traditional queue estimation methods. Cao et al.
(2021) proposed a Kalman filter-based method for traffic queue detection and length
estimation. The model uses data from video cameras and can estimate the queue length
even under low light conditions. The results showed that the Kalman filter approach
had a higher accuracy than traditional queue estimation methods. Zhang et al. (2021)
proposed an improved Kalman filter algorithm for queue length estimation in a single-
lane urban road. The model uses data from multiple sensors and can adapt to changes
in traffic flow. The results showed that the improved Kalman filter algorithm had a
higher accuracy than traditional queue estimation methods.
In summary, Kalman filter models have shown great potential for queue estimation
in various transportation systems. These models can adapt to changes in traffic flow
and are more accurate than traditional queue estimation methods. However, there is still
room for further research to improve the accuracy and applicability of Kalman filter
models in queue estimation.
Only limited studies have reported the application of RFID sensors for data collec-
tion and model development under mixed traffic conditions. This study explores the
possibility of using RFID sensors as a data collection technique and use them for the
development of queue estimation models for ITS applications under mixed traffic con-
ditions. Two traffic scenarios were considered for the estimation of the queue, viz.
Queue within Detector (QWD) and Queue Beyond Detector (QBD), based on whether
the queue is within or beyond the advance detector (detector placed upstream of the
stop line), respectively.
 3

The main contributions of this study are:

1. The feasibility of using RFID sensors in queue estimation under mixed traf-
fic conditions was analyzed in the study.
2. The study developed a real-time estimation model for the queue for different
traffic scenarios.
3. The queue estimation scheme developed in the study can be used as a com-
ponent in ITS applications for traffic management under mixed traffic condi-
tions.

STUDY METHODOLOGY
A typical four-legged signalized intersection with considerable traffic vol-
ume was selected for the study. The efficiency of RFID sensors was quantified by eval-
uating the penetration rate of the sensors. During the data collection period, manual
data collection was carried out to determine the category-wise count of vehicles. The
data from the RFID sensor and the classified traffic count were used to determine the
penetration rate. For the development of queue estimation models, RFID sensors were
placed on the side of the road in one approach of the intersection, one near the stop line
and the other at 100 m upstream.
Queue estimation models were developed for varying traffic scenarios:
Queue within Detector (QWD) and Queue Beyond Detector (QBD) conditions. QWD
scenario indicates the scenario where the maximum number of vehicles in the queue
stopped at the end of the red period is within the sensor location. In contrast, the QBD
scenario indicates where the maximum number of vehicles in queue stopped at the end
of the red period is beyond the sensor location. A video graphics technique was used to
record the signal timing information and traffic count, which were further extracted
manually for the data analysis. Figure 1 shows the methodology of the study.
STUDY SITE AND DATA COLLECTION
The study site selected was a four-legged signalized intersection at Pattom
(Figure 2) in the Trivandrum district of Kerala, India. To determine the penetration rate,
the chosen stretch was a mid-block section upstream of the intersection approach in the
east-west direction (5510 PCU/hr). Another approach of the intersection in the north-
south direction, namely the Plamoodu approach (3661 PCU/hr), was selected for the
study for queue estimation under QWD and QBD queue formation scenarios. Figure 3
shows the snapshot of the RFID sensor and associated components installed at the study
site.
4

Site selection

RFID sensors and video graphics survey data

Queue within Detector (QWD) Queue beyond Detector (QBD)

scenario scenario

Real-time estimation

Model validation

Figure 1. Study methodology

Figure 2. Pattom intersection showing the location of RFID sensors (Source: Open
Street Maps)
 5

Raspberry
Pi

RFID Sensor
sensor Sensor
Figure 3. Data collection unit

DATA EXTRACTION
The data from RFID sensors included the unique ID of RFID tags of the cars in the
vehicle stream and the time at which these IDs were detected. The data from the video
feed were extracted manually to determine the signal timings and traffic count of dif-
ferent vehicle classes. The number of RFID cars detected during the red period for
every signal cycle was determined by comparing the signal timings and the time stamps
recorded by the RFID sensor. Classified counts entering and exiting the intersection
were extracted during red and green periods in the N-S stretch for both the traffic sce-
narios (QBD and QWD) for different vehicle categories and were converted to Passen-
ger Car Units (PCU) (IRC-106 (1990)). The input-output method was used to determine
the actual queue at the end of the red period.
DATA ANALYSIS
Percentage traffic composition
A graph (Figure 4) was plotted to determine the vehicle composition in the traffic
stream. It can be observed from Figure 5 that the traffic stream composes of 47% of
two-wheelers, 14% of three-wheelers, 25% of cars without RFID tags, 10% of cars with
RFID tags, and a minor percentage of LMVs and HMVs.
6

LMV HMV
2% 2%

RFID
Cars
10%

TW
Non RFID Cars 47%
25%

ThW
14%

Figure 4. Traffic composition of vehicles in the Kesavadasapuram-Pattom stretch

Penetration rate
The penetration rate of these sensors was calculated to assess the appropriateness of
RFID sensors for data collection. The penetration rate was determined by utilizing
equations (1) and (2) to analyze the proportion of vehicles identified by the sensors to
all vehicles in the traffic stream and specifically for cars.
Penetration rate for all vehicles = N s (1)
V
where Ns= Total number of vehicles detected by the sensor
V = Total number of vehicles in the traffic stream, including cars
Penetration rate with respect to cars = Ns (2)
Vc
where Vc= Total number of cars

Table 1 displays the sensor's penetration rate concerning the total number of vehicles
and the total number of cars for all approaches to the intersection. Based on the infor-
mation presented in Table 2, it can be observed that the RFID sensors' average penetra-
tion rate is 11.4% concerning the total number of vehicles in the traffic stream and
40.63% concerning the cars. Therefore, it can be inferred that the RFID sensors can
successfully detect RFID tags attached to cars in mixed traffic conditions, making them
a suitable source for traffic data collection in such scenarios.
 7

Table 1 Penetration Rate of Sensors

Total count Penetra-

The penetra-
Traffic count of vehicles tion rate
Data collection Total count tion rate for
of vehicles detected by for the
period of cars (Vc) the total vehi-
(V) the sensor total cars
cles (%)
(Ns) (%)

9:15 to 13:15 8242 890 2288 10.8 38.89

14:30 to 18:30 7361 884 2086 12 42.37

Average 7802 887 2187 11.4 40.63

DEVELOPMENT OF QUEUE ESTIMATION MODELS

Queue beyond Detector (QBD) Scenario
The QBD scenario suggests a high arrival rate of vehicles, resulting in a queue extend-
ing beyond the advance detector. When the arrival rate is high, the queue tends to be
longer and vice versa. During the red period in the QBD scenario, the queue extends
beyond the advance detector and is discharged during the successive green period, in-
dicating no residual formation of queues in the scenario.

As a result of the extended queue in the QBD scenario, the RFID sensor detects cars
with RFID tags until the queue goes beyond the advance detector. To estimate the queue
in this scenario, the elapsed time, which is the time difference between the start of the
red period for a signal cycle and the last reading detected by the RFID sensor during
the red period, is used as the measurement variable.
8

Relation between elapsed time and queue based on real-time data

The elapsed time for the stretch under study was determined using signal time infor-
mation and the time of detection of RFID cars by RFID sensors. Elapsed time was
calculated by taking the time difference between the start of Red in a given cycle and
the time instant at which the RFID sensor detects the last RFID car during the red pe-
riod. The number of vehicles in queue belonging to each category at the End of Red
(EoR) period was counted. The queue was then converted to Passenger Car Units. The
queue values in PCU were plotted against the elapsed time for different signal cycles
(Figure 5), and it can be observed that as the elapsed time increases, the queue de-
creases.

50 y = -0.777x + 89.192
Number of vehicles in Queue

R² = 0.8975
40

30
(PCU)

20

10

0
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Elapsed time (sec)

Figure 5. The graph between elapsed time and queue

Model formulation

The governing equation for queue formation for the QBD scenario was based on the
conservation of vehicles concept. Eq. (3) presents this mathematically, which can be
used to estimate the number of vehicles in the queue at the next instant of time N (k+1)
as

N(k + 1) = N(k) + (N entry(k,k + 1) − N exit (k,k + 1)), (3)

where N(k) is the number of vehicles in the queue during the current time instant,
Nentry (k,k+1) and Nexit (k,k+1) are the numbers of vehicles that have joined and left the
queue respectively during the time interval from k to k+1.
Elapsed time determined from the RFID sensor located at the upstream of the inter-
section approach was identified as the measurement variable for the queue estimation
in QBD scenario. The relation between elapsed time and the queue was developed
based on Figure 8 as
 9

𝑁𝑞 = −0.777 𝐸𝑇 + 89.192 (4)

where N q is the number of vehicles in the queue at the End of the Red period (in

PCU) for a signal cycle and ET is the elapsed time obtained from the RFID sensor.

Eq. (4) can be rewritten in terms of ET as

114.79 − 𝐸𝑇 (𝐾) = 1.287 𝑁𝑞 (𝐾) (5)
Eq.(5) is rewritten in state space form as
𝐸 ′ 𝑇 (𝐾) = 1.287 𝑁𝑞 (𝐾) (6)
Where 𝐸 ′ 𝑇 (𝐾) = 114.79 − 𝐸𝑇 (𝐾) and was used in the model formulation.
Estimation Scheme using Kalman Filter
The basic requirements of the KF estimation scheme are that the state and measurement
equations should be in the state space form. Eq. (3) and (6) are taken as the state and
measurement equations respectively in the present study and can be represented in the
state space form as
N(k + 1) = N(k) + u (k , k + 1) + w(k,k + 1), (7)
y (k) = H (k ) N (k ) + v(k ) , (8)

where u(k,k+1) is the input given by

u(k,k + 1)=(N entry(k,k + 1) − N exit (k,k + 1)), (9)

y(k) represents the output that is measured, which is the elapsed time for each signal
cycle, w(k,k+1) and v(k) represent the process disturbance and the measurement noise,
respectively, which were assumed to be Gaussian with zero mean. The quantity H(k) is
the transition factor, which converts the number of vehicles in the queue at the end of
Red to the elapsed time. The standard steps in KF estimation was used recursively for
implementation.
Validation of the estimation scheme
Based on the developed estimation scheme, the implementation was carried out and
the estimated queue was compared with the actual queue. A comparison of the esti-
mated values of the queue with the actual values of the queue is shown in Figure 6. It
can be observed that the estimated queue is comparable with the actual queue. The
MAPE value obtained was 13.6 %, indicating the efficiency of the developed estima-
tion scheme for queue estimation in QBD scenario under mixed traffic conditions.
10

50
45 Estimated Queue
Number of vehicles in Queue
40 Actual Queue
35
30
(PCU)

25
20
15
10
5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Signal Cycles

Figure 6 Comparison between actual queue and estimated queue

Queue within Detector (QWD) scenario

QWD scenario indicates the scenario where the arrival rate of vehicles is less, and
the queue formed remains within the advance detector. Since the queue is within the
advance detector, the number of cars detected by the RFID sensor was counted and
used as the measurement variable for queue estimation in this scenario.
Relation between number of RFID cars and queue
To determine the relationship between number of RFID cars and number of vehicles
in the queue in PCU, a graph was plotted between the average number of cars with
RFID tags detected by the advance detector during the red period and the average num-
ber of vehicles in the queue in Passenger Car Units, at the End of Red (EoR) period.
Figure 7 shows the plot between queues in PCU and cars with RFID tags. The relation-
ship between number of vehicles in the queue and the number of cars with RFID tags
follow a non-linear trend.
 11

35 y = 8.517e0.1408x

Number of vehicles in queue (PCU)

R² = 0.8635
30

25

20

15

10

0
2 4 6 8 10
Number of cars with RFID tag

Figure 7. Graph between queue and number of cars with RFID tag
The relation between number of cars with RFID tags and queue (in PCU) was de-
veloped based on Figure 7 as
𝑁
ln (8.517)
𝑁𝑅𝐹𝐼𝐷 = 𝑒 0.1408 (10)
where NRFID is the number of cars with RFID tags and N is the number of vehicles
in queue in PCU.
Estimation Scheme using Extended Kalman Filter (EKF)
The input variable used was relative flow. The measurement variable was the num-
ber of cars with RFID cars obtained from the RFID sensors during the red period for
every signal cycle. The relationship of the measurement variable (NRFID) with the state
variable queue (N) is given by Eq. (10). The corresponding state and measurement
equations are 
N - (k + 1) = N̂ + (k) + u( k , k + 1 ) + w ( k ).
State equation: (11)

 -
Measurement equation: N RFID ( k + 1 ) = h( N (k + 1)) + z (k + 1) (12)

𝑁
∧ 𝑙𝑛(8.517)
where u(k,k+1) is the input as given by Eq. (9) and ℎ(𝑁 − (𝑘 + 1)) = 𝑒 0.1408 . As
the Eq. (10) is non-linear regarding N, the EKF had to be employed. The parameters
H(k+1) and Z(k+1) required for the estimation are given by

N RFID (13)
H ( k +1 ) =
N N =N( k )
12

and

N RFID (14)
Z( k + 1) =
z N = N ( k +1 )

The EKF estimation algorithm was implemented and evaluated using the field data.
Validation of the estimation scheme
Based on the developed estimation scheme, the implementation was carried out and
the estimated queue was compared with the actual queue. The plot of estimated queue
against actual queue is shown in Figure 8. The estimated queue matches with the actual
queue reasonably well. The MAPE value obtained was 12.7%, indicating that the de-
veloped estimation scheme can be used to estimate queues at signalized intersections
for QWD scenarios.

35 Actual Queue
Number of Vehicles in Queue (PCU)

Estimated Queue
30

25

20

15

10

5
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21
Signal Cycle

Figure 8. Comparison between actual and estimated queue for QWD sce-
nario
CONCLUSIONS
Estimating queue length in real-time is a crucial aspect of traffic management, particu-
larly at signalized intersections. Accurate estimations of queue length can help devise
effective traffic management strategies that can improve the overall performance of the
traffic network. This study evaluates the effectiveness of Radio Frequency Identifica-
tion (RFID) sensors in collecting data for different traffic scenarios under mixed traffic
conditions.

To estimate the queue at the End of the Red (EOR) period for every signal cycle, the
study utilized data obtained from RFID sensors placed at the entrance and exit of one
 13

of the approaches of a signalized intersection. The study employed a model-based ap-

proach using the Kalman Filter estimation scheme and Extended the Kalman filter es-
timation scheme to estimate the queue for QWD and QBD scenarios.

The study results indicated that the estimated queues were comparable to the actual
queues, demonstrating the efficiency of the developed estimation schemes. As a result,
the developed estimation schemes can be utilized for traffic management through In-
telligent Transportation System (ITS) applications for mixed traffic conditions.

The study highlights the importance of real-time queue length estimation at signal-
ized intersections. It demonstrates the effectiveness of RFID sensors in data collection
for different traffic scenarios. The developed estimation schemes using Kalman Filter
and Extended Kalman Filter can aid in traffic management and improve the perfor-
mance of traffic networks through ITS applications.
SCOPE FOR FUTURE WORK
The queue formation at intersections is a combination of QWD and QBD
scenarios, and hence a single model that can accommodate the switching of these queue
variations can be developed. Identifying an optimal location of the advance detector in
the field which will ensure maximum detection of cars with RFID tags will further
improve the accuracy of the estimation models.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors acknowledge the support for this study by Transportation Research Cen-
tre (TRC) set up at College of Engineering, Trivandrum, Kerala through State Budget
allotment 2016-17 by the Kerala Government vide letter no. L4/30202/16/DTE dated
23/09/2016.

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