What is Thunderstorm?

A thunderstorm is merely a storm containing lightning and thunder. Sometimes a thunderstorm

produces gusty surface winds with heavy rain and hail. The storm itself may be a single
cumulonimbus cloud, or several thunderstorms may form a cluster, or a line of thunderstorms may
form that in some cases may extend for hundreds of kilometers.
Formation of a Thunderstorm
The birth of a thunderstorm occurs when warm, humid air rises in a conditionally unstable
environment. The trigger needed to start air moving upward may be the unequal heating of the
surface, the effect of terrain, or the lifting of warm air along a frontal zone.
Diverging upper-level winds, coupled with converging surface winds and rising air, also provide
a favorable condition for thunderstorm development. Usually, several of these mechanisms work
together to generate severe thunderstorms. Scattered thunderstorms that form in summer are often
referred to as ordinary thunderstorms, formerly air-mass thunderstorms, because they tend to
develop in warm, humid air masses away from weather fronts.
These storms are usually short-lived and rarely produce strong winds or large hail. On the other
hand, severe thunderstorms may produce high winds, flash floods, damaging hail, and even
tornadoes.
Ordinary (Air-Mass) Thunderstorms
Extensive studies indicate that thunderstorms go through a cycle of development from birth to
maturity to decay. The first stage is known as the cumulus stage. As humid air rises, it cools and
condenses into a single cumulus cloud or a cluster of clouds (Fig. 1). If we have ever watched a
thunderstorm develop, we may have noticed that at first the cumulus clouds grow upward only a
short distance, then they dissipate. This sequence happens because the cloud droplets evaporate
as the drier air surrounding the cloud mixes with it. However, after the water drops evaporate, the
air is more moist than before. So, the rising air is now able to condense at successively higher
levels, and the cumulus cloud grows taller, often appearing as a rising dome or tower.

Figure 1: Simplified model depicting the life cycle of an ordinary thunderstorm that is nearly stationary. (Arrows
show vertical air currents. Dashed line represents freezing level, 0°C isotherm.)

As the cloud builds, the transformation of water vapor into liquid or solid cloud particles releases large
quantities of latent heat. This keeps the air inside the cloud warmer than the air surrounding it. The cloud
continues to grow in the unstable atmosphere as long as it is constantly fed by rising air from below. In
this manner, a cumulus cloud may show extensive vertical development in just a few minutes. During the
cumulus stage, there is insufficient time for precipitation to form, and the updrafts keep water droplets
and ice crystals suspended within the cloud. Also, there is no lightning or thunder during this stage.

As the cloud builds well above the freezing level, the cloud particles grow larger. They also become
heavier. Eventually, the rising air is no longer able to keep them suspended, and they begin to fall. While
this phenomenon is taking place, drier air from around the cloud is being drawn into it in a process called
entrainment. The entrainment of drier air causes some of the raindrops to evaporate, which chills the air.
The air, now being colder and heavier than the air around it, begins to descend as a downdraft. The
downdraft may be enhanced as falling precipitation drags some of the air along with it.
The appearance of the downdraft marks the beginning of the mature thunderstorm. The downdraft and
updraft within the mature thunderstorm constitute a cell. In most storms, there are several cells, each of
which may last for an hour or so. During its mature stage, the thunderstorm is most intense. The top of
the cloud, having reached a stable region of the atmosphere (which may be the stratosphere), begins to
take on the familiar anvil shape, as strong upper-level winds spread the cloud’s ice crystals horizontally
(Fig. 2). The cloud itself may extend upward to an altitude of over 12 km (40,000 ft) and be several
kilometers in diameter near its base. Updrafts and downdrafts reach their greatest strength in the middle
of the cloud, creating severe turbulence. In some storms, the updrafts may intrude above the cloud top
into the stable atmosphere, a condition known as overshooting.

Figure 2: An ordinary thunderstorm in its mature stage. Note the distinctive anvil top.
Lightning and thunder are also present in the mature stage. Heavy rain (and occasionally small hail) falls
from the cloud. There is often a down rush of cold air with the onset of precipitation at the surface that
may be felt as a strong wind gust. The rainfall, however, may or may not reach the surface, depending on
the relative humidity beneath the storm. However, intense downdrafts from the storm may reach the
surface, producing strong, gusty winds. After the storm enters the mature stage, it begins to dissipate in
about 15 to 30 minutes.
The dissipating stage occurs when the updrafts weaken and downdrafts tend to dominate throughout
much of the cloud. Deprived of the rich supply of warm humid air, cloud droplets no longer form. Light
precipitation now falls from the cloud, accompanied by only weak downdrafts. As the storm dies, the
lower-level cloud particles evaporate rapidly (Fig. 3), sometimes leaving only a cirrus anvil as the reminder
of the once mighty presence.
 Figure 3: A dissipating thunderstorm near Naples, Florida. Most of the cloud particles in the lower half of the
storm have evaporated.

A single ordinary thunderstorm may go through its three stages in an hour or less. The reason it does not
last very long is that the storm’s downdraft may cut off the storm’s fuel supply by destroying the humid
updrafts.
Not only do thunderstorms produce summer rainfall but they also bring with them momentary cooling
after an oppressively hot day. The cooling comes during the mature stage, as the downdraft reaches the
surface in the form of a blast of welcome relief. Sometimes, the air temperature may lower as much as
10°C (18°F) in just a few minutes. Unfortunately, the cooling effect is short-lived, as the downdraft
diminishes or the thunderstorm moves on. In fact, after the storm has ended, the air temperature usually
rises; and as the moisture from the rainfall evaporates into the air, the humidity increases, sometimes to
a level where it actually feels more oppressive after the storm than it did before.
Upon reaching the surface, the cold downdraft has another effect. It may force warm, moist surface air
upward. This rising air then condenses and gradually builds into a new thunderstorm. Thus, it is entirely
possible for a series of thunderstorms to grow in a line, one next to the other, each in a different stage of
development (Fig. 4). Thunderstorms that form in this manner are termed multicell storms. Most ordinary
thunderstorms are multicell storms, as are most severe thunderstorms.
As the cloud builds, the transformation of water vapor into liquid or solid cloud particles releases large
quantities of latent heat. This keeps the air inside the cloud warmer than the air surrounding it. The cloud
continues to grow in the unstable atmosphere as long as it is constantly fed by rising air from below. In
this manner, a cumulus cloud may show extensive vertical development in just a few minutes. During the
cumulus stage, there is insufficient time for precipitation to form, and the updrafts keep water droplets
and ice crystals suspended within the cloud.
 Figure 4: A multicell storm. This storm is composed of a series of cells in successive stages of growth. The
thunderstorm in the middle is in its mature stage, with a well-defined anvil. Heavy rain is falling from its base. To
the right of this cell, a thunder storm is in its cumulus stage. To the left, a well-developed cumulus congestus cloud
is about ready to become a mature thunderstorm.
As the cloud builds well above the freezing level, the cloud particles grow larger. They also become
heavier. Eventually, the rising air is no longer able to keep them suspended, and they begin to fall. While
this phenomenon is taking place, drier air from around the cloud is being drawn into it in a process called
entrainment. The entrainment of drier air causes some of the raindrops to evaporate, which chills the air.
The air, now being colder and heavier than the air around it, begins to descend as a downdraft. The
downdraft may be enhanced as falling precipitation drags some of the air along with it.

Figure 5: A simplified model describing air motions and other features associated with a severe thunderstorm that
has a tilted updraft. The severity depends on the intensity of the storm’s circulation pattern.
 Figure 6: Gust front Warm moist air. The lower half of a severe squall-line-type thunderstorm and some of the
features associated with it.

What is air mass thunderstorm? What are the necessary conditions for the formation of an
air mass thunderstorm?
Air mass thunderstorms are the most common and least destructive of thunderstorms. They also
have very limited life spans, usually lasting for less than an hour. Despite the name, which implies
that these thunderstorms might occupy entire air masses (which are very large), air mass
thunderstorms are very localized. Air mass thunderstorms are contained within uniform air
masses, but they do not occupy the entire air mass.
Air mass thunderstorms will not occur unless certain conditions exist: The air must contain
sufficient moisture with the temperature being not too much greater than the dew point, as that
permits condensation to occur fairly close to the ground. The air also must be somewhat unstable
so that uplift can be sufficient to produce a deep cumulus cloud. Another characteristic of air mass
thunderstorms is that they form in an environment where there is little wind shear, a change in
wind velocity with altitude. And, of course, there must be some initial uplift mechanism. Such
mechanisms include:
1. Localized heating of the ground to trigger the lifting of air parcels;
2. An orographic effect induced when a hill or mountain forces air upward;
3. Convergence at the surface, which may be caused by air being slowed down as it
encounters regions of rougher terrain;
4. Divergence in the upper atmosphere;
5. Lifting along a warm, cold, stationary or occluded front.
Life stages of a thunderstorm
An air mass thunderstorm normally consists of a number of individual up drafts (cells), each
undergoing a sequence of three distinct stages—cumulus, mature, and dissipative (Figure 1).
a. Cumulus Stage: The first stage of an air mass thunder storm begins when unstable air
begins to rise, often by the localized convection that occurs as some surfaces undergo more
rapid heating than others. Because air mass thunder storms frequently occur during the late
evening when the air is cooling, we know that other processes can also trigger uplift.
Regardless of which process causes uplift, the rising air cools adiabatically to form fair-
weather cumulus clouds. These initial clouds may exist for just a matter of minutes before
evaporating. Although they do not directly lead to any precipitation, the initial clouds play
an important role in thunderstorm development by moving water vapor from the surface
to the middle troposphere. Ultimately, the atmosphere becomes humid enough that newly
formed clouds do not evaporate but instead undergo considerable vertical growth. This
growth represents the cumulus stage in the air mass thunderstorm. Clouds in the cumulus
stage grow upward at 5 to 20 m/sec (10 to 45 mph). Within the growing clouds, the
temperature decreases with height at roughly the saturated adiabatic lapse rate, and a
portion of the cloud extends above the freezing level. Ice crystals begin to form and grow
by the Bergeron process. The sky rapidly darkens under the thickening cloud; when
precipitation begins to fall, the storm enters its next stage of development.
b. Mature Stage: The mature stage of the air mass thunderstorm begins when precipitation
as heavy rain or possibly hail starts to fall. As the falling rain or hail drags air toward the
surface, downdrafts form in the areas of most intense precipitation. The downdrafts are
strengthened by the cooling of the air by as much as 10°C (18°F) that occurs as the
precipitation evaporates. The mature stage marks the most vigorous stage of the
thunderstorm, when precipitation, lightning, and thunder are most intense. The top of the
cloud extends to an altitude where stable conditions suppress further uplift. Strong winds
at the top of the cloud push ice crystals forward and create the familiar anvil shape
extending outward from the main part of the cloud.

Figure 1: Air Mass thunderstorm. These storms have three stages: (a) cumulus, (b) mature, and (c)
dissipative.
 Figure 2: Mature air Mass thunderstorm. The part of the cloud on the right of the photo that has a washed-
out appearance has become glaciated.
During the cumulus and mature phases of the storm, an abrupt transition exists between
the edge of the cloud and the surrounding unsaturated air. Updrafts dominate the interior
of the cloud, while downdrafts occur just outside it. This sets up a highly turbulent situation
that encourages entrainment. The entrainment of unsaturated air causes the droplets along
the cloud margin to shrink and cool the cloud by evaporation. The outer part of the cloud
becomes more dense and less buoyant, thus suppressing further uplift.
Figure 11–10 shows an air mass thunderstorm. As is typical for thunderstorms in the
mature phase, each tower consists of an individual cell and is in a different part of its life
cycle. Notice in particular that some of the storm cloud appears washed out and less well-
defined than the rest. Such areas consist entirely of ice crystals, with no liquid droplets,
and are said to be glaciated. They are not necessarily colder than other parts of the cloud;
they are merely old enough so that all the supercooled droplets have had a chance to freeze.
c. Dissipating Stage: As more and more of the cloud yields heavy precipitation, downdrafts
occupy an increasing portion of the cloud base. When they occupy the entire base, the
supply of additional water vapor is cut off and the storm enters its dissipative stage.
Precipitation diminishes and the sky begins to clear as the remaining droplets evaporate.
Only a small portion perhaps 20 percent of the moisture that condenses within an air mass
thunderstorm actually falls as precipitation. The greatest amount simply evaporates from
the cloud.
What are drylines and why are they important?
A dryline is a boundary separating a humid air mass from a much drier air mass. A dryline separates
a humid air mass from a much drier air mass. A dryline is solely based on the dew points on either
side of it, while a cold front or warm front depends only on the temperatures on each side of the front.
Severe thunderstorms frequently develop along a dryline or in the humid air mass just to the east of it,
especially when it begins moving eastward in the afternoon. These storms can spawn tornadoes,
damaging winds and destructive hail.
A dryline triggers the formation of thunderstorms because the dry air behind it has a lower density
than the humid air out ahead of it, which allows the dry air to undercut the humid air. This collision of
air masses causes the air to rise, which results in storms developing on the eastern side of the dryline.
Super Cell Thunderstorm

Few weather systems are as awesome as a supercell storm (Figure 11–18). With diameters that range
from about 20 to 50 km (12 to 30 mi), they are smaller than either squall lines or Mesoscale Convective
Cells (MCCs). On the other hand, they are usually more violent and provide the setting for most very large
tornadoes. Unlike MCCs and squall lines, a supercell storm consists of a single, extremely powerful cell
rather than a number of individual cells. Supercell storms also undergo a large-scale rotation absent from
squall lines and MCCs. The typical life span of a supercell is 2 to 4 hours.

Figure 1: Supercell in Oklahoma. Note the tornado at the far left.

Despite their single-cell structure, supercell storms are remarkably complex, with the updraft and
downdraft bending and wrapping around each other due to strong wind shear (Figure 1). As in any other
weather system that spawns severe weather, the downdrafts serve to amplify the adjacent updrafts.

Meteorologists follow supercells with tremendous interest. Fortunately, they have at their disposal an
extremely useful tool in the form of weather radar. Radar can reveal one of the most noteworthy features
of a supercell, called a hook (or hook echo), which looks like a small appendage attached to the main
body of the storm on the radar image (Figure 11–20).

What is the guiding principle behind Doppler radar?

If an object making a sound is moving away from a listener, the sound waves are stretched out and
assume a lower pitch. Sound waves are compressed when an object moves toward the listener, making
them higher pitched. Unconsciously, we use this principle, called the Doppler effect, to determine
whether an ambulance siren is coming closer or moving away. If the pitch of the siren seems to become
higher, we know the ambulance is getting nearer (of course, the siren would also sound louder).
A similar process occurs when electromagnetic waves are reflected by a moving object. The light shifts to
shorter wavelengths when reflected by an object moving toward the receiver and to longer wave lengths
as it bounces off an object moving away from the receiver.

Application of Doppler effect

Doppler radar is a type of radar system that takes advantage of the principle of Doppler Effect. It allows
the user to observe the movement of raindrops and ice particles (and thus determine wind speed and
direction) from the shift in wavelength of the radar waves, as well as the intensity of precipitation.
Like any other type of radar, Doppler radar has a transmitter that emits pulses of electromagnetic energy
with wavelengths on the order of several centimeters. Depending on the wavelength used, water droplets
and snow crystals above certain critical sizes reflect a portion of the radar’s electromagnetic energy back
to the transmitter/receiver. In the case of particularly violent tornadoes that pick up large objects from
the ground, the radar will observe this airborne material and display it as a debris ball.
Doppler radar is special in its ability to observe the motion of the cloud constituents. If a cloud droplet is
moving away from the radar unit, the wavelength of the beam is slightly elongated as it bounces off the
reflector. Such reflections are normally indicated on the display monitor as reddish to yellow. Likewise, a
droplet moving toward the radar unit undergoes a shortening of the wavelength. Echoes from these
constituents are displayed as blue or green on the radar screen.

Radar Scans

A radar unit must rotate 360 degrees to get a complete picture of the weather situation surrounding the
transmitter/receiver unit. When the transmitter makes one complete rotation at a fixed angle, it is said
to have completed a sweep. The angle can then be increased as a second sweep is taken that depicts a
higher cloud level. This can be repeated several times so that the radar can peer into multiple levels of
the cloud. The compilation of all the individual sweeps takes approximately 5 to 10 minutes and produces
a volume sweep.

Microburst

Strong downdrafts associated with mesoscale convective systems can produce very powerful, larger-scale
horizontal winds called derechos (a Spanish word meaning “straight ahead”). Such winds may last for
hours at a time and achieve speeds higher than 200 km/hr (120 mph)—comparable to those of many
tornadoes. These downdrafts spread outward upon reaching the ground. But the winds can be especially
powerful if the descending upper-level air has high wind speeds prior to being brought downward. This
momentum does not disappear as the air sinks, so when it reaches the surface, it is capable of bringing
destructive winds. Downbursts with diameters of less than 4 km (2.5 mi), called microbursts, can produce
a particularly dangerous problem when they occur near airports.

Beneath a severe thunderstorm, the downdraft may become localized so that it hits the ground and
spreads horizontally in a radial burst of wind, much like water pouring from a tap and striking the sink
below. Such downdrafts are called downbursts. A downburst with winds extending only 4 kilometers or
less is termed a microburst. In spite of its small size, an intense micro burst can induce damaging winds
as high as 146 knots. A larger downburst with winds extending more than 4 kilometers is termed a
macroburst.
Why are severe thunderstorms not very common in polar latitudes?

In polar region or polar latitude the air masses are cold and originated at high latitudes. This region
remains cool most of the time of time of the year. There is less provision of upward lifting of the air
masses. All other conditions for formation of severe thunderstorm very rarely exist over there. That is
why severe thunderstorms not very common in polar latitudes.

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What are the necessary conditions for the formation of an air mass thunderstorm?

What is the series of steps that leads to the formation of a mature air mass thunderstorm?
What are drylines and why are they important?

What is the guiding principle behind Doppler radar?

Explain how the use of Doppler radar allows forecasters to provide early warnings of tornado
development.

Define Microburst.
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