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1.1 INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS can be defined as the study of the physical properties of matter and the concepts of energy
MATTER refers to any material that can occupy some space and can be measured, weighed or
examined by experimental testing.
1.2 MEASUREMENT
1.2.1 Physical quantities
Any measurable physical feature or property of an object is called its PHYSICAL QUANTITY, e.g.
temperature of a body, an area of a field, speed of a car, etc.
In Physics length, mass and time are known as Basic or Fundamental physical quantities.
Many other physical quantities (e.g. force, speed, velocity, voltage, etc) are related to these
fundamental physical quantities, therefore they are known as DERIVED PHYSICAL QUANTITIES.
(Even their units can be derived from those of fundamental quantities and hence are called derived
units) e.g.
SI unit of speed
Then SI unit of speed = SI unit of distance/SI unit of time = m/s (read as metre per second)
*Avoid start measuring from the dead end of a ruler since some parts of that end may be worn out and
so the end will not coincide with the zero mark of the ruler. The reader may start at, let say 10 cm mark,
and then subtract 10 cm from the obtained reading to get the actual length measured.
*A ruler can be read up to 1 decimal place in cm scale i.e. it is accurate to 0.1 cm.
2) VERNIER CALLIPER
EXAMPLE
M.S = 5.3 cm
V. S = 8 x 0.01 cm
= 0.08
Final reading = 5.3 + 0.08
= 5.38 cm
This instrument measures very small lengths such as the diameter of a wire, thickness of a coin,
thickness of a sheet of paper.
HOW TO TAKE A READING FROM A MICROMETER
Put the object between the spindle and anvil. Turn the thimble until the object is gripped very
gently. Fine adjustment can be obtained by turning the ratchet until a click sound is heard.
To read the micrometer, first read the main scale on the sleeve. Sleeve reading (S) is given by
the value of the last visible mark on sleeve before the edge of the thimble. Note that sleeve
marks above the central horizontal line on the sleeve are full millimetre marks but those below
are half-millimetre marks.
Then read the thimble scale. Thimble reading (T) is equal to the number of the thimble division
level with the sleeve scale central line multiplied by 0.01 mm.
Final reading = sleeve reading + thimble reading
EXAMPLE
S = 18.00 mm
T = 42 x 0.01 mm
= 0.42 mm
Time can be measured with stopwatches or clocks. The electronic stopwatch can measure time
precisely up to 1/100 of a second (0.01 s)
A pendulum is a piece of a thread which is fixed at one end and tied to a metal ball (called a bob) on
the other end.
The bob of a pendulum is free to swing from one side to another.
The amplitude (a) of a pendulum is the angle between the rest position and position of maximum
displacement.
The length (l) of pendulum is measured from the fixed position to the centre of the bob.
The period (T) of the pendulum is the time taken by the bob to complete one swing or oscillation, i.e.
the time taken by the bob to move from point A to C and back to A in the diagram below. Period is
measured in seconds (s)
Period = total time taken/number complete swings(oscillations)
Table of Results
Length l/cm Time for 20 Average time Period T/s T2/s2
oscillations t <t>/s
t1/s t2/s
70.0 32.28 32.06 32.17 1.61 2.6
60.0 29.37 29.69 29.53 1.48 2.2
50.0 26.78 26.82 26.80 1.34 1.8
40.0 24.93 23.29 24.11 1.21 1.5
30.0 24.12 22.15 23.14 1.16 1.3
T2/s2
L/cm
Examples
The accuracy of a:-
metre rule is 0.1 cm (0.01 mm)
vernier calliper is 0.01 cm (0.1 mm)
micrometer is 0.01 mm (0.001 cm)
stopwatch is 0.01 s
clock is 1 s
lab thermometer is 1° C.
1.3 QUESTIONS
1. Complete the table below to show what property is measured by the instrument or what the
instrument can be
used to measure the property stated. State the correct unit in each case.
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
The bob of the pendulum was pulled to position A and then was released. The period of the
pendulum was
found to be 0.64 s.
(b) A student performs an experiment to determine the period of a simple pendulum. She uses a
stopwatch to
record the time taken to produce 20 oscillations. The diagram below shows the face of the
stopwatch
used.
6. A piece of metal pipe is 3 m long, and its internal and external diameters are 20.0 mm and 24.0 mm
respectively. Describe how you would obtain experimentally accurate values of these (i) the internal
and (ii) external diameters of the pipe.
7. Fig. 7.1 shows the face of an ammeter. The ammeter reads 0.2 A with no current passing through.
Fig. 7.1
(a) What is the value of the accuracy of the ammeter?
(b) What error does the ammeter show?
c. Fig. 7.1 shows the same ammeter with current passing through.
Fig. 7.2
a). SPEED
-is the distance travelled per unit time. Speed tells us how fast or slow an object is moving. Its SI unit is
metre per second (m/s) or (m s-1).
Other units: cm/s, km/h, m/min, etc.
Conversions between m/s and km/h
3600/1000
-------------------------------->
m/s km/h
<---------------------------------
1000/3600
Mathematically speed is:
Speed = distance/time
b). VELOCITY
-is the distance travelled in a unit time in a stated direction, e.g. 60 km/h due north. Velocity is, in fact,
the speed in a specified direction. It tells us how fast or slow an object is moving and in what direction.
Velocity = displacement/time
And
Average velocity = total displacement/total time taken
*NB: - Velocity and speed are not the same. Speed is a scalar whereas velocity is vector.
2.1.3 ACCELERATION
It is the rate of change of velocity with time. Acceleration is also a vector quantity. Its SI unit is metre
per second squared (m/s2) or (m s-2).
Acceleration = change in velocity/time taken
a = final velocity – initial velocity/total time taken
a = (v – u)/t
DECELERATION
When a body slows down its speed decreases and the acceleration becomes negative. Negative
acceleration is called DECELERATION or RETARDATION.
The body covers 5 m every second, this represents a constant speed of 5 m/s.
2.2.2 NON-UNIFORM SPEED
Distance travelled per unit time varies.
i) non-uniform increasing speed
time/s 0 1 2 3 4
distance/m 0 5 10 30 50
The body moves a little further than the previous second every second.
Every second the object covers a little less distance than in the previous second.
2.2.3 UNIFORM VELOCITY
Both speed and the direction don’t change i.e. the body travels with uniform speed and in
the same direction (in a straight line).
2.2.4 NON-UNIFORM VELOCITY
Either speed or direction changes (or both of them)
*Acceleration is zero for body travelling with steady speed in the same direction (uniform
velocity).However, acceleration is non-zero if the body travels with constant speed in a circular path.
-Even though the speed is constant (e.g. 5 m/s), the direction changes now and then. Therefore the
velocity is non-uniform and hence the acceleration is not zero.
time/s 0 1 2 3 4
velocity(m/s) 0 10 30 60 100
b) decreasing acceleration
time/s 0 1 2 3 4
velocity (m/s) 0 20 30 35 37
b) A racing car completes a 5 km lap in 100 s. After this lap what is its i) displacement ii)
average
speed and iii) average velocity?
6 Express a) speed of 130 km/h and b) speed of sound in air (which is about 330 m/s) in km/h.
7 What is meant by:
a) a speed of 100 km/h
b) an acceleration of +10 m/s2
c) an acceleration of -5 m/s2
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 17
8 A car takes 8 s to increase its velocity from 10 m/s to 30 m/s. What is its acceleration?
9 A motor cycle, travelling at 20 m/s, takes 5 s to stop. What is its average retardation?
10 An aircraft on its take-off run has a steady acceleration of 3 m/s2.
a) What velocity does the aircraft gain 4 s?
b) If the aircraft passes one post on the runaway at a velocity of 20 m/s, what is its 8 s later?
A distance-time graph shows how the distance travelled varies with time. The gradient of the graph
represents the speed of the body
a) Uniform speed
The distance-time graph above is a straight line showing that the body is travelling with uniform speed.
Grad = ∆s/∆t = y2 – y1 / x2 – x1
=60 - 20/ 6 - 2
= 10
In the speed- time graph above the body is moving with a uniform acceleration since the graph is a
straight line.
acceleration = gradient = 0
Speed(m/s)
time/s
The equations used to solve problems on motion when the acceleration of the body is uniform.
2.6 QUESTIONS
(For the questions below, assume that the motion is in a straight line and that the acceleration is
uniform)
1 A motor cycle travelling at 10 m/s accelerates at 4 m/s2 for 8 s.
a) What is its final velocity?
b) How far does it travel during the 8 s?
2 A car accelerates from 8 m/s to 20 m/s in 10 s.
a) What is its acceleration?
b) How far does it travel during the 10 s?
3 A train is travelling at 40 m/s when its brakes are applied. This produces a deceleration of 2 m/s 2.
a) How long does the train take to come to rest?
b) How far does the train travel before stopping?
4 An aircraft accelerates at 25 m/s2. Its take-off speed is 60 m/s.
a) What length of runway does it need to take off?
b) How long does it take to reach its take-off speed?
5 a) Use the values in the table to plot a distance-time graph for a car over a 10 s period
time/s 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
a) State in which of the regions OA, AB, BC, CD, DE the car is i) accelerating ii)
decelerating
iii) travelling with uniform velocity.
b) Calculate the value of the acceleration, deceleration or constant velocity in each region.
c) What is the distance travelled over each region?
d) What is the total distance travelled?
e) Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey.
7 The distance-time graph for a motor cyclist riding off from rest follows.
g = +10 m/s2
v = u + at becomes v = u +gt if the body drops from rest i.e. u =o, v = gt --------------> (1)
s = ut + ½ at2 becomes s = ut + ½ gt2 if u = 0, s = ½ gt2 (note s = height) ------>(2)
v2 = u2 + 2as becomes v2 = u2 + 2gs if u = 0, v2 = 2gs ---------------------> (3)
* Same equations can be used for bodies thrown/moving vertically upwards but with g as -10 m/s2
NB:- i) velocity at the highest point is zero for any object.
ii) time for upward journey = time for downward journey to the same level
iii) a falling body would pass every point at same speed it did on its way up.
a. At the start b. gaining speed, FR < W) c. At the terminal velocity d. terminal speed onwards
Same as that one for an object falling in air except that the resistive force here is called upthrust
The sketch of the velocity-time graph for body falling in air or liquid is as shown below;
When card is pulled away very quickly the coin will not move along with it but instead it drops into the
glass due to inertia.
3.3 WEIGHT
Definition: is the amount of force gravity acting on object.
Measuring instrument: spring balance/forcemeter
SI unit: newton (N).
Unlike mass, the weight of an object is not always constant, it depends on the gravitational pull on a
unit mass (gravitational field strength) at a particular place. On Earth the gravitational pull on a unit
mass is 10 N i.e. g = 10 N/kg
On the moon the gravitational pull on a unit mass is 1.6 N i.e. g = 1.6 N/kg.
Mathematically, weight is expressed as:
3.4 QUESTIONS
3) A bag of sugar has a weight of 125 N on Earth. Calculate its mass. Take g to be 10 N/kg.
*For some objects, (e.g. a ring, retort stand, etc), the C.M lies outside the body of the object, instead it
lies in the air around the object.
Procedure
Make three holes A, C and E on the cardboard.
Suspend the cardboard through hole A from a nail clamped on a stand such that it swings
freely. When it comes to rest, its centre of mass will be exactly below point A.
To identify the point, hang the plumbline from the same nail very close to the cardboard.
Draw a line AB along the plumbline
Hang the cardboard from another hole C and repeat the experiment and draw the line CD.
The C.M lies at the intersection of the two lines.
To check if the position of C.M is correct, one can hang the cardboard from the third hole E and
then draw line EF, it must also pass through that point.
3.5.4 STABILITY:This defines whether the object falls over easily or not. When the object is slightly
displaced and released, it will always return to its origin (and not topples over) if the vertical line passing
through the C.M. is still kept within the base of the object or the area enclosed by the base of the object
(i.e. it has not gone beyond the point of contact between the object and the surface it is resting on)
When an object is balanced or stable in its position, it is said to be in equilibrium. Its degree of stability
is determined by its position which can be defined as its state of equilibrium.
Three states of equilibrium are:-
1) Stable equilibrium
2) Unstable equilibrium
3) Neutral equilibrium
1) Stable Equilibrium
A body is in a state or position in which when it is slightly displaced and released it returns to its original
position.
When an object in stable equilibrium is slightly tilted, its C.M rises and gain some P.E. When released
that extra P.e will be used to produce an anticlockwise moment about the point of contact that will roll
the object back to its original position.
2) Unstable Equilibrium
A body is in unstable equilibrium if it is positioned such that when it is slightly displaced and released it
will move further away its original position ( topples over).
3) Neutral Equilibrium
A state in which a body is positioned such that when it is slightly displaced and released it remains at its
new position.
4.1 Density is defined as the measure of the amount of mass contained in volume of an object. It is
usually
expressed as mass per unit volume.
Density = mass/volume
D = m/V or ρ = m/V where ρ(Greek letter rho) = density in kg/m3
m = mass in kg
V = volume in m3
SI unit: kilogram per cubic metre (kg/m3)
Other UNIT commonly used is gram per cubic centimetre (g/cm3)
1 g/cm3 = 1000 kg/m3
4.3 Experiment #2: Determining the density of an irregular shaped object e.g. a stone
The density of an object can be determined more accurately by finding its relative density.
The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the mass of any volume of the substance to the
mass of an equal volume of water.
Therefore the density of a liquid can be accurately measured using a density bottle.
4.5 Experiment #4: Measuring the density of a liquid using a density bottle.
Both the liquid and water have the same volume V since the same bottle was used for the whole
experiment.
= (m3 – m1/V)/m2 – m1 /V
= m3 – m1/m2 – m1
- Find the mass m1 of a 500 cm3 rounded bottom flask full of air.
- Remove air from the flask using a vacuum pipe and then determine the mass m2 of an empty
flask.
- Fill the flask with water
- Transfer water to a measuring cylinder to find the capacity of the flask which the volume V of
air.
- Find the mass m of the air using the equation m = m2 – m1
- Calculate the density of air using the equation ρ = m/V.
Ρm = mA – mB/ VA – VB
An object:-
4.9 A HYDROMETER
It is used to measure the density of the liquids directly. It consists of a thin hollow tube which is weighed
at the bottom with mercury or lead so that it can float upright. The tube has a scale marked on it
The hydrometer floats at different levels/depths in different liquids, depending on their densities. It sinks
less in a dense liquid and sinks more in less dense liquid.
2 cm 3 cm 4 cm ...........
5 cm 5 cm ........... 100 cm3
6 cm ............. 5 cm 300 cm3
........... 10 cm 10 cm 500 cm3
Some of the objects return to their original shapes and sizes when the external force which was
previously applied on them is removed. These objects are called elastic materials, e.g. rubber band,
steel spring, etc.
Other objects do not return to their original or sizes even when the force is removed. They will remain
permanently deformed. These are called plastic materials, e.g. plasticine, bostik, clay, etc.
LO
L
When the load (weight) which was applied to the spring is removed, the spring returns to its normal
length. The spring is elastic but only to a certain limit.
Experiment: To investigate the relationship between the extension of a spring and load
(stretching force)
Procedure
Suspend a steel spring from a retort stand as shown above
Attach a pointer in a horizontal position to the end of the spring with some bostik.
Place a metre rule vertically near the spring
Suspend the mass hanger on the spring as shown above
Adjust the height of the ruler such that the pointer is at a convenient reading, say around 30
cm, record this as initial scale reading.
Add 100 g (1.0 N) loads one at a time and note and record the new scale reading after each
load.
Record the observations in a table up to 500 g (5.0 N) and calculate the extension for each
load.
The graph above is a straight line showing that the extension of the spring is directly proportional to the
load i.e. when the load is doubled the also doubles.
i.e. F α e
then F = ke -------------> Hooke’s law
a) SERIES
b) PARALLEL
For 1 spring e = x
2 springs e = x/2
3 springs e = x/3
4 springs e = x/4
N springs e = x/N
QUESTIONS
1. What is the force constant of a spring which is stretched
a) 2 mm by a force of 4 N b) 4 cm by a mass of 200 g.
2. The springs below are identical. If the extension produced in A is 4 cm, what are the extensions
in B and C?
Extension/cm 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Load/N 0 2 4 6 7.5 8.3 8.6
a) Describe what would happen to the spring if forces were applied to it until it reached point A on
the
graph and then the forces are removed.
b) Describe what would happen if the spring was stretched to point B on the graph and then the
forces
removed.
c) If a force of 10 N caused the spring to stretch by 5 cm what would be the extension of the
spring if 20 N
was applied to it?
“if body A exerts a force on body B, body B will exert an equal and opposite force on body A called the
reaction
force”
1. A car is acted upon by a forward driving force of 700 N which causes an acceleration. The
force of friction between the road and the tyres is 500 N. Calculate the resultant force on the
car.
F = FF - FR
= 700 N – 500 N
= 200 N
2. A car of mass 3 000 kg (including the driver) is travelling at a constant acceleration of 2 m/s2.
The force of friction between the tyres and the road is 500 N. Calculate the a) resultant force
acting on the car b) forward driving force
Solutions
a) Data
m = 3000 kg, a = 2 m/s2
F = ma
= 3000 kg X 2 m/s2
= 6000 kg m/s-2
= 6000 N
b) Data
F = 6000 N, FR = 500 N
F = FF - FR
FF = F + FR
= 6000 N + 500 N
= 6500 N
M=FxD M=Fxd
Moment of a force is a vector quantity, i.e. it has magnitude as well as direction. The direction is either
clockwise or anticlockwise, depending in which the force turns the object.
e.g
What do you notice about clockwise and anticlockwise moments when the ruler is balanced?
Answer: the clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment
This observation proves the principle of moments.
The principle of moments states that:
“when the body is in equilibrium the sum of the clockwise moments about any point is equal to the
sum of anticlockwise moments about the same point”
Therefore:
i) Force A + Force B + Force C + Force D = Force C
Then A + B + C + D – C = 0
ii) Ax + By = Dz
total anticlockwise moments = total clockwise moment
To find the moment of a couple, you multiply the value of any of the two forces by the distance between
them
M = Fx + Fy
= F(x + y)
= Fd
5.6 QUESTIONS
Question 1
A student measures the acceleration of a trolley. The light sensors are connected to a
computer which is programmed to calculate the acceleration. The results obtained are
recorded in a table as follows.
Force(N) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Question 2
A car has a mass of 900 kg. It accelerates from rest at a rate of 1.2 m/s2.
a) Calculate the time taken to reach a velocity of 30 m/s.
b) Calculate the force required to accelerate the car at a rate of 1.2 m/s 2.
c) Even with the engine working at full power, the car’s acceleration decreases as
the car goes faster. Why is this?
a) State the size of the total drag force when the car is travelling at a constant
speed.
b) The driving force is increased to 3000 N.
i) Find the resultant force on the car at this instant.
ii) Calculate the initial acceleration of the car.
Question 4
The manufacturer of a car gave the following information; Mass of car = 1000 kg. The car
will accelerate from 0 to 30 m/s in 12 seconds.
a) Calculate the average acceleration of the car during the 12 seconds.
b) Calculate the force needed to produce this acceleration.
Question 5
a). What constant braking force is needed to bring a car of mass 1200 kg to rest in
5 s when it is moving at 20 m s-1?
b). A car of mass 800 kg is moving at 25 m s-1. Calculate the force needed to bring
the car to rest over a distance of 20 m.
c). A body is initially in motion. If no external force acts on the body how will its
motion change?
Question 6
Fig. 6.1
a). (i) Calculate the resultant force acting on the car. Show your working.
(ii) If the friction force is 2000 N, calculate the forward force acting on the car.
Show your working.
(iii) After some time, the car reaches a velocity of 20 m/s. How long did it take for
the car to reach this velocity?
Question 8
Fig. 7.1 shows a metal ball being dropped from the surface of oil in a tube of length 2 m. the
ball has a mass of 1 kg and it moves with constant acceleration of 5 m/s2.
Fig. 7.1
a) Calculate the moment created by the force trying to undo the nut.
b) Suggest how you could increase the moment applied to the nut without
increasing the applied force.
11. A 1 N weight is hung from the 5 cm mark of a metre rule. The rule balances on a
knife edge at the 30 cm mark. What is the weight of the rule?
12 The diagram shows a beam balanced with the fulcrum at the midpoint. How big
is the force X?
13. The diagram shows two beams balanced with the fulcrum at the midpoint. In
each case, what is the distance x?
After drawing the vector diagram to scale, you measure the length of line that represents the resultant
and then use the chosen scale to find the resultant..
Length = 7.6 cm, therefore resultant = 7.6 N
Direction is obtained by measuring the angle between the resultant force and one of the forces, e.g. 23°
to the
7N
R = 7.6 N, 23° to the 7 N
ii) Algebraically
For right-angled triangle – use Pythagoras theorem
c2 = a2 + b2
OR2 = OP2 + PR2
= (7 N)2 + (3 N)2
= 58 N2
OR = √58 N2
Resultant R = 7.6 N
O
B
The components of the resultant force F are FX (OB) along the x-axis and Fy (OA) along the y-axis.
To find FX and FY
Using trigonometry
5.7.4 QUESTIONS
Fig. 5.2
When a body A does work on body B, body A transfers energy to body B. The amount of energy
transferred from body A to body B is equal to the work done by body A on body B.
WORK DONE = ENERGY
TANSFERRED
Examples
ADVANTAGES
Is a renewable source of energy
Causes no pollution
DISADVANTAGES
Depends on rainfall
Large areas of countryside must be covered with water, displacing people from their homes
and animals from their natural habitants.
3. WIND ENERGY
Wind is used to turn turbines / blades attached to magnets in generators called AEROMAGNETS. .
KE(wind) ------→ KE(turbines) -----→ KE(generator) --------→ electrical energy
ADVANTAGES
Wind is free
Give high power output
Renewable
Clean
DISADVANTAGES
Unpredictable – wind may not be sufficient enough to turn the generator when electricity is
needed.
High cost involved in implementing and maintaining.
Power output is fairly low.
4. SOLAR ENERGY
We receive energy from the sun as radiant energy in form of electromagnetic waves. The source of
solar energy is the nuclear energy released through nuclear fission of the nuclei of hydrogen atoms.
Solar energy can be captured in several ways:-
ADVANTAGES
Clean
Relatively cheap
Renewable
DISADVANTAGES
Useful only in places where the sun shines continuously for long period; sometimes
the sun does not shine or not strong enough in some parts of the country.
5. WAVE ENERGY
The rocking motion of the waves generate energy
ADVANTAGES
Renewable source of energy
DISADVANTAGES
Very inefficient way to capture energy
6. GEOTHERMAL ENERGY
It is heat energy stored inside the rocks underground. The rocks are heated by some radioactive
elements as they are heated by the sun.
The water is pumped down a borehole to hot rocks underground where it is heated. Steam under high
pressure comes through the other hole, it is used to turn the turbine which in turn drives the generator.
Geothermal (rocks)→internal energy(steam)→kinetic (turbine)→kinetic(generator)→electrical
7. TIDAL ENERGY
Sea water is trapped at high tides behind the dams and released at low tides. The released H 2O is used
to turn turbines
ADVANTAGES
Renewable
a). Fission – splitting of heavy nucleus (U-235) by hitting it with a neutron into nearly two equal parts
to release
tremendous amount of energy and two to three more neutrons.
b). Fusion- union of certain light nuclei (e.g isotopes of hydrogen) into a heavier nucleus resulting in
the
release of large amount of energy.
Uranium is the fuel in nuclear reactors. By the process of fission, the nuclear energy in uranium is
converted to large amount of heat energy.
Nuclear energy ----> heat---->k.e of steam ---> k.e of turbines----> k.e of generator---->electrical energy
ADVANTAGES
Lots of energy from little amount of fuels
Little atmospheric pollution provided strict precautions are taken
Reliable- most viable source of large amount of electrical energy
Low cost once up and running
DISADVANTAGES
Can be dangerous
High cost of building power station
Non-renewable
High cost of dismantling once they can no longer be used.
OR
P = E/t
NB:- in real life, there is no machine that is 100 % efficient because there is always some energy lost as
heat as result of work done against friction between the moving parts of the machine.
8. Some workers on a building site have set up an electric winch in order to lift a
bucket with tiles up to the roof. The bucket and tiles weigh 500 N.
a) What is the minimum force that must be applied in order to lift the bucket of
tiles off the ground?
b) How much energy is spent in lifting the tiles 20 m from the ground to the
roof?
c) What energy transformations are taking place as the tiles are raised?
d) If the tiles are lifted 20 m in 10 s, what is the power of the winch?
e) If the winch is only 50 % efficient, how much energy must be fed into the
electrical motor to lift the tiles through the 20 m?
f) Suggest one or two reason why the system might be less than 100 % efficient.
g) How can the efficiency of the system be improved?
9. In a certain ward in Serowe people use solar panels and windmills as energy
sources.
(a) Write down one advantage of using each of these energy sources
i) solar panels:
ii) windmills:
(b) Write down one disadvantage of using solar panels
(c) Write down one disadvantage of using windmills
10. The diagram below shows a hydroelectric scheme. Water rushes down from the
top of the lake to the power-station. In the power-station, the water turns a
turbine which drives a generator.
P = F/A
= 26000 N/0.5 m2
= 52 000 N/m2
= 52 000 Pa = 52 kPa
#2. What force is produced if a force of 1000 Pa acts on an area of 0.2 m 2.
Data
F = 1000 N, A = 0.2 m2
P = F/A
F = P(A)
=1000 N/m2 x 0.2 m2
= 200 N
#3. Explain why a tractor’s big tyres stop sinking to far into the soft soil
Answ: Exert less pressure on the soil because of small area contact between the tyres and the
soil/ground
Water spurts out fastest and furthest from the lowest from the lowest hole.
2. Pressure at one depth acts equally in all directions
The can of water has similar holes all round it at the same level. Water comes out as fast as far from
each hole. Hence the pressure exerted by the water at this depth is the same in all directions.
In the U-tube the liquid pressure at the foot of P is greater than at the foot of Q because the left
hand column is higher than the right one. When the clip is opened the liquid moves from P to Q
until the pressure in both is the same and the levels of liquid in both column are equal.
The liquid is at the same level. This confirms that pressure at the foot of a liquid column
depends only on the vertical depth of the liquid and not the width or shape of the tube.
Pressure, piston A
PA = FA/AA
= 1.0 N/0.01 m2
= 100 Pa
If air is removed from the can it collapses because the pressure inside the can becomes or is less than
outside.
Magdeburg hemisphere
After removing (pumping out the air) it becomes very difficult to separate the spheres because air
pressure inside is less than outside.
In diagram (a) atmospheric pressure acts equally on both arms of the tube. The levels of the water
(liquid) inside therefore are the same. In diagram (b) arm one arm is connected to a gas cylinder which
exerts pressure to the liquid and it rises to the height h in the other arm.
Pressure of the gas = Atmospheric pressure + Pressure due to the liquid column h
P = PO + hρg
Pressure of the liquid column h is therefore equal to the amount by which the gas supply exceeds
atmospheric pressure.
b) Mercury Barometer
Pressure at x due to the liquid column h equals the atmospheric pressure on the surface of mercury in
the bowl. This pressure is stated in terms of height of the mercury column e.g. 760 mmHg (at sea level),
74 mmHg, etc. Increasing the diameter of the tube doesn’t change the pressure at x because the
weight of the liquid column (force) will now be acting on a large surface area.
7.6 Weather maps
Weather maps are constructed by plotting of pressure readings from different weather stations in a
region. When this has been done, lines known as isobars are drawn.
Isobars are lines drawn on the map weather to join places of equal atmospheric pressure. Closely
spaced isobars indicate a big pressure difference over a short distance and suggest that strong winds
are likely to occur. Widely spaced isobars indicate a small pressure difference over a large area and
suggest light winds,
Winds blow from places of high atmospheric pressure to places of low atmospheric pressure. Because
of the rotation of the Earth, winds blow more or less along the isobars. Winds blow in a clockwise
direction in the northern hemisphere and in an anticlockwise direction in the southern hemisphere for
an anticyclone. For a cyclone they blow in clockwise direction in the southern hemisphere and in the
anticlockwise in the northern hemisphere.
In weather a region of high atmospheric region surrounded by places of low pressure is called a HIGH
OR AN ANTICYCLONE and region of low atmospheric pressure in the middle of high pressures is
called a LOW OR CYCLONE OR DEPRESSION
CYCLONE ANTICYCLONE
Fig. 1.1
b) A hippopotamus has very large feet. How do the large feet help the hippo to walk on soft
mud?
c) Why is a dam built thicker at the bottom than at the top?
2. Explain why air pressure decreases as height above the Earth increases.
3. Explain, in terms of pressure, how you are able to drink liquid by using a straw.
4. Fig. 4.1 shows a simple mercury barometer.
*NB:- At any instant, different particles have different amount of kinetic energy. On heating, the kinetic
energy of
the particles (also their average kinetic energy) increases.
The temperature of a substance is the measure of the average kinetic energy of its particles.
At any given temperature, particles of any two gases have the same kinetic energy but their average
speed are not the same.
8.2.2 Pressure of a gas in terms of molecular forces
Gases consist of large of particles in constant random motion. Gas pressure is a result of force exerted
on the surface of the container walls by the gas particles when they strike walls and rebound.
8.3 GAS LAWS
8.3.1 PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE
The pressure of a gas increase with in temperature because the particles collide with the container
walls:- i) more frequently each second and ii) with greater force as the increase in temperature increase
their kinetic energy.
PαT when volume is constant. --------------> Pressure law
P/T = a constant
Pressure law states that:-
“ The pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant volume is proportional to its temperature”
Apparatus are set as shown above in a dark room. The smoke cell is filled with smoke from
smouldering paper and it is brightly lit.
On viewing through a microscope, the smoke particles (seen as pin point of light due to light reflected
by them) are seen to move at random (womble). Since there is no wind present in the box, the motion
of the smoke particles can only be due to the collision of air molecules with the smoke particles.
Explanation of Brownian motion using the kinetic theory
Brownian motion is due to the continuous bombardment of tiny smoke particles by numerous air
molecules which are too small to be seen.
The air molecules move with different velocities in different directions. The resultant force on the smoke
particles is therefore unbalanced and irregular in magnitude and directions. This causes the smoke
particles to move to a new position now and then when another unbalanced force acts on it. All these
result into the random motion of the particles.
8.5 QUESTIONS
1 Describe the spacing of molecules and their movement in solids, liquids and gases.
2 What do each of the following statements tell you about the forces between atoms?
a) It is not easy to stretch or compress a metal.
b) If the extension is not too big, a stretched copper wire regains its original length when the
stretching force
is removed?
3 A gas is heated in a closed container. What happens to the temperature and to the pressure of the
gas?
Explain your answer in terms of molecules.
4 A gas in a closed container is compressed to half its volume. Explain, in terms of molecules, why the
pressure
doubles if the temperature is not allowed to change.
When the ball and the ring are at the same temperature, the ball fits into the ring and can pass through
easily.
Procedure : - Heat the ball strongly several minutes
- Try to pass the ball through the ring
Observation: the ball does not fall through the ring
Conclusion: solid expands when heated.
b) Then, leave the ball to rest on the ring for some minutes.
Observation: The ball falls through the ring
Conclusion: The ball lost heat to the ring and contracts as it cools and at the same time the ring
expands as it
gains the heat.
2). Bar and gauge
Procedure:
- Fit the bar into the slot and the hole on the gauge when both the gauge and bar are at room
temperature to
check if the bar fits in.
-Heat the bar strongly over the Bunsen burner for a couple of minutes. Try to fit it into the slot and hole
on the
gauge after being heated.
Observation: the bar does not fit into the slot as well as the hole.
Observation: The bar once again fits into the gauge (through the slot and the hole)
8.6.2 IN LIQUIDS
Liquids expand when heated. They expand more than solids because the molecules are not tightly
bound together as those in solids.
If we start with water that is warmer than 4 °C, as the water cooled to 4 °C it contracts as any liquid
would do. But surprisingly as it is cooled from 4 °C to 0 °C it expands. Water therefore has a minimum
volume (and maximum density) at 4 °C.
As the water freezes at 0 °C it expands even more. This is why the water pipes burst in very cold
weather.
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 86
The unusual expansion of water between 4 °C and 0 °C helps the fish to survive in a frozen pond.
The water at the top cools first, contracts and becomes denser and sinks to the bottom. The less dense
water rises to the surface to be cooled, become denser and then sinks as well. When all the water is 4
°C, the circulation ceases. If the temperature of the surface water falls below 4 °C the water becomes
less dense and remains at the top and eventually forming a layer of ice of 0 °C. The temperatures in
the pond are then as shown above.
*NB:- When water is heated from 0 °C to 4 °C instead of expanding it contracts and also reaches its
minimum volume at 4 °C. From 4 °C upwards it expands as we would expected.
8.6.4 IN GASES
GASES also expand when heated. They expand much more than solids and liquids. This is because
gas molecules have negligible attractive forces between them since they are far apart.
8.6.5 Experiment to compare the expansion of water (liquid) and air (gas)
Two identical flasks A and B are filled with water and air. Flasks A and B are at the same time placed
into warm water in a small bowl C.
The water level in flask A is seen to rise very slowly but the coloured pellet in flask B rises up the
capillary tube rapidly. This shows that air expands more faster than water.
A). Bimetallic strip – it is a device based on the different expansion of solids. It consists of two metal
strips of equal size but different rates (amount) of expansion, e.g. iron and brass. The strips are riveted
or welded together. On heating, the bimetallic strip bends with brass on the outside of the curve and
iron inside. This is because the brass expands more than iron for the same temperature rise.
Bimetallic strip is used in thermostats to work as electric switch. Thermostats are useful to control
automatically temperature of:
*NB;- Some of the above appliances have control knobs. When the control knob is screwed
down the
strip has to bend to bend more to break the heating circuit and this needs a higher
temperature.
D). Liquid-in-glass thermometer:- mercury or alcohol expand when heated (or contract when
cooled). This fact is used to measure temperature.
E). Hot air balloon:- propane gas expands and becomes lighter when heated. It fills up a balloon
which will then because of the density difference between the propane inside and air outside will rise
upwards and fly around.
1). When railway tracks were laid with the ends of individual rails closely and firmly fixed together with
no gaps
between, expansion made the tracks buckle.
To allow for expansion and avoid destruction, gaps are left between the end of one rail and the
next.
The rails are tapered at each end, then each end overlaps with the end of the next rail. As the rails
expand or contract their ends slide over one another.
One end of the bridge is supported on the rollers and the other end is fixed. As the bridge expands the
end on the rollers can move slightly, enough to avoid any damage to the bridge.
3). Telephone and power-lines:- are hung slightly slack ( too loose) if they are put up in summer to
allow for safe contraction in winter or at night without pulling the poles down or the wire snapping
(breaking). If they are put up in winter, they are tightened up a bit so that they do not become loose
(slack) when they expand in summer or during the day.
4). Tyre bursting:- more common during very hot days. It is caused by the expansion excessive
expansion of air inside the tyre.
6). Creaking noises in the roofs of buildings:- caused when the corrugated iron sheets slide over
each other as they expand or contract.
7). Freezing of water in the car radiators:- car radiator should have anti-freeze added to it to lower
the freezing point of water.
2. The diagram shows electricity cables that have been put up between their poles on a day when the
weather was quite warm
3. Explain why
(a) thick glass vessels often crack if placed in very hot water.
(b) a stubborn screw lid on a jar can often be unscrewed after being warmed in hot water.
(c) a bimetallic strip bends when heated
(d) water pipes likely to burst during a very cold weather
5. The diagram below shows a thermostat. It contains a bimetallic strip made of brass and steel. When
heated, brass expands more than steel. The bimetallic strip is used to switch the heater off when the
temperature rises above the pre-set value.
(i) When the bimetallic strip is heated the heater is switched off. Explain why.
(ii) How would you use the control knob to make the heater switch off at a higher temperature?
(i) lamp B lights when the temperature of the strip increases by 20 °C.
(ii) lamp A lights when the temperature falls by 20 °C.
(b) State what effect moving the metal contacts nearer to the bimetallic strip would have on the
warning system.
7. A glass bottle was heated. State whether the following properties were unchanged, decreased or
increased.
(a) mass of the bottle
(b) density of the bottle
(c) external diameter of the bottle
(d) volume inside the bottle.
Main features:-
Heat is transferred to the liquid inside bulb by conduction and radiation through the glass
wall. After some time the heat will reach the liquid. The heat is transferred through the
liquid by convection. The glass and the liquid will begin to expand. The liquid rises up the
column of the capillary bore because it expands faster than the glass
1) Alcohol
Its expansion is about six times that of mercury
Has lower freezing point (about -122 °C) so can be used in very cold
temperature region.
Disadvantages
Disadvantages
(a) First, the lower and upper fixed points must be marked on the scale. Fixed points are
standard temperatures which their values are known and fixed. Lower fixed point
(or ice point) is defined as the temperature at which pure ice melts at sea level and
its value is taken to be 0 °C. The upper fixed point (steam point) is the temperature
- Place the thermometer in crushed pure melting ice placed in a funnel above a
beaker.
- The mercury thread falls and eventually stabilises at one point. That point
represents the L.F.P.
- Mark on the stem against the level of the mercury thread and label it 0 °C.
- Next, place the thermometer in the steam above boiling water in a flask.
- Allow the mercury thread to rise until it stabilises at a particular point. That point
represents U.F.P.
- Mark against the level of mercury thread on the stem and label it 100 °C.
NOTE: When using a thermometer without scale marks but only with lower fixed
point and upper fixed point marked, one may use the following equation to find the
value of temperature for any given length of the column.
θ = Xθ – X0 / (X100 – X0) x ∆T
Θ = Xθ – X0 / (X100 – X0) x ∆T
= 4 – 2/(12 – 2) x 100
= 2/10 x 100
= 20 °C
Example #2.
Find temperature X
Θ = Xθ – X-10/(X110 – X-10) x ∆T
X = 9 – 2/(14 -2) x 120
= 7/12 x 120
= 70 °C
B. CLINICAL THERMOMETER
A vacuum – allow free movement of the mercury inside the capillary bore.
Glass bulb with thin wall allows heat to pass quickly into the mercury. Even though
the glass bulb of a clinical thermometer is smaller than that of a laboratory
thermometer, but in relation to its bore, it is large and this improves its sensitivity.
Narrow capillary makes the thermometer sensitive to small changes in temperature.
Constriction prevents mercury from falling back into the bulb when removing the
thermometer from the body, before a reading is taken. The mercury above will be
trapped and this allows the nurse to take accurate reading from the thermometer.
Bulb :- if the bulb is small, heat will be distributed quickly throughout the whole
liquid and the liquid will expand quickly. But the bulb needs to be large in relation to
the size of the bore for higher sensitivity.
Thermometer A with a large bulb and a narrow bore is more sensitive than
thermometer B with a small bulb but wide bore.
Thickness of the glass wall:- bulb should be made of thin walled glass for heat to
easily reach the liquid in the bulb
C D
Width of the bore:- for higher sensitivity the bore of the thermometer should be
very thin (narrow) so that a small expansion of the liquid can result in a larger
change in the position of the level of the mercury (length of mercury thread) inside
the thermometer.
Note: Mathematically, sensitivity can be expressed as change in the length of the
mercury column per unit temperature increase.
e.g. If a column of a thermometer increases by 10 mm for every 2 °C increase in
temperature, what is the sensitivity of the thermometer?
Sensitivity = 10 mm/2 °C = 5 mm/°C
Summary of the effects of bulb size and bore width on range and sensitivity
Range Sensitivity
To use the thermometer, one junction X (cold junction) must be put into melting ice. The
other junction Y (hot junction) is placed into the body of substance of which its temperature
is to be measured, e.g. warm water. Difference in temperatures at the two junctions induces
an e.m.f (voltage) across the junctions which causes the current to flow through the circuit.
This will result with a deflection on the sensitive galvanometer.
Note:
The deflection is greater when the temperature difference is greater.
If the temperature of both junctions is the same then no voltage is produced.
Advantages of a thermocouple
i) A thermocouple responds quickly to temperature changes, because metal wires are
good conductor
of heat and also only a small part can be put into a substance, it can quickly attain
the temperature of
of the substance.
ii) A thermocouple can be used to measure very high and very low temperatures (-200
°C – 1500 °C),
e.g. used to measure high temperature inside blast furnaces and car engines.
T = θ + 273
E.G.
Absolute Melting point Boiling
zero water
#2 Convert a) 50 °C to K
b) 100 K to °C
T = θ + 273
= 50 + 273
= 323 K
b) Data: T = 100 K, θ = ?
T = θ + 273
THEN θ = T -273
= 100 K – 273
= 173 °C
5. The scale of a mercury-in-glass thermometer is linear. One such thermometer has a scale
extending from
-10 °C to 110 °C. The length of that scale is 240 mm.
(a) What is meant meant by the statement that the scale is linear?
(b) Calculate the distance moved by the end of the mercury thread when the
temperature of the
thermometer rises
(i) from 0.0 °C to 1.0 °C
(ii) from 1.0 °C to 100 °C.
8.8.2 Melting
Melting is a process in which a substance changes its state from solid to liquid and the reverse process
(liquid to solid) is called freezing or solidification.
When a pure solid melts it stays at the same, definite temperature is called its melting point and it
also solidifies at the very same temperature (now it would be called its freezing point). During melting
or freezing, the temperature does not change even though the substance continues to gain or lose
(heat) energy. The energy gained is used to re-arrange the particles/molecules/atoms of the substance.
The heat absorbed by the substance during melting or given out during solidification is called latent
heat of fusion. The energy is used to overcome the attractive forces between the particles that keep
them in their fixed positions. Latent heat changes the state of the substance without change in the
temperature (“latent” literally means hidden)
8.8.2 Boiling
Boiling is a process in which the substance changes state from liquid to gas and the reverse process is
called condensation (gas -----> liquid).
If the energy is supplied to a liquid, e.g. water, its temperature rises until it boils. During boiling the
temperature of water remains constant. The temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas by boiling is
called its boiling point. As water turns into steam, the energy supplied does not cause a rise in
temperature instead is used to enable molecules to break the attractive forces holding the particles
together. The energy absorbed and used to change a liquid to a gas without changing the temperature
of the substance is called latent heat of vaporisation. The latent heat of vaporization is given out during
condensation to change a gas to a liquid.
1) BOILING CURVE
When ice at a temperature below 0 °C, say -10 °C is allowed to warm up slowly, its temperature will
rise to 0 °C and remain constant until all the ice has melted. The temperature will begin to rise up to
100 °C where it remains constant until all the water has vapourised into steam and the temperature of
the steam will rise above 100 °C.
BOILING
MELTING
We can also plot a graph of temperature against time (boiling curve) when the steam of temperature
above 100 °C.
condensation
steam
Water + steam
water Freezing/solidification
8.9 Evaporation
8.9.1 It is the process in which a liquid changes into a gas at a temperature below its boiling point. All
molecules
do not have the same energy. During evaporation, molecules with greater energy than others
and are
nearer to the surface escape into the space above the liquid
*Liquids which evaporate and boil at low temperatures are called volatile liquids.
At higher temperature, molecules gain more energy and move faster and time for them to reach the
surface decrease. Therefore a larger number of molecules can escape from the surface.
If the surface area is large, more molecules will evaporate because more molecules are near the
surface and also there is more room for them to escape.
When the humidity is high (i.e. water vapour is present in air in greater proportion) the molecules which
escaped from the liquid collide with the water molecules in the atmosphere, so some of the escaped
liquid molecules will return into the liquid.
If wind blows over the surface of the liquid, the escaped molecules from the surface of the liquid will be
rapidly carried away by the draught and thus reducing the possibility of their return into the liquid.
During evaporation, the high energy molecules escape from the liquid leaving the low energy molecules
behind. Therefore the average kinetic energy of the remaining molecules decreases. This lowers the
temperature of the liquid because the temperature of a substance is proportional to the average kinetic
energy of its molecules.
i). Cooling our bodies- your body sweats in hot weather, as the sweat evaporates it takes in latent
heat from
your body and cools it, this helps get rid of excessive internal energy.
It works in the same way, but on a larger. The refrigerant liquid evaporates in the coil inside the building
and extracts latent heat from the air in the room, cooling it down. The resulting vapour then condenses
under pressure in the coil outside the house releasing the latent heat to the outside air.
During boiling, the average k.e. of particles is high enough for some groups of particles to form
separate bubbles of vapour throughout the liquid, these bubbles will be seen moving rapidly and will
burst at the surface during boiling. At the boiling point, some of the particles near the surface gain
enough energy to escape from the liquid. These escaping particles form vapour above the surface of
the liquid. This is evaporation.
Both processes involve a change in state from liquid to gas, but evaporation is not the same as boiling.
A). Differences
Boiling Evaporation
2). Occurs at only one temperature – boiling 2). Occurs at all temperatures
point
3). Occurs throughout the whole body of the 3). Occurs only at the surface
liquid
B). Similarities
8.10 QUESTIONS
1. A boy has been swimming in a pool. He comes out of the water onto hot sunshine but he feels cold
until he
has dried himself. Why did he feels cold when he was still wet?
2. Table shows the melting points and boiling points of four substances. Which state are the
substances in at
room temperature (say 15 °C)?
A -73 -10
B -39 357
C 17 118
D 29 669
3. A large piece of ice is taken from a refrigerator has a temperature of -2 °C. Its temperature is
measured as it
is warmed. Sketch a graph to show how its temperature changes with time until the water is boiling.
4. The diagram below is the outline of a heat pump system. A suitable refrigerating liquid or its vapour
is
circulated round a loop of pipes. In one part of the loop (the compressor) the vapour condenses
into liquid; in
another part (the expansion valve) the liquid evaporates. Explain what transfer of thermal energy
(heat)
occurs (i) when a liquid evaporates and (ii) when a liquid condenses.
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 110
5. The graph shows how the temperature of a pure substance changes as it is heated.
(b) On the graph, mark with an X any point where the substance exists as both a liquid and gas at
the same
time.
(c) i) All substances consists of particles. What happens to the average kinetic energy of these
particles as
the substance changes from a liquid to a gas.
ii) Explain, in terms of particles, why energy must be given to a liquid if it is to change to a gas.
6. The graph below shows how the temperature of some liquid in a beaker changed as it was heated
until it was
boiling.
(b) State and explain what difference, if any, there would be in the final temperature if the liquid
was heated
more strongly.
∆T α 1/m
ii. The temperature change differs from material to material. For any one material (e.g.
water, iron,
mercury, copper, etc.) exists a constant, C. For objects of the same mass;
∆T α 1/C
The constant C is called heat capacity of an object. Heat capacity, C, is the quantity of heat
which is required to raise the temperature of an object by 1 °C or 1 K.
SI Unit is joule per celsius (J/°C or J °C-1) OR joule per kelvin (J/K or J K-1).
From the definition, mathematically heat capacity can be expressed as:-
C = Q/∆T
c= (Q/∆T)/m
Problems
#1Find the specific heat capacity of the liquid given that:
i. energy transferred = 12 209 J
ii. mass of liquid = 0.8 kg
iii. original temperature = 26.8 °C
iv. final temperature = 33.0 °C
Q = mc∆T
c = Q/m∆T
= 12209/(0.8(33.0 – 26.8))
= 301 600 J
#2. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 10 kg of brass from 10 °C to 90
°C. Specific heat capacity of brass = 377 J kg-1 °C-1.
Answ:
Data:- m = 10 kg, Ti = 10 °C, Tf = 90 °C, c = 377 J kg-1 °C-1, Q=?
Q = mc∆T
= 10 x 377 x (90 – 10)
= 301 600 J
Answ:
a) Data:- P = 1000 W, t = 5 min = 300 s, Q=?
Q = E = Pt
= 1000 x 300
= 300 000 J
b) Data:- m = 1 kg, c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1, Q = ?
Q = mc∆T
= 1 x 4200 x (90 – 20)
= 294 000 J
6000 J of energy are lost to the surroundings and cointainer by conduction,
convection and radiation.
#4 If 2 kg of water cools from 70 °C to 20 °C, how much thermal energy does it lose?
Answ:
DATA:- m = 2 kg, Ti = 70 °C, Tf = 20 °C, c = 4200 J kg-1 °C-1, Q =?
Q = mc∆T
= 2 x 4200 x (70 – 20)
= 420 000 J.
Answ:
Data:- Q = 920 000 J, m = 2 kg, Ti = 25 °C, c = 460 J kg-1 °C-1
Q = mc(Tf – Ti)
Tf = (Q/mc) + Ti
= 920 000/(2 x 460) + 25
= 1000 + 25
= 1 025 °C
8.12 QUESTIONS
1. A heater supplies 42 J of energy every second (its power is then 42 W). It is used to heat
some water. The
temperature rises by 5 °C in 100 seconds. What is the heat capacity of the water? A boy
says it would take
times as long to raise the temperature to 50 °C. Is he right? Explain ypur answer.
2. A beaker of oil and a beaker of water are heated on the same electric hot plate. The
beaker of oil has a
lower thermal capacity than the beaker of water. What can you say about how the
temperatures change?
3. The heat capacity of a thermocouple is mall. Give two advantages which result from this.
5. Calculate the energy lost by 2.5 kg of steam at 100 °C when it condenses, cools down to
0 °C and solidifies
at that temperature.
Specific latent heat of steam = 2 260 000 J/kg
Specific latent capacity of water = 4200 J/(kg °C)
Specific latent heat of water = 336 000 J/kg
7. Explain why a drink is cooled more by ice than by the same mass of water at 0 °C.
9. An experiment was conducted to measure the specific latent of fusion. Ice was placed in
a funnel and
heated for a fixed time. The water from the melted ice was collected in a beaker as
shown in the diagram.
The mass of the empty beaker was 50 g.
A 100 W heater was used to heat the ice for 2 min. After the jeater was switched off the
mass of the
beaker and the melted ice was 83 g. Use the results to calculate a value for L f, the
specific latent heat of
fusion of ice. Explain why your answer is different from the accepted value of 340 J g-1.
There are three common methods or ways by which heat can be transferred, viz:-
(i) Thermal conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) Thermal radiation
8.13.2 Conduction
This is flow of heat through a substance from places of higher temperature to those of lower
temperature without any movement/flow of the substance (matter) as a whole. It is a main
method of heat transfer in solids and heat can be conducted in all directions.
NB: Conduction can take place in all the three states of matter but at different rates.
When one end of a metal rod is heated, the particles (atoms/molecules) in portion nearest
to the source of heat, gain more kinetic energy and start to vibrate faster and more
vigorously. These atoms collide with the neighbours and pass on some of their energy
during those collisions. The neighbours will also begin to vibrate faster and will in turn
transmit the energy to the surrounding atoms. The chain process continues until all the
particles are affected and the whole substance is heated even the farthest parts.
Procedure:
i) Stick a pin to each piece of metal with candle wax
ii) Pour boiling water into the pan.
Note: In the experiment the following should be done
i) Length of all the metal rods should be the same
ii) All the metal rods have the same thickness (cross-sectional area)
iii) Pins attached at the ends of the metal rods should be identical and have equal
weights
iv) Metals should be placed into the hot water to same length to ensure equal
distribution of heat to all
the metals.
Observation:
The pin attached to the copper falls off first followed by that attached to the aluminium,
then zinc and lastly iron.
Observation
When the rod is passed through the flame several times, paper over the wood scorches
(burns) but not that over brass.
Note: Metal objects below body temperature feel colder to touch than those made of non-
metals because metals conduct heat away from the hand faster.
Procedure:
i) Wrap an ice cube in a metal gauge and place it at the bottom of a boiling tube filled
with water.
ii) Heat the water at the top using a low Bunsen flame.
Observation: The water starts to boil at the top before all the ice at the bottom has
liquefied (melted).
Reason: Heat is slowly conducted from the top of the boiling tube to the bottom of the
tube. Therefore the ice melts very slowly. This shows that water is a poor conductor of heat.
Note:
i) Metals are good conductors of heat because they have a large number of free
moving electrons. As the electrons travel over the piece of metal, they take some
heat with them. So in metals heat is
transferred by electrons and also by the vibrations of the atoms.
ii) On the other hand insulators conduct heat slowly because they have very few free
moving electrons
and also their particles are less closely packed together and so they collide less
frequently.
iii) Conduction of heat requires a medium and hence it cannot take place in a vacuum
(therefore this
means a vacuum is the best insulator/worst thermal conductor)
Poor conductors of heat are mostly non-metals (e.g. air, wood, glass, water, etc). They are
used where heat is to be insulated. Poor conductors are used to make:-
i) The handles of cooking utensils, soldering, soldering iron, laundry iron and many
other heating
appliances
ii) Clothes – cloth is made up of fibres. The fibres trap small pockets of air. The trapped
air helps to
reduce heat loss by conduction.
b). Other materials which trap air like fur, polystyrene, fibre glass, foam/sponge are used for
lagging to insulate
water pipes, hot water cylinders, oven, refrigerators and also used in house roof
insulation and cavity wall
insulation to prevent or reduce the rate of heat flow in our house. And air trapped
between two window
panes is used in double glazing insulation method in our homes.
8.13.3 Convection
It is the transfer of heat through fluids (liquids and gases) by the upward movement of
warmer, less dense parts of fluid. This movement is actually caused by the difference in
densities in different parts of the fluid.
When a fluid, (e.g. water or air) is heated, it expands and becomes less dense than the
colder surrounding fluid. Therefore it floats or rises upwards and is replaced by colder dense
fluid which sinks down to take its place. That fluid will be heated too and in turn rises
upwards. At the top, the warm fluid cools, becomes denser and begins to sink down where
it will be re-heated and rises again. Thus, a circulating movement sets up in the liquid until
the whole fluid is at the same temperature. These circulating parts of the fluid are called
convection currents.
*Convection can also be used to cool a substance. When fluid is cooled, molecules
contracts and becomes denser. The cool, dense fluid sinks and is replaced by warmer fluid
Observation
Purplish stream of water is seen rising upwards to the top. At the top the stream changes its
direction of motion and now sinks to the bottom.
*This movement is represented by the arrows drawn on the diagrams above. The arrows
also show the direction of the convection current.
Discussion
The liquid nearest to the heat source expands. This lessens its density. The less dense liquid
floats and rises up. More dense, cold liquid moves in to take its place.
The arrows on the diagram show the direction followed by the smoke.
Explanation:
The air around the candle flame becomes hot and expands. It becomes less dense and rises.
Cool, denser air moves over to the candle to take the place of the air that has risen up. This
causes cool air from outside to enter the box carrying the smoke with it.
- The cold water comes into the system at the bottom and is heated by the heat
element
- Water expands, becomes less dense and rises up
- It is replaced by more cold water to heated and the convection current is set to
heat all the water in the tank.
- The hot water pipe is near the top because hot water would always be at the top.
- If the water cools whilst at the top, it sinks to the bottom to be heated again.
- Overflow pipe is included to prevent build up of vapour which will increase
pressure inside the tank and cause some explosions or cause some airlocks inside
the water pipes.
8.13.4 Radiation
This is a way of transferring heat in form of invisible heat waves. This is how heat
travels from the sun to the Earth. The heat waves (radiant heat) are called infrared
radiation (E.M WAVES)
Note:
Heat can be transferred by radiation through a vacuum or a transparent
medium
All objects give out some infrared radiation and the hot objects give out more
radiation compare to cool ones.
Warm or hot objects (at higher temperature than the surrounding) will emit
the radiation whereas cool objects (at lower temperature) will usually absorb
the radiation from the surrounding.
Experiment #1: Investigating good and bad absorbers of radiant energy (infrared)
- The apparatus are set up as shown above with a pin attached to back each of
the above two objects (one with dark/black surface and the other with
bright/shiny/silver surface). The candle should be equidistant from both
objects for equal radiation to either object.
Observation:
The pin attached to the dark surface fall off first showing that the dark or black
surface absorbs radiant heat from the candle more quickly than the bright
surface.
- The two flasks in the diagram above with boiling water are allowed to cool.
- It is observed that temperature falls more rapidly for the thermometer in the
flask with a dark (black) surface and slower for the thermometer in a flask
with a bright/shiny surface.
- This shows that blackened surface loses heat more quickly than the silvered
or shiny one.
Conclusion: dark colours emit radiant heat more quickly than bright colours, i.e. dark
surfaces are good emitters of radiant heat whereas bright surface a bad emitters.
The best emitter is a dull black surface while a silvery polished surface is the worst.
However, all surfaces emit more radiation as they get hotter.
*NB: Dark surfaces are both good absorbers and bad emitters of radiation. Generally
good absorbers are also good emitters whereas bad absorbers are bad emitters as
well.
Diagram 1 Diagram 2
During a daytime the land gets hotter than the sea. The warm air rises upwards
and is replaced by cool air that blows from the sea towards the land. This sets up
some convection currents known as Sea Breezes (diagram 1).
But, at night the land loses heat faster than sea. Now the warmer air over the sea
rises and then is replaced by cool air that blows from the land to the sea and sets
up convection currents that will be called Land Breezes (diagram 2).
2. Cyclones
- Usually air above warm parts of sea will be warmed as well.
- The warm air rises up carrying moisture high into the atmosphere.
- The rotation of Earth causes the airflow to spin.
- This huge spinning mass of moist air is called a cyclone.
- The cyclone causes wet cloudy weather with strong winds.
- If the winds become very strong (120 – 130 km/h) the storm is called a
hurricane or a typhoon.
3. Greenhouse Effects
The Earth’s atmosphere contains a small amount of carbon dioxide gas. This has
similar effect to the glass in a greenhouse (read more on this), it allows short
wavelength infrared from the Sun to pass through and get absorbed by the Earth.
The Earth becomes warm and now radiates long wavelength infrared radiation. This
radiation is absorbed by carbon dioxide and water vapour in the atmosphere and
causes the atmosphere to become warmer. The atmosphere reflects some of the
energy back to the Earth. This process is called greenhouse effect and it helps to
keep the Earth warmer.
But extra carbon dioxide in the atmosphere as a result of burning of fossil fuels may
add to this effect and lead to global warming.
It is designed to keep liquids hot or cold by reducing heat transfer to or from the liquid by
the aid of the following features:
Feature of flask Reduces transfer of heat by Explanation
...........
(ii) a glass cover – to trap the radiation energy within the panel.
(iii) the pipe carrying heated water from the panel enters at the top of the storage tank.
This allows
the heated water to circulate in the tank by convection.
1. The metal rod has one end placed in a fire. Explain how heat gradually travels along the
rod to a
person’s hand at the other hand at the other end.
2. Why does the door handle feel colder than the wooden door in a cold weather?
3. (a). Which one of these processes is used to transfer energy by means of the infra-red
part of the electromagnetic spectrum?
5. In a double-glazed window, two panes of glass are separated by a few centimetres . Why
does this reduce the heat loss through the window?
6. Why are loosely knitted clothes likely to keep a person warmer during the cold months?
8. A person seating on a beach on a hot sumer’s day is feels a cool breeze blowing from the
water (sea breeze).
(b) Late at night the same person feels a breeze blowing in the opposite direction (from
land to the sea). Explain why the direction of the breeze often reverses late at night.
A wave can also be created along a slinky spring by fixing one end and moving the
other back and forth. The compressions (regions where the coils are close together)
and rarefactions (where the coils are further apart) which travel along the spring
form waves.
Amplitude (a): height of the crest or the depth of the trough from the undisturbed position
of the medium. SI unit is a metre (m).
Period (T): time taken to produce one complete wave or cycle. SI unit: second (s).
Period = total time taken/no. of complete waves (cycles).
Wave fronts: lines joining points on different waves produced by same source at the same
time OR lines drawn to represent the positions of the crests on a wave.
A circular wavefronts are used to represent circular waves (ripples) and are
concentric. Circular waves can be produced by a single point source(e.g. a finger or
vibrating dipper in a ripple tank)
Straight wavefronts are used for straight water waves and are parallel. Straight
waves can be produced using a vibrating bar or a ruler.
wavelength = 2.0 cm
amplitude = 5.0 cm
In a displacement – distance graph, one complete cycle represent one wavelength.
This graph can be used to find the period (T) of a wave. One complete cycle represent the
period (T).
Period T = 2.0 s
Frequency f = 1/2.0 s =0.5 Hz
Amplitude a = 3.0 cm.
9.3 TYPES OF WAVES
transverse wave
longitudinal wave
Transverse wave: a wave in which the displacement or vibrations of the particles are
perpendicular to the direction of the wave travel.
Examples of transverse
- waves on a spring or string
- water waves
- all electromagnetic waves (radio waves, infrared, light, ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma
rays)
Longitudinal wave: a wave in which the displacement particles is parallel to the direction of
the wave travel (in the same direction as the direction of the wave travel).
The angle at which wavefronts bounce off the barrier is equal to the angle at which they
meet the surface
The angle of incidence = the angle of reflection
Circular wavefronts are reflected as shown below. Notice that the reflected waves seem to
be coming from an imaginary source behind the boundary and the reflected waves are the
mirror image of the incident waves.
Refraction: if a small glass is placed in the centre of ripple tank the depth of the water
here is reduced. As the water waves enter this region we can see that the wavelength
changes because the speed changes but the frequency remains the same. The
wavelength will increase when the wave enters the deeper water again indicating that
the speed has increased.
The ratio of the speed (velocity) v1 of waves in deep water to the speed v2 water in shallow
water is known as refractive index.
When a wave is diffracted, its wavelength does not change. However, the size of its
wavelength affects how much it is diffracted.
Note: a) if wavelength is similar to the size of the gap, the waves are strongly diffracted.
b) If the wavelength is much smaller than the size of the gap, the waves are weakly
diffracted.
c) If the gap is much wider, diffraction is also weaker (see diagram (a) above).
9.6 QUESTIONS
1. How is a wave produced? Give two examples of different ways of producing waves.
2. What is the difference between the longitudinal and transverse waves? Give two
examples for
each.
3. What is meant by a compression and rarefaction in a spring?
4. What is the speed of a wave of frequency 400 kHz with wavelength 2.0 m?
5. Water waves are produced with a frequency of 4 Hz, by hitting the water surface with
the tip of
a pencil. If the waves travel 20 m in 10 s, what is:-
a) The speed of the wave?
b) The wavelength of the wave?
Fig. 7.0
On the diagram use arrows to show:
- Concave mirror
- Convex mirror
i) CONCAVE MIRROR
It curves inwards; the reflecting surface is inside
When parallel rays (beam) of light strike a concave mirror, the rays are reflected (with i = r)
such that they converge to cross at the point called a focus. If the point is on the principal
axis is called the principal focus (F).
ii) CONVEX MIRROR
It curves outwards
When parallel rays strike a convex mirror, the rays are reflected such that they
diverge/spread out. If the reflected rays are extended backwards, they cross at focus behind
the mirror. This principal focus behind the mirror is said to be virtual because they rays do
not actually originate from or pass through the point, they only appear to diverge from or
Following rays are needed to locate the images formed by curved mirrors
i). A ray parallel to the principal axis is reflected through the principal focus.
ii). A ray through the centre of curvature strikes the mirror normally and is reflected back
along its own path (NB: radius of curvature is perpendicular to the surface where it meets
the mirror).
iii). A ray through the principal focus is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
10.4 USES OF MIRRORS
a) Plane mirrors
Besides everyday use in our homes to look at oneself when dressing, doing make-ups or
seeing through awkward angles, plane mirror have other uses in a laboratory, e.g.
- Used to help to reduce parallax errors when reading pointer instruments.
- Used in making simple optical instruments e.g. a periscope
A SIMPLE PERISCOPE
10.5 QUESTIONS
1. For each of the following cases find the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection
2. A ray of light strikes a mirror surface with angle of incidence of 60°. Draw a diagram
to show the reflected ray plus the normal to the surface. If the angle of incidence
was 0°, what would the angle of reflection be?
3. On the diagram below, draw two rays to locate the image of the object seen by the
observer.
7 A photographer wishes to take picture without being noticed. He attaches two plane mirrors to his
camera.
Which arrangement of mirrors will allow the photographer to take pictures of someone behind the
camera?
O – point of incidence
NN’ – normal (line)
AO – incident ray
OB – refracted ray
i – angle of incidence
r – angle of refraction
Some of examples of effects of refraction in everyday life
1) A stick appears bent or broken at the interface when partly immersed in water.
c) glass prism
Place the glass block on the sheet of plain paper and draw its outline. Remove the
glass block.
Draw a normal at point O.
Using a protractor draw a line AO such that the angle AON (i = angle of incidence) =
30°
Place two pins P1 and P2 on the line AO.
Replace the glass block onto the outline and view images of the pins P1 and P2 from
the side BC. Then place two others pins P3 and P4 such that they are in line with
images of P1 and P2.
Remove the glass block and join the pins P3 and P4 to meet the line BC at point D.
Join O and D to make line OD and measure the angle MOD (r = angle of refraction).
Calculate sini and sinr.
Repeat the experiment for values of i = 40°, 50°, 60° and 70°.
Plot a graph of sini against sinr and determine the refractive index of the glass by
finding the gradient of the graph line.
sini/sinr = a constant
sini/sinr = n
-----------------------------> Snell’s Law
Where n is proportionality constant called the refractive index of the second medium with
respect to the first medium (or specific boundary between two media but when the first
medium is air it is just called refractive index of the second medium). The refractive index
of a boundary can be simply defined as the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the
sine of the angle of refraction for any ray that it refracts. It indicates the extent to which the
second medium will bend the light. In the graph of sini against sinr, refractive index is
represented by the gradient of the graph.
Snell’s law states that:
“The ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for a given
pair of
media is a constant”
*NB: Refractive index can also de defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to
the speed of light in a medium.
n = speed of light in a vacuum/speed of light in a medium
3.3 LAWS OF REFRACTION
1. The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal all lie in the same plane
2. Snell’s law: the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of angle of refraction for
a given pair of media is a constant.
11.4 APPARENT AND REAL DEPTH
When light moves from water to air, it will bend away from the normal. Due to the
refraction of light, an object at the bottom of the pool of clean water (or just the bottom of
the pool) will appear closer to the surface, i.e. the light rays from the object will appear to
The ratio of the real depth to the apparent depth is equal to the refractive index n of water
n = Real depth/Apparent depth
11.5 TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION AND CRITICAL ANGLE
When light strikes a transparent material, both reflection and refraction take place. When
light ray moves from a more dense medium like glass to a less dense medium like air, it will
bend away from the normal. This makes the angle of refraction r greater than angle of
incidence i. When i increases so does r. r will eventually be equal to 90°. The angle of
incidence for which angle of refraction is 90° is known as the critical angle (ic)
a) When angle of incidence i is less than the critical angle (i < ic) the ray is refracted and
there is also little reflection at the surface.
b) When angle of incidence is equal to the critical angle ( i = ic) both reflection and
refraction take place with the refracted ray running along the surface of the denser
materials (glass), which means r = 90°.
c) When the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle ( i > ic) the ray is
wholly/totally reflected into the glass. No refracted ray is observed. When this
Sinic = 1/n
A right angled glass can be used as shown in (a) above to turn light thru 180° in a rear
reflectors in bicycles or cars as well as in cats eyes (roadside reflectors).
Two right angled prisms can be used to turn light through 90° in a periscope.
OPTICAL FIBRES
These are thin, flexible rods of glass (or transparent plastic). When light ray is shone into the
fibre it bounces from one edge (side) of the optical fibre to the other by total internal
reflection. Light can be transported over large distance with very little loss of light intensity.
It is an optical illusion which results when air near ground or road surface is much warmer
than the one high up. It is caused by the progressive refraction of the light ray from sky as it
passes through different layers of air. Near the road surface, the light ray will meet the
warmer air at an angle greater than the critical angle and suffers total internal reflection.
The reflection of light produces an image of the sky which will appear as pool of water on
the road to an observer driving along the road.
11.6 QUESTIONS
1) A ray of light travels from air into water at an angle of incidence of 60°. Calculate the
angle of refraction, given that the refractive index of water is 1.33.
2) A light ray travelling through air strikes water at an angle of 40° to the surface. Given
that the refractive index for water is 1.33, find a) the angle of refraction (b) the
angle of deviation.
3) Use a diagram to explain why a drinking straw appears bent when partially immersed
in a glass of water.
4) A pond of water of water (n = 1.33) is 2 m deep. What is the apparent depth of the
pond when a person looks vertically downwards from above?
5) State two necessary conditions for light to be totally internally reflected.
6) If the refractive index of water is 1.33, how deep will a pond really be if it appears to
be 6 m when looking vertically downwards?
7) Draw a ray diagram to show how a right-angled prism can be used to turn a light ray
through: (a) 90° (b) 180°
8) Draw a diagram to show how two right-angled prisms can be used, in place of two
mirrors, in a periscope. Show the path of the light rays as accurately as you can.
9) What advantages do optical fibre cables have over copper cables in communication
systems?
10) The diagram shows rays of light in semi-circular glass block.
a) Explain why the ray entering the glass at A is not bent
b) Explain why the ray AB is reflected at B and not refracted.
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 153
c) Ray CB does not stop at B. Copy the diagram and draw its approximate path after
it leaves B.
12) Copy the diagrams below and complete the paths of the rays.
13). A ray of light is directed at a rectangular glass block (see Fig. 13.0 below). Copy the
diagram and complete it by drawing the ray which emerges at C. Name what is happening at
A and at B.
14 The diagram shows a long block of glass over an object O. Light from O reaches the top
surface of the glass
at X, Y and Z.
12.0 LENSES
12.1 Introduction
Lenses are usually used in various optical instruments to produce images. A lens would bend
or refract a light ray to produce an image. They often have spherical surfaces. There are two
types of lenses, namely
i) Convex/converging lens
ii) Concave/diverging lens
A converging lens is thicker at the middle and thinner at the edges and it bends light
inwards.
On the other hand a concave is thinner at the middle and thicker at the edges and it spread
out light.
When a parallel beam of light passes through a convex lens the rays bend inwards and
converge or meet at a point known as a FOCUS. When the rays pass through a concave lens
A simple method of determining the focal length of a convex length is by focusing the image
of an object which is far away from the lens on a wall/screen. The distance from the lens to
the screen on which the image is formed is approximately the focal length of the lens.
PLANE MIRROR METHOD
A more accurate method involves the use of a plane mirror which reflects rays from an
illuminated object (cross-wire) in front of the lens. The lens position is adjusted until a real
image is formed next to the object.
Image is:- real, inverted, same size as the object and at 2F.
Image is:- virtual, enlarged, erect (upright) and behind the object
The Lens:- focuses the image of the object on a light sensitive photographic film
placed at the back of the camera. The lens is moved in or out to make focusing
adjustment.
The Shutter:- opens and shuts quickly to let a small amount of light into the camera.
The film: is kept in darkness until the shutter opens. It is coated with light sensitive
chemicals which are changed by different shades and colours in the image. When
3) SLIDE PROJECTOR
A slide projector uses a convex lens to form a large, inverted, real image on the screen. The
object is a brightly lit piece of transparency (slide) with a picture/information on it.
The projection lens: forms the image on the screen. To get a large image the lens
has to be a long way from the screen. The focusing adjustments are made by moving
the lens backward and forward in its holder.
The transparency or slide: must be upside down to get an upright picture (image) on
the screen. The slide must be positioned just outside the principal focus F of the lens
in order to obtain an enlarged image on the screen.
The condenser lens system: a special convex lenses arrangement which helps to
concentrates the light on the slide so that it is very bright and evenly lit.
The lamp: produces light that illuminates the object (slide) in order to produce a
bright/sharp image on the screen.
Concave mirror: reflects light to the condenser lens system.
4) PHOTOGRAPHIC ENLARGER
-Uses the same principles as the slide projector. The only difference is that with the
photographic enlarger the screen is a film which is coated with light sensitive chemicals e.g.
silver salts.
12.4 LENS EQUATION
For any diagram there is a relationship between image distance, the object distance and the
focal length of the lens and is given by:-
12.6 QUESTIONS
1. Fig. 1.0 shows three parallel rays of light reaching the front surface of a converging lens.
Copy the diagram
and continue the rays to show what happens to them as they pass through the lens and
into the air on the
other side.
2. Where must the object be placed for the image formed by a convex lens to be
a) Real, inverted and smaller than the object,
b) Real, inverted and same size as the object,
c) Real, inverted and larger than the object,
d) Virtual, upright and larger than the object?
3. A lens has a focal length of 4 cm. An object 2 cm high is placed 8 cm from the centre of
the lens. Where is
the image formed? Describe the image: is it real or virtual, upside-down or upright,
enlarged, same size or
smaller? What happens to the size and position of the image if the object is moved
further away from the
lens?
a) Draw two rays from the top of the object in order to locate the position of the
image.
b) The image is upright. State two other characteristics of the image.
5. Lenses are used in many optical devices. Copy and complete the table below about the
images
formed by some optical devices.
Optical device Nature of image Size of image Position of image
Projector Magnified
Magnifying glass Behind the object
camera Real
6. An object is placed closer to a converging lens than its principal focus. The figure shows
an incomplete ray diagram for the formation of the image.
Copy and complete the ray diagram and draw the image formed.
7. The diagram shows a converging lens forming a real image of an illuminated object.
State two
things that happen to the image when the object is moved towards F.
8. a) An object 1 cm high is placed 3 cm from a thin converging lens with a focal length of
5 cm.
Electromagnetic waves have some similar characteristics but have different wavelengths
and frequencies. They are produced by the movement of electrons in the materials. An E.M
wave is a wave consists of electric and magnetic field (force) vibrations/oscillations which
travel perpendicular to each other as well as the direction of the wave travel.
b) X-RAYS
Source: produced when high energy electrons are fired at a metal in x-ray tube.
Wavelength: 10-10 m
Detectors: photographic film, fluorescent screen
Properties:- very penetrating (but less than gamma rays)
-have high energy
- ionize gases
Uses: -used in radiography (to take x-ray pictures)
-used to kill cancer cells (cancer cells absorbs x-ray more readily than normal healthy
cells) and treat skin
disorders.
Side efffects: - causes cancer
c) ULTRAVIOLET RAYS
Sources: - sun (U.V is the sun rays that gives suntan)
-Mercury vapour lamps – created by passing the current through mercury vapour
in fluorescent
tubes
Wavelength: 10-8 m
Detectors: photographic film, fluorescent chemicals, photocells
Properties: -absorbed by glass
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 164
-causes suntan
-causes chemicals to fluorescence/glow
Uses: -kills bacteria
-produce vitamin D and melanin in the skin
-used to detect forgeries
Side effects: -causes sunburn or even skin cancer if in excess
-harmful to eyes
e) INFRARED
Sources: sun, warm and hot objects (e.g. heters, grills, etc.), remote controllers
Wavelength: 10-4 m
Detectors: special photographic film, phototransistor, sensitive thermometer,
thermopile
Properties: All objects give out infrared radiation; the hotter the object is the more
radiation it gives out.
-causes heating when absorbed by matter
Uses: - used for heating and cooking
- used for photography through haze and fog and in dark
- used in remote controls
- night vision
- detecting warm and cool skin and tracing infection.
2) Gamma rays are part of electromagnetic spectrum. Gamma rays are useful to us but can
also be very
dangerous.
a) Explain how the properties of gamma rays make them useful to us.
b) Explain why gamma rays can cause damage to people.
c) Give one difference between microwaves and gamma rays.
d) Microwaves travel at 300 000 000 m/s. what speed do gamma rays travel at?
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 166
3) Write down the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing wavelength.
4) The spectrum of electromagnetic waves can be divided into several regions, in order of
increasing
frequency, the diagram below shows this. Name the regions represented by the letters A
and B. What
common properties are shared by the waves from each region?
*A sound wave can also be defined as a form of radiation consists of series of pressure
variations propagating through a medium
Sound waves are longitudinal i.e. the vibrations of the particles are parallel to the direction
of the wave travel.
Definition;
a) Wavelength (λ) of a sound wave:- the distance between two successive compressions or
rarefactions.
b) Speed (v) of a sound wave is the distance travelled by the wave in one second.
c) Frequency (f) of a sound wave:- number of complete waves produced in a second or
number of complete oscillations (vibrations) made by the source in one second.
To find the speed of the sound, divide the total distance travelled by the time taken
recorded by the stopwatch
v = 2s/t
The sound of the bell fades when the air is removed from the jar. If the jar is completely
evacuated, no sound is heard even when the hammer continues to hit the gong. The sound
returns when air is let back into the jar.
14.3 TYPES OF SOUND WAVES
Different sounds have different frequencies.
Infrasonic waves | audible sound waves | ultrasonic waves/ultrasound
20 Hz 20 kHz
i) Infrasonic waves(infrasound):- have frequencies below 20 Hz e.g. earthquake/seismic
waves and can be detected by dogs.
ii) Audible sound (waves) – sound that can be detected by human ears. Their frequency
ranges from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
iii) Ultrasonic waves (ultrasounds) - have frequencies higher than 20 000 Hz (20 kHz). They
can be detected by bats. A bat emits and receives ultrasonic waves and this helps them to
navigate at night and judge the distance of obstacles ahead.
NOISE POLLUTION
Unpleasant sound which may be even harmful to people is called noise. Sound is
unpleasant if it is very loud or has a very high frequency. Noise can damage the ears, cause
loss of concentration and if very loud result in sickness and temporary deafness.
Ways of reducing unwanted noise (noise pollution)
Designing quieter engines and better exhaust systems.
Using sound-insulating materials such as carpets, curtains and double-glazed
windows in our houses
Tractor drivers, factory workers and other people regularly exposed to noise often
have to wear ear protectors.
Where practical keep as much greater distance away from the source of the noise as
possible.
Sound A has a higher pitch than sound B because has higher frequency. With a higher
frequency more waves are produced and the waves are closer together.
NOTE: i) A high-pitched sound also has a short wavelength while a low-pitched sound has a
longer wavelength.
ii) Musical notes are said to be octave apart if the frequency of one is twice that of the
other.
b) Loudness
The loudness of a sound depends on the amplitude of the sound wave. Quiet sounds
(notes) have small amplitude, loud sounds have larger amplitude. The loudness of sound is
measured in decibels (dB).
Sound B is louder than sound A because the wave has a larger amplitude.
*The greater the amplitude, the louder the sound.
c) Timbre
The timbre of a sound describes the purity or quality of sound. Pure note (e.g. one emitted
by a turning fork) has only one frequency but other notes consist of a main or fundamental
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 172
frequency with others, called overtones (which are usually weaker and with frequencies
which are exact multiples of the fundamental frequency). The number and strength of the
overtones decides the quality of a note.
Sound B is a pure note from a turning fork. Sound A is produced from a piano. The two
sounds have almost the same pitch (main frequency) and loudness but differ in quality
because sound A is actually a combination of several different sounds with slightly
different frequencies.
Note:
The frequency (pitch) of a note produced by a vibrating material (e.g. string) depends on:
i) length of the material; short strings produce high notes and therefore halving the length
doubles the frequency
ii) tension in material: tight wires produce high notes
iii) mass per unit length; thin strings give high notes.
14.5 ECHO AND REVERBERATIONS
14.5.1 ECHO
Sound is reflected when it meets some kind of obstruction such as a wall, high cliff or the
bottom of an ocean. The reflected sound (wave) is called an echo. In ships, echo can be
used to find how deep the ocean is or to detect the shoals of fish.
A pulse of sound is transmitted to the sea bed and is reflected back to the boat. The time
interval between transmitting and receiving the pulse is measured. Then the depth of the
sea is calculated using the total distance travelled by the pulse which is twice distance to the
obstruction.
Example:
A sound pulse is transmitted from the boat, and 10 s later an echo is received. How deep is
the ocean? (The speed of sound in water is 1500 m/s).
The shape and size of the hall will affect the amount of reverberations reaching the
listener. These factors are called the acoustics of the hall. Rooms with good acoustics are
very important when recording music or when designing conference centres. Optimum
reverberations are desirable but too much causes confusion.
Q4. A man standing on a beach 340 m from a tall cliff hears his echo after 2 s.
a) What is an echo?
b) Explain how echoes can be used to discover the depth of water under boat.
c) Using the information above calculate the speed of sound in air
d) What are ultrasonic waves?
e) Give at least two uses of ultrasonic waves.
Q5. Sound X: frequency 10 000 Hz.
Sound Y: frequency 30 000 Hz.
Upper limit of human hearing: 20 000 Hz.
Magnet is an object that attracts certain objects which are made from magnetic materials.
Magnetic materials: are materials attracted by a magnet e.g. iron, cobalt, nickel and alloys
such as steel, alnico and alcomax. These magnetic alloys usually contain iron, cobalt, nickel
and aluminium. These materials (magnetic materials) are also called ferromagnets.
Non-magnetic materials: substances that cannot be attracted by a magnet. These include
copper, brass, zinc, tin and non metals (e.g wood, glass, etc)
15.1 PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS
a) Magnets attract magnetic materials and do not interact with non-magnetic materials.
b) Magnets have magnetic poles. These are areas in a magnet where magnetism (magnetic
force) seems to be
Concentrated and stronger. To determine the magnetic poles dip a magnet into iron
filings. Most of the
Filings stick in clumps around the ends of the magnet with few if any in the middle.
c) North and south poles
If a bar magnet is suspended so that it can swing freely it will always come to rest in
approximately N-S
direction. The end pointing to the earth geographical north is called the North seeking
pole or North pole (N)
and the end pointing to the geographical south is called the South seeking pole or South
pole (S).
d) Law of magnetic poles
If a north pole of a magnet (test magnet) is brought closer to a north pole of another
magnet, repulsion will
take place. If a North pole of one magnet is brought close to the south pole of another
magnet attraction takes place.
2) Electrical method: The industrial way of making magnets is by making use of the
magnetic field created
when current flows through a conductor. The magnetic material is placed inside a
solenoid (a long coil of
insulated copper wire) through which D.C (direct current) is passed. The current is
switched on and off,
when the material is removed it would be found to be magnetized. (The coil should be
placed in the N-S
direction).
To determine the polarity, the right hand grip rule is used. The fingers are placed such that
they follow the direction of current around the coil and thumb will point to the North pole.
iii) can also be demagnetized by hammering (whilst lied in the E-W direction)
15.5 MAGNETIC SATURATION
Magnetic materials such as iron and steel have individual atoms which act like atomic
magnets or magnetic dipoles. The neighbouring atoms set themselves with their magnetic
axis parallel. The grouping of atomic magnets or atomic dipoles with parallel axes is called
magnetic domain.
In an unmagnetised material, the magnetic domains will point in different directions and
hence the material as a whole will show no polarity. When a magnetic material is
magnetized, the domains are re-aligned such that most of them have their axes pointing in
the same direction. There is a maximum level of the magnetization which is called magnetic
saturation. This happens when the atomic dipoles in all magnetic domains have been re-
aligned and their magnetic axes are parallel and pointing in the same direction.
i) iron filings:- place a sheet of paper over the magnet. Sprinkle iron filings onto the paper
and tap the paper a
bit. The iron fillings turns around in the direction of the magnetic lines of force. They form
a pattern showing
magnetic field lines around the magnet.
ii) plotting compass: the bar magnet is placed on top of a sheet of paper. Place the plotting
compass at the
end of the bar magnet. When the compass has settled mark on the paper the ends of the
needles of the
compass. Move the compass to a new position so that its other end is over the last mark
previously made.
Mark another dot where the needle is pointing. Repeat the procedure until the compass
reaches the other
end of the magnet (expt. Pg 223 GCSE). Join the dots to form a single line from one end of
the magnet to
the other.
PATTERNS OF ELECTRIC FIELD
i) Field lines around a single magnet
Field lines always move from north to south. They never cross each other. And where the
lines are closer together shows areas with stronger magnetism (magnetic force).
There is a neutral point X between the poles where the field cancel out each other.
15.7 MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND IRON
Both iron and steel can be induced to form magnets.
EXPERIMENT 1
Each pin or clip magnetises the one below it by induction and unlike poles so formed will
attract. When the chain of iron nails is removed from the magnet, it will collapse. When the
chain of the steel paper clips is removed from the magnet, the clips will remain attached to
each other. These indicate that magnetism induced in iron is temporary while magnetism
induced in steel is permanent
Conclusion: steel is a hard magnetic material i.e. it is very hard to magnetize steel but once
magnetized steel will not lose its magnetism easily.
Iron is a soft magnetic material i.e. iron can be magnetized easily but it will lose its
magnetism easily.
More filings stick to the soft iron. So the induced magnetism in the iron is slightly greater.
When the strips are detached from the magnet, most of the filings fall from the soft iron but
few fall from the steel. This shows that the induced magnetism in soft iron is temporary but
magnetism induced in steel is permanent.
15.8 USES OF MAGNETS
1). Permanent magnets
They are used in construction of electric motors, bicycle dynamos, generators,
loudspeakers, electricity meters, microphones and can also be used as door catches.
2). ELECTROMAGNET
This is a temporary magnet made by winding a coil of wire around a soft iron.
The soft iron will only be magnetized when current flows through the coil. When there is no
current flowing, the soft iron will lose its magnetism. Steel is not suitable to be used as a
core since it is a hard magnetic material. With steel the electromagnet will keep its
magnetism even when the current is switched off.
*NOTE:
1. Without the iron core, an electromagnet would be much weaker. The core
concentrates the magnetic field into a small volume of space and hence producing a
stronger electromagnet.
Uses of Electromagnet
1. Large electromagnets are used for lifting heavy magnetic materials in scrap-yards. A
crane moves the material to its new place and when the current is turned off, the
material is released from the electromagnet.
2. Electric bell
It consists of an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself on and off very
quickly.
When the press-button switch is pressed, the current flows through the electromagnet,
which pulls the springy metal together with the hammer so that it hits
the gong and the sound is made. This movement, at the same time, separates the contacts
and switches off the circuit. The hammer goes back, the contacts close again, the current
flows once more and the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again, this goes on and
produces continuous sound until the circuit is switched off.
When the current moves through the coil, the magnetic field created would magnetize
the reeds (thin strips inside the glass tube). The current flows such that the ends of the
two reeds develop opposite poles and then the reeds will attract each other thereby
completing the circuit connected to their other ends (AB). The reeds separate once they
the current in the coil is turned off.
Reeds switches are also operated by permanent magnets.
In the above diagram, a burglar alarm is activated by a reed switch. When the door is
closed the magnetic fields from the two bar magnets cancel out each and the reed
switch remains open. But once the door is opened with the switch closed, the reeds
would be magnetized by the magnet in the door frame. The ends of the reeds will be
induced with opposite ends, they will attract, and completing the circuit and this will
causes the alarm bell to ring.
When someone speaks into the microphone (mouthpiece) on the other end of the
line a varying electric current is set up having the same frequency as the sound
waves. Similar current will be fed to the earpiece on the other end, when this varying
current passes through the coil in the earpiece, the magnetic force on the diaphragm
also varies. Therefore the diaphragm (made of magnetic substance) moves to and fro
in step with the current. This sets the air nearby into vibration and sound waves are
set up.
Iron is said to be more permeable to magnetic field than air is. Therefore magnetic field
lines appear to be drawn into the iron and concentrated through it and none through the air
inside the iron. Then anything inside the iron ring would be shielded or screened from
magnetic field. This effect is known as magnetic screening or shielding.
1. A student has a piece of metal that he thinks is a magnet. He holds it near another
magnet and it is attracted. The student says this proves that his metal is a magnet.
Explain why the student is wrong.
2. A, B, C and D are small blocks of different materials. The table below shows what
happens when two of the blocks are placed near one another.
Use one of the phrases below to complete the sentences that follow. Each word may
be used once, more than once or not at all.
a) Block A is ......................
b) Block B is .......................
c) Block C is ......................
d) Block D is ......................
3. What is the diference between a magnetically hard material and a magnetically soft
material? Give an example of each.
4. a) What is a magnetic material? Give three examples of magnetic materials.
b) Name three non-magnetic metals.
5. Study the magnets in the diagram below. What would happen in each case?
Describe what you would do with the two magnets so that you got this pattern.
a) The solenoid in the diagram above behaves like bar magnet. Mark its polarity.
b) An iron rod is placed in the solenoid. What happens to it when the current is
i) Switched on
ii) Switched off
c) How would your answers in (i) and (ii) above change if the rod were made of
steel?
d) What is purpose of the core in the electromagnet?
e) Give one use of an electromagnet.
12. The figure below shows a circuit that includes an electrical relay, used to
switch on a motor
M.
A B
A polythene strip will be negatively charged and the cloth will be positively charged
B. cellolose acetate strip will be positively charged and the cloth will be negatively
charged.
Explanation: when polythene is rubbed, electrons from the cloth are transferred to the
polythene making the polythene negatively charged and the cloth will be positive because
there will be a deficit of electrons.
On the other hand when perspex (cellulose acetate) is rubbed with the cloth it loses some
electrons to the cloth and remains short of electrons and with more unbalanced protons
and as a result the Perspex rod becomes positively charged and the cloth negatively charged
because it would have some extra electrons (negative charges).
There are two types of charges, namely positive(+) and negative (-).
A metal sphere is being charged by induction and ends up with an opposite charge to
that on the rod. Note the two never actually touched.
16.1.4 GOLD-LEAF ELECTROSCOPE
An instrument used for detecting the presence of an electric charge. It consists of a
metal rod on top of which there is a metal cap (plate). The rod is insulated from the
case. A thin gold leaf is attached to the bottom of the rod.
When a positively charged rod is brought near the top plate, the leaf rises. This so because
the positively charged rod attracts free electrons in the brass rod (stem) upwards so that the
plate has an excess of negative charges. The lower rod and the leaf are left with an excess of
positive charges. The leaf diverges from the stem because they are both positively charged.
On removal of the charged, the leaf falls as the extra electrons in the top plate move back
down the stem.
2. Charging an electroscope
a. Charging by contact
An electroscope can be charged by rubbing (pressing) a charged insulator firmly
across the edge of the top plate. The charge on the rod is shared with the
electroscope.
b. Charging by induction
A positively charged rod is brought near the top plate. This attracts electrons
upwards, leaving a positive charge on the leaf and the stem. When the top plate is
touched with a finger, the electrons on the plate remain because they are held there
by the attraction of the positively rod. The electrons flow in from Earth to replace
the missing electrons on the leaf. The charged on the leaf is neutralised. The leaf
collapses. The finger is removed, followed by the rod. This leaves a net negative. The
leaf rises as the finger is removed.
In a chemical reaction, a copper atom loses two electrons to become a copper ion. a)
calculate the charge on this ion.
Answ: charge on one electron = 1.6 x10-19 c
16.1.6 DISCHARGING
A charge can be build up on an object through friction. The charge can be discharged to the
Earth by contact with a conductor. The charge stored can also be released to the nearest
object with a neutral charge or by bringing discharging object with opposite charge.
e.g. when sliding out of a car, friction between the seat and clothes causes a charge on the
person. When the person touches the car body the charge passes from his body to the car,
giving a slight shock.
*NB: an isolated charged insulator will slowly become discharged. The charge on the
insulator is neutralized by ions (charged particles) in the air.
The Van de Graaff generator produces a large and continuous supply of electric charge. In
this machine a rubber belt rubs against a plastic roller and becomes charged. The charge is
carried on the moving belt up to the metal dome, where it is collected. A large quantity of
charge therefore builds up on the dome.
*woollen threads attached to the dome will repel each other strongly after the generator
has been running for a while.
Thunderclouds contain a large quantity of negative charge on their underside and positive
charge on their tops. When pass over a building it induces a build-up of opposite charge
(positive charge) on the roof. If the electric field (voltage) between the opposite charges is
strong enough, there may be a spark of lightning as the charges flow through the air
towards each other.
With a lightning conductor, the sharp spikes at the top reduce the chance of a lightning
strike. By effect of action at points, the conductor let charges on the building leak away
before a spark can occur and some of the charges flow even up to the clouds and cancel out
some of the negative charge on the clouds, making it less likely that the lightning will strike.
However, if a flash does occur it is less violent and the conductor gives it (negative charge)
an easy path to the ground.
b) Earthing
While the rod is still kept at its position, the sphere is earthed by touching with
hand -
electrons flow out to earth.
Charges are evenly distributed around the sphere when the rod and the earth (hand) are
removed.
Q10. a). A girl rubs a Perspex ruler on her sleeve. He holds it near water flowing from a tap.
The water moves
towards the ruler. Explain?
b). What difference would it make if the ruler were made of polythene?
Q11. Use words from the list below to complete the following sentences. You can use them
mire than once.
attract(s) duster electrons insulators like negatively opposite
positively protons
repel rod
A polythene rod is rubbed with a duster. ____________ leave the ____________ and move
to the ______________. The polythene becomes ______________ charged and the duster
____________ charged.
Q12. Fig. 12.1 shows two positively charged conducting spheres mounted on rods made of a
good electrical
insulator.
Fig. 13.1
The two small spheres are pulled apart, using their insulated handles, and then taken well
away from the large sphere, as shown in Fig. 13.2.
Fig. 13.2
a) The charge on the large sphere has been drawn in for you. On Fig. 13.1 and fig.
13.2 draw in the charges, if any, on each of the smaller spheres.
b) Explain why energy is needed to separate the two small spheres.
16.2.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT: The amount of charge passing through a given point in a
conductor per unit time
OR
The rate of flow of charge in a circuit.
Current = charge/time
I = Q/t
Q = It
------------------------->Coulomb’s law
V = W/Q or V = E/Q
In an electric circuit, chemical energy in the battery is converted into electrical energy in the
electrons. Some of this energy is used up in passing through the lamp. Therefore there is p.d
across the lamp.
The p.d is measured with a voltmeter. The voltmeter is connected in parallel across the
components of the circuit where we want to measure the potential difference.
16.2.4 RESISTANCE
- Is the measure of the ability of a conductor to oppose the flow of current/ electrons.
- Current can pass easily through components with a low resistance but it cannot flow
easily through components with a high resistance (very good conductors have
almost no resistance and insulators have extremely high resistance)
- All electrical components have a certain amount of resistance.
- Resistance (R) is measured in ohms (Ω), kilohms (kΩ), megaohms (MΩ)
FIXED RESISTORS
- Are special components (materials) designed to have a certain resistances. They are
used to control the amount of current in a circuit.
Resistors are colour coded to show their resistance. This consists of three or four coloured
bands around the resistor. The first three bands indicate the value of the resistance in ohms.
Bands 1 and 2 are the digits of the value, and band 3 represents the number of zeroes
following the first two digits. The fourth band on the resistor shows the tolerance of the
stated value.
To decide which is the first, remember that the fourth band, if present, will either be
gold or silver (or on rare occasions pink)
The following may help you to recall the colour codes and their values;
(Bad Boys Rape Our Young Girls But Violet Gives Willingly) OR
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
(Black Birds Roaming On Your Garden Bring Very Great Woes)
VARIABLE RESISTORS
The resistance of a variable resistor is not fixed. It can be changed or set to different values.
They are used in circuits when the current through the circuit needs to be varied.
A rheostat is a variable resistor consists of a coiled length of resistance wire with either end
attached to a terminal. A third terminal is attached to a sliding contact which can be moved
along the length of the coil. By moving the sliding contact along the coil, the amount of wire
through which the current passes can be changed and hence the resistance changes.
MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE
The graph is straight line passing through the origin (0,0). This indicates that the voltage and
current are directly proportional to each other. The gradient of graph is constant and it
represent the resistance of the conductor.
The ratio V/I = a constant. The value of the constant is equal to the resistance of the
conductor.
Gradient = R = ∆V/∆I
R = V2 – V1/ I2 – I1
R = V/I ---------------------> OHM’S LAW
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law defines the relationship between the voltage across a component, the current
flowing through the component and the resistance of the component.
The ohm’s law states that;
#2. A wire of length 0.40 m and a diameter 0.60 mm has a resistance of 1.5 Ω. Find the
resistivity of the
material it is made of.
DATA
l = 0.40 m d = 0.60 mm = 0.0006 m R = 1.5 Ω ρ=?
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
The energy supplied per unit charge is not all used in the external circuit. There is some
energy which is needed to overcome the internal resistance and drive the charge across the
battery or cell.
In above diagram, the voltage drop across the resistor will be less than the e.m.f. This is
because some energy has been used to drive the charge through /across the cell.
r = (E –
V)/I
Where E= e.m.f
r = internal resistance of the cell
I = current
→ E – V = Ir
E – IR = Ir
E = IR + Ir
PROBLEMS
#1. A cell of unknown e.m.f (E) and internal resistance of 2 Ω is connected to a 5 Ω resistor.
If the terminal p.d
(V) is 1.0 V, Calculate the e.m.f of the cell?
Data
R=5Ω r=2Ω V = 1.0 V I=? E=?
#2. A battery of e.m.f 4.0 V and internal resistance of 5 Ω is connected to a resistor of 1.5 Ω.
Calculate the
terminal p.d.
Answ
Data
E = 4.0 V r=5Ω R = 1.5 Ω V=?
V = E – Ir
= 4.0 – 0.6(5)
= 1.0
16.2.5 I/V GRAPHS – Graphs showing the relationship of current and voltage drop
across a
conductor.
1) Ohmic conductors
The current through the conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the ends
of the conductor provided the temperature and other physical properties are constant –
OHM’S LAW
The inverse of the graph here is equal to the resistance of the conductor.
a) Diode
Voltage is not proportional to current
The graph bends over as V and I increase. Then this means the gradient (I/V)
decrease and hence the resistance (V/I) increases and makes the filament hotter.
The graph bends up, this means the inverse of the resistance (I/V) increase and therefore
the resistance (V/I) decreases.
Under normal working conditions a resistor is ohmic, its resistance does not depend on the
current or voltage applied to it. If too much current flows through the resistor, it will
become hot and its resistance will start to increase. This resistor has become non-ohmic
Therefore, in general, when the temperature increase the resistance of metals will also
increase. The resistance of some conductors will also change when they are bent or placed
under pressure.
Series circuit
Components are in series when they are connected into a continuous line, end to end such
that the same current flows through each component
i) The current that flows through components in series is the same and equal at
each and every point.
ii) All the components will share the e.m.f. according to their resistances. The
largest voltage drop will be across a component with the largest resistance. The
sum of the potential difference in series circuit is equal to the terminal potential
difference across the source.
i) The branches will share the main current I according to the resistance of each
branch. The largest current will flow through a branch with the smallest
resistance. The sum of the current through the branches is equal to the main
current.
I = I1 + I2 + ........ ----------> (2)
ii) The potential difference across the components connected in parallel is equal
and also the same as the terminal difference across the source.
RT = Product of resistance/sum of
resistance
Then
E = VIt
P =VI
= 240 V x 5 A
= 1200 W
c) Data; V = 240 V, I = 5 A, t = 5 minutes =330 s, P = 1200 W, E =?
E = VIt E = Pt
= 240 V x 5 A x 330 s OR = 1200 W x 330 s
= 396 000 J = 396 000 J
#2: A 220 V, 10 A electric motor takes 20 seconds to lift aload of bricks to the top of a
building 15 m above the
ground. Each brick has a mass 0f 1.5 kg.
a) What energy changes occur as the bricks are lifted?
b) How much electrical energy is supplied to the motor in 20 seconds?
c) Assuming the motor is 100 % efficient, how many bricks can be lifted in a single
load?
Ans:
a) Electrical energy ----------> gravitational potential energy
b) Data; E =?, I = 10 A, V = 220 V, t = 20 s
E = VIt
= 220 V x 10 A x 20 s
= 44 000 J
c) Total electrical energy converted = total GPE
44 000 J = mgh
44 000 J = 15 m x 10 N/kg x total mass m of bricks
2. Neutral wire (blue or black)- completes the circuit by providing the return path to
the supply (or mains). The neutral wire is earthed at the electricity substation,
therefore it is at 0 V
*Although the neutral wire carries electric charge there is no danger of electric shock
if it is touched since it is at the same potential as a person who stands on the floor.
3. Earth wire (green and yellow) or (green)- this wire is for safety purposes. One end of
the Earth wire is connected to the metal case of the appliance. The other end is
connected via the wall sockets and metal pipe to Earth box outside the house.
Without an earth wire, the case would become live anyone touching it would receive a
dangerous shock.
Function: to prevent excessive current to flow through an appliance. Too high current may
cause some electric fire or accident.
Fuse is a wire made from a metal with a low melting point. If a fuse is part of a circuit, it will
eventually melt if the current is too excessive and the circuit will break. But excessive
current may flow through an appliance even if a fuse there if a short circuit is present.
*Fuses must be connected into the live wire. This ensures that when the fuse melts, the
appliance is no longer “live”.
Fusing Rating
I = 100 W/240 V
= 0.4 A
So a 3 A fuse is ideal.
*Note: 1) The DVD player would still work with a fuse of 13 A. But if a fault develops, the
current will continue
to flow without the fuse blowing and this might cause the appliance to overheat
and catch fire.
2) For currents higher than 13 A, circuit breakers are used instead of fuses. Circuit
breakers operate
electromagnetically and can be reset by flicking a switch (they do not have to be
replaced like fuses)
THREE-PIN PLUG
DOUBLE INSULATION
Some household appliances, e.g. radios, have plastic cases and their cables do not have an
earth wire. They have only the live and neutral wires. There is no risk getting an electrical
shock from a plastic case since plastic is an electrical insulator. This is described as double
insulation because:
The live and neutral wires are covered in an insulated sheath,
The appliance itself is covered by an insulated case.
a) PARALLEL CIRCUITS:- House circuits e.g. lights are connected in parallel so that
appliances receive the full mains supply of 240 V and also that they can operate
independently (e.g each bulb can have its own switch and also if one bulb breaks,
the others will remain on unlike in a series circuit where all would turn off).
b) SWITCHES AND FUSES:- are always connected in the live wire. If they were
connected in the neutral wire, the appliance would remain ‘live’ even when the
switch is off or the fuse is blown
COST OF ELECTRICITY
Electrical metres (joule-meter) are included in our houses to measure the amount of
electrical energy consumed by the household. The household is charged for the electrical
energy they consumed. Electricity supply companies (e.g. B.P.C) measure electrical energy
consumed in kilowatt-hours (kWh) or simply ‘units’.
1 kWh = 1 unit
1 kWh is the measure of the amount of the electrical energy consumed for 1 hour (3600 s)
at the rate of 1 kW (1000 W) or the energy used by an appliance rated 1 kW in 1 hour.
i.e. 1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s
= 1000 J/s x 3600 s
= 3 600 000 J
1 kWh = 3.6 MJ
Then;
To prevent this, always inspect your cords more frequently and replace worn or
damaged cables.
3. OVERHEATING OF CABLES: caused by passing a high current on a wire designed for a
low current. Overheating can cause the insulation to melt or burn and can cause
fires.
a) What is A?
b) What is B?
c) What is C?
d) What is D?
The student’s results are shown in the table below.
p.d./V 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Q11. An electric lamp is marked 250 V, 100 W and an immersion heater is marked 250 V, 2
kW.
a) Calculate the current in each device when operating normally.
b) Explain why the filament of the lamp is made to have a larger resistance than the
heating element of the immersion heater.
c) Suggest a reason why the filament is made of a metal with a much higher melting
point than that of the element.
d) The heat capacity of the filament of the lamp is very small. State one reason why this
is an advantage.
e) Explain why the wire connecting the immersion heater to the supply remains cool
even when the heater has been in use for some time.
c. Explanation of observations
An EMF is induced in a conductor (e.g. wire) only when it crosses (cuts) magnetic
field lines and this cause a current to flow if the conductor is part of a complete
circuit.
There is no induced EMF or current when the wire is not moving or is moving parallel
to the lines.
Direction of induced current
The direction in which the current flows through the wire depends on the following factors
a. The direction of motion of the wire
b. The magnetic field direction.
Therefore reversing the direction of motion or polarity will reverse the current direction.
The direction can be predicted using fleming’s right hand rule
*Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of the right hand at the right angles to each
other. Then according to the fleming’s right hand rule the First finger points in the direction
of the magnetic Field, the thuMb points in the direction of the Motion and then the seCond
finger shows the direction of the Current.
The induced EMF (and current) can be increased by:
Moving the wire faster
When the N pole is moved into the coil, the galvanometer register current, its needle is seen
to be deflected to the right.
When the magnet is held still inside the coil, the needle returns to its zero position. This
shows that no current is flowing because there is no movement therefore no magnetic field
lines are being cut.
When the bar is pulled out of the coil, the needle is deflected to the left. This shows that
moving the magnet in the opposite direction reverses the current direction.
*NB:- 1) the similar results as the above can be obtained by moving a coil of wire over a
stationary magnet.
LENZ’S LAW
The direction of the induced current through the coil can be found by using the Lenz’s law.
Lenz’s law states that:
‘The direction of the induced current is in such direction as to oppose the change producing
it’.
According to the Lenz’s law, in (a) the induced current should flow in a direction which
makes the coil behaves like a magnet with its top as a N pole. Then the incoming magnet is
repelled and the downward motion is opposed.
But when the magnet is removed, the top of the coil should be a S pole so that the removal
of the magnet will be opposed as the N pole is attracted and the current will thus flow in the
opposite direction to that when the magnet is pushed in.
16.3.2 A simple a.c. generator (alternator)
Note: . a). The current is greatest when the coil is horizontal because it will be cutting field
lines most rapidly.
But current is zero when the coil is vertical since it will be along the field lines and
no cutting
happens. Also the current will change the direction when in a vertical position.
b). increasing the speed of rotation increases the frequency of an a.c. generated.
Frequency of an a.c. is
the number of complete cycles it makes in each second. For the mains supply
a.c.’s frequency is 50
Hz.
The voltage (or current) from the generator can be increased by:
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 234
a). using a stronger magnet
b). increasing the number of turns in the coil.
c). winding the coil on a soft-iron armature and using a bigger coil
d). rotating the coil at a higher speed.
An a.c. generator becomes a direct current one if the slip rings are replaced by a
commutator (which contains two half-rings known as split rings). The carbon brushes are
arranged such that as the coil goes through the vertical, changeover of contact occurs from
one half of the split ring of the commutator to the other and the commutator reverses the
voltage induced and so one brush is always positive and the other negative. And this
ensures that current to the outside circuit always flows in the same direction.
Just like in an a.c. generator, when the coil rotates, a current is produced by electromagnetic
induction and the current passes to the external circuit through the brushes in contact with
the commutator. Although the induced is d.c. it varies in value unlike the d.c from the
battery.
Bicycle dynamo
16.3.5 TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a device which makes use of mutual induction to change voltages (and is
frequently used in home to step down the mains voltage of 230 V to 6 V or 12 V). It consists
of two coils of insulated wire wounded on an iron core. The coil connected to the a.c. input
is called the primary coil and the coil that provides the a.c. output is called secondary coil.
1). Step-down transformer- has fewer turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil.
Therefore it produces a smaller voltage in the secondary coil(less output voltage).
2). Step-up transformers- have more turns on the secondary coil than on the primary coil,
so their output/secondary voltage is greater than the input voltage.
The relationship between the number of turns and voltage in the secondary and primary
coils can be given by the equation:-
Primary coil voltage/secondary coil voltage = number of primary turns/number of
secondary turns
VP/VS = NP/NS
TRANSFORMER EQUATION
If no energy is wasted in a transformer, the power (energy per second) delivered by the
output coil will be the same as the power supplied to the input.
Then, since P =VI, we can have the transformer equation as;
Input voltage x input current = output voltage x output current
Note: V α 1/I
This follows that a transformer which increases the voltage will reduce the current in the
same propotion, and vice versa.
ENERGY LOSSES IN A TRANSFORMER
All transformers waste some energy because of the following factors
1). Resistance of the copper coils.
Copper coils are not perfect electrical conductors. Whenever some current flow through
them, some electrical power/energy is used to overcome their resistance and this energy
will then be given out as useless heat to the surrounding. Therefore, their resistance need to
be kept low, so thick copper wire should be used where possible.
e.g. What is the power wasted in the cable when 10 kW is transmitted through a cable of
resistance 0.5 Ω
at a) 200 V b) 200 000 V
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NOTE:- Power loss, P = I2R
a). at 200 V
I = P/V = 10000/200 = 50 A
Then Power loss P = I2R = 502(0.5) = 1250 W
b). at 200 000 V
I = P/V = 10000/200000 = 0.05 A
THEN, P = I2R = 0.052(0.5) = 0.00125 W
From the calculations, it is demonstrated that less power is wasted from a cable if power is
transmitted at high voltage. Then a transformer can be used to increase the voltage, and
reduce the current and this means thinner, lighter and cheap cables can be used.
Rule for field direction: the right-hand screw rule- Imagine gripping the wire with your right
hand so that your thumb points in the direction of the current. Your fingers then point in the
direction of the field.
d). If you reverse the current direction, this reverses the field.
Explanation: when a current flows through the coil of wire, it creates a magnetic field,
which interacts with the field produced by the two permanent magnets. The two fields exert
a force that pushes the wire at right angles to the permanent magnetic field.
The field lines due to the wire are circles and their direction is as shown above. The dotted
lines represent the field lines of the magnet and their direction. The resultant field of the
two fields is as shown in the diagram b. There are more lines below than above the wire
since both fields act in the same direction but in opposition above. If you imagine that the
lines are like stretched elastic, those below will try to straighten out and in so doing will
exert an upwards force on the wire.
To increase the strength of the force;
i). Increase the current
ii). Use stronger magnet
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iii). Increase the length of wire in the field.
If you reverse either the current or the field, the force is reversed
Fleming’s left hand rule:
This is the rule used to work out the direction of the force or thrust on the wire. It works like
this:
Hold the thumb and the first two fingers of your left hand at right angles. The First finger is
pointing in the direction of the Field and the seCond finger in the direction of Current, then
the Thumb points in the direction of the Thrust(Motion).
(When using this rule, remember that (i) the current direction is from + to – and the field
lines run from N to S.)
Examples:
1.
2.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
In the loudspeaker, the magnet is specially shaped so that the wire of the coil is at the right
angle to its radical field. The loudspeaker is connected to an amplifier which gives out an
alternating current, this current flows backwards, forwards, backwards, .......... and so on,
causing a force on the coil which is also backwards, forwards, backwards....... All these cause
the cone to vibrate and creates sound waves.
16.4.4 Microphone
The moving-coil microphone contains a thin metal foil diaphragm. There is a small coil
attached to the rear of the diaphragm. This coil is situated in a magnetic field provided by a
cylindrical permanent magnet. Sound waves cause the diaphragm and coil to vibrate. As the
coil moves in the magnetic field a current is induced in it. This varying current can be
amplified and heard in a loudspeaker.
Meters for measuring current and voltage frequently have a coil which is pivoted in a
magnetic field.
a). Current enters and leaves the coil by hair springs above and below it.
b). When current flows, it produces a magnetic field that would interact with the field due
to the permanent
magnet. This would produce a couple on the coil (as in an electric motor) and cause it
rotate and turns
along with the pointer attached.
c). As the coil turns and twist the spring, the springs would try to stop the coil turning. The
coil turns until the
turning effect of the forces due to the current balance the turning effect of the spring.
The greater the
current in the coil, the coil would turn further and the greater the deflection shown by
the pointer.
d). The soft-iron cylinder/drum produces a radial magnetic field which makes the coil
deflection proportional
to the current and this gives a linear scale.
16.4.6 QUESTIONS
Q1. Give three examples of actions that cause an induced e.m.f to be set up in a coil of wire.
Fig. 2.1
a) The induced current will flow from A to B through the coil.
b) The induced current will flow from B to A through the coil.
c) No induced current will flow.
d) End B will become a north pole.
Q3. A magnet is used to induce a current in a coil of wire. List three things that could be
done to increase the
current produced.
Q4. Fig. 4.1 shows a conductor AB in a magnetic field. Mark in the direction of the magnetic
field. Which
direction will current be induced in the conductor AB when it is moved:
(a) Into the page
(b) Out of the page?
Fig. 4.1.
Q5. i) The diagram below shows a bar magnet, and a coil of wire connected to a sensitive
ammeter.
Show the position of the galvanometer needle in each of the following cases:
Q6. Fig. 6.1. shows a structural diagram of bicycle dynamo. Study the diagram and answer
the following
questions:
© SPANAPODI 2010 Page 249
a) What turns the driving wheel of the dynamo?
b) What is connected to the output of the dynamo?
c) Briefly explain how the dynamo produces current.
d) How could the output of the dynamo be increased?
Q7. Draw a sketch graph to show how the EMF of a simple a.c. generator varies with time
over two full
revolutions. Relate the positions of the coil to the values shown on your graph.
b) draw a second sketch graph showing what you would expect if the speed of rotation
of the coil were
doubled.
c) i. Describe the main difference in the construction between a d.c dynamo and an a.c
dynamo.
ii. Sketch a graph to show how the current generated by a d.c dynamo varies with
time. How would the
output change if a coil with twice as many turns were used?
Q8. The filament of table lamp is connected to a 250 V, 50 Hz mains supply by two wires.
One wire is the live
wire and the other is the neutral.
a) Use the axes in Fig. 8.1 to sketch a graph which shows the variation with time of the
voltage of the live wire during one cycle. The zero of the voltage scale is earth
voltage.
b) On the axes in Fig. 8.2 show the corresponding variation of voltage of the neutral
wire.
Fig. 8.2
Q9. Fig. 9.1 shows the essential parts of a moving-iron ammeter.
Fig. 9.1
a) Explain why the needle deflects when a steady current passes through the coil.
b) Explain why the direction of the deflection is unchanged when the direction of the
current is reversed.
c) State and explain what would be observed when the steady current is replaced by an
alternating current with a frequency of 50 Hz.
The coil of an ammeter has a resistance of 0.5 Ω. A resistor of resistance 0.25 Ω is connected
between the terminals of the ammeter, and a current of 2 A passes as shown in fig. 9.2
*Ionization occurs when a radioactive emission such alpha particle knocks electrons out of
the surrounding molecules or atoms leaving them as charged ions. Alpha particle is the most
ionizing radiation because it has the greatest size and mass.
*Penetration power: all the three radioactive emissions can penetrate materials because
their sizes are much smaller than the spaces separating the atoms in materials, even in
solids. Beta particles are more penetrating than alpha particles because they are much
smaller. Gamma radiation is the most penetrating because it is an electromagnetic wave
without mass or size.
226
e.g. 88 Ra -------------------> 86222Rn + 4
2 He
238
92 U ------------------> 90234Th + 2
4
He
*Note: when an element decays by emission of an alpha particle it turns into an element
with chemical
properties similar to those of an element two places earlier in the periodic table.
(b) Beta (β) decay
In a beta decay, a neutron changes to a proton and an electron. The proton remains in the
nucleus but the electron escapes at high speeds in form of a beta particle. The new nucleus
has the same mass number but its atomic number increases by one.
A
------------------------------> Z+1AY
Z X + -1e 0
G.M tube contains argon gas that ionizes when radiation passes through, thereby
creating ions and electrons. The positive ions move towards the cathode and
negative electrons move to the anode. This produces some electric current which
will be fed to a scaler or ratemeter.
Scaler- counts pulses and shows total received in a certain time.
Ratemeter – gives counts per seconds. Some have a loudspeaker which would give a
‘click’ per each count.
Other detectors are i) spark counter, ii) ionization detector and iii) cloud chamber
17.1.3 HALF-TIME
*very unstable nuclides decays quickly than one with greater stability but in every case the
rate of radioactive
decay is proportional to number of nuclei present.
Rate of decay α N
Rate of decay = λN where N = number of nuclei present
λ = is a constant
EXAMPLES
Cobalt-60 β, γ 5 years
Sodium-24 β 15 hours
Strontium-93 β, γ 8 minutes
Barium-143 β 12 seconds
If the curve falls from 80 counts/s to 40 counts/s in 10 min, then from 40 counts/s to 20
counts/s in the next 10 min, from 20 to 10 counts/s in the 3 rd 10 min and so on, half-life is
then 10 min.
*If count rate is N at time t1 and has fallen to N/2 at time t2 then half-life t1/2 is t2 – t1.
Similarly, if the count
rate has fallen to N/4 at time t3, the half-life is t3 – t2.
If at the beginning there are N undecayed nuclei, after 1 half-life there will be N/2, after a
second half-life there will be ½ x N/2 = N/4, after third half-life there will be ½ x N/4 = N/8
undecayed nuclei, etc.
Aluminium (3 87 6 γ 81
mm)
A beam of neutrons is directed at the uranium atom. If a neutron strikes a nucleus of U-235,
this splits into two roughly equal parts, and shoots out two or three neutrons as well. If
these neutrons hit other U-235 nuclei, they make them split and give out more neutrons.
And so on. This process is known as a chain reaction.
235
92 U + 01n -------> 56144Ba + 3690Kr + 2 01n
If the chain reaction is uncontrolled, huge numbers of nuclei are split in a very short time.
The heat builds up so rapidly that the material bursts apart into an explosion. This happens
in a nuclear (atomic) bomb. If the chain reaction is controlled, there is a steady output of
heat. This happens in a nuclear reactor.
A NUCLEAR REACTOR
For two nuclei to fuse, they must be brought sufficiently close to each other. But it is
difficult to do this as they repel each other with large electrical force. To overcome this
repulsion, the nuclei have to be heated to high temperature (e.g. 10 8 K) so that they gain
enough K.E.
The sun obtains its energy from nuclear fusion. In the sun the temperature is about
10 million °C and the hydrogen-2 atoms have enough energy to fuse.
Uncontrolled fusion on Earth can result with hydrogen bomb. Initial high
temperature required is obtained by using an atomic (nuclear) bomb to trigger off
fusion. A hydrogen bomb releases much more energy than an atomic bomb.
E = mc2
where c2 = speed of light, 3 x 10 m/s
E.G:- When radium decays into radon, about 1/40 000 0f the mass of each decaying atom
disappears. Calculate
E = mc2
= 2.5 x 10-8 x (3 x 108)2
= 2.25 x 109 J