Toxicants in Food and

Foodborne Disease

LESSON 12-PART 1
 Lesson objectives
▪define toxicity, hazard and risk, in the context of toxicants in our food supply
▪explain the importance of considering the dose-response relationship
▪outline the process for risk assessment regarding food safety risks
▪list and describe examples of naturally occurring (constituent or contaminant) and
environmental toxicants in the food supply
▪assess your risk of food intoxication by each of these toxicants and ways to minimize
this risk
▪explain the relative importance of various factors as contributors to the incidence of
foodborne disease in Canada;
▪gain some insight into the major foodborne disease-causing microorganisms, in
terms of conditions and foods implicated in outbreaks, and means of preventing
their growth or toxin production in foods
▪assess the potential risk of contracting the foodborne disease and describe safe food
handling practices to minimize this risk at home
 Lesson 12 –
Toxicants and Foodborne Disease…
Terminology:
Toxicants; toxicity and hazard; dose-response; risk-benefit

Toxicants
❑ Naturally occurring toxicants
❑ Constituents– form part of the food….
❑ Contaminants– become part of the food
❑ foodborne and waterborne diseases

❑ Environmentally occurring toxicants –

… human activities are responsible for them being in our food supply
Myths and facts about chemicals and food safety

Myth: Unprocessed and organically grown food are

free of harmful chemicals
Myth: It is possible to demand a food supply that is
completely safe (zero risk of harm)
Important to consider:
Myths
toxicity, and facts
hazard, about chemicals
dose-response and food
relationship,
risk-benefit
safety concept
Myth: Unprocessed and organically grown foods
are free of harmful chemicals
Myth: It is possible to demand a food supply that is
completely safe (zero risk of harm)

Fact: All foods consist of substances “chemicals”

Fact: All substances (chemicals) are toxic at some
level and potentially harmful
Fact: Zero risk is unattainable in food safety (and
in life!)
Some definitions:

Toxicant
⚫From Latin “toxicum ” (poison)
⚫produce a whole spectrum of effects
(minor …. → death)
Some definitions

Toxicity
⚫Ability of a chemical to damage a biological system
⚫Substances vary in toxicity
⚫Diff. sensitivity among individuals

⚫Measured by LD50 (mg/kg b.w. or ppm)

⚫measures short-term poisoning (acute toxicity)

⚫The lower the LD50 the stronger the toxicity
⚫Any substance with LD50 of 50 ppm/kg or lower is considered
poison
 Case of Water Drinking Contest

http://www.nbcnews.com/id/16614865/ns/us_news-life/t/woman-dies-after-water-drinking-
contest/#.ViU0QCv8uFU
Substance LD50 (mg/kg)

Sugar >10,000

Ethyl alcohol 10,000

Salt (NaCl) 4,000

Nicotine 1,500
Caffeine 100
Dioxin 0.001

Botulinum toxin 0.00001

Some definitions

Hazard
⚫Probability that injury will result from the use of a chemical
at a given exposure

⚫Assessing a hazard by:

1. inherent capacity to cause harm (toxicity)
2. probability of contact between. substance & target object.
 Hazard-Example
strychnine, (plant from SE Asia)
LD50 = 1.2 mg/kg
Extremely toxic chemical
◦ only a small amount is needed - severe effect in people

sealed in an un-openable vial, can be handled freely by people with no

chance that poisoning will occur

▪ Its toxicity has not changed

No hazard:
no contact can be established between the chemical & people.
Hazard-Example
boric acid (Borax)
LD50 = 1240 mg/kg

Not highly toxic

mild acid used as an antiseptic, insecticide, flame retardant

In some cultures added to foods!
▪ firming agent, preservative, or tenderizer!

Very hazardous when used in a manner that makes it easily available

for accidental ingestion.
Fig. 12.1. A generalized dose-response curve

No effect level ÷ 100 = ADI

“Every substance is toxic at some dose,

but not every substance is hazardous at commonly used doses.”
 Case of Licorice
Should it come with a warning?

http://www.foodnavigator.com/Science/Should-liquorice-come-with-a-warning-
label/?utm_source=newsletter_daily&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=05-Mar-
2015&c=2UovshLZMFQ39S%2BsJjhDmvSDD8B16OoI

https://apnews.com/article/archive-04cf918055b735ea69483dd00e281253
 Types of toxicants based on
occurrence or origin
1. Naturally occurring toxicants – constituents
 Part of the normal composition of food

2. Naturally occurring toxicants – contaminants

 Not originally part of the food
 due to bacterial or mould growth
 Plant or animal grown in an environment which permitted
the Nat. Tox. to become part of the food

3. Environmental toxicants
 Not originally part of the food;
 introduced in the environment as a result of human actions
 Naturally occurring Naturally occurring
toxicants: constituents Environmental
Table 12.1 toxicants:
contaminants toxicants

Cholinesterase inhibitors Mycotoxins Food packaging residues

Example: • aflatoxin Example:
solanine in potatoes • patulin monomers of plastic resins
• ochratoxin A
Cyanogenetic glycosides • vomitoxin Pesticide residues
Example: • zearalenone • herbicides
amygdalin in apple seeds • insecticides
Examples: • fungicides
aflatoxin in mouldy Example:
peanuts, vomitoxin in malathion residues on fruit
wheat

Glucosinolates Bacterial toxins Heavy metals

Example: • botulinum toxin • lead
sinigrin in cabbage • staphylococcal toxin • mercury
• cadmium
Protease inhibitors Example: Examples:
Example: Clostridium botulinum lead in vegetables; mercury
protease inhibitors in neurotoxin in large ocean fish
raw soy beans (swordfish)

Nitrates Seafood Toxins: Animal Drugs

Example: ⚫ Histamine • antibiotics
Green leafy plants ⚫ Saxitoxin • hormones
⚫ Domoic acid Example:
Allergens ⚫ Tetrodotoxin penicillin in milk
Examples:
beta-lactoglobulin in milk, Radioisotopes
peanut proteins, soy proteins • from soil or
• from radioactive fallout
Study tip for learning each toxin
What category of toxins they belong to
◦ a bit on the chemistry if applicable
Why are they considered hazard
◦Illness associated
◦Symptoms
How the hazard can be minimized
Naturally occurring constituents as toxicants

Cholinesterase inhibitors- Solanine

◼ inhibit action of enzyme (cholinesterase)

◼ nerve transmission/impulses

◼ neurological and GI disorders

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

Naturally occurring constituents as toxicants
Cholinesterase inhibitors- Solanine…

Potatoes
◼ low levels (potato skin= 2-13 mg/100 g fresh
weight)
◼ “green” potatoes (sunlight) → 80-100 mg/100 g
f.w.

◼ solanine – insoluble in water

◼ Not destroyed by heat (cooking)
◼  conc. by peeling
Naturally occurring constituents as toxicants

Cholinesterase inhibitors- Solanine…

◼ At 2-8 mg/kg b.w. humans display drowsiness,
difficult breathing, increased sensory sensitivity

◼ Toxic (LD50= 42 mg/kg)

◼ but relatively low hazard/Risk (unless →

green potatoes)
Naturally occurring constituents as toxicants
Cyanogenic (or cyanogenetic) glycosides
▪ e.g. amygdalin in bitter almonds and fruit pits;
▪ e.g. linamarin cassava, lima beans
▪ Compounds that yield HCN (hydrogen cyanide)
▪ Upon enzymatic action (beta-glucosidase), acidic
conditions

CN

-glucosidase
+ HCN + Glucose
Naturally occurring constituents as toxicants
Cyanogenic (or cyanogenetic) glycosides……………….

Fatal in humans at 0.5 - 3.5 mg/kg

◼ e.g. 100 g of bitter almonds or dried bitter cassava

root

◼ Toxic (LD50= 0.81 mg/kg)

◼ Low hazard from accidental consumption of fruit seeds;

↑ hazard if cassava, lima beans etc. part of staple diet

◼ Non-fatal at lower doses

Naturally occurring Naturally occurring
toxicants: toxicants: Environmental
constituents contaminants toxicants

Cholinesterase inhibitors Mycotoxins Food packaging residues

Example: • aflatoxin Example:
solanine in potatoes • patulin monomers of plastic resins
• ochratoxin A
Cyanogenetic glycosides • vomitoxin Pesticide residues
Example: • zearalenone • herbicides
amygdalin in apple seeds • insecticides
Examples: • fungicides
aflatoxin in mouldy Example:
peanuts, vomitoxin in malathion residues on fruit
wheat

Glucosinolates Bacterial toxins Heavy metals

Example: • botulinum toxin • lead
sinigrin in cabbage • staphyloccocal toxin • mercury
• cadmium
Protease inhibitors Example: Examples:
Example: Clostridium botulinum lead in vegetables;
protease inhibitors in neurotoxin mercury in large ocean fish
raw soy beans (swordfish)

Nitrates Seafood Toxins: Animal Drugs

Example: ⚫ Histamine • antibiotics
Green leafy plants ⚫ Saxitoxin • hormones
⚫ Domoic acid Example:
Allergens ⚫ Tetrodoxin penicillin in milk
Examples:
beta-lactoglobulin in milk, Radioisotopes
peanut proteins, soy • from soil or
proteins • from radioactive fallout
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants

Mycotoxins – produced by moulds

Ergotism alkaloid (Claviceps purpurea)

Aflatoxins (Aspergillus flavus)

 Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants

Mycotoxins – produced by moulds

❖ Ergotism alkaloid
grain of ryegrass infected with ergot (Claviceps purpurea)

❑contains vaso-constricting alkaloids

❑precursors for LSD 25
❑Salem witch hunt “hysteria” (1692)⎯
❑mouldy rye bread…(Science, 1976 v.192)
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants

Mycotoxins – produced by moulds

❖ Aflatoxins (Aspergillus flavus)

❑ peanuts, corn, wheat, rice, cottonseed, nuts,
milk, eggs, cheese

❑ Highly toxic and potently carcinogenic

❑ Liver cancer
…. Questions to think about …

Potential toxicants in your

kitchen!
Would you consume the following:
• Cheddar cheese with green mould spots
on the surface?
• Roquefort cheese with blue mould growth
through the cheese?
• white mould growing on the surface of a
previously opened jar of strawberry jam?
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants

Bacterial toxins

eg. toxins produced by Clostridium botulinum and

Staphylococcus aureus…

Will be explored in detail later in this lesson: Food-

borne diseases
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants -
Seafood toxins
Histamine
produced by bacterial action on fish flesh
❖ Histidine: naturally occurring amino acid
❖ high in scombroid fish (tuna, bonito, mackerel
and skipjack)
❖ Bacteria convert histidine → histamine
“Scombroid poisoning” from eating scombroid fish

❖ Nausea, vomiting, facial flushing, thirst, skin

itchiness
❖ Effects subside ~ 12 hrs
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants -
Seafood toxins

Saxitoxin
◼ paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
◼ shellfish (e.g. mussels, clams, oysters)
◼ ‘filtering’ organisms- absorb toxin &
concentrate it in their tissues
◼ Toxin produced by dinoflagellates
◼ Found in plankton responsible for red tides
Red Tide or Bloom

Source of the saxitoxin – contained in

microscopic plankton (dinoflagellates)
which may “bloom” under certain
conditions (red tide)
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants -
Seafood toxins

Saxitoxin - paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)

◼ Muscular and nerve paralysis

❖ Toxicity (LD50): 1-4 mg/kg body weight

❖ hazard – depends on your passion for shellfish,

and its source (where/when harvested)

❖ Ignoring “red tide” warning signs!

Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants –
Seafood toxins
Domoic acid- amnesic shellfish poisoning
❑produced by plankton

◼First discovered in Canada (PEI) in 1987

◦ 107 cases acute poisoning from blue mussels
❖Toxicity (some deaths; others with long-lasting effects)
◦ Permanent memory loss
◦ neurotoxin – cause lesions in the central nervous system
❖hazard – depends on the consumption of shellfish
❖ignoring signs indicating closure of areas to shellfish
harvesting
Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants –
Seafood toxins

Tetrodotoxin - fugu poisoning

Isolated from puffer fish

◼ Produced by a bacteria associated with the
ovaries, liver, intestine, skin of this fish

◼ Meat is considered a delicacy

Naturally occurring contaminants as toxicants –
Seafood toxins

Tetrodotoxin - fugu poisoning

Symptoms:
◦ tingling sensations (fingers, toes, lips, tongue)
minutes after eating
◦ Reflexes of pupil & cornea are lost
◦ Paralysis, respiratory distress, death

◼ Toxicity- LD50 1.0 - 4.0 mg/kg b.w.

❖ hazard – depends on the passion for this “delicacy” and
proper cleaning and gutting of the fish.
 Naturally occurring Naturally occurring
Table 12.1 toxicants: constituents toxicants:
contaminants
Environmental
toxicants

Cholinesterase inhibitors Mycotoxins Food packaging residues

Example: • aflatoxin Example:
solanine in potatoes monomers of plastic resins
• patulin
Cyanogenetic glycosides • ochratoxin A Pesticide residues
Example: • vomitoxin • herbicides
amygdalin in apple seeds • zearalenone • insecticides
• fungicides
Examples: Example:
aflatoxin in mouldy malathion residues on fruit
peanuts, vomitoxin in
wheat
Glucosinolates Bacterial toxins Heavy metals
Example: • botulinum toxin • lead
sinigrin in cabbage • staphyloccocal toxin • mercury
• cadmium
Protease inhibitors Example: Examples:
Example: Clostridium botulinum lead in vegetables; mercury
protease inhibitors in neurotoxin in large ocean fish
raw soy beans (swordfish)

Nitrates Seafood Toxins: Animal Drugs

Example: ⚫ Histamine • antibiotics
Green leafy plants ⚫ Saxitoxin • hormones
⚫ Domoic acid Example:
Allergens ⚫ Tetrodoxin penicillin in milk
Examples:
beta-lactoglobulin in milk, Radioisotopes
peanut proteins, soy proteins • from soil or
• from radioactive fallout
 Environmental Toxicant
Food packaging residues
◦ monomers of plastic resins
Pesticide residues
◦ herbicides, insecticides, fungicides
◦ E.g. malathion residues on fruit

Heavy metals
◦ lead, mercury, cadmium
◦ E.g. Mercury contamination in fish

Animal Drugs
◦ Antibiotics, hormones
◦ E.g. penicillin in milk

Radioisotopes
◦ from soil or from radioactive fallout
Processing Induced Toxicant

Acrylamide
◦ Heated starch
Benzene
◦ Irradiated food
ACBs
◦ Irradiated food
……