DATA PROCESSING OPERATIONS

1. Recording. Recording refers to the transfer of data onto some form of documents. It
relates to the documentation of intermediate figures and facts and resulting from
calculations. For example, in computing gross pay, the numbers of hours worked are
multiplied by the hourly rate to arrive at gross pay. Gross pay is an intermediate step
which is retained temporarily for late use.
2. Verifying. Since recording is usually a manual operation, it is important that recorded
data be carefully checked for any errors. This operation is called verifying. For example,
punched card and type reports are reread for correctness.
3. Duplicating. It is sometimes necessary or desirable to copy or duplicate data. This
operation consists in reproducing data unto many forms or documents. Duplicating may
be done while the data are being recorded manually, or it may be done afterwards, by
some machine. For example, one may record by typing it, at the same time duplicating it
using carbon paper. On the other hand, one may record a sales transaction by punching
the data unto a card, and may then duplicate the card by using a duplicating machine.
4. Classifying. This operation separates data into various categories. Identifying are
arranging items with like characteristics into groups or classes is called classifying. Sales
data taken from a sales ticket may be classified by product sold, location of sales point,
customer, sales clerk, or any other classification that the processing cycle may require.
Classifying is usually done by shortened, predetermined method of abbreviation known
as coding. The three types of codes used are: a) numeric — a person’s social security
number or student id number, b) alphabetic — grades as A, B, and C or names of
persons, and c) alphanumeric — automobile license plate or course and year.
5. Sorting. Arranging data in a specific order is called sorting. After the data are classified,
it is usually necessary to arrange or rearrange them in a predetermined sequence to
facilitate processing. Sorting is done in an alphabetic or a numeric order and the data
item which determines the sorting is called the key. Numeric sorting usually requires less
time than alphabetic sorting in machine-based processing systems and is therefore
generally used. This operation is familiar in everyday life. As an example, the names in a
telephone book are sorted into alphabetical order, employee records may be sorted
according to employee’s last name or ID number.
6. Calculating. Arithmetic manipulation of the data is known as calculating. It is a crucial
phase of data manipulation, because the outcome of this operation becomes part of the
output. In the calculation of an employee’s pay, for example the total number of hours
worked multiplied by the hourly wage rate would give the taxable gross earnings.
Payroll deductions such as taxes, medicare, union dues and other deductions are then
computed and subtracted from gross earnings to leave net or take-home earnings.
7. Summarizing and Reporting. In this operation, a collection of data is condensed and
certain conclusions from the data are represented in a meaningful format. To be of
 value, data must often be condensed or sifted so that the resulting output reports will
be clear, concise and effective. Reducing masses of data to a more usable form is called
summarizing.
8. Merging. This operation takes two or more sets of data, all sets having been sorted by
the same key, and puts then together to form a single sorted set of data. As an example,
sales reports from different store branches are merge to form an overall sales report for
the whole business establishment.
9. Storing. Placing similar data into files for future references is storing. Storage is done by
any of the following methods: a) manual-such as in a ledger book, b) electromechanical-
in the form of punched cards, and c) electronic-by magnetic tape, disk and main
memory of the computer. Data should be stored only if the value of having them in the
future exceeds the storage cost.
10. Retrieving. Recovering stored data and/or information when needed is the retrieving
step. Retrieval methods range from searches made by file clerks to the use of quick-
responding inquiry terminals that are connected directly to a computer. The computer,
in turn, is connected directly to a mass-storage device that contains the information.
11. Feedback. Feedback is the comparison of the output(s) and the goal set in advance; and
discrepancy is analyze, corrected, and fed back to the proper stage in the processing
operation. The feedback step permits businesspersons to follow up on essential
information and to attain worthwhile goals.

METHODS OF DATA PROCESSING:

1. Transaction Processing
Transaction processing is deployed in mission-critical situations.
These are situations, which, if disrupted, will adversely affect business
operations. For example, processing stock exchange transactions, as
mentioned earlier. In transaction processing, availability is the most
important factor. Availability can be influenced by factors such as:

 Hardware: A transaction processing system should have redundant

hardware. Hardware redundancy allows for partial failures, since
redundant components can be automated to take over and keep the
system running.
 Software: The software of a transaction processing system should be
designed to recover quickly from a failure. Typically, transaction
processing systems use transaction abstraction to achieve this.
Simply put, in case of a failure, uncommitted transactions are aborted.
This allows the system to reboot quickly.

2. Distributed Processing
Very often, datasets are too big to fit on one machine. Distributed data
processing breaks down these large datasets and stores them across
multiple machines or servers. It rests on Hadoop Distributed File
System (HDFS). A distributed data processing system has a high fault
tolerance. If one server in the network fails, the data processing tasks
can be reallocated to other available servers.

Distributed processing can also be immensely cost-saving.

Businesses don't need to build expensive mainframe computers
anymore and invest in their upkeep and maintenance.

3. Real-time Processing
Real-time processing is similar to transaction processing, in that it is
used in situations where output is expected in real-time. However, the
two differ in terms of how they handle data loss. Real-time processing
computes incoming data as quickly as possible. If it encounters an
error in incoming data, it ignores the error and moves to the next
chunk of data coming in. GPS-tracking applications are the most
common example of real-time data processing.

Contrast this with transaction processing. In case of an error, such as

a system failure, transaction processing aborts ongoing processing
and reinitializes. Real-time processing is preferred over transaction
processing in cases where approximate answers suffice.

In the world of data analytics, stream processing is a common

application of real-time data processing. First popularized by Apache
Storm, stream processing analyzes data as it comes in. Think data
from IoT sensors, or tracking consumer activity in real-time. Google
BigQuery and Snowflake are examples of cloud data platforms that
employ real-time processing.

4. Batch Processing
As the name suggests, batch processing is when chunks of data,
stored over a period of time, are analyzed together, or in batches.
Batch processing is required when a large volume of data needs to be
analyzed for detailed insights. For example, sales figures of a
company over a period of time will typically undergo batch processing.
Since there is a large volume of data involved, the system will take
time to process it. By processing the data in batches, it saves on
computational resources.

Batch processing is preferred over real-time processing when

accuracy is more important than speed. Additionally, the efficiency of
batch processing is also measured in terms of throughput. Throughput
is the amount of data processed per unit time.

5. On-line Processing- is an automated way to

enter and process data or reports continuously as use as the source
documents are available. A good example of online processing is bar
code scanning.

CYCLE OF DATA PROCESSING

1.ORIGINATION/DATA SOURCE 2. INPUT 3. PROCESS 4.

STORAGE 5. OUTPUT 6. DISTRIBUTION
CLASSIFICATIONS OF
COMPUTERS :

In my previous post, titled; HISTORY OF COMPUTER: #1, I discussed the

history of computer, starting from the definition of computer to a view of
computer as a system, with a very clear illustration and various contributions of
great scientists towards the development of today’s computer was discussed.
Today’s discussion is based on The Classifications of Computers on the basis of
generation.

Computer can be classified into FOUR broadly categories:

(1). On the basis of Generation.
(2). On the basis of Size,
(3). On the basis of Data Processed and
(4). On the basis of Purpose.

The diagram below depicts the general classifications of computers

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER ON THE BASIS OF
GENERATION
To classify computer on technological development that transformed the way
computers operate, resulting in more powerful, increasingly smaller, cheaper,
more efficient and reliable devices is refer to as ‘Classification On The Basis Of
Generation’.
As shown in the above diagram, there are five basic classifications on the basis
of generation and they will all be explored today.
1. FIRST GENERATION: BETWEEN (1940-1956)
The first generation of computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic
drums for memory,

vaccum tube

magnetic drum

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level

programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and
they could only solve one problem at a time. punched cards and paper tape were
used for Input , and output was displayed on printouts.
 punched card

Problems :
First generation computers were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They
were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of
electricity, the vacuum tubes generated a great deal of heat causing many
problems in temperature regulation and climate control, the tubes also burnt out
frequently, which was often the cause of malfunctions.
people operating the computer can not respond to any problem encounter during
the operation since the programming was relied on machine language.

SECOND GENERATION (1956-1963): TRANSISTORS

The second generation of computers used Transistors to replaced vacuum tubes .
The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to
become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than
their first-generation predecessors. Computer of this generation still generated a
great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, but it was a vast
improvement over the vacuum tube and they still relied on punched cards for
input and printouts for output.
Assembly languages was invoke during second generation, which allowed
programmers to specify instructions in words. Second generation computers
used magnetic core technology, the first computers that stored their instructions
in their memory as against magnetic drum of first generation computer.
 Transistor

THIRD GENERATION (1964-1971): INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

Integrated circuit development was the hallmark of the third generation of
computers. there was drastically increased in the speed and efficiency of
computers due to reduction in transistors which was placed on silicon chips
(semiconductors),
Users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and
monitors as against punched cards and printouts, These were interfaced with an
operating system, which allowed the device to run multi process concurrently at
one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the
first time became accessible to many because they were smaller and cheaper
than their predecessors.
 Integrated circut

FOURTH GENERATION (1971-PRESENT): MICROPROCESSORS

Fourth generation of computers brought microprocessor , which makes it
possible to build thousands of integrated circuits onto a single silicon chip.
What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of
the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of
the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output
controls - on a single chip.

Microprocessor

FIFTH GENERATION - PRESENT AND BEYOND: ARTIFICIAL

INTELLIGENCE
The current technological trend in computing devices are based on Quantum
computation, molecular, nanotechnology and artificial intelligence, are still in
development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that
are already being used today. Artificial Intelligence, quantum computation and
molecular and nanotechnology will change the view and function of computers
in years to come.
Developing computing device that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self organization.