energies

Article
Influence of Water–Oil Saturation on the Fracture
Process Zone: A Modified Dugdale–Barenblatt Model
Yuanxun Nie 1 , Guangqing Zhang 1,2, *, Yuekun Xing 1,2 and Shiyuan Li 1,2
1 Department of Engineering Mechanics, China University of Petroleum (Beijing), Beijing 102248, China;
nieyuanxun@126.com (Y.N.); yuekunxing@gmail.com (Y.X.); lishiyuan1983@cup.edu.cn (S.L.)
2 State Key Laboratory of Petroleum Resources and Engineering, Beijing 102248, China
* Correspondence: zhangguangqing@cup.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-010-8973-3920




Received: 24 August 2018; Accepted: 22 October 2018; Published: 24 October 2018


Abstract: The wetting and nonwetting fluid saturations in porous reservoirs always change during
long-term injection and production. The fracture process zone (FPZ) is a prominent feature in the
rock fracture process. If the FPZ properties are influenced by pore fluids, the process of hydraulic
fracturing will change greatly. The existing models do not consider the role of pore fluid when
characterizing the FPZ. In this paper, a modified Dugdale–Barenblatt (D–B) model with capillary
pressure is proposed. The model reflects the fact that the FPZ length decreases nonlinearly with the
increase in capillary pressure, and it reveals the mechanism of capillary pressure on the equivalent
fracture cohesion in the FPZ, which affects the FPZ length. Three-point bending tests were carried
out on sandstone under various fluid saturations through digital image correlation (DIC), acoustic
emission (AE), and scanning electron microscope (SEM). It was found that the FPZ length of the
water–oil-saturated samples was 30–50% smaller than that of water-saturated/oil-saturated samples
due to the capillary pressure effect, and the modified D–B model was well consistent with the
experiments. The AE behaviors of different saturated samples were not the same: The cumulative AE
signals changed abruptly at 90% of the peak load for the water–oil-saturated samples and at 50% of
the peak load for water-saturated samples. This demonstrated that the effect of capillary pressure
was more obvious than the weakening effect of microstructural damages. The significant influence of
capillary pressure on FPZ requires continuous recognition in hydraulic fracturing design.

Keywords: capillary pressure; fracture process zone length; modified Dugdale–Barenblatt model;
digital image correlation

1. Introduction
As global energy provided by conventional reservoirs has become more difficult, the development
of oil and gas in unconventional reservoirs is increasingly necessary [1]. The wetting and nonwetting
fluid saturations in reservoirs always change as a result of long-term injection and production [2].
The fractures produced by hydraulic fracturing and the existing fractures in depleted reservoirs are
affected by the water–oil saturation. During hydraulic fracturing, fracture initiation and propagation
are closely related to the nonlinear elastic response that occurs in the fracture process zone (FPZ) [3].
Therefore, investigating the effect of water–oil saturation on the FPZ is of great importance for
production improvement.
The effect of pore fluids on mechanical properties needs to be taken into consideration during
the rock fracture process. Many scholars have performed a series of experiments to research the
influence of water content on the mechanical properties of rocks. The results showed that the static
Young’s modulus [3,4], dynamic Young’s modulus [5,6], compressive stress [3,7], tensile stress [4],
and fracture toughness [8–10] decreased drastically with the increase in water content. The effect of

Energies 2018, 11, 2882; doi:10.3390/en11112882 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2018, 11, 2882 2 of 14

pore fluids on the mechanical properties is a complicated process [5], which includes physical–chemical
and mechanical effects (such as capillary pressure). Researchers [11–19] have focused on the
physical–chemical effects of water on rock strength, such as clay swelling and chemical reactions.
Besides, capillary pressure (the pressure difference of wetting and nonwetting fluids) has been shown
to increase strength [5] and fracture toughness [9]. When the content of the wetting and nonwetting
fluids are different, there are differences in the effects of the physical–mechanical and capillary pressure,
which results in different trends in the mechanical properties. The fracture process zone is a prominent
feature of the rock fracture process. As the mechanical properties of rocks can be influenced by pore
fluids, it is not difficult to speculate that the fracture process zone of rock is closely related to pore
fluid saturation.
In addition to studying the effects of pore fluids on mechanical parameters and the fracture
process, researchers have proposed various models to describe the FPZ. In 1960, Dugdale [20] found
that a plastic zone at the fracture tip was concentrated at an angle of 45◦ to the plane of the mild sheet,
and the ribbon yielding model was proposed. In 1962, Barenblatt [21] found that a small nonlinear
stress cohesion zone at the fracture tip eliminated stress singularity. Researchers have since combined
these two models into the classic Dugdale–Barenblatt (D–B) model, and many modified D–B models
have been proposed. Classical FPZ models include the virtual fracture model [22], the passivation
model [23], and the equivalent model [24]. All these models assume that strain softening occurs at the
fracture tip. The FPZ length can be calculated based on these models. Labuz et al. [25] presented an
experimental analysis of fracture growth in dry charcoal granite that incorporated the concept of the
process zone, and they proposed a model to calculate the FPZ length. Although many models have
been provided, little research has concentrated on the influence of capillary pressure on the FPZ length.
The primary objective of this study was to investigate the influence of capillary pressure on
the FPZ length. For this, the authors propose a modified classical D–B model considering capillary
pressure. Three-point bending experiments were conducted with digital image correlation (DIC) and
acoustic emission (AE) to verify the proposed model. The microstructural variations of different
saturated samples were compared with scanning electron microscope (SEM) results.

2. Modified Fracture Process Zone Model

As capillary pressure can increase strength and fracture toughness [5,9] and as the magnitude
of capillary pressure is similar to tensile strength [26], the capillary pressure in the fracture tip is
a non-neglectable factor during the fracture process. It can be inferred that capillary pressure will
have an effect on the FPZ length. However, the influence of capillary pressure on the FPZ length
is not considered in classical FPZ models. In this paper, the authors therefore propose a modified
Dugdale–Barenblatt model that considers capillary pressure.

2.1. Liquid Bridges between Idealized Grains

When the pores of porous rock are filled with wetting and nonwetting fluids, the liquid bridge
between the grains is shown in Figure 1. The liquid bridge force between grains comprises two
parts: surface tension from the wetting phase and the capillary pressure formed by the two fluids.
The direction of the liquid bridge force points to the center of the two grains.
The liquid bridge force is expressed as in Equation (1) [27]:

2πγR1 2 (sin ϕ)2 cos(θ + ϕ)

F = Fcap + Fsurf = + 2πγR1 sin ϕ sin(θ + ϕ) (1)
R1 (1 − cos ϕ) + d

where d (µm) is the half-length between the two grains centers; R1 (µm) is the grain radius; ϕ (degree)
is the half-filling angle; Fcap (N) is the liquid force caused by the capillary pressure; γ (mN/m) is the
surface tension of the two phases; Fsurf (N) is the liquid bridge force caused by the surface tension of
the wetting phase fluid; and F (N) is the resultant liquid bridge force.
Energies 2018, 11, 2882 3 of 14
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Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicdiagram
diagram of
of pore
pore fluids
fluids at
at the
the fracture
fracturetip.
tip.

2.2.2.2.
Modified FPZ
Modified Model
FPZ Model
TheThegeometry
geometryofofa afracture
fracturepresented Figure11consists
presented in Figure consistsofofa aprefabricated
prefabricated fracture
fracture a0 (mm),
a0 (mm), a
realfracture
a real fractureaa11 (mm),
(mm), and
and aa microfracture
microfractureaa2 2(mm)
(mm)asasananFPZFPZ[28].
[28].
ForFor
thethe modified
modified FPZ FPZ model,
model, thethe authors
authors assumed
assumed thatthat
thethe dimension
dimension of the
of the fracture
fracture process
process zone
zone was small in comparison with the length of the whole fracture. The grain size
was small in comparison with the length of the whole fracture. The grain size of the samples was the of the samples
wasThere
same. the same.
wasThere wassingularity
no stress no stress singularity
at the tipat
ofthe
thetip of the fracture.
fracture.
The superposition of the stress intensity factors caused
The superposition of the stress intensity factors caused by the by external
the external
load,load,
yieldyield stress,
stress, and
and liquid
liquid bridge force at the fracture tip was equal to 0, as shown
bridge force at the fracture tip was equal to 0, as shown in Equation (2). in Equation (2).
𝐾 =𝐾 +𝐾 +𝐾 =0 (2)
Ktip = Kσ + Ky + KF = 0 (2)
−𝐹 c+𝑥 c+𝑥 −2 √ c𝐹 cos (𝑎/𝑐)
𝐾 = d𝑥 + Z c r d𝑥 ! = √ (3)
− Fsin 𝜑) √πc −a cc+−x𝑥
𝜋(𝑅 c c−+𝑥 x 𝜋−.2(𝑅cFsin 𝜑)−1 ( a/c)
r
cos
Z
KF = √ dx + dx = (3)
π ( R1 sin ϕ)2 πc −c c−x a c−x π 1.5 ( R1 sin ϕ)2
𝑎 =𝑎 +𝑎
(4)
𝑐 a==𝑎 a+ 0+𝑎 a+ 1 𝑎
(4)
where 𝐾 (Pa·m0.5), 𝐾 (Pa·m0.5), 𝐾 (Pa·m c =0.5a),0 +𝑎 a1(mm),
+ a2 𝑐 (mm) are the stress intensity factors
produced
where Kσ (Pa·by
m0.5the
), Kexternal load, the yield
0.5 0.5 stress, the liquid bridge force at the fracture tip, the
y (Pa·m ), KF (Pa·m ), a (mm), c (mm) are the stress intensity factors produced
by the external load, the yield stress, the liquid bridge fracture
prefabricated fracture length, and the prefabricated force at thelength, respectively.
fracture The stress intensity
tip, the prefabricated fracture
factor produced by the liquid bridge force at the fracture tip can be
length, and the prefabricated fracture length, respectively. The stress intensity factor shown as in Equation
produced (3). by
Thethe
FPZ length with pore fluids can be simplified into Equation (5), and the stress produced by the liquid
liquid bridge force at the fracture tip can be shown as in Equation (3). The FPZ length with pore fluids
bridge can be expressed as in Equation (6).
can be simplified into Equation (5), and the stress produced by the liquid bridge can be expressed as in
Equation (6). 𝜎 𝜎
𝑙 = a/ 8 + −𝜋  (5)
σFσ σ𝜎s 2 2
lp = a/ 8 + −π (5)
2𝜋𝛾𝑅 (sin 𝜑) cos(𝜃 + 𝜑) σ σ
𝜎 =( + 2𝜋𝛾𝑅 sin 𝜑 sin(𝜃 + 𝜑))/(𝜋(𝑅 sin 𝜑) ) (6)
𝑅 (1 − cos 𝜑) + 𝑑
2πγR1 2 (sin ϕ)2 cos(θ + ϕ) 2
σF = ( + 2πγR1 sin ϕ sin(θ + ϕ))/(π ( R1 sin ϕ) ) (6)
where 𝑙 (mm) is theRFPZ
1 (1 −length, + d 𝜎 (MPa) is the
cos ϕ) and stress produced by the liquid bridge. As
shown in Equation (5), the formulation to determine the FPZ length will change when the capillary
where lp (mm) is the FPZ length, and σF (MPa) is the stress produced by the liquid bridge. As shown
pressure exists.
in Equation (5), the formulation to determine the FPZ length will change when the capillary
pressure exists. the Influence of Capillary Pressure on an Idealized Sample
2.3. Estimating
In orderthe
2.3. Estimating to quantify
Influence the influencePressure
of Capillary of capillary
on anpressure
IdealizedonSample
FPZ length, the authors assumed that
the grain radius 𝑅 , the contact angle 𝜃, the surface tension 𝛾 of the water and oil, and the peak load
In order to quantify the influence of capillary pressure on FPZ length, the authors assumed that
were 25 μm, 13° [29], 36 mN/m [30], and 0.8 kN, respectively. For simplification, the relationship
thebetween
grain radius R , the contact angle θ, the surface tension γ of the water and oil, and the peak load
𝜑 and 1d was assumed to be linear. It was assumed that when the largest filling angle was
were 25 µm, 13 ◦ [29], 36 mN/m [30], and 0.8 kN, respectively. For simplification, the relationship
60°, the corresponding length between the grains was 20 μm; when the smallest filling angle was 30°,
between ϕ and d was assumed to be linear. It was assumed that when the largest filling angle was
60◦ , the corresponding length between the grains was 20 µm; when the smallest filling angle was 30◦ ,
Energies 2018, 11, 2882 4 of 14

the corresponding length between the grains was 0.1 µm. This linear relationship can be expressed as
in Equation (7).
d = 4.5(60◦ − ϕ) (7)

where d (µm) is the half-length between the two grains centers, and ϕ (degree) is the half-filling angle.
As the half-filling angle is not constant in reality, two extreme cases for simplification were
assumed, i.e., that all the filling angles were either 30◦ or 60◦ . Based on this assumption, the authors
obtained the corresponding FPZ length, and the true length was between the maximum and the
minimum. According to Equation (5), the decrease in FPZ length could be up to 30% due to the
influence of capillary pressure because the FPZ length decreased by 30% and 5% compared with the
dry sample for filling angles of 30◦ and 60◦ , respectively.

3. Samples and Methods

3.1. Sample Preparation

Due to the relative uniformity in diameter of the particles and the homogeneity of the mechanical
properties, sandstone was selected as the samples, with an average grain diameter in the range of
25–100 µm, uniaxial compressive strength of 70 MPa, tensile strength of 7 MPa, elastic modulus of
8 GPa, porosity of 15%, and Poisson’s ratio of 0.2. The X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis found the
average mineral contents, which are listed in Table 1. I/S, S, and K represent illite/smectite, smectite,
and kaolinite, respectively.

Table 1. Characterization of the minerals in the samples.

Minerals SiO2 (%) S/I (%) S (%) K (%)

Content 93.20 1.84 0.54 4.42

Following the International Society for Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering (ISRM) test
standard [31], the samples were cut into semicircular plates with prefabricated fractures in the center.
The dimensions of the samples are shown in Table 2, where a (mm) represents the length of the
prefabricated fracture, R (mm) represents the radius of the samples, and B (mm) represents the thickness
of samples. After processing the samples, the fluid saturating treatments [19] were conducted. Firstly,
the dry sample was placed in a sealed container, which was then evacuated. Secondly, the saturated
fluid was injected into the container under the negative pressure produced by the vacuum. Finally,
the sample was saturated in the fluids for two months so that the oil/water molecules moved into the
small pores. The saturating fluids were water and kerosene. For sandstone, water was the wetting
fluid, while kerosene was the nonwetting fluid.

Table 2. Specific dimensions of the samples.

Conditions No. a (mm) R (mm) B (mm)

D-1 9.910 49.75 28.27
D-2 9.360 49.76 27.00
Dry
D-3 10.60 49.65 27.70
D-4 9.806 49.37 28.41
W-1 9.270 49.76 28.38
Water-Saturated W-2 10.80 48.44 28.22
W-3 9.532 49.38 28.21
O-1 10.40 48.20 28.38
Oil-Saturated
O-2 10.04 49.52 28.14
C-1 9.892 49.62 28.03
Water–Oil-Saturated
C-2 9.672 49.78 28.01
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For
For DIC,
DIC, artificial
artificial speckles
speckles needed
needed to
to be
be made
made on
on the
the surface
surface of
of the
the sample.
sample. After
After the
the saturating
saturating
treatments,
treatments, one surface was sealed with paraffin and the other was painted with a thin of
one surface was sealed with paraffin and the other was painted with a thin layer matte
layer of
white paint to create a white base film, which was facing the camera. Then, a matte black
matte white paint to create a white base film, which was facing the camera. Then, a matte black paint was
applied
paint wasto applied
make speckles.
to make For high-quality
speckles. specks, matte
For high-quality white
specks, andwhite
matte blackand
paint should
black paintbeshould
sprayedbe
alternately.
sprayed alternately.

3.2.
3.2. Experimental
Experimental Equipment
Equipment and
and Methods
Methods
The
The experimental
experimental devices
devices areare illustrated
illustrated in in Figure
Figure 2,
2, where
where DIC
DIC andand AEAE were
were used
used toto record
record the
the
fracture
fracture process. Internal damages to the rock during the fracture process are due to the change of
process. Internal damages to the rock during the fracture process are due to the change of
the
the microstructure [32–34] and
microstructure [32–34] and are
are detected
detected by by AE
AE [35].
[35]. The
The DIC
DIC technology
technology can can be
be used
used toto obtain
obtain the
the
deformation
deformation of of the
the grains
grains onon the
the surface
surface [36–39].
[36–39].
To calculate the FPZ length from the displacement [36],
To calculate the FPZ length from the displacement DIC technology
[36], DIC technology was was deployed
deployed during
during
the
the fracture
fracture process.
process. Speckles
Speckles were
were located
located and and recorded
recorded under
under loading
loading through
through aa charge-coupled
charge-coupled
device
device (CCD)
(CCD) high-speed
high-speed camera
camera with
with an an effective
effectivepixel
pixelofof2062
2062 × 2062,
2062, aa 35
35 mm
mm fixed
fixed focus
focus lens,
lens,
and a high-speed capacity at a rate of two frames/s. The width and height
and a high-speed capacity at a rate of two frames/s. The width and height of the camera window of the camera window
view
view focused
focused onon the
the 50
50 mm
mm on on both
both sides
sides of
of the
the prefabricated
prefabricated fractures
fractures and
and 40 40 mm
mm at at the
the top
top of
of the
the
prefabricated fracture, respectively. A stabilized white light source was used for a better
prefabricated fracture, respectively. A stabilized white light source was used for a better light effect. light effect.
As
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 2a,
2a, there
there were
were four
four sensors
sensors arranged
arranged on on the
the light
light source
source side
side and
and the
the back
back side.
side.
The
The AEAE signal
signal acquisition
acquisition device
device was
was aa SAEU2S-centralized
SAEU2S-centralized AE AE system,
system, andand the
thethreshold
threshold was was4040dB.
dB.
The load was applied with a hydraulic servo control system at
The load was applied with a hydraulic servo control system at the rate of 0.1 mm/min. the rate of 0.1 mm/min.
Simultaneous
Simultaneous recording
recording of ofthe
theAE
AEsignals
signals(AE (AEenergy,
energy,amplitude,
amplitude,hithit count,
count, andandthethe
arrival time
arrival of
time
signals) and
of signals) high-speed
and high-speed camera
camerawerewerecarried
carriedoutout
until thethe
until whole
whole fracture
fractureprocess
process waswascompleted.
completed.

Figure
Figure 2. Digital
Digital image
image correlation
correlation system: (a)
(a) Schematic
Schematic diagram;
diagram; (b)
(b) Equipment photo.
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3.3.
3.3. Determination
Determination of FPZ
of FPZ Length
FPZ Length
Length
3.3. Determination of
Under
Under an an external
an external
external load,load, the
the initiation
load, the and
initiation andand propagation
propagation of of
of aaa microfracture
microfracture will will lead
will lead to
lead toto an
an increase
increase
Under initiation propagation microfracture an increase
in the
in the fracture
the fracture
fracture tip tip displacement.
tip displacement.
displacement. The The fracture extends unstably only when the crack tip opening
in The fracture
fracture extends
extends unstably
unstably only when the
only when the crack
crack tiptip opening
opening
displacement
displacement (CTOD)
(CTOD) reaches
reaches the
the critical
critical value.
value. For
For tight
tight rocks,
rocks, the
the fracture
fracture propagates
propagates unstably
unstably at
at
displacement (CTOD) reaches the critical value. For tight rocks, the fracture propagates unstably at the
the
the peak
peak load,
load, and
and the
the zone
zone in
in front
front of
of prefabricated
prefabricated fracture
fracture can
can be
be defined
defined as
as the
the FPZ.
FPZ.
peak load, and the zone in front of prefabricated fracture can be defined as the FPZ.
Figure
Figure 333 shows
shows
showsthat that
thatthethe incremental
theincremental horizontal
incrementalhorizontal displacement
horizontaldisplacement
displacementcontours contours
contours merge
merge at one point, which
Figure merge atat
one one point,
point, which
which is
is
is defined
defined as
as the
the FPZ
FPZ tip
tip [36].
[36]. At
At the
the peak
peak load,
load, the
the FPZ
FPZ length
length is
is defined
defined to
to be
be the
the distance
distance between
between
defined as the FPZ tip [36]. At the peak load, the FPZ length is defined to be the distance between
the merged
the merged
merged point point
point andand
andthe the
thetiptip of
tipof the
ofthe prefabricated
theprefabricated fracture.
prefabricatedfracture.
fracture.The The
Theexactexact definition
exactdefinition
definition of the merged point
the ofof thethe merged
merged point
point is
is closely
is closely correlated
correlated with
with the size
the size of the FPZ. There are different material properties inside and
closely correlated with the size of theofFPZ.
the There
FPZ. There are different
are different material material
propertiesproperties
inside and inside and
outside
outside
outside the FPZ. The
The deformation characteristics in
in those regions are
are different, and the
the position where
the FPZ.the TheFPZ. deformationdeformation characteristics
characteristics in those those
regions regions
are different, different,
and theandposition position
where where
the
the slope
the slope of incremental
of incremental displacement
displacement abruptly
abruptly changes
changes is defined
is defined to be
to be the merged
the merged point
point [36]. As
slope of incremental displacement abruptly changes is defined to be the merged point [36]. As[36].
shown As
shown
shown in
in Figure
Figure 4,
4, the
the horizontal
horizontal displacements
displacements at
at the
the peak
peak load
load of
of y
y =
= 0,
0, y
y =
= 2.47
2.47 mm,
mm, y
y == 4.93
4.93 mm,
mm,
in Figure 4, the horizontal displacements at the peak load of y = 0, y = 2.47 mm, y = 4.93 mm,
and
and yyy === 5.32
5.32
5.32 mmmm
mm were were selected
were selected
selected for for the
for the dry
the dry sample.
dry sample.
sample. It It was
It was
was notnot difficult
not difficult
difficult to to find
to find that
find that the
that the displacement
the displacement
displacement
and
profiles
profiles of of y = 0,
of yy == 0, y = 2.47
0, yy == 2.47
2.47 mm,mm, y = 4.93
mm, yy == 4.93 mm
4.93 mm
mm hadhad the
had the same
the same characteristics;
same characteristics;
characteristics; the the slope
the slope could
slope could clearly
could clearly
clearly bebe
be
profiles
divided
divided into
into three
three sections.
sections. However,
However, the
the slope
slope of
of the
the incremental
incremental horizontal
horizontal displacement
displacement profile
profile at
at
divided into three sections. However, the slope of the incremental horizontal displacement profile at
yy == 5.32
5.32 mm
mm was
was nearly
nearly the
the same,
same, which
which indicated
indicated that
that the
the slope
slope abruptly
abruptly changed
changed at
at y
y =
= 4.93
4.93 mm.
mm.
y = 5.32 mm was nearly the same, which indicated that the slope abruptly changed at y = 4.93 mm.
The corresponding
The corresponding
corresponding point point where
point where
where thethe slope
the slope changed
slope changed
changed was was defined
wasdefined
definedas as the
asthe merged
themerged point.
mergedpoint.point.
The

Figure 3. Incremental horizontal displacement contours of the dry sample.

Figure 3. Incremental horizontal displacement contours of the dry
dry sample.
sample.

Figure 4. Dry
Figure 4. Dry sample:
sample: peak
peak and
and incremental
incremental horizontal
horizontal displacement
displacement profiles.
profiles.
4.
4. Results and
and Discussion
4. Results
Results and Discussion
Discussion
In
In the following section, the influence of capillary pressure on the FPZ length is discussed based
In the
the following
following section,
section, the
the influence
influence of
of capillary
capillary pressure
pressure on
on the
the FPZ
FPZ length
length is
is discussed
discussed based
based
on
on the measurement of the FPZ length according totoDIC and thethe
combined damage datadata
from the AE.
on the measurement of the FPZ length according to DIC and the combined damage data from the
the measurement of the FPZ length according DIC and combined damage from the
AE.
AE.
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4.1.
4.1. Capillary
Capillary Pressure
Pressure Decreases
Decreases FPZ FPZ Length
Length
4.1. Capillary Pressure Decreases FPZ Length
As
As stated in the previous section, FPZ
stated in the previous section, FPZ length
length can
can be
be represented
represented as as the
the distance—along
distance—along with with the
the
As stated
prefabricated in the previous
fracture—between section,
the FPZ
initial length
position canandbe represented
the merged as
point,the distance—along
whose coordinates with
are
prefabricated fracture—between the initial position and the merged point, whose coordinates are
the prefabricated
specified with DIC fracture—between
at peak loads. Forthetheinitial
dry, position and the merged
water-saturated, point, whose
oil-saturated, and the coordinates
water ––oil-
specified
are with
specified DIC
with at
DICpeak at loads.
peak For
loads. the dry,
For water-saturated,
the dry, oil-saturated,
water-saturated, and
oil-saturated,the water
and oil-
the
saturated samples,
saturated samples, Figures Figures 3 and
3 and 5 – 7
5–7 showshow the contours
the5–7
contours of the
of the incremental
incremental horizontal
horizontal displacements,
displacements,
water–oil-saturated
respectively. Based samples,
on the Figures
method 3 and
described in show the
Section contours
3.3, the FPZ oflengths
the incremental
for the horizontal
samples with
respectively.
displacements, Based on the
respectively. method
Based ondescribed
the in
method Section
described3.3, the
in FPZ
Section lengths
3.3, the for the
FPZ samples
lengths forwith
the
various
various saturations
saturations were
were obtained,
obtained, as
as seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 8.
8.
samples with various saturations were obtained, as seen in Figure 8.
Capillary pressure
Capillary pressure
pressure can can reduce
can reduce
reduce the the FPZ
the FPZ length.
length. The
FPZ length. The average FPZ length of the water ––oil-saturated
Capillary The average
average FPZFPZ length
length of of the
the water oil-saturated
water–oil-saturated
samples
samples was was 3.32
was 3.32 mm—the
3.32 mm—the
mm—the shortest shortest
shortest of of all
of all the samples—and was about 15 – 25 times
–25 times the grain radius.
samples all the
the samples—and
samples—and was was about
about 15 15–25 times the
the grain
grain radius.
radius.
The lengths of the FPZ for the oil-saturated, dry, and water-saturated samples were about 33%, 63%,
The lengths of the FPZ for the oil-saturated, dry, and water-saturated samples were about 33%, 63%,
The lengths of the FPZ for the oil-saturated, dry, and water-saturated samples were about 33%, 63%,
and 110%
and 110% larger
110% larger than
than that
larger than that of the water– –oil-saturated
oil-saturated sample,
sample, respectively. The capillary
capillary pressure only
and that of
of the
the water
water–oil-saturated sample, respectively.
respectively. The The capillary pressure only
pressure only
existed
existed in
in the
the water
water –
– oil-saturated
oil-saturated samples,
samples, thus
thus it
it can
can be
be concluded
concluded that
that capillary
capillary pressure
pressure decreased
decreased
existed in water–oil-saturated samples, thus it can concluded pressure decreased
the FPZ
the FPZ length.
FPZ length.
length.
the
Water–
Water –oil
Water–oil
saturation
saturation can
oil saturation can affect
affect the pore
affect thethepore
structure of
porestructure
the sample
structureofofthe thesample
sample
and
and
and
the cohesive
thethe
cohesive
cohesive
strength
strength of
of the
strength the
of
grains.
grains. The changes
TheThe
changes in the
in the microstructure
microstructure of different
of different saturated
saturated samples
samples were
were observed
observed by SEM
byby
SEM in
in
the grains. changes in the microstructure of different saturated samples were observed SEM
order
order to describe
to todescribe the
the influence of different types of pore fluids; the results are described in the
in order describe theinfluence
influenceofofdifferent
differenttypes
typesofofpore
porefluids;
fluids; the
the results
results areare described in the the
following sections. Combined with the analysis of the forces between the grains, the influence of
following sections. CombinedCombined with with the the analysis
analysis of the forces between the grains, the influence influence of of
capillary pressure
capillary pressure
pressure on on FPZ
on FPZ length
FPZ length
length is is then
is then discussed.
then discussed.
discussed.
capillary

Figure 5. Incremental horizontal displacement contours of water-saturated sample.

contours of
Figure 5. Incremental horizontal displacement contours of water-saturated
water-saturated sample.
sample.

contours of
of oil-saturated sample.
sample.
Figure 6. Incremental
Figure 6. Incremental horizontal
horizontal displacement
displacement contours
contours of oil-saturated
oil-saturated sample.
Energies 2018, 11, x2882
FOR PEER REVIEW 88 of
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14
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 14

Figure 7. Incremental horizontal displacement contours of water–oil-saturated sample.

Figure 7. Incremental horizontal displacement contours of water–oil-saturated
water–oil-saturated sample.
sample.

Figure 8.
Figure The fracture
8. The fracture process
process zone (FPZ) length vs. sample
sample state.
state.
Figure 8. The fracture process zone (FPZ) length vs. sample state.
4.2. Capillary Pressure Affects FPZ More than Microstructural Damages
4.2. Capillary Pressure Affects FPZ More than Microstructural Damages
4.2. Capillary Pressure Affects FPZ More than Microstructural Damages
The FPZ length of the water-saturated samples was the longest due to the damaging effect of
The FPZ length of the water-saturated samples was the longest due to the damaging effect of the
The FPZ length
the water–rock of the
reaction on water-saturated
the microstructure. samples
Somewas the longest
swelling, due to the
dissolution, anddamaging
cementitious effect of the
mineral
water–rock reaction on the microstructure. Some swelling, dissolution, and cementitious mineral loss
water–rock reaction on the microstructure. Some swelling, dissolution, and cementitious
loss always occur as a result of the existence of pore fluids [10], which weakens the ability to sustain mineral loss
always occur as a result of the existence of pore fluids [10], which weakens the ability to sustain the
always
the load.occur
Figureas a9a–c
result of the
show theexistence of pore fluids
microstructures of the [10], which weakens
dry sample, and there thewere
ability to sustain
some the
flaky and
load. Figure 9a–c show the microstructures of the dry sample, and there were some flaky and
load. Figure
floccular 9a–c among
minerals show the the microstructures of the dry
grains. The composition sample,
of the and there
constituent wereofsome
elements theseflaky and
minerals,
floccular minerals among the grains. The composition of the constituent elements of these minerals,
floccular
as found byminerals
the SEM among the are
analysis, grains.
shownTheincomposition of the constituent
Figure 10. According to Figureelements of these minerals,
10, the significant presence
as found by the SEM analysis, are shown in Figure 10. According to Figure 10, the significant presence
as Al
of found
wasby anthe SEM analysis,
indication of theare shownof
presence in aluminosilicate,
Figure 10. Accordingwhich to can
Figure 10,with
react the significant presence
water as shown in
of Al was an indication of the presence of aluminosilicate, which can react with water as shown in
of Al was an
Equations (8) indication
and (9) [40].of The
the presence of aluminosilicate,
reaction led to mineral loss which
amongcan thereact with
grains, water
which as shownthe
weakened in
Equations (8) and (9) [40]. The reaction led to mineral loss among the grains, which weakened the
Equations (8)the
cementation; and (9) [40]. The of
microstructure reaction led to
the sample mineral
then became loss
theamong the grains,
type shown which
in Figure weakened
9d, and the
there were
cementation; the microstructure of the sample then became the type shown in Figure 9d, and there
cementation;
many the microstructure
microfractures among the grains.of the sample
Figure then became
9e,f show the the type shown of
microstructure in the
Figure 9d, and there
oil-saturated and
were many microfractures among the grains. Figure 9e,f show the microstructure of the oil-saturated
were many microfractures
water–oil-saturated samples, among the grains.
respectively. Figure 9,
In Figure 9e,f show
it can bethe microstructure
seen of the oil-saturated
that the water-saturated sample
and water–oil-saturated samples, respectively. In Figure 9, it can be seen that the water-saturated
and the
had water–oil-saturated
most microfractures, samples,
and therespectively. In Figure sample
water–oil-saturated 9, it canwasbe slightly
seen that the water-saturated
affected; however, the
sample had the most microfractures, and the water–oil-saturated sample was slightly affected;
sample had the
microstructure of most microfractures,
the oil-saturated sampleandwasthe water–oil-saturated
almost unaffected. Thissample
showedwas that slightly
the change affected;
in the
however, the microstructure of the oil-saturated sample was almost unaffected. This showed that the
however, the microstructure
microstructure was one of theofreasons
the oil-saturated sample
for the longer wasofalmost
length the FPZunaffected. This showed that
in the water-saturated the
sample.
change in the microstructure was one of the reasons for the longer length of the FPZ in the water-
change in the microstructure was one of the reasons for the longer length of the FPZ in the water-
saturated sample.
saturated sample. Si2 O + H2 O → 2Si2 O2 H2 (8)
Si2O + H2O → 2Si2O2H2 (8)
K0.9 Al2.9 Si3.1 O10 (OH)Si22O + H2OO → 2Si2O2H2 (8)
+ nH 2 → K0.9 Al2.9 Si3.1 O10 (OH)2 nH2 O (9)
K0.9Al2.9Si3.1O10(OH)2 + nH2O → K0.9Al2.9Si3.1O10(OH)2nH2O (9)
2.9Si3.1O10(OH)2 + nH2O → K0.9Al2.9Si3.1O10(OH)2nH2O
K0.9Althe (9)
The attraction between grains at the fracture tip due to the liquid bridge force from the capillary
The attraction between the grains at the fracture tip due to the liquid bridge force from the
pressure
The was stronger
attraction than the
between theweakening
grains at theeffect of thetip
fracture microstructural
due to the liquid damages.
bridgeAs sandstone
force from the is
capillary pressure was stronger than the weakening effect of the microstructural damages. As
acapillary
porous medium,
pressure pore fluids canthan
was stronger produce a liquid bridge,
the weakening effectwhich
of theproduces a liquiddamages.
microstructural bridge force As
sandstone is a porous medium, pore fluids can produce a liquid bridge, which produces a liquid
sandstone is a porous medium, pore fluids can produce a liquid bridge, which produces a liquid
Energies 2018, 11, 2882 9 of 14
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 14

that resists
bridge forceparticle separation.
that resists particle The liquid bridge
separation. forcebridge
The liquid (especially
force capillary
(especiallypressure)
capillarycan strengthen
pressure) can
the cohesion between particles. Although the damage to the water–oil-saturated samples
strengthen the cohesion between particles. Although the damage to the water–oil-saturated samples was more
serious
was morethanserious
that ofthan
the oil-saturated samples, the length
that of the oil-saturated of the
samples, theFPZ of the
length of water–oil-saturated sample
the FPZ of the water–oil-
was smaller than that of the oil-saturated sample shown in Figure 8, which indicated
saturated sample was smaller than that of the oil-saturated sample shown in Figure 8, which that hydration
reaction played
indicated a less important
that hydration reactionrole thanacapillary
played pressure.
less important role than capillary pressure.

Figure 9. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of different saturated samples: (a–c) Dry sample;
Figure 9. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of different saturated samples: (a–c) Dry
(d) Water-saturated sample; (e) Oil-saturated sample; (f) Water–oil-saturated sample.
sample; (d) Water-saturated sample; (e) Oil-saturated sample; (f) Water–oil-saturated sample.
 Energies 2018, 11, 2882 10 of 14
Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 14

Figure10.
Figure Compositionof
10.Composition ofthe
theelements
elementsin
inthe
thesandstone
sandstonesample,
sample,as
asfound
foundby
bySEM
SEMtests.
tests.

4.3. Acoustic Emission Characteristics Affected by Water–Oil Saturation

4.3. Acoustic Emission Characteristics Affected by Water–Oil Saturation
Different saturated samples showed different AE behavior, which could be described from two
Different saturated samples showed different AE behavior, which could be described from two
aspects: the cumulative AE hit count and the AE cumulative energy [41,42].
aspects: the cumulative AE hit count and the AE cumulative energy [41,42].
The damage caused by water was the greatest of all the saturation scenarios. The cumulative AE
The damage caused by water was the greatest of all the saturation scenarios. The cumulative AE
hit count describes the damage magnitude of the sample with different water–oil saturations. If the
hit count describes the damage magnitude of the sample with different water–oil saturations. If the
damage is more serious, the significant cumulative hit count occurs earlier. The blue line in Figures 11
damage is more serious, the significant cumulative hit count occurs earlier. The blue line in Figures
and 12 show typical curves for the cumulative AE hit count for the water-saturated sample (W-2) and
11 and 12 show typical curves for the cumulative AE hit count for the water-saturated sample (W-2)
the water–oil-saturated sample (W-O-1). The cumulative AE signals changed abruptly at 90% of the
and the water–oil-saturated sample (W-O-1). The cumulative AE signals changed abruptly at 90% of
peak load for the water–oil-saturated samples; this change occurred at 50% of the peak load for the
the peak load for the water–oil-saturated samples; this change occurred at 50% of the peak load for
water-saturated samples.
the water-saturated samples.
The cohesion of the water-saturated samples was the weakest of all the samples. The AE
The cohesion of the water-saturated samples was the weakest of all the samples. The AE
cumulative energy can represent the strength of the sample with different water/oil contents. When the
cumulative energy can represent the strength of the sample with different water/oil contents. When
the cohesion is weak, the energy needed is low. The green line in Figures 11 and 12 shows the
cumulative energy over time for the water-saturated sample (W-2) and the water–oil-saturated
Energies 2018, 11, 2882 11 of 14

Energies 2018, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 14

cohesion is 11,
Energies 2018, weak, the
x FOR energy
PEER needed
REVIEW is low. The green line in Figures 11 and 12 shows the cumulative
11 of 14
energy over time for the water-saturated sample (W-2) and the water–oil-saturated sample (W-O-1).
sample (W-O-1). It was evident that the energy released from the water–oil-saturated sample was
sample
It (W-O-1).
was evident thatItthe
wasenergy
evident that the
released energy
from released from the sample
the water–oil-saturated water–oil-saturated sample
was about 5 times was
that of
about 5 times that of the water-saturated sample. It was shown that the cohesion between the grains
about
the 5 times that ofsample.
water-saturated the water-saturated
It was shownsample.
that the It was shown
cohesion that the grains
between cohesion between
in the the grains
water-saturated
in the water-saturated sample was weaker than that of the water–oil-saturated samples. When the
in the water-saturated
sample was sample was theweaker than that of the water–oil-saturated samples. When the
cohesion wasweaker
weaker,than that length
the FPZ of water–oil-saturated
was larger, which was samples. When the
well consistent withcohesion was
the modified weaker,
model.
cohesion was weaker, the FPZ length was larger, which was well consistent
the FPZ length was larger, which was well consistent with the modified model. with the modified model.

Figure 11. The cumulative acoustic emission (AE) energy and cumulative AE hit count of the water-
Figure 11. Thecumulative
11. The cumulative acoustic
acoustic emission
emission (AE)(AE) energy
energy and and cumulative
cumulative AE hitAE hit count
count of the
of the water-
saturated sample (W-2).
water-saturated
saturated samplesample
(W-2).(W-2).

Figure 12.
12.The
Thecumulative AEAE
cumulative energy and and
energy cumulative AE hit
cumulative AE count of the water–oil-saturated
hit count sample
of the water–oil-saturated
Figure 12. The cumulative AE energy and cumulative AE hit count of the water–oil-saturated sample
sample (W-O-1).
(W-O-1).
(W-O-1).
4.4. Impact
4.4. Impact on
on Engineering
Engineering Design
Design
4.4. Impact on Engineering Design
Drawing on
Drawing on the
theabove
abovediscussion,
discussion,ititisisnot difficult
not to to
difficult find thatthat
find capillary pressure
capillary reduced
pressure the FPZ
reduced the
length.Drawing
This mayon betheofabove
benefitdiscussion,
to modify itthe
is design
not difficult
of to find fracturing.
hydraulic that capillary pressure reduced the
FPZ length. This may be of benefit to modify the design of hydraulic fracturing.
FPZ length.
DuringThis may be of
the process
process of benefit to modify
designing hydraulic the design of hydraulic
fractures, engineersfracturing.
always set
set the
the volume
volume of of the
the
During the of designing hydraulic fractures, engineers always
During
injected the
liquid to process
control of
thedesigning
length of hydraulic
the hydraulicfractures, engineers
fracture. However, always set pressure
capillary the volume
is of the
always
injected liquid to control the length of the hydraulic fracture. However, capillary pressure is always
injected liquid
neglected. Dueto tocontrol thepressure,
capillary length ofthe
the fracture
hydraulic fracture. is
toughness However,
higher than capillary
than pressurein
that obtained
obtained is the
always
lab,
neglected. Due to capillary pressure, the fracture toughness is higher that in the lab,
neglected.
and the Due
the actual to
actual lengthcapillary
length of of the pressure,
the fracture the
fracture may
may be fracture
be shorter toughness
than the is higher than that obtained in the lab,
and shorter than the designed
designed one.one. The
The design
design length
length ofof the
the
and the should
fracture actual length
be of the
longer thanfracture
the may beone.
designed shorter
This than
may theone
be designed
of the one. The
reasons design
for the length
low of the
production.
fracture should be longer than the designed one. This may be one of the reasons for the low
fracture should be longer than the designed one. This may be one of the reasons for the low
production.
production.
Energies 2018, 11, 2882 12 of 14

5. Conclusions
In this paper, the influence of water–oil saturation on the FPZ was studied by means of capillary
pressure and the weakening effect of microstructural damages. More attention was paid to the influence
of capillary pressure. The FPZ is a prominent feature in the rock fracture process. However, existing
models do not consider the role of pore fluid when characterizing the FPZ. In this study, a modified
Dugdale–Barenblatt (D–B) model with capillary pressure is therefore proposed. The model reflects the
fact that the FPZ length decreases nonlinearly with the increase in capillary pressure, and it reveals the
mechanism of capillary pressure on the equivalent fracture cohesion in the FPZ, which affects the FPZ
length. Three-point bending tests were carried out on sandstone under various fluid saturations.
It was found that the FPZ length of the water–oil-saturated samples was 30–50% smaller than
that of the water-saturated/oil-saturated samples due to the capillary pressure effect; the modified
D–B model was well consistent with the experiments. The AE behaviors of the different saturated
samples were not the same: The cumulative AE signals changed abruptly at 90% of the peak load for
water–oil-saturated samples; this change occurred at 50% of the peak load for the water-saturated
samples. This demonstrated that the effect of capillary pressure was more obvious than the weakening
effect of the microstructural damage. This research will be beneficial for understanding the fracture
process in reservoirs, where the saturations of wetting and nonwetting fluids always change.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, Y.N. and G.Z.; Data curation, Y.N. and Y.X.; Methodology, Y.N. and
Y.X.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, Y.N.; Writing—Review & Editing, G.Z., S.L., and Y.X.; Supervision,
G.Z.; Project Administration, G.Z.
Funding: This study was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) No. 51774299 and
the Youth Innovation Team Program C201601 of China University of Petroleum-Beijing.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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