4.

1 Assessment: Conventional meaning and constructivist

perspective
"To assess" derives from the Latin verb "Assidere", to sit by (originally, as
an assistant-judge in the context of taxes). Hence, in "assessment of
learning" we "sit with the learner”, and that implies that it is something that
we do with and for our students rather than to them.

In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods or

tools that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the academic
readiness, learning progress, skill acquisition, or educational needs of
students.

Definition

Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from

multiple and diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of
what students know, understand, and can do with their knowledge as a
result of their educational experiences; the process culminates when
assessment results are used to improve subsequent learning.

Conventionally, education system, particularly school education is guided

and controlled by concern for results in examination irrespective of the
quality of learning --whether fragile or sustainable. The competition, though
artificial, for securing percentage of marks in the final examination creates
unusual stress in the students leading often to mental break down and
suicides. This must change. Change in the mechanics of examination will
be too simplistic a solution, amounting to treating the symptoms, not the
disease itself. Examination-stress is directly related to facing the challenge
of examination with ‘fragile’ learning due to memorizing huge stock of
information. In order to manage the stress factor in examination it will be
necessary to ensure sustainable learning.

Instructional processes must be constructivist in its approach. Through

constructivism, students will learn to construct their learning according to
their own worldview that unfolds over the years of schooling. It is this
learning to construct learning that will hold them into the adult life at work
and later.

As our focus has been shifted from behaviourist to constructivist approach

and our National Curriculum Framework, 2005 has put paramount
importance to this new paradigm of assessment from constructivist
perspectives, there is an urgent need of bringing about a change in the
system of assessment.

Assessment in education is mainly associated with the growth of learning of

the students. How much learning experience a student has acquired at a
particular point of time against the expected learning outcomes? What are
the strengths and weaknesses of a learner in the stipulated area of
learning? To what extent the results of assessment can be helpful in
strengthening the learning? These are some of the usual questions
associated with educational assessment. Usually, the assessment in
education is widely used in seeking the answer to the first question and that
is concerned with ‘assessment of learning’ which is predominantly useful
for teachers in designing the teaching strategies in facilitating the students
to learn. But, with shifting of focus from teacher or subject-centered
education to the learner and learning-centered education with the
pursuance of constructivist approaches, the multifarious utility of
assessment has come to fore in recent educational literatures and
practices. Besides continuing with assessment of learning, the practices of
using assessment for the growth of learning and converting assessment
processes as learning processes are being increasingly used in the
learning centered classrooms.

In Constructivist perspective learning:

1. The learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing

knowledge rather than acquiring it.
2. In a constructivist classroom the students are the focus and the
teacher a
facilitator who asks good questions.
 3. Constructivist principles can be applied in the classroom
demonstrating how Constructivist teachers pose questions and
problems, then guide students to help them find their own answers,
using many techniques in the assessment process.
4. The most important contribution of constructivism may well be a focus
on student-centered learning.
5. The strategies and approaches which can be implemented by
teachers when planning constructivist opportunities for the classroom.

4.2 ‘Assessment of Learning’ and ‘Assessment for Learning’:

Meaning and difference
The term ‘assessment’ refers to all those activities undertaken by
teachers, and by their students in assessing themselves, which provide
information to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning
activities in which they are engaged.
Assessment for learning will be to determine what your goals will be to
build your program and assessment of learning is what the person has
learnt until this moment.

Assessment OF Assessment designed primarily to make

Learning judgments about student achievement of
knowledge and/or skills at a given point of time.
Assessment FOR Assessment designed primarily to promote
Learning student learning and guide instruction.
Assessment AS Assessment designed primarily to provide
Learning students with the opportunity to reflect on their
learning.

Assessment for Learning

In classrooms where assessment for learning is practiced, students know

at the outset of a unit of study what they are expected to learn. At the
beginning of the unit, the teacher will work with the student to understand
what she or he already knows about the topic as well as to identify any
gaps or misconceptions. As the unit progresses, the teacher and student
work together to assess the student’s knowledge, what she or he needs to
learn to improve and extend this knowledge, and how the student can best
get to that point (formative assessment). Assessment for learning occurs at
all stages of the learning process.
· comprises two phases—initial or diagnostic assessment and
formative assessment

· assessment can be based on a variety of information sources (e.g.,

portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation, conversation)

· verbal or written feedback to the student is primarily descriptive and

emphasizes strengths, identifies challenges, and points to next steps

· as teachers check on understanding they adjust their instruction to

keep students on track

· no grades or scores are given - record-keeping is primarily anecdotal

and descriptive

· occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the course
of study to the time of summative assessment

Assessment of Learning

Assessment of learning is concerned with assessment of learners’

performance after the completion of a course or more specifically at the
end of an instructional unit, term or academic year. It is comprised of one or
several combinations of different methods of assessment like oral, written
and performance. They provide learners scope to synthesize their learning
experiences up to the end of the stipulated period and demonstrate how
well they have learned the essential skills, procedures and concepts to
which they were exposed during the given instructional period.

Assessment of learning is the most familiar and universally used mode. In

spite of being the oldest practiced mode, this very often is
teacher-dominated and becomes confined to the norm referenced
quantitative approaches neglecting the evaluation of broader aspects of
learning. In order to ensure comprehensive, valid and fair assessment of
student learning, one need to take all possible precautions, some of which
are:

· In order to provide an accurate picture of a student’s achievement,

one must gather enough evidence to determine “justifiable” grades
across all aspects of achievement (Knowledge, Understanding,
Thinking, Communication and Application).
· Evidence must be gathered using a variety of assessment strategies
so that all students can find sufficient scope to demonstrate their
learning.
· There should be student choice within assessment tools/tasks to
address individual needs.
· Prior to a final demonstration of learning, practice and feedback for
improvement must be provided to the student.
· Evaluator’s (teacher’s) professional judgment of on students’ learning
achievement should not be based on single incident of evaluation
rather on several evaluation events conducted formally and/or
informally over a period of time. Assessment of learning should be
based on the most consistent and more recent levels of evidence
gathered.
· “Numerous” and “varied” opportunities contribute to the concept of
most consistent as it helps to identify trends in student’s learning. The
grade should reflect the development of learning at any point in time.
· Inconsistencies in student’s performance should be reviewed to
determine the reason for their occurrence and whether they impact
on the student’s achievement. Recent evidence should be used
when looking for growth over time.

In order to manage the stress factor in examination it is necessary to

ensure sustainable learning. To ensure sustainable learning we have to use
alternative assessment in our educational institutions. We must no longer
treat assessment as fundamentally separate from instruction. Curriculum,
instruction, and assessment are to be integrated; the assessment itself
should be a valuable learning experience. Learning and evaluation
activities are to be blended into a holistic act/task, which demands learners
not to select but design and create the task. In this changing scenario,
alternative technology mediated procedures such as e-portfolio and rubrics
are the need of hour.

4.3 Comparing and contrasting assessment, evaluation,

measurement, test and examination
Assessment

Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some

known objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing.
A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are assessments made under
contrived circumstances especially so that they may be administered. In
other words, all tests are assessments, but not all assessments are tests.
We test at the end of a lesson or unit.
Assessment originated most recently of all of the terms, in 1956. It
was, and is, used in education jargon to mean “determination of
value.”

We assess progress at the end of a school year through testing, and we

assess verbal and quantitative skills through such instruments as the SAT
and GRE. Whether implicit or explicit, assessment is most usefully
connected to some goal or objective for which the assessment is designed.
A test or assessment yields information relative to an objective or goal. In
that sense, we test or assess to determine whether or not an objective or
goal has been obtained. Assessment of skill attainment is rather
straightforward. Either the skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t.
Skills are readily demonstrable. Assessment of understanding is much
more difficult and complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot.
We can assess a person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is
always a leap, an inference that we make about what a person does in
relation to what it signifies about what he knows. In the section on this site
on behavioral verbs, to assess means To stipulate the conditions by which
the behavior specified in an objective may be ascertained. Such
stipulations are usually in the form of written descriptions.

Evaluation
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the
terms. Inherent in the idea of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what
we are doing is engaging in some process that is designed to provide
information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation.
Evaluation originated in 1755, meaning “action of appraising or
valuing.”

It is a technique by which we come to know at what extent the objectives

are being achieved. It is a decision making process which assists to make
grade and ranking.

According to Barrow and Mc Gee: It is the process of education that

involves collection of data from the products which can be used for
comparison with preconceived criteria to make judgment.

Nature of Evaluation

· It is systematic process
· It is a continuous dynamic process Identifies strength and
weakness of the program
· Involves variety of tests and techniques of measurement
· Emphasis on the major objective of an educational program
· Based upon the data obtained from the test
· It is a decision making process

Generally, any evaluation process requires information about the situation

in question. A situation is an umbrella term that takes into account such
ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on. When we
evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information regarding the
worthiness, appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality, etc., of something
for which a reliable measurement or assessment has been made. For
example, I often ask my students if they wanted to determine the
temperature of the classroom they would need to get a thermometer and
take several readings at different spots, and perhaps average the readings.
That is simple measuring. Teachers, in particular, are constantly evaluating
students, and such evaluations are usually done in the context of
comparisons between what was intended (learning, progress, behavior)
and what was obtained.

Test
A test or an examination (or "exam") is an assessment intended to
measure a test-takers knowledge, skill, aptitude, or classification in many
other topics (e.g., beliefs). In practice, a test may be administered orally, on
paper, on a computer, or in a confined area that requires a test taker to
physically perform a set of skills. The basic component of a test is an item,
which is sometimes colloquially referred to as a "question." Nevertheless,
not every item is phrased as a question given that an item may be phrased
as a true/false statement or as a task that must be performed (in a
performance test). In many formal standardized tests, a test item is often
retrievable from an item bank.

Test originated in the 1590s, meaning “trial or examination to

determine the correctness of something.”

According to Barrow and McGee: A test is a specific tool or procedure or

a technique used to obtained response from the students in order to gain
information which provides the basis to make judgment or evaluation
regarding some characteristics such as fitness, skill, knowledge and
values.

Nature of Test

· The test is reliable

· The test is valid
· It is objective
· Must accomplish with norms
· Should not be expensive
· Less time consuming
 · Must produce results and its implementation
· Its feasibility
· Must have educational values

Test may be called as tool, a question, set of question, an examination

which use to measure a particular characteristic of an individual or a group
of individuals. It is something which provides information regarding
individual’s ability, knowledge, performance and achievement.
A test may vary in rigor and requirement. For example, in a closed book
test, a test taker is often required to rely upon memory to respond to
specific items whereas in an open book test, a test taker may use one or
more supplementary tools such as a reference book or calculator when
responding to an item. A test may be administered formally or informally.
An example of an informal test would be a reading test administered by a
parent to a child. An example of a formal test would be a final examination
administered by a teacher in a classroom or an I.Q. test administered by a
psychologist in a clinic. Formal testing often results in a grade or a test
score. A test score may be interpreted with regards to a norm or criterion,
or occasionally both. The norm may be established independently, or by
statistical analysis of a large number of participants. A formal test that is
standardized is one that is administered and scored in a consistent manner
to ensure legal defensibility. A standardized test with important
consequences for the individual test taker is referred to as a high stakes
test. Standardized tests are often used in education, professional
certification, counseling, psychology, the military, and many other fields.

Examination

Examination originated in the 1610s, meaning “test of knowledge.”

Exams and tests are a great way to assess what the students have learned
with regards to particular subjects. Exams will show what part of the lesson
each student seems to have taken the most interest in and has
remembered.
With every pupil being so individual, exams are also a great way for
teachers to find out more about the students themselves. The test
environment comes with added stress, which allows teachers to work out
how their students argue and how they think individually by their works,
which is a great attribute for them to keep in mind for future class activities.

Measurement
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions
of some physical object are determined. One exception seems to be in the
use of the word measure in determining the IQ of a person. The phrase,
"this test measures IQ" is commonly used. Measuring such things as
attitudes or preferences also applies. However, when we measure, we
generally use some standard instrument to determine how big, tall, heavy,
voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something actually is.

It is the collection of information in numeric form It is the record of

performance or the information which is required to make judgment.
According to R.N. Patel: Measurement is an act or process that involves
the assignment of numerical values to whatever is being tested. So it
involves the quantity of something.
Nature of Measurement

· It should be quantitative in nature

· It must be precise and accurate (instrument)
· It must be reliable
· It must be valid
· It must be objective in nature

Standard instruments refer to instruments such as rulers, scales,

thermometers, pressure gauges, etc. We measure to obtain information
about what is. Such information may or may not be useful, depending on
the accuracy of the instruments we use, and our skill at using them. There
are few such instruments in the social sciences that approach the validity
and reliability of say a 12" ruler. We measure how big a classroom is in
terms of square feet, we measure the temperature of the room by using a
thermometer, and we use Ohm meters to determine the voltage, amperage,
and resistance in a circuit. In all of these examples, we are not assessing
anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some established
rule or standard. Assessment is therefore quite different from
measurement, and has uses that suggest very different purposes. When
used in a learning objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA for
the behavioral verb measure is: To apply a standard scale or measuring
device to an object, series of objects, events, or conditions, according to
practices accepted by those who are skilled in the use of the device or
scale.
To sum up, we measure distance, we assess learning, and we evaluate
results in terms of some set of criteria. These three terms are certainly
connected, but it is useful to think of them as separate but connected ideas
and processes.

4.4 Formative and summative evaluation, Curriculum Based

Measurement
Formative Assessment

Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the

instructional process, while learning is taking place, and while learning is
occurring. Formative assessment measures student progress but it can
also assess your own progress as an instructor. For example, when
implementing a new activity in class, you can, through observation and/or
surveying the students, determine whether or not the activity should be
used again (or modified). A primary focus of formative assessment is to
identify areas that may need improvement. These assessments typically
are not graded and act as a gauge to students’ learning progress and to
determine teaching effectiveness (implementing appropriate methods and
activities).

In another example, at the end of the third week of the semester, you can
informally ask students questions which might be on a future exam to see if
they truly understand the material. An exciting and efficient way to survey
students’ grasp of knowledge is through the use of clickers. Clickers are
interactive devices which can be used to assess students’ current
knowledge on specific content. For example, after polling students you see
that a large number of students did not correctly answer a question or
seem confused about some particular content. At this point in the course
you may need to go back and review that material or present it in such a
way to make it more understandable to the students. This formative
assessment has allowed you to “rethink” and then “redeliver” that material
to ensure students are on track. It is good practice to incorporate this type
of assessment to “test” students’ knowledge before expecting all of them to
do well on an examination.

Types of Formative Assessment

· Observations during in-class activities; of students non-verbal

feedback during lecture
· Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussion
· Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the
semester
· Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and
informal—spontaneous
· Conferences between the instructor and student at various
points in the semester
· In-class activities where students informally present their results
· Student feedback collected by periodically answering specific
question about the instruction and their self-evaluation of
performance and progress

More specifically, formative assessments:

· help students identify their strengths and weaknesses and
target areas that need work
· help faculty recognize where students are struggling and
address problems immediately
Formative assessments are generally low stakes, which means that they
have low or no point value. Examples of formative assessments include
asking students to:
· draw a concept map in class to represent their understanding of
a topic
 · submit one or two sentences identifying the main point of a
lecture
· turn in a research proposal for early feedback

Summative Assessment

Summative Assessments are given periodically to determine at a particular

point in time what students know and do not know. Many associate
summative assessments only with standardized tests such as state
assessments, but they are also used at and are an important part of district
and classroom programs. Summative assessment at the district and
classroom level is an accountability measure that is generally used as part
of the grading process.

Summative assessment is more product-oriented and assesses the final

product, whereas formative assessment focuses on the process toward
completing the product. Once the project is completed, no further revisions
can be made. If, however, students are allowed to make revisions, the
assessment becomes formative, where students can take advantage of the
opportunity to improve.

Types of Summative Assessment

· Examinations (major, high-stakes exams)

· Final examination (a truly summative assessment)
· Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the semester would
be a formative assessment)
· Projects (project phases submitted at various completion points
could be formatively assessed)
· Portfolios (could also be assessed during it’s development as a
formative assessment)
· Performances
· Student evaluation of the course (teaching effectiveness)
· Instructor self-evaluation
Summative assessments are often high stakes, which means that they
have a high point value. Examples of summative assessments include:
· a midterm exam
· a final project
· a paper
· a senior recital
Difference between Formative & Summative Evaluation
AREAS FORMATIVE SUMMATIVE
DEFINITION To monitor learning To assess learning
progress during progress at the end of
instruction. teaching.
NATURE Ongoing, continuous At the end of the
instructional process.
PURPOSE Feedback to the Assigning Grades, &
Teacher and Students Extent of achievement of
jobs.
TYPE OF Teacher made tests & Rating scale & Evaluation
TESTS Observational of Projects
techniques.
USE TO a) Information for a) Certifying pupil’s
STUDENTS modifying mastery of the
instruction. learning outcome.
b) Prescribing b) Assigning grades.
group of
individual
remedial work.
USE TO a) Information for a) Judging the
TEACHER modifying appropriateness of
instruction. the course
b) Prescribing objectives.
group of b) Effectiveness of the
individual instruction.
remedial work.
STUDENT- Daily continuous Delayed instruction.
TEACHER interaction.
RELATIONSHIP
FUNCTION Guiding the Making an overall
development process. assessment.
EXAMPLES Oral questions and Terminal Exams. Unit
observation. tests. Project Evaluation.
Teacher- aid evaluation.

Criterion Referenced and Norm Referenced

When we look at the types of assessment instruments, we can generally
classify them into two main groups: Criterion-referenced assessments
and norm-referenced assessments.

"Norm-Referenced Assessment:
A norm-referenced test scores a test by comparing a person's
performance to others who are similar. You can remember norm-referenced
by thinking of the word 'normal.' The object of a norm-referenced test is to
compare a person's performance to what is normal for other people like him
or her.
Definition: A test or other type of assessment designed to provide a
measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of an individual's
relative standing in some known group- Gronlund (2000)
Criterion-Referenced Assessment

Definition: A test or other type of assessment designed to provide a

measure of performance that is interpretable in terms of a clearly defined
and delimited domain of learning tasks." Gronlund (2000)

A criterion-referenced test is a style of test which uses test scores to

generate a statement about the behavior that can be expected of a person
with that score. Most tests and quizzes that are written by school teachers
can be considered criterion-referenced tests.
There are multiple ways to score a criterion-referenced assessment. These
include:

● checklists
● rating scales
● grades
● rubrics
● percent accurate

Distinctions between Criterion-referenced and Norm-referenced

testing
DIMENSION CRITERION
REFERENCED
PURPOSE To determine whether each
student has achieved
specific skills or concepts.
To find out how much
students know before
instruction begins and after
it has finished.
NORM REFERENCED
To rank each student with
respect to the
achievement of others in
broad areas of knowledge.
To discriminate between
high and low achievers.

CONTENT Measures specific skills Measures broad skill areas

which make up a sampled from a variety of
designated curriculum. textbooks, syllabi, and the
These skills are identified judgments of curriculum
by teachers and curriculum experts.
experts.
Each skill is expressed as
an instructional objective.

ITEM Each skill is tested by at Each skill is usually tested

CHARACTERSTICE least four items in order to
S obtain an adequate sample
of student
performance and to
minimize the effect of
guessing.
by less than four items.
Items vary in difficulty.
Items are selected that
discriminate between high
and low achievers.
 The items which test any
given skill are parallel in
difficulty

SCRE Each individual is Each individual is compared

INTERPRETATION compared with a preset
standard for acceptable
achievement. The
performance of other
examinees is irrelevant.
A student's score is usually
expressed as a
percentage.
Student achievement is
reported for individual
skills.
with other examinees and
assigned a score--usually
expressed as a percentile, a
grade equivalent
score, or a stanine.
Student achievement is
reported for broad skill
areas, although some
norm-referenced tests do
report student achievement
for individual skills.

4.5 Revisiting key concepts in school evaluation: marks,

credit, grading, choice, alternate certifications, transparency,
internal-external proportion, improvement option
Marks

A score in the form of a number, percentage, or letter that a teacher gives a

student’s work. In the education system which is in place in our country
today, the evaluation provides an essential yard stick to judge the quality of
students. It also provides motivation and a sense of purpose to both
teachers and students to achieve defined set of goals. Evaluation of
students begins at very early stage. This traditional evaluation process had
many negative effects. The biggest drawback is that students, parents and
society at large, become too anxious in the race to acquire more and more
marks in examinations which leads to an extreme stress. Moreover, though
all out efforts are made to enhance the reliability of examination, the human
error cannot be avoided.In order to overcome such shortcomings, the
government re-modeled the entire evaluation process. In this new system,
the students are placed in ability bands that represent range of scores and
student’s performance is assessed using conventional numerical marking
mode, and the same is later converted into the grades on the basis of the
predetermined marks ranges namely, A1, A2 etc. with their equivalent
grade points.

Credit

It is a unit of academic input measured in terms of the study hours. It

reflects the number of ‘Study Hours’ in a particular period of time devoted
to various aspects of the teaching -learning process such as attending
classes, engaging in assignments, projects, seminars, practical aspects,
filed based activities, computer skills, research activities required for the
course.

A course credit (often credit hour, or just credit or "unit") is a unit that
gives weight to the value, level or time requirements of an academic course
taken at a school or other educational institution. Some benefits of
academic credit systems:

· Keep track of student process and determine when he or she

has met the requirements for awarding a specific academic
degree.
· Offer a good estimate of the workload of a programme and how
it is distributed between the different higher education activities.
· Some academic credit systems permit students to transfer to
different programmes and keep part or all of their previously
earned credit points.
· If a student has not graduated a study programme, but wants to
find a job, earned academic credits may be presented to
employers as proof of previous studies.
· Some universities use academic study credits to set
programme costs.
Academic credit systems in India
In India, mostengineering colleges follow the course credit system. The
number of 'Contact Hours' in a week of a particular course determines its
credit value. Typically, courses vary from 2 to 5 credits. The GPA is
calculated on a 10-point scale, with weighted average of the grades
received in the respective course. The grades awarded are;
A+,A,B+,B,C+,C,D & E(Fail). This GPA is also known as CGPA (Cumulative
Grade Point Average). The thesis submitted at the end of the four-year
degree is generally given 20 credits. On an average, students in India need
to complete 195-200 credits after their 4-year engineering course to be
awarded the degree B.Tech/B.E. with a summer internship (6 weeks
minimum) & a one-year-long thesis project.

Grading system

A grading system in education is a system that is used to assess the

educational performance of a child which is entirely based upon points
alone. Grading system does not provide an opportunity to make the child to
think out of the box or freely develop the thinking about any inkling of an
idea or get involved with any of the intellectual speculation. Still, this
method is widely regarded in many of the schools across the world and is
kept as a strong and a viable medium to adjudge a child’s grasping and
reciprocating ability by grading them. The primeval type of appraisal was by
the marks where the marks for all the questions were totalled to get grand
total marks. There are many types of grading system available now. Right
from providing an O grade to A grade, to providing a ‘pass’ or ‘fail’ alone,
many standards based grading systems are incorporated in various
schools across the globe according to their own needs and desires. There
are many people who declare that the grading system is the best and there
are also others who say the complete opposite. Well, both the sides have a
fair share of arguments to support their views completely.

Advantages of Grading System:

1. Takes the pressure off from the students at certain levels:

In a general grading system as considered above, a student’s
real scores and its associated marks are not accounted on the
official transcript, which denotes that their GPA will not have an
effect on either a pass or a fail mark category. This spares the
 students from getting preoccupied and become fussy about
getting an elevated letter grade like that of an O, and permitting
them to unwind. It still provides the necessary educational
prerequisites for them to land themselves comfortably on a
good job and also mould themselves to become more
responsible citizens in the future. An even better aspect is that
they will also receive some credit for the course that they have
studied for all these years in the past.
2. Grading Pattern description: One of the main advantage of
this method is that the studious children were clearly
discriminated from the average and below average type of
students but this led to the development and mounting up of an
intense pressure amidst the students. The learning was not
thought of a process that is revered to be a fun task, but rather
as a hard task which they had to properly deal with in a
obedient manner. The advantages of the grading system are
that the development of pressure upon the students in terms of
studying has appreciably reduced. In case of India the general
pattern is as follows A1: 91 to 100, A2 : 81 to 90, B1: 71 to 80,
B2: 61 to 70, C1 : 51 to 60, C2 : 41 to 50, D for 33 to 40 and
lesser for E’s.
3. Another advantage that this method has conveyed in the field of
education is that it has introduced the notion of measuring the
students’ knowledge based on their internal assignments,
projects, their answering ability in class and their overall
performance in all the major examinations and is not just a
solitary examination forced method.
Earlier the marks that were obtained in the exams are the only
indicator of whether a child is studying or not. But, this system
analyzes whether a child understands the concept or not.

4. Gives the students an obvious idea about their

weaknesses and strengths: Knowing precisely which
subject(s) are their weak spots, students can easily decide
where to toggle their focal point on. In a grading system where
 the alphabets are the scales, a grade of C or grade of D is
known to speak a lot. So, when the total grades arrive these
students can easily get to know their forte.

5. Make class work easier: Yes..you have read it right. Suppose

if a student knows that getting a D is enough to scrape through
the class assignments section in the marking division, he or she
will only focus on getting a D without any fuss. Of course,
getting a higher grade than a D lies with the student’s
prerogative only. The point is that the student does not need to
toil themselves to achieve the necessary minimum.1

6. Leads to a better rendezvous of ideas:1 Classes or the

courses that are often taught in a classroom medium within the
confined premises of a school are highly difficult and are taken
in the ultimate sense as getting a pass or a fail in a subject and
this builds a sense of responsibility in their minds to work and
train hard in their weak spots.

Disadvantages of Grading System:

Also, the following points can be considered as worthy of our importance

while considering the disadvantages of grading system. They are,

1. It doesn’t instil a sense of competition: When all that is

required is a mere pass mark, we would neither have the
urge to outperform others nor do we want to excel with
the overall grades. The A grade speaks a lot about our
calibre than a D or a F. With a D or a F, we can be only
satisfied that we are okay enough in studies, which will
make us go lazy.

2. Not an accurate representation of the performance

and the knowledge gained: As we have said already,
 passing in an examination cannot be considered as
plausible enough to declare that the same student has
gained an immense amount of knowledge by these
exams. An alphabet cannot explain the inner knowledge
gained by a student and there is no easy way of gauging
a student’s level of performance and knowledge in the
examinations.

3. It is not an exact scoring system: Suppose, let us

consider that the science subject is your weak point and
with a tremendous effort, let us say that you got an A or a
C for all your attempts, which would have made a vast
disparity in your sense of accomplishment. Still, the inner
knowledge you have gained via these grades can be nil,
as you may have attempted for learning without
understanding the concept, with the sole perspective of
getting an A or a C.

4. Lack of incentives: The traditional letter grading system

considers that every alphabet is an inducement to
perform good or better or the best. Getting a B could
kindle the students to put an extra effort to get an A and is
a step closer to getting the highest mark in a class. But,
the highest rank in class tag is going to do no good for the
students. To get the tag, the students will only go for rote
learning rather than exploring and explaining the concepts
on their own.

Choice-Based Credit System

CBCS gives emphasis on the continuous and comprehensive evaluation. It
gives 40% weightage to the internal assessment and remaining 60% to the
final exam. Internal evaluation consists of one test for 20 marks, one
assignment for 10 marks and 10 marks: 5 marks for the active participation
in the class and 5 marks for over all conduct of the learners during class
hours. The efficacy of CBCS can be understood by findings of (Kelkar, A.S
& Ravishankar, L. 2014) who have conducted a research that revealed,
42% of the teachers agreed that the objective of CBCS was achieved, 39%
felt that they were not met and 18% were uncertain. In response to the
question whether CBCS emphasizes on only teaching or evaluation, or
both, the feedback was mixed – majority (62.5%) felt that the emphasis is
on evaluation only, while 20% felt that the emphasis was on teaching only
and 15% felt that both teaching and evaluation were given equal weightage
in the CBCS system. (Roy, Khanam & Trribeni (2013) found in their study
that science background students and boys are having higher level of
positive attitude towards CBCS in comparison to Arts and Girls students.
However, there are certain issues which have to be addressed through the
merit and demerit of CBCS. These are as follows-

Pros of Choice-Based Credit System

Following points can be said the pros or advantage of credit based choice
system. _

· It can be seen as a major shift from the teacher centre to

learner centre education.
· Learners can offer as many credit as they can cope up the
pressure of the examination.
· It permits learners to choose soft courses of different
interdisciplinary and intra disciplinary subjects with the core
subjects.
· It is also helpful to the learners to choose courses and papers
as per their choice and interest.
· It promotes mobility of learners from one institution to another
one. _
· It would take education system as par the global standard
· It also helps to the learners to pursue their courses at different
times. _
· It helps learners to realize their potentials through the flexibility
in offering courses.
· It has broadened the base of education system. _
 · All round development of learners or multi facets personality of
learners can be promoted. Through it.
· It is also helpful in employment, as knowledge of different soft
courses may helpful for that.
· Stress and anxiety of learners can be reduced through it.

Cons of Choice-Based Credit System

In spite having advantages, following could be the disadvantages of

Choice-Based Credit System.

· It would be to measure or calculate the exact marks.

· Work load of teachers would be increased a lot.
· Regular teaching would be affected.
· Mobility or transferring of students from one institution to
another one would be problematic.
· Maintaining compatibility among main subject’s papers and soft
papers would be challenging one.
· Offering more than one programme of different nature
simultaneously would be challenging one.
· Extra burden would be experience by the institution as CBCS
has the flexibility in taking or choosing

Alternative Certification

More and more students are acquiring knowledge and skills outside school,
and yet traditional schools still have a virtual monopoly on certifying
whether a student’s knowledge is sufficient. Adults and children are taking
online courses, working with remote human or computer-based tutors, and
participating in online communities with a focus on learning. But if they fail
to enroll in a school or college to complete their diploma or degree
requirements, these plugged-in learners often receive little credit for their
accomplishments.

Alternative schooling certification opportunities will be needed to

accommodate the educational needs of its youth because the traditional
school system, and particularly the traditional high school, can no longer
serve the needs of the students and their family lifestyles common in the
1990s. It has even been suggested that society might want to consider
allowing students to drop out and then provide alternative schools for them
to complete their schooling

Once available primarily for disruptive students and those at risk for
dropping out of a traditional school environment, alternative schools have
expanded significantly in function as educators, parents, and wider
communities recognize that many children cannot learn effectively in a
traditional school environment. For children and adolescents with
psychological and behavioral issues, such as personality disorders ,
substance use and abuse, depression, and violence, alternative schools
can provide a safer therapeutic environment and more individualized
attention than traditional schools. For children and adolescents with
learning disabilities and certain medical conditions, such as attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), dyslexia , and Asperger's syndrome,
alternative schools can provide integrated education and clinical services in
one place to facilitate learning.

Transparency

Schools and districts across the country need to collect data about
students, including their test scores, grades, credits earned, and other
related information, such as demographics, enrollment, discipline, and
special education status. Educational agencies and institutions use these
data to foster students’ academic achievement by identifying students’
talents and special requirements, monitoring their academic progress, and
developing successful teaching and learning strategies. Schools and
districts often have legitimate educational reasons to authorize third-parties
to access these student data, for purposes such as communicating with
parents, improving the effectiveness of education programs, to identify
gaps in student services, and reasons as simple as providing secure data
storage.

Parents expect their children’s well-being to come first when children attend
school. This includes the expectation of respect for students’ privacy and
adequate protection of the confidentiality of children’s personal information.
To that end, parents expect openness and transparency from schools and
districts about their data practices, so that parents can evaluate whether a
school’s or district’s protection of children’s personal information meets
those expectations.

Consequently, it is important that schools and districts communicate what

student information they collect, why they collect it, how they use it, and to
whom they disclose it. The U.S. Department of Education (ED or
Department) encourages schools and districts to take a proactive approach
in communicating with parents, as greater understanding of the schools’
and districts’ data privacy policies and practices will help alleviate confusion
and misunderstandings about students’ data use.

Improvement options

The effective monitoring and evaluation of schools is central to the

continuous improvement of student learning: Schools need feedback on
their performance to help them identify how to improve their practices; and
schools should be accountable for their performance.

Pros

· As usual, you get a second chance to improve your marks.

· If you are preparing for any competitive exam and thinking to
take a drop for that, you will get time to prepare for that as well
because improvement exam is conducted next year with the
next batch.
· Syllabus of CBSE remains the same so you don't have to
prepare anything new, just revise and clear your concept on a
topic which you have learned already.
Cons:
 · If you are planning to increase your marks, you will need to wait
for a whole 1 year to appear and give the exam again.
· There is no form of assurance that your marks will be increased
or not, it depends on you and how you have prepared in one
year, but in scenarios where your improvement exam marks are
less than your previous one, the best of two will be counted.

If you manage to score improved marks in all the subjects, then you will no
longer need to carry your previous mark sheet or combining both the mark
sheet.

Internal-external proportion

Internal assessment is the process in which the teachers and schools judge
the students’ performance on the basis of his performance. Also, this
process does not involve any outside person for assessment.

The Need for Internal Assessment

The internal assessment helps to give credit in the final assessment. Also,
it reduces the burden and tension related to the final examination. In
addition, it acts as a link which provides data related to student’s
performance. This gives teachers an opportunity to evaluate the students.
Moreover, it helps students in continuous learning.

Principles of Internal Assessment

The subject teacher prepares these assessments. Furthermore, it is
continuous and does not replace exams. It is a suitable evaluation
technique and tool. Also, they carry a fixed portion of marks for the
assessment. Most noteworthy, it gives feedback to teachers so that they
can improve their teaching.
On the other hand, it gives students a chance to improve their external
assessment grade by seeing internal assessment results. So, that student
can improve their learning.

Advantages of Internal Assessment

It reduces the weight age of external assessment. Moreover, students
engage themselves in study throughout the year. The students will be more
attentive to studying in class. In addition, it reduces the chances of anxiety
and nervous breakdown in students.

Disadvantages of internal assessment

There are chances that teacher may misuse it for their own benefit. Also, in
the hand of the inexperienced and insincere teacher, it can cause harm to
students. Most noteworthy, it will lose its importance due to unfairness,
favoring a student, and bias-ness.

External Assessment
Outside persons prepare these assessment methods and they are
responsible and involved in it. Besides, it is done to give students the
required certificate or degree or diploma for which the student has applied.

Classification of External Assessment

· The result of the external assessment is classified into various
categories.

· The students who score 33% numbers just pass.

· Also, the score between 36 to 45% is third division passed.
· The score of 46 to 59% is second division passed.
· In addition, the score between 60 to 74% is first division
passed.
 · And a score of 75% and above is the distinction. Besides in the
case of degree the collective marks are considered.
Advantages of External Assessment
The first advantage of external assessment is that it helps students to know
their performance. It also helps them to know their knowledge level. In
addition, it encourages them to learn and improve their knowledge and
grades. Also, it creates a competitive spirit in students. This spirit pushes
them to do their level best. For development, building personality and
confidence it is very important.

Disadvantages of External Assessment

There are various disadvantages which can cause harm to student life and
her/his career. These include the use of unfair means like talking and
cheating in the examination hall. Some students just give a paper to only
pass the exam to get average marks. In addition, external assessment only
covers a part or partial course of study. Most noteworthy, the result is not
accurate as it gives an unreliable result.

The weighting of internal assessment and examination is indicated by a

ratio. An internal assessment/final examination ratio of 3:2, for example,
indicates that 60% of the paper is internally assessed throughout the
semester and 40% is assessed through a final exam.