Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Engineering properties of treated recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) for

structural applications
Sallehan Ismail ⇑, Mahyuddin Ramli
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Pulau Pinang, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s

 The use of low concentration acid has significant to remove the loose adhered mortar on RCA surface.
 The physical performance of RCA after acid treatment was improved and satisfied with specification requirement.
 The amount of mortar loss is greatly influence with the molarity of acid.
 The slump and density of concrete containing treated RCA is comparable with concrete containing with untreated RCA.
 The use of treated RCA produced concrete with higher compressive strength as compared to untreated RCA.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: One method to promote and encourage maximum recycled concrete aggregate (RCA) utilisation for struc-
Received 17 November 2012 tural concrete applications is to minimise the adverse effects of RCA on concrete performance. The for-
Received in revised form 17 February 2013 mulation of an appropriate recycling process in RCA production with improved properties is desirable.
Accepted 2 March 2013
This study aims to develop a potential treatment of RCA by using low-concentration acid as an alternative
Available online 13 April 2013
method to produce high quality RCA for structural concrete applications. This work aims to study the
effect of using different molarities of acid solvent and age of treatment (soaking) on properties of RCA,
Keywords:
as well as the influence of using this treated aggregate on the properties of concrete. The results show
Recycled concrete aggregate
Low-concentration acid
that the use of different acid molarities to remove or minimise loose mortar particles attached on the sur-
Treatment faces of RCA can significantly improves its physical and mechanical properties. In addition, the reduction
of loose mortar that covers RCA particles can significantly improves surface contact between the new
cement paste and the aggregate which subsequently resulted in a significant improvement in the
strength of concrete mechanical. However, the effectiveness of these treatment methods remains depen-
dent on several factors that require further consideration.
Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In recent years, the accelerating urbanisation has led to exces-
sive demolition work and construction activities, which conse-
quently, resulted in the production of large quantities of
construction and demolition (C&D) waste, especially concrete
waste. A huge amount of C&D waste has created a seriously signif-
icant impact on the environment and society. The large-scale recy-
cling of concrete waste was identified as the most feasible way to
minimise the growing problem of waste disposal through landfills
[1,2]. The application of recycled aggregates is important in provid-
ing alternative material sources to reduce the dependence of the
construction industry on natural aggregates. A critical shortage in
the sources of natural aggregates is becoming a worldwide prob-
⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 0123707810; fax: +60 046576523.
E-mail address: salleh_itm@yahoo.com (S. Ismail).
lem, especially in the face of the development of major urban cen-
tres [3,4].
The growing concern toward environmental preservation and
sustainable development has led to the development of recycling
schemes for C&D waste. Producing and using recycled aggregates
are common practices in the construction industries of several
countries. For example, the Construction Materials Recycling Asso-
ciation (CMRA) has accounted for approximately 140 million ton-
nes of concrete waste, which are recycled yearly in the United
States [5]. The 2010 European Aggregates Association (UEPG) An-
nual Review [6] reported recycled aggregates generated approxi-
mately 5% of the production of aggregates in the European Union
(EU). Based on the same report [6], Germany is the greatest pro-
ducer of recycled aggregates, with a production of approximately
60 million tonnes. The United Kingdom follows with approxi-
mately 49 million tonnes; the Netherlands has approximately
20 million tonnes; and France produces 17 million tonnes. In Aus-

0950-0618/$ - see front matter Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2013.03.014
 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476
tralia, more than 50% of the total concrete residue generated from
C&D activities is recovered for recycling, while the rest goes to
landfills [7]. Dosho [8] reported that Japan has reached approxi-
mately a 98% rate for processing concrete waste to recycled
aggregates.
Despite reports that construction waste constitutes a large por-
tion of solid waste in Malaysia [9,10], the level of awareness to-
ward recycling in production or application of recycled
aggregates is still generally low [11]. Not surprisingly, several con-
tractors have decided to dispose directly construction waste into
landfill areas [12] or through illegal means [13] without being fully
reused and utilised. One main factor that contributes to this situa-
tion is the abundance of natural aggregate resources in Malaysia
[14], which resulted in the construction industry being mostly
dependent on the use of natural aggregates. In conjunction with
the 10th Malaysia Plan [15], the present Malaysian construction
sector is growing rapidly, with several large-scale projects being
started as part of the Malaysian vision of achieving a developed
country status by 2020. The impact of the accelerating construc-
tion growth indirectly requires a considerable high amount of pro-
duction and consumption of natural aggregates. Accordingly,
aggressive consumption will deplete such resource if proper plan-
ning and control measures are not implemented [16]. Thus, the
next step of shifting toward the use of recycled aggregates could
reduce the dependence of the construction industry on natural
aggregates, and thus, maintain aggregate security and still ensure
sustainable development [17].
The recycling of concrete waste into recycled concrete aggre-
gate (RCA) by crushing concrete lumps into smaller particles has
been identified as a potential source of alternative aggregate for
production of environmental friendly concrete [18]. However, the
use of RCA for concrete production is not simply applied because
the properties of RCA are different from natural aggregates. Fur-
thermore, the quality of RCA fluctuates when collected from differ-
ent sources. In physical terms, distinctive differences are observed
between the properties in which RCA is not only consist of original
aggregates, but also comprise of the remains of mortar (cement
paste) adhering to the aggregate surfaces. The presence of mortars
remain in the RCA is a main reason for deteriorated RCA quality as
compared to natural aggregates [19,20] because adhered mortar is
characterised as porous [21–25] and presents numerous micro-
cracks [23]. As a result, RCA are characterised as having lower den-
sity, higher water absorption, and lower mechanical strength than
the natural aggregates [21,26–29]. Consequently, when using RCA
in production of new concrete, these characteristics of the aggre-
gate may have adverse effect on interfacial bond between RCA
and cement paste.
In the microstructure of concrete, the interface zone that exits
at the region between the aggregate and cement paste poses con-
siderable importance because this zone governs the mechanical
strength properties of concrete [30]. As indicated by Tam et al.
[23], the presence of pores and cracks on old cement mortar at-
tached at the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of RCA forms a weak
link in microstructure of concrete that affects the ultimate strength
of concrete. In addition, the effects of using high porosity and
water absorption capacity characteristics of RCA would lead to
lowering the effective water content for the hydration process be-
cause the adhered mortar on the aggregate particle tends to absorb
a large amount of water during the initial mixing stage. This cre-
ates a loose interfacial zone in the hardened concrete [2]. The com-
pressive strength of recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) becomes
unsatisfactory when a high percentage of RCA is used to replace
natural aggregate. The compressive strength of RCA seems to re-
duce by 15% and 40% when natural aggregate is replaced by 50%
and 100% RCA, respectively [31]. The compressive strength of con-
crete containing 100% RCA is 6% lower than that of concrete con-
465
taining natural aggregate [32]. The compressive strength of
concrete is reduced by 16% (compared with a control sample)
when concrete is replaced with solely coarse and fine RCA [33].
Most studies have indicated that the presence of residual mortar
reduces RCA quality and consequently affects the compressive
strength of concrete.
The poor quality of RCA, which affects the performance of con-
crete, imposes limitation on the widespread commercial use of
RCA especially in production of structural concrete. Hence, several
researchers [34–37] have investigated various techniques and
method that can enhance the physical properties of RCA. These in-
volve the maximum removal of loose particles and old mortars at-
tached to the original aggregate of RCA to attain quality
comparable with that of natural aggregate. Some beneficial meth-
ods proposed include thermal or heating method, microwave heat-
ing method, heating then rubbing methods, and ultrasonic bath
method. These methods minimise or totally remove mortars at-
tached to the original aggregate of RCA. All these methods could
improve the interfacial bond between RCA and new cement paste
in new concrete, thus improving concrete performance. These
methods, however, require complicated mechanical equipment
and high energy consumption. Another potential treatment for
RCA involves acid use, as demonstrated by Tam et al. [38]. In this
method, low-concentration acid is used to remove the loose at-
tached mortar of RCA from the original aggregate. They used vari-
ous proportions of RCA, up to 30%, and treated them by soaking
RCA in three different types of acid (hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, and phosphoric acid) at molarities 0.1 M for 24 h. In general,
the benefit gained from the treatment significantly reduced the
water absorption of RCA by 7.27–12.17%. Consequently, the use
of treated RCA in concrete mixtures have showed significant
improvements in concrete quality in compressive strength, flexural
strength, and elastic modulus compared with those of concrete
with untreated RCA. This method has great potential because it is
inexpensive and could significantly improve RCA properties, thus
increasing concrete performance. Meanwhile, benefits from using
low-concentration acid may not totally remove the adhered mortar
of RCA but simply removes the loose adhered mortar on its surface
and remain the strong bulk mortar, which can maximise the util-
isation of this waste as a part of the aggregate particle for concrete.
The use of low-concentration acid for treatment of RCA involves
certain aspects that remain ambiguous. More research is required
on the effect of different concentrations of acid solvent and age
of treatment (soaking) on RCA properties and concrete properties,
which were not fully investigated by Tam et al. [38]. In addition,
Tam et al. demonstrated that RCA treated with acid for concrete
has a low proportion replacement level of natural coarse aggregate
of up to 30% only. The present study aims to investigate the feasi-
bility of using different concentrations of acid solvent and age of
treatment (soaking) on physical and mechanical properties of
RCA. The study is also involved in assessing the influence proper-
ties of treated RCA on effect the fresh and hardened properties of
concrete at high replacement ratio of up to 60%.
2. Material
2.1. Cement
Type I ordinary Portland cement was used as the main binder for the experi-
ment with specific surface area of 1.0432 m2/g and specific gravity of 3.02. Typical
chemical compositions of the Ordinary Portland cement are tabulated in Table 1.
2.2. Aggregate
In this study, natural coarse aggregates were crushed granite with maximum
sizes of 20 mm. The coarse RCA used in this study are generated from crushed waste
concrete cubes, which were collected from debris area at concrete Laboratory
School of Housing, Building, and Planning, USM Penang, by crushing with steel
466 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476

Table 1
Typical chemical compositions of ordinary Portland cement.

Materials Composition (%)

SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO K2O SO3 P2 O5 MnO TiO2 Others
Cement 16 3.6 2.9 72 1.5 0.34 3.1 0.06 0.03 0.17 0.31

hammer. RCA were then put into a jaw crusher where it is broken down into re-
quired sizes. After the crushing process, RCA were graded to the particular size
using a vibrator sieve to obtain aggregates with the maximum size of 20 mm. The
fine aggregates used were uncrushed quartzite natural river sand. The aggregates
were washed with water to remove any unwanted substances such as clay, dirt,
dust, and were air-dried.
2.3. Acid
In this study a hydrochloric acid (HCl) being used for treating the RCA. This acid
is prepared in three different acid molarities: 0.1, 0.5, and 0.8 M.
3. Experimental program
3.3. Method of mixing and curing of concretes
All concrete mixes in the study were mixed in accordance to sequences pre-
scribed in BS1881-125 [42]. A drum mixer was used to prepare the concrete mixes.
The first mixing procedure involved adding all coarse and fine aggregates into the
drum mixer and dry mixed for 30 s to allow aggregates to mix homogeneously. Sec-
ondly, the first half portion of the mixing water was added into the mixer and the
mixing continued for another 2 min. The mixer was then stopped for several min-
utes to facilitate the absorption of water into aggregates. The cement was added
and the mixer continued for another half minute. Finally, the remaining half of
the mixing water was added and further mixing was performed for approximately
2 min more. All hardened concrete specimens were cast in laboratory condition,
demoulded at 24 h after casting, and then fully immersed in water at 25 ± 2 °C until
the time of testing.

3.1. Acid soaking of RCA 4. Testing

The study include assessing the influence of different acid concentrations and
durations of treatment on the physical and mechanical properties of coarse RCA, 4.1. Determination of aggregate properties
as well as effects of using treated aggregate on concrete’s compressive strength.
Three different acid concentrations with three different ages of treatment for RCA Several tests are used to determine RCA properties before and
are proposed and compared. The method involves the application of hydrochloric
after treatment to ensure that the aggregates used are incompli-
acid (HCl) as acidic solvent in degradation action for removal of crumbs or loose ad-
hered mortars attached to the original RCA aggregate. The selection with HCl indi-
ance with standard requirements for concrete based on BS 882
cates improved results in properties of recycled aggregate concrete and marked [43]. Basic properties, such density and water absorption of aggre-
improvements after pre-treatments, as reported by Tam et al. [38], due to its effec- gates, were tested following BS 812-Part 2 [44]. In this test, RCA
tiveness in treating RCA. This method of acid treatment is adapted from Tam et al. separated into two sizes of particles: 20 mm and 10 mm. The par-
[38]. The first procedure involves adding HCl to the sample size of RCA in plastic
ticle sizes of aggregates reportedly influences density and water
container until the RCA surface is covered. Three types of acid molarity, 0.1, 0.5,
and 0.8 M, of HCl were used in this study. The aggregates were immersed in acidic absorption. The mechanical strength of aggregate was assessed
solvents for 1, 3, and 7 days. The container was occasionally shaken to ensure a by conducting crushing value and impact value tests. Both test
more efficient reaction of acid in the degradation bond of mortar adhered to the ori- methods use 10–14 mm aggregate sizes for the test and were
ginal aggregate. After immersion based on age of treatment, the aggregates were tested in accordance to BS 812-Part 110 [45] and Part 112 [46],
watering with distilled water and drained. Then the sample was sieved using a
4.75 mm sieve to ensure that only the coarse aggregate were retained.
respectively. The crushing and impact value are calculated by
recording fractions passing and retaining in a 2.36-mm sieve after
the material underwent crushing and impact tests, respectively,
3.2. Mix design
based on standard weight of aggregate. This is expressed as a per-
Mix design of concrete was proportioned using the DOE method, which is cal- centage of the total weight. The assessments on chemical contents
culated based on constant effective water/cement ratio of 0.41 for all concrete mix- of aggregate, such as chloride and sulphate contents, were con-
tures to achieve target compressive strength of 50 MPa at the age of 28th day [39]. ducted following guidelines stipulated in BS 812-Part 117 [47]
The compositions of all constituents of concrete materials are shown in Table 2.
and Part 118 [48], respectively. The pH values of the aggregates
Furthermore, the compositions of coarse aggregates for all concrete mixes are de-
signed by replacing the natural coarse aggregate with various contents of treated were also determined in the present study.
and untreated RCA at 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% replacement by weight of the total
coarse aggregate content. Thus, a total of nine batches of different types of concrete 4.2. Examination of microstructure of aggregate and concrete
mixtures were prepared, which comprise of treated RCA that were prepared based
on their different effects, various molarity of acid, and age of treatment. Meanwhile,
another batch of concrete mix was prepared with untreated RCA and served as con- The microstructure studies on RCA surface were conducted on
trol sample for comparison purpose. All tests were conducted to be compared with the untreated RCA and were compared with microstructure surface
these concrete properties. In order to maintain a concrete slump and avoid RCA of treated RCA, which was treated in three different molarities of
absorption of high amounts of water during mixing, RCA must be pre-wetted or
HCl; (0.1, 0.5, and 0.8 M) for 1 day using a scanning electron micro-
pre-soaked before mixing, as suggested by previous studies [40,41]. The treated
RCA were soaked again with water for 24 h and drained to attain saturated surface scope (SEM).
dry (SSD) conditions before use in concrete mixing. Natural coarse aggregates were
also used in this study to prepare SSD conditions for all mix proportions of concrete 4.3. Determination of mortar loss
mixtures.

Table 2
The procedure to determine the loss of adhered mortar on RCA
Mix proportions. included the following steps: (1) the coarse RCA was sieved to be
divided into two nominal different sample group sizes of 20 mm
Constituents Proportion (kg/m3)
and 10 mm; (2) the procedure involves oven-drying the sample
15% 30% 45% 60% size of coarse RCA used in the test for 24 h at 105 °C; (3) then,
Water 220 220 220 220 RCA samples were weighed at approximately 2 kg (M1) based on
Cement 537 537 537 537 sample size. A total of 2 L of HCl was added based on their molarity
Sand 693 693 693 693
and age of treatment in different plastic containers; (4) after
Coarse aggregate immersion, the aggregates were washed with water and drained;
Crushed granite 782 644 506 368
(5) the aggregates were then placed on a tray and put in an oven
RCA 138 276 414 552
for 24 h at 105 °C; (6) afterward, the sample was sieved using a
 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476 467

4.75 mm sieve to ensure that only the coarse aggregate were re-
tained and weighed (M2); (7) the percent of adhered mortar loss
was calculated based on the following expression:

% Adhered mortar loss

Mass of RCA ðM1Þ  mass of RCA after treatment ðM2Þ
¼ ð1Þ
Mass of RCA

4.4. Testing of fresh and hardened concrete

Three testing programs were designed to determine the effect

of various content proportion of treated RCA on the low concentra-
tion of acid in concrete, which determine concrete workability,
density, and compressive strength. Slump tests of fresh concretes
were conducted to determine concrete workability immediately Fig. 1. Relationship between amount mortar loss and molarity of acid.
after mixing. The slump test procedure was conducted in accor-
dance with BS EN 12390-2 [49].
The 100-mm concrete cube specimens were moulded and
cured. Each mix proportion was used for the determination of com-
pressive strength, at ages of 3, 7, and 28 days, based on BS EN
12390-3 [50]. The bulk density of hardened concrete was tested
based on BS EN 12390-7 [51]. All results on concrete properties,
whether fresh or hardened, containing treated RCA were analysed
and compared with concrete using untreated RCA, which act as
control specimens.

4.5. Statistical analysis of test data

Different parameters were used for statistical analysis using

SPSS version 16 for compressive strength data. This includes mean Fig. 2. Relationship between amount mortar loss and age of treatment.
value, standard deviation, the difference in mean value, and one
treatment. In general, the results indicate that the use of low-con-
sample T-test. The difference between mean value effect from
centration acid is significant in reducing RCA mortar content. How-
compressive strength of concrete containing various proportions
ever, mass loss is only in small amounts where the majority of the
of treated and untreated RCA is the parameter used to indicate
remaining bulk mortar was still firmly attached to the original RCA
and calculate percentage improvement or deterioration in concrete
aggregate. In this case, mass loss is present; the amount weakened
strength. This mean difference indicates the gaps that were calcu-
mortar and other deleterious substance, such as dust, occur by dis-
lated by subtracting the mean compressive strength of concrete
solving from the surface of RCA after acid treatment. The results
containing treated RCA from control specimen. A negative mean
show that a linear correlation occurs between the amount of mortar
different indicated that compressive strength was lower than con-
loss with molarity of acid, which indicates that mortar loss is signif-
trol. A positive mean different indicated that compressive strength
icantly greater with an increase in acid molarity and vice versa. The
exceeded control. The one sample T-test was performed to com-
use of acid at 0.8 M resulted in an almost 4–5% reduction in the mor-
pare the means of samples to determine the statistical differences
tar content compared with 3% and 1% when using 0.5 M and 0.1 M
in compressive strength of concrete containing various content of
acid, respectively. The relationship between percentage of adhered
treated RCA and the mean values of concrete with untreated
mortar loss and molarity of acid for the recycled aggregate concrete
RCA. The test was performed with a 95% confidence level and the
is plotted in Fig. 1 with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.95. How-
statistical significance (p values) considered at 0.05 level of confi-
ever, minimal significance is observed in the relationship between
dence was used to analyse the data. Hence, if the p values are high-
loss of mortar paste and the RCA immersion time with acid where
er (>) than a = 0.05, no significant difference is observed in the
the correlation coefficient is R2 = 0.0083 (Fig. 2). Inconsistency oc-
strength of the two samples, and vice versa.
curs in percentage of mortar loss following age of treatment when
compared between different times of 1, 3, or 7 days.
5. Experimental results and discussion

5.1. Analysis of adhered mortar loss 5.2. Surface microstructure of recycled concrete aggregate

Table 3 shows the variation of adhered mortar loss of RCA with re- A scanning electron microscope (SEM) was used to study the
spect to different molarities of acid and duration of exposure for difference between microstructure on surface of untreated and

Table 3
Percentage of mortar loss of RCA corresponding to different molarity of acid used and age of treatment.

Description Size of aggregate Treated RCA with different molarity of acid and ages of treatment
0.1 M HCl 0.5 M HCl 0.8 M HCl
1 Day 3 Days 7 Days 1 Day 3 Days 7 Days 1 Day 3 Days 7 Days
% Mortar loss 20 mm 0.56 0.41 0.40 2.87 2.36 2.40 5.11 4.89 3.61
10 mm 0.80 0.66 0.86 3.18 2.81 2.82 4.73 4.28 4.65
468 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476
treated RCA. The results are summarised in Fig. 3. The surface un-
treated RCA is considerably more porous and are covered with cer-
tain amount of loose cement paste (crumbs) and other small
Fig. 3. Surface microstructures of untreated and treated RCA.
impurities, such as dust, which are loosely connected to their the
bulk aggregate particle because of the crushing process (Fig. 3a).
Similar results were observed by Katz [37]. Meanwhile, when com-
paring Fig. 3b–d, the treatment of RCA at different molarities of HCl
at 0.1, 0.5, and 0.8 M respectively, significantly reduced the loose
particles on RCA surface and even made the surface clean and more
uniform. However, the results observed on RCA surface treated
with 0.8 M (Fig. 3d) is slightly covered with small brittle particles
several microns small as compared with the surface treated with
RCA at molarities of HCl at 0.1 and 0.5 (Fig. 3a and b, respectively).
This may be due to the effect of increased molarity acid to 0.8 M.
The acid not only removed the loose mortar pieces on RCA surface,
but also possibly eroded the surface of the remaining bulk mortar,
which are relatively more porous and weaker than the original RCA
aggregate particle.
5.3. Properties of natural coarse aggregate, untreated coarse RCA, and
treated coarse RCA
The physical and mechanical properties of coarse natural aggre-
gate (granite), coarse untreated RCA and treated coarse RCA are
presented in Table 4. Based on experimental results, the aggregates
indicate that RCA has deteriorated physical and mechanical prop-
erties compared with natural aggregates. The particle density
(oven dry condition) of RCA at 20 mm and 10 mm was found to
be 2.33 Mg/m3 and 2.23 Mg/m3, respectively. These figures are
lower than the particle density of coarse natural aggregates at
20 mm and 10 mm of 2.60 Mg/m3 and 2.58 Mg/m3, respectively.
RCA is much more absorptive than virgin aggregate, which is
approximately 7.4 and 8 times higher relative to the aggregate
sizes 20 mm and 10 mm, respectively, than coarse natural aggre-
gate. The low specific gravity and high water absorption of recycled
aggregate was due to residues of the old mortar attached to recy-
cled aggregates, which are light and porous in nature, [2,27]. More-
over, the results of the study on aggregate mechanical properties
showed that the aggregate crushing and impact value of RCA are
relatively higher as compared to natural aggregates. Therefore,
RCA can be expected to have lower mechanical strength than nat-
ural aggregates. A main factor that causes inferior properties of
RCA (less strength) as compared to natural aggregates is the re-
moval of the light porous mortar attached to RCA during testing.
The inferiority is characterised by being weaker than normal
aggregates [21,26].
However, the physical properties of RCA were observed to im-
prove after immersion in acid. This shows that acid treatment
effectively removes a great portion of weak cement mortar and
certain loose particles from surface RCA, thus improving their qual-
ity. Marked improvements in density, water absorption, and
mechanical strength properties of RCA after acid treatments com-
pared with untreated RCA are recorded in Table 4. The density of
RCA increases in varying concentrations of acid treatment. The re-
sult also shows percentage improvement in RCA density, which is
higher for 10 mm aggregates than for 20 mm aggregates. The pres-
ence of adhered mortar tends to be higher in smaller aggregate
sizes as compared to coarser aggregates [20,21]. Thus, the loss of
mortar is relatively higher in small aggregates than in coarser
aggregates. Because of the relationship between aggregate density
and absorption [52], the increase in RCA density results in the sig-
nificant decrease in RCA water absorption (Fig. 4). The results indi-
cate that this treatment significantly reduces the absorption of RCA
with reduction of between 1% and 28%. Particularly, the reduction
in absorption is better for RCA treated with 0.5 M and 0.8 M HCl
than in RCA treated with 0.1 M HCl. The removal of loose mortars
significantly improved the mechanical strength of RCA. The test re-
sults indicate that the crushing and impact values of RCA proper-
ties decrease after treatment. Test results on aggregate pH
 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476 469

Table 4
Properties of natural granite, untreated RCA, and treated RCA.

Properties of aggregate Sizes of Natural Untreated Treated RCA with molarity of acid and ages of treatment
aggregate granite RCA
0.1 M HCl 0.5 M HCl 0.8 M HCl
1 Day 3 Days 7 Days 1 Day 3 Days 7 Days 1 Day 3 Days 7 Days
Particle density – oven dry 20 mm 2.60 2.33 2.37 2.39 2.32 2.39 2.39 2.38 2.38 2.40 2.37
(Mg/m3)
10 mm 2.58 2.23 2.24 2.27 2.26 2.30 2.34 2.28 2.30 2.35 2.27
Water absorption (%) 20 mm 0.60 4.44 3.99 3.58 4.63 3.67 3.48 3.75 3.83 3.51 3.95
10 mm 0.70 5.58 5.50 4.77 5.33 4.82 4.48 4.66 4.65 3.94 5.01
Agg. crushing value (%) 14 mm 24.32 29.15 28.02 27.39 28.86 28.73 27.95 28.68 28.34 28.14 28.8
Agg. impact value (%) 14 mm 13.98 21.78 19.59 20.27 20.90 18.97 19.56 20.37 19.08 21.37 20.71
pH aggregate Mixed 12.56 12.68 12.60 13.89 13.12 12.86 12.69 12.61 12.52 12.78
Chloride content (%) Mixed 0.002 0.002 0.002 0.003 0.005 0.006 0.012 0.018 0.016 0.016
Sulphate content (%) Mixed 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001 0.001

greatly influenced by aggregate grain size, parent (original), con-

crete strength, and crushing process [20,21,41,54].

5.5. Properties of concrete with treated and untreated RCA

The test results of slump, density, and compressive strength of

concrete containing various mix proportions of untreated and trea-
ted RCA is shown in Table 5.

5.5.1. Slump results

Fig. 4. Relationship between water absorption and oven dry density of RCA.
indicate that the treatment of RCA with acid does not lower the
alkaline level of aggregate. Furthermore, the tests on chloride
and sulphur content of overall aggregates were investigated. The
results indicate that a very low percentage of sulphur content ex-
ists in affected aggregate samples. On the contrary, the percentage
of chloride content is slightly higher in treated aggregates com-
pared with untreated aggregates. The results show that percent
chloride content tend to increase with increase in RCA acid molar-
ity and treatment duration. However, the results show that the
percent of chloride content value in overall aggregate samples sat-
isfy the specified limit of 0.05% in BS 882 [43].
5.4. Relationship of mortar loss with properties of RCA
Improvements in the physical and mechanical properties of RCA
after acid treatment have been determined. However, providing
evidence that a close relationship exists between the increase in
RCA properties after treatment and the increase in mortar loss,
either from using different acid molarity concentrations or by
increasing treatment age, is difficult. The data presented in the re-
sults are not consistent, as observed in this study. As reported in
[53,35], a significant relationship affects the reduction in amount
of adhered mortar and an increase in RCA properties. However,
previous studies have demonstrated a method that can removes
or totally eliminates the content of adhered mortar in RCA. The
present study only demonstrates the use of low concentrations of
acid to dissolve small portions of mortar, not the total removal of
adhered mortar. Therefore, the remaining amount of mortar causes
unfavourable effects in RCA properties. In addition, heterogeneity
in the quantity and quality of residual mortar in RCA occurs be-
cause it was taken from various sources. Mortar properties are
The slump tests results for the degree of workability of each
batch of mix are tabulated in Table 5 and are illustrated in Fig. 5.
In general, the overall slump results indicate that no obvious differ-
ences are observed between concrete mixes containing treated
RCA and untreated RCA. The research also reveals that the work-
ability of concrete is significantly influenced by RCA content. A lin-
ear decrease causes an increase in the addition of RCA in concrete.
This may be attributed to the effects of the physical characteristics
of RCA. As indicated in this study, the properties of RCA are more
angular and more rough in the surface because of the presence of
adhered mortar. The angular and rougher surface of RCA particles
compared with normal concrete aggregates decreases the work-
ability of the fresh concrete mix. Thus, workability is decreased,
especially at higher concentrations. In addition, the presence of
porous adhered mortar in the RCA increases water absorption,
hence, affecting the workability of the fresh mix.
5.5.2. Density of concrete
The density of hardened concrete containing various propor-
tions of treated and untreated RCA is illustrated in Fig. 6. In general,
no obvious differences are observed in the density of concrete con-
taining treated RCA and that containing untreated RCA. Moreover,
it was observed that a loss in concrete density is accompanied by
an increase in RCA replacement percentage. Such behaviour occurs
due to the presence of porous adhered mortar attached to physical
properties of coarse RCA. This lowers the specific gravity of coarse
RCA in relation natural coarse aggregate. Thus, an increase in the
replacement content of coarse natural aggregate by RCA has signif-
icant effect on the reduction of concrete density.
5.5.3. Compressive strength
The compressive strength of concrete prepared with various
mix proportions at 15%, 30%, 45%, and 60% using treated and un-
treated (normal) RCA and determined at 3, 7, and 28 days of curing
are presented in Table 5. Meanwhile the statistical analysis data
showing mean difference and one sample T-Test analysis con-
ducted by comparing concrete containing treated RCA and con-
crete containing untreated RCA are shown in Table 6.
470 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476

Table 5
The results of slump, density, and compressive strength of concrete containing various mix proportions of untreated and treated RCA.

Series no. % Coarse RCA Slump (mm) Bulk density (kg/m3) Days of curing
3 days 7 days 28 days
fcm (MPa) STD fcm (MPa) STD fcm (MPa) STD
Control 15 70 2378 31.15 1.05 38.65 1.31 50.82 0.98
30 60 2368 32.41 0.41 41.63 0.05 44.89 6.04
45 50 2369 31.68 0.30 41.36 2.47 44.62 4.94
60 40 2354 29.11 2.98 36.65 6.01 42.44 3.26

R0.1M1D 15 50 2393 34.00 0.45 38.69 3.69 53.96 3.63

30 70 2404 37.23 0.36 43.55 2.12 55.99 2.13
45 40 2435 35.37 2.18 40.12 0.51 54.43 2.91
60 40 2347 32.40 1.23 35.21 2.89 40.61 4.76
R0.1M3D 15 50 2383 35.98 0.70 41.41 5.53 55.20 2.23
30 40 2374 33.61 0.89 37.25 2.58 53.50 1.94
45 30 2365 32.29 3.41 39.03 3.51 56.86 2.69
60 35 2345 38.08 1.44 46.20 3.03 54.73 1.70
R0.1M7D 15 50 2388 35.06 2.80 45.45 2.62 50.52 1.04
30 40 2383 38.12 2.06 43.09 4.18 48.86 1.64
45 30 2380 35.72 3.28 44.61 1.58 45.78 1.48
60 30 2346 30.03 1.35 33.34 5.43 39.96 0.45

R0.5M1D 15 80 2379 34.63 7.24 38.65 6.51 54.40 1.74

30 65 2371 35.08 5.62 39.40 1.42 50.16 3.05
45 40 2372 29.29 7.54 34.46 3.87 49.48 3.39
60 30 2355 35.15 0.66 38.56 4.70 40.43 0.89
R0.5M3D 15 60 2376 34.02 2.49 41.90 1.11 45.00 3.91
30 50 2374 34.71 0.49 40.89 1.37 46.92 9.75
45 30 2378 34.39 0.74 42.14 2.65 51.35 2.04
60 40 2348 38.27 2.26 48.31 0.74 53.19 1.61
R0.5M7D 15 50 2380 33.00 7.40 40.24 4.39 55.27 1.47
30 40 2364 36.23 3.86 37.42 5.68 55.93 1.44
45 40 2366 42.07 2.38 43.76 0.37 52.62 2.98
60 40 2351 34.20 0.09 42.03 2.72 48.03 2.26

R0.8M1D 15 70 2384 28.83 1.15 33.67 2.42 49.12 2.25

30 60 2366 33.79 2.57 35.91 3.32 49.94 1.00
45 40 2356 37.26 2.57 40.23 3.24 50.33 4.04
60 40 2359 33.65 4.99 40.69 2.72 47.52 4.38
R0.8M3D 15 70 2388 36.12 4.41 36.25 5.68 43.21 5.08
30 60 2367 32.60 5.49 39.23 3.72 53.66 0.57
45 70 2363 36.55 0.39 37.09 6.84 49.97 4.46
60 35 2352 33.32 1.66 38.96 1.29 43.25 4.18
R0.8M7D 15 40 2383 36.67 5.62 36.42 4.56 52.91 2.25
30 50 2362 27.38 4.60 32.97 9.11 49.91 1.93
45 70 2358 37.48 3.99 34.47 2.93 53.68 5.84
60 30 2349 29.83 4.20 40.00 3.01 46.01 4.8

Control: untreated RCA; R: treated RCA; 0.1,0.5 and 0.8M: molarity of HCl acid; 1,3 and 7D: duration of treatment.

Analysis of the compressive strength of concrete containing un-
treated RCA (control specimens) indicates that compressive
strength on the age of 28 days is higher than that on the age of 3
and 7 days. This is due to the increased amount of hydration prod-
ucts produced on prolonged curing age. The results indicate that
concrete containing low proportions of untreated RCA (control)
at 15% only achieved the target, compressive strength of 50 MPa
at the age of 28 days. The rest are below the target. The results
indicate that when the content of untreated RCA exceeds 15%,
which are 30%, 45%, and 60%, the compressive strength of concrete
at 28 days was observed to decrease by 11.7%, 12.2%, and 16.5%,
respectively, as compared to concrete with 15% untreated aggre-
gate. This indicates that higher RCA replacement level results in
lower concrete compressive strength. Similar trends were ob-
served by other researchers [55]. The lack of improvement in con-
crete compressive strength at higher RCA replacement levels might
be explained by the low mechanical strength of RCA when com-
pared than natural aggregate. This is due to the presence of adher-
ing mortar on surface RCA which is characterise porous and weaker
than the natural aggregate. Furthermore, the presence of loose
mortar on the surface of RCA obstructs the bond between RCA
and cement paste in concrete [37,38]. The increase in the amount
of residual cement mortar on RCA creates a weak bonding between
the cement mortar and RCA, which crucially affects compressive
strength of concrete.
A comparison of the results in compressive strength of con-
cretes at 3, 7, and 28 days of curing incorporated with 15% treated
and untreated RCA is presented in Fig. 7. The improvement in com-
pressive strength of concrete containing treated aggregate as com-
pared to untreated RCA is attained at earlier ages (at 3 days) rather
than at the age of 28 days (Fig. 8). Furthermore, R0.5M7D concrete
is shown to have the highest compressive strength at this level of
aggregate replacement with RCA. The compressive strength is
higher than that of the corresponding control concrete containing
untreated RCA, which had compressive strength of 55.27 MPa or
8.76% higher than the control concrete at 28 days. The improve-
 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476 471

Fig. 5. Slump test results of concrete containing various proportions of treated and untreated RCA.

Fig. 6. Density of concrete containing various proportions of treated and untreated RCA.

ment in compressive strength was also indicated in another batch
of concrete at 28 days of testing in types R0.1M3D, R0.5M1D,
R0.1M1D, and R0.8M7D, which had improvements at 8.61%,
7.04%, 6.17%, and 4.11%, respectively, compared with the control
concrete. On the contrary, unfavourable results were indicated in
concrete types R0.8M3D, R0.5M3D, R0.8M1D, and R0.1M7D. The
value improvements for these types were negative or below the
control concrete.
For concretes incorporating 30% of untreated RCA and RCA trea-
ted with acid, the variations in compressive strength at different
ages of curing is shown in (Fig. 9). In general, not much improve-
ment is observed in concrete strength at early ages of curing. Con-
crete batches at the seventh day of curing were mostly below the
strength of the control concrete. This may attributed to the low
progress of cement hydration process at early age. The negative va-
lue of mean difference in strength is shown in Fig. 10. However, the
percentage improvement in compressive strength is greatly im-
proved at later ages. On the 28 days, the overall concrete mixes
containing treated RCA indicated higher strength than the corre-
sponding control specimens did. Concrete types R0.1M1D and
R0.5M7D produced the highest compressive strength of 55.99
and 55.93 MPa, respectively, or a 24.7% and 24.6% increment,
respectively, in compressive strength as compared to the control
concrete at 28 days.
For concrete mixes prepared with 45% of treated RCA (Fig. 11),
the development of compressive strength at 3, 7, 28 days are
slightly similar to concrete incorporating 30% of treated RCA. This
indicates that the development of concrete strength with treated
RCA is slightly better on the third day of curing. However, minimal
improvement was observed on the seventh day of curing (Fig. 12).
The compressive strength of treated RCA concrete was observed to
be higher than control concrete under prolonged curing durations
of 28 days (Fig. 12). Notably, the incorporation of treated RCA at
45% did not show any significant negative impact on decreasing
compressive strength at 28 days as compared to the control con-
crete. Most of the concrete mixes with treated RCA achieved com-
pressive strength of up to or above 50 MPa at the age of 28 days.
This shows that the use of treated RCA improves the compressive
strength of concrete at the age of 28 days by approximately 3–
27% as compared to concrete containing untreated RCA. Addition-
ally, the result demonstrated that R0.1M3D treated RCA concrete
exhibited the highest compressive strength which is 56.86 MPa
at 28 days. This result is the highest among overall concretes with
treated RCA specimens, not just in the 45% mix proportion batch.
The results for compressive strength of concretes with 60% of
treated RCA and untreated RCA on 3, 7, and 28 days are illustrated
in Fig. 13. Based on this figure, the high proportion of RCA resulted
in a low compressive strength of the concrete mixes produced.
472 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476

Table 6
One sample T-test analysis results for compressive strength.

Series no. % Coarse RCA Compressive strength

3 days 7 days 28 days
Mean different T-test Mean different T-test Mean different T-test
Sig. (2-tailed) P-value Sig. (2-tailed) P-value Sig. (2-tailed) P-value
R0.1M1D 15 2.85 0.008 0.004 0.03 0.988 0.494 3.14 0.273 0.137
30 4.82 0.002 0.001 1.91 0.258 0.129 11.10 0.120 0.060
45 3.69 0.099 0.050 1.24 0.051 0.026 9.81 0.028 0.014
60 3.28 0.044 0.022 1.44 0.478 0.239 1.83 0.574 0.287
R0.1M3D 15 4.83 0.007 0.004 2.76 0.478 0.239 4.38 0.077 0.039
30 1.20 0.143 0.072 4.38 0.099 0.050 8.61 0.016 0.008
45 0.61 0.787 0.394 2.33 0.369 0.185 12.24 0.016 0.008
60 8.96 0.008 0.004 9.55 0.032 0.016 12.29 0.062 0.031
R0.1M7D 15 3.90 0.114 0.057 6.79 0.046 0.023 0.30 0.750 0.375
30 5.71 0.041 0.021 1.46 0.606 0.303 3.97 0.052 0.026
45 4.04 0.166 0.083 3.25 0.070 0.035 1.16 0.307 0.154
60 0.92 0.360 0.180 3.31 0.402 0.201 2.48 0.082 0.041

R0.5M1D 15 3.48 0.620 0.310 0.00 0.999 0.500 3.58 0.070 0.035
30 2.67 0.496 0.248 2.23 0.112 0.056 5.27 0.096 0.048
45 2.40 0.337 0.169 6.90 0.091 0.046 4.86 0.292 0.146
60 6.03 0.004 0.002 1.91 0.544 0.272 2.01 0.060 0.030
R0.5M3D 15 2.86 0.185 0.093 3.24 0.037 0.019 5.82 0.123 0.062
30 2.30 0.015 0.008 0.74 0.447 0.224 2.03 0.818 0.409
45 2.71 0.024 0.012 0.78 0.662 0.331 6.74 0.029 0.015
60 9.16 0.020 0.010 11.66 0.001 0.001 10.75 0.067 0.034
R0.5M7D 15 1.85 0.784 0.392 1.59 0.594 0.297 4.45 0.035 0.018
30 3.82 0.229 0.115 4.21 0.328 0.164 11.04 0.006 0.003
45 10.39 0.017 0.009 2.41 0.632 0.316 8.01 0.164 0.082
60 5.08 0.000 0.000 5.38 0.076 0.038 5.59 0.177 0.089

R0.8M1D 15 2.32 0.073 0.037 4.98 0.071 0.036 1.70 0.321 0.161
30 1.38 0.587 0.294 5.73 0.247 0.124 5.05 0.088 0.044
45 5.58 0.064 0.032 1.13 0.606 0.303 5.72 0.134 0.067
60 4.54 0.255 0.128 4.04 0.283 0.142 5.08 0.183 0.092
R0.8M3D 15 4.96 0.357 0.179 2.41 0.540 0.270 7.61 0.281 0.141
30 0.19 0.970 0.485 2.40 0.380 0.190 8.77 0.001 0.001
45 4.87 0.036 0.018 4.27 0.540 0.270 5.35 0.173 0.087
60 4.20 0.048 0.024 2.31 0.090 0.045 0.81 0.769 0.385
R0.8M7D 15 5.52 0.231 0.116 2.24 0.485 0.243 2.09 0.249 0.125
30 5.03 0.199 0.100 8.66 0.242 0.121 5.02 0.046 0.023
45 5.80 0.128 0.064 6.89 0.055 0.028 9.06 0.115 0.058
60 0.72 0.794 0.397 3.35 0.193 0.097 3.57 0.326 0.163

20.00

15.00
% Improvement in strength

10.00
R0.1M1D
R0.1M3D
5.00 R0.1M7D
R0.5M1D
0.00 R0.5M3D
3 days 7 days 28 days R0.5M7D
-5.00 R0.8M1D
R0.8M3D
R0.8M7D
-10.00

-15.00

Fig. 7. Development of compressive strength of concrete mixtures incorporating -20.00

15% replacement of coarse aggregate with treated and untreated RCA. Age of curing

Fig. 8. Comparisons of percentage improvement on compressive strength of

concrete containing treated RCA relative to the control (0-axis) at 15% replacement
Most of the concrete mixes produced did not achieve the target of coarse aggregate.
compressive strength of 50 MPa at the age of 28 days. The com-
pressive strength of control concrete at 28 days only reached 85%
 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476 473

40.00

30.00

% Improvement in strength
R0.1M1D
20.00 R0.1M3D
R0.1M7D
R0.5M1D
10.00 R0.5M3D
R0.5M7D
R0.8M1D
0.00 R0.8M3D
3 days 7 days 28 days R0.8M7D

-10.00

-20.00
Fig. 9. Development of compressive strength of concrete mixtures incorporating Age of curing
30% replacement of coarse aggregate with treated and untreated RCA.
Fig. 12. Comparisons of percentage improvement on compressive strength of
concrete containing treated RCA relative to the control (0-axis) at 45% replacement
of coarse aggregate.
30.00

20.00
% Improvement in strength

R0.1M1D
10.00 R0.1M3D
R0.1M7D
R0.5M1D
0.00 R0.5M3D
3 days 7 days 28 days R0.5M7D
R0.8M1D
-10.00 R0.8M3D
R0.8M7D

-20.00

-30.00
Age of curing

Fig. 10. Comparisons of percentage improvement on compressive strength of

concrete containing treated RCA relative to the control (0-axis) at 30% replacement Fig. 13. Development of compressive strength of concrete mixtures incorporating
of coarse aggregate. 60% replacement of coarse aggregate with treated and untreated RCA.

hered mortar. However, concrete incorporating treated RCA led to

Fig. 11. Development of compressive strength of concrete mixtures incorporating
45% replacement of coarse aggregate with treated and untreated RCA.
of the design target (Fig. 13). As previously mentioned, the inverse
relationship between RCA content and compressive strength is
attributed to weaker RCA caused by poor physical quality of the ad-
a lower magnitude of decrease in the compressive strength of con-
crete from the target strength as compared to concrete incorporat-
ing untreated RCA. This is an evidence that the compressive
strength of almost all concretes containing treated RCA is higher
as compared to concretes containing untreated RCA at all three
testing dates (Fig. 14). Furthermore, concrete incorporating treated
RCA (R0.1M3D and R0.5M3D) exhibited improved compressive
strength by 29% and 25.3% as compared to the control concrete
at 28 days. Only two of these concrete types were able to achieve
the target strength of 50 MPa. The remaining compressive strength
of concrete at 28 days, such as in types R0.5M7D, R0.8M1D, and
R0.8M7D and R0.8M3D remains below the 50 MPa. However, they
are approximately 13.2%, 12%, 8.4% and 2% higher, respectively,
than control concrete.
As overview, the findings from the compressive strength results
analysis indicate an improvement in the compressive strength of
concrete using treated RCA as compared to concrete containing un-
treated RCA. Concrete incorporating treated RCA, even at high pro-
portions up to 60%, led to significant increases in compressive
strength as compared to untreated RCA concrete. The T-test analy-
sis results of 28-day curing of concrete compressive strength indi-
cate that incorporating treated RCA significantly affects
474 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476
35.00
30.00
% Improvement in strength
25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
3 days 7 days 28 days
-5.00
-10.00
-15.00
Age of curing
Fig. 14. Comparisons of percentage improvement on compressive strength of
concrete containing treated RCA relative to the control (0-axis) at 60% replacement
of coarse aggregate.
compressive strength of the concrete mixes. Furthermore, the data
indicate that a statistically different compressive strength is ob-
served in concrete using treated RCA compared with concrete
using untreated RCA. The P value is indicated to be below 0.05
(P < 0.05).
The factor that contributes to the enhancement in concrete
compressive strength is the use of low concentrations of acid at dif-
ferent molarities for treatment. This significantly improves the
physical and mechanical properties of RCA by removing and reduc-
ing the amount of loose cement paste and other impurities on RCA
surface. The improvement in the properties of RCA consequently
reflects the improvement in concrete strength. In addition, the re-
moval of loose particles on the physical surface of RCA may result
in a stronger contact at the interfacial zone between the cement
paste and the RCA. The interfacial bond between cement paste
and aggregate is known to be critical in concrete structures, and
is a significant factor governing concrete strength development
[56]. Thus, an increase in cement paste–aggregate interfacial bond
strength increases concrete strength, disregarding to some extent
the detrimental effect from the use of low-quality aggregate [2,56].
5.6. Compressive strength of concrete with treated RCA
In general, the results obtained from this study showed that the
incorporation of treated RCA in concrete at coarse aggregate
replacement level of up to 45% provides optimum compressive
strength. However, determining the impression of a strong rela-
tionship on the use of differing acid molarity or the impact of dif-
ferent treatment ages on RCA is difficult. The results indicate that
inconsistencies and variations in compressive strength of concrete
are due to overall testing impressions inclusive to mixing with var-
ious proportions of treated RCA in concrete mixtures. The percent-
age improvement of concrete strength at the age of 28 days, which
are indicated by the distinction mean of strength, show that the
highest compressive strength is achieved by using RCA that were
treated with acid molarities of 0.1 M and 0.5 M rather than
0.8 M. This may be because the use of low concentrations of acid
is less detrimental to the physical shape and surface of RCA. The
use of acid molarity at 0.8 M is effective in removing loosely ad-
hered mortar pieces on the RCA surface. However, at the same time
it might corrode the surface of the remaining mortar of RCA, mak-
ing the surface tend to be brittle and fragile. This may interfere the
good interface and a strong bond between cement paste and aggre-
gate particle. However, a more consistent improvement is also
demonstrated by the concrete using RCA treated in acid molarity
at 0.8 M. In all three treatment periods (1, 3, and, 7 days), the trea-
ted RCA concrete showed improvements in compressive strength
at the age of 28 days as compared to the control concrete, espe-
cially when the coarse aggregate replacement ratio exceeds 15%.
R0.1M1D
R0.1M3D The study on the effect of different soaking ages of RCA in low
R0.1M7D concentration acid seems insignificant. An extended period of
R0.5M1D
soaking contributes to concrete strength. As indicated from the re-
R0.5M3D
R0.5M7D sults, the soaking of RCA of up to 3 days is sufficient to treat the
R0.8M1D RCA, giving it improved results in compressive strength. In other
R0.8M3D cases, some results did not indicate satisfactory improvement in
R0.8M7D
compressive strength using treated RCA, such as in concrete type
R0.1M7D. The use of treated RCA with 0.1 M acid and 7 days of
treatment at various proportions of concrete mixtures did not
show much improvement in compressive strength compared with
untreated RCA, especially at the age of 28 days. Thus, one of the
main factors that contribute to the inconsistency and unfavourable
results of compressive strength is that the properties of RCA are
strongly governed the presence of adhered mortar. As mentioned
previously, the use of low concentrations of acid did not totally re-
move bulk amount of mortar at aggregate particles. Therefore, the
effect of the existing attached mortar, which is characterised with
low-quality aggregate as opposed to natural aggregate, has unfa-
vourable effects on properties of RCA. Therefore, the variation in
compressive strength development of concrete is significantly gov-
erned by RCA properties after treatment.
6. Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn from the test results and
discussions:
1. The use of low concentration HCl has the potential to
remove the loose adhered mortar on RCA surface. The results
show a linear correlation between the amount of mortar loss
with the increase of the molarity of acid. However, the
immersion time of RCA with acid did not have significant
influence on the amount of mortar lost.
2. A microstructure study by SEM on RCA surface indicates that
the surface of treated RCA has cleaner crumb and free from
loose particles as compared to untreated RCA. However,
increasing acid molarity 0.8 M in treated RCA tends to result
in brittle and fragile particles on the mortar surface because
the acid tends to have corrosive effects on the adhered
mortar.
3. The properties of RCA have improved after treatment with
acid immersion. The test results indicate marked improve-
ments in density, water absorption, and mechanical strength
of RCA after acid treatments as compared to untreated RCA.
The acid treatments can effectively remove a great portion of
weak cement mortar and certain loose substances from the
RCA surface, and thus improving the physical properties of
RCA.
4. The use of a low-concentration acid seems safe and not det-
rimental on RCA particles. The test results indicate that the
chloride and sulphur contents of the acid remain within
the limits of their respective standards.
5. No significant differences were observed in slump and den-
sity results of concrete containing treated RCA as compared
with concrete containing untreated RCA.
6. The test results indicate that the compressive strength of
concrete containing untreated RCA decreases with increas-
ing RCA content. Only the concrete containing 15% untreated
RCA met the target compressive strength of 50 MPa at
28 days of curing, whereas the rest of the mixes fabricated
 S. Ismail, M. Ramli / Construction and Building Materials 44 (2013) 464–476
achieved results below that of the target. The inverse rela-
tionship between RCA content and compressive strength is
due to the poor quality of RCA caused by the presence of
loose residual mortar on RCA surface. The presence of loose
residual mortar may obstruct the bond between RCA and
cement paste.
7. The results demonstrate that treated RCA produced concrete
with higher compressive strength as compared to untreated
RCA. The results indicate that incorporating concrete mix
with treated RCA at a proportion of up to 45% achieves the
optimum strength in the mix design of concrete compressive
strength. Most concrete batches containing treated RCA indi-
cate an improvement in control and have achieved compres-
sive strength of up to or above 50 MPa at 28 days.
8. The results in compressive strength indicate that increasing
the replacement content of natural coarse aggregate by RCA
at 60% decreases the compressive strength of mix to below
the target strength. However, incorporating treated RCA
has led to a significantly smaller reduction in the compres-
sive strength of concrete compared with concrete with un-
treated RCA. In addition, certain cases of concrete fabricated
using treated RCA able to achieve target compressive
strength.
9. The findings from this research cannot specify or determine
the appropriate effect of using different molarities of acid or
duration of the soaking age for treatment RCA, which indi-
cates a main influence on concrete compressive strength.
The inconsistency in the results of compressive strength
obtained for concrete containing various replacement levels
of RCA, is mainly caused by various intrinsic parameters in
the physical properties of RCA.
10. However, in general, the results show that the concrete con-
taining RCA treated with acid with molarity of 0.1 M and
0.5 M indicates the most substantial improvement in com-
pressive strength as compared to concrete incorporating
RCA treated acid with molarity of 0.8 M. Meanwhile, the
soaking period of RCA in acid by not more than 3 days is suf-
ficient for the treatment.
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