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LifeÿagainstÿDeath:ÿTheÿPsychoanalyticalÿMeaningÿofÿHistoryÿ
ByÿNormanÿO.ÿBrownÿ
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ChapterÿOne:ÿTheÿDiseaseÿCalledÿManÿ
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Hereÿisÿoneÿwordÿwhich,ÿifÿweÿonlyÿunderstandÿit,ÿisÿtheÿkeyÿtoÿFreud'sÿthought.ÿThatÿwordÿ
isÿ"repression."ÿTheÿwholeÿedificeÿofÿpsychoanalysis,ÿFreudÿsaid,ÿisÿbasedÿuponÿtheÿtheoryÿ
ofÿrepression.'ÿFreud'sÿentireÿlifeÿwasÿdevotedÿtoÿtheÿstudyÿofÿtheÿphenomenonÿheÿcalledÿ
repression.ÿTheÿFreudianÿrevolutionÿisÿthatÿradicalÿrevisionÿofÿtraditionalÿtheoriesÿofÿhumanÿ
natureÿandÿhumanÿsocietyÿwhichÿbecomesÿnecessaryÿifÿrepressionÿisÿrecognizedÿasÿaÿfact.ÿInÿ
theÿnewÿFreudianÿperspective,ÿtheÿessenceÿofÿsocietyÿisÿrepressionÿofÿtheÿindividual,ÿandÿtheÿ
essenceÿofÿtheÿindividualÿisÿrepressionÿofÿhimself.ÿ
Theÿbestÿwayÿtoÿexploreÿtheÿnotionÿofÿrepressionÿisÿtoÿreviewÿtheÿpathÿwhichÿledÿ
Freudÿtoÿhisÿhypothesis.ÿFreud'sÿbreakthroughÿwasÿtheÿdiscoveryÿofÿmeaningfulnessÿinÿaÿsetÿ
ofÿphenomenaÿtheretoforeÿregarded,ÿatÿleastÿinÿscientificÿcircles,ÿasÿmeaningless:ÿfirst,ÿtheÿ
"mad"ÿsymptomsÿofÿtheÿmentallyÿderanged;ÿsecond,ÿdreams;ÿandÿthird,ÿtheÿvariousÿ
phenomenaÿgatheredÿtogetherÿunderÿtheÿtitleÿofÿtheÿpsychopathologyÿofÿeverydayÿlife,ÿ
includingÿslipsÿofÿtheÿtongue,ÿerrors,ÿandÿrandomÿthoughts.ÿ
NowÿinÿwhatÿsenseÿdoesÿFreudÿfindÿmeaningfulnessÿinÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿdreams,ÿ
andÿerrors?ÿHeÿmeans,ÿofÿcourse,ÿthatÿtheseÿphenomenaÿareÿdeterminedÿandÿcanÿbeÿgivenÿaÿ
causalÿexplanation.ÿHeÿisÿrigorouslyÿinsistingÿonÿunequivocalÿallegianceÿtoÿtheÿprincipleÿofÿ
psychicÿdeterminism;ÿbutÿheÿmeansÿmuchÿmoreÿthanÿthat.ÿForÿifÿitÿwereÿpossibleÿtoÿexplainÿ
theseÿphenomenaÿonÿbehavioristicÿprinciples,ÿasÿtheÿresultÿofÿsuperficialÿassociationsÿofÿ
ideas,ÿthenÿtheyÿwouldÿhaveÿaÿcauseÿbutÿnoÿmeaning.ÿMeaningfulnessÿmeansÿexpressionÿofÿ
aÿpurposeÿorÿanÿintention.ÿTheÿcruxÿofÿFreud'sÿdiscoveryÿisÿthatÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿasÿwellÿ
asÿtheÿdreamsÿandÿerrorsÿofÿeverydayÿlife,ÿdoÿhaveÿmeaning,ÿandÿthatÿtheÿmeaningÿofÿ
"meaning"ÿhasÿtoÿbeÿradicallyÿrevisedÿbecauseÿtheyÿhaveÿmeaning.ÿSinceÿtheÿpurportÿofÿ
theseÿpurposiveÿexpressionsÿisÿgenerallyÿunknownÿtoÿtheÿpersonÿwhoseÿpurposeÿtheyÿ
express,ÿFreudÿisÿdrivenÿtoÿembraceÿtheÿparadoxÿthatÿthereÿareÿinÿaÿhumanÿbeingÿpurposesÿofÿ
whichÿheÿknowsÿnothing,ÿinvoluntaryÿpurposes,ÿor,ÿinÿmoreÿtechnicalÿFreudianÿlanguage,ÿ
"unconsciousÿideas."ÿFromÿthisÿpointÿofÿviewÿaÿnewÿworldÿofÿpsychicÿrealityÿisÿopenedÿup,ÿ
ofÿwhoseÿinnerÿnatureÿweÿareÿeveryÿbitÿasÿignorantÿasÿweÿareÿofÿtheÿrealityÿofÿtheÿexternalÿ
world,ÿandÿofÿwhichÿourÿordinaryÿconsciousÿobservationÿtellsÿusÿnoÿmoreÿthanÿourÿsenseÿ
organsÿareÿableÿtoÿreportÿtoÿ usÿofÿtheÿexternalÿworld.ÿFreudÿcanÿthusÿdefineÿpsychoanalysisÿ
asÿ"nothingÿmoreÿthanÿtheÿdiscoveryÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿinÿmentalÿlife."ÿ
ButÿtheÿFreudianÿrevolutionÿisÿnotÿlimitedÿtoÿtheÿhypothesisÿofÿanÿunconsciousÿ
psychicÿlifeÿinÿtheÿhumanÿbeingÿinÿadditionÿtoÿhisÿconsciousÿlife.ÿTheÿotherÿcrucialÿ
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hypothesisÿisÿthatÿsomeÿunconsciousÿideasÿinÿaÿhumanÿbeingÿareÿincapableÿofÿbecomingÿ
consciousÿtoÿhimÿinÿtheÿordinaryÿway,ÿbecauseÿtheyÿareÿstrenuouslyÿdisownedÿandÿresistedÿ
byÿtheÿconsciousÿself.ÿFromÿthisÿpointÿofÿviewÿFreudÿcanÿsayÿthatÿ"theÿwholeÿofÿ
psychoanalyticÿtheoryÿisÿinÿfactÿbuiltÿupÿonÿtheÿperceptionÿofÿtheÿresistanceÿexertedÿbyÿtheÿ
patientÿwhenÿweÿtryÿtoÿmakeÿhimÿconsciousÿofÿhisÿunconscious."ÿTheÿdynamicÿrelationÿ
betweenÿtheÿunconsciousÿandÿtheÿconsciousÿlifeÿisÿoneÿofÿconflict,ÿandÿpsychoanalysisÿisÿ
fromÿtopÿtoÿbottomÿaÿscienceÿofÿmentalÿconflict.ÿ
Theÿrealmÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿisÿestablishedÿinÿtheÿindividualÿwhenÿheÿrefusesÿtoÿ
admitÿintoÿhisÿconsciousÿlifeÿaÿpurposeÿorÿdesireÿwhichÿheÿhas,ÿandÿinÿdoingÿsoÿestablishesÿ
inÿhimselfÿaÿpsychicÿforceÿopposedÿtoÿhisÿownÿidea.ÿThisÿrejectionÿbyÿtheÿindividualÿofÿaÿ
purposeÿorÿidea,ÿwhichÿneverthelessÿremainsÿhis,ÿisÿrepression.ÿ"Theÿessenceÿofÿrepressionÿ
liesÿsimplyÿinÿtheÿfunctionÿofÿrejectingÿorÿkeepingÿsomethingÿoutÿofÿconsciousness."ÿStatedÿ
inÿmoreÿgeneralÿterms,ÿtheÿessenceÿofÿrepressionÿliesÿinÿtheÿrefusalÿofÿtheÿhumanÿbeingÿtoÿ
recognizeÿtheÿrealitiesÿofÿhisÿhumanÿnature.ÿTheÿfactÿthatÿtheÿrepressedÿpurposesÿ
neverthelessÿremainÿhisÿisÿshownÿbyÿdreamsÿandÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿwhichÿrepresentÿanÿ
irruptionÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿintoÿconsciousness,ÿproducingÿnotÿindeedÿaÿpureÿimageÿofÿtheÿ
unconscious,ÿbutÿaÿcompromiseÿbetweenÿtheÿtwoÿconflictingÿsystems,ÿandÿthusÿexhibitingÿ
theÿrealityÿofÿtheÿconflict.ÿ
Thusÿtheÿnotionÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿremainsÿanÿenigmaÿwithoutÿtheÿtheoryÿofÿ
repression;ÿor,ÿasÿFreudÿsays,ÿ"Weÿobtainÿourÿtheoryÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿfromÿtheÿtheoryÿofÿ
repression."ÿToÿputÿitÿanotherÿway,ÿtheÿunconsciousÿisÿ"theÿdynamicallyÿunconsciousÿ
repressed."ÿRepressionÿisÿtheÿkeyÿwordÿinÿtheÿwholeÿsystem;ÿtheÿwordÿisÿchosenÿtoÿindicateÿ
aÿstructureÿdynamicallyÿbasedÿonÿpsychicÿconflict.ÿFreudÿillustratesÿtheÿnatureÿofÿpsychicÿ
repressionÿbyÿaÿseriesÿofÿmetaphorsÿandÿanalogiesÿdrawnÿfromÿtheÿsocialÿphenomenaÿofÿwar,ÿ
civilÿwar,ÿandÿpoliceÿaction.ÿ
Fromÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿdreams,ÿandÿerrorsÿtoÿaÿgeneralÿtheoryÿofÿhumanÿnatureÿ
mayÿseemÿlikeÿaÿlongÿstep.ÿGrantingÿthatÿitÿisÿaÿlongÿstep,ÿFreudÿcouldÿargueÿthatÿheÿisÿ
entitledÿtoÿexploreÿtheÿwidestÿpossibleÿapplicationÿofÿaÿhypothesisÿderivedÿfromÿaÿnarrowÿ
field.ÿHeÿcouldÿtakeÿtheÿoffensiveÿandÿclaimÿthatÿtraditionalÿtheoriesÿofÿhumanÿnatureÿmustÿ
beÿregardedÿasÿunsatisfactoryÿbecauseÿtheyÿhaveÿnothingÿtoÿsayÿaboutÿtheseÿperipheralÿ
phenomena.ÿWhatÿtheoryÿofÿhumanÿnature,ÿexceptÿFreud's,ÿdoesÿhaveÿanythingÿsignificantÿ
toÿsayÿaboutÿdreamsÿorÿinsanity?ÿAndÿareÿdreamsÿandÿinsanityÿreallyÿnegligibleÿfactorsÿonÿ
theÿperipheryÿofÿhumanÿlife?ÿ
ButÿtheÿtruthÿofÿtheÿmatterÿisÿthatÿFreudÿmaintainsÿthatÿtoÿgoÿfromÿneuroticÿ
symptoms,ÿdreams,ÿandÿerrors,ÿtoÿaÿnewÿtheoryÿofÿhumanÿnatureÿinÿgeneralÿinvolvesÿnoÿ
furtherÿstepÿatÿall.ÿForÿtheÿevidenceÿonÿwhichÿtheÿhypothesisÿofÿtheÿrepressedÿunconsciousÿisÿ
basedÿentailsÿtheÿconclusionÿthatÿitÿisÿaÿphenomenonÿpresentÿinÿallÿhumanÿbeings.ÿTheÿ
ÿ
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psychopathologicalÿphenomenaÿofÿeverydayÿlife,ÿalthoughÿtrivialÿfromÿaÿpracticalÿpointÿofÿ
view,ÿareÿtheoreticallyÿimportantÿbecauseÿtheyÿshowÿtheÿintrusionÿofÿunconsciousÿintentionsÿ
intoÿourÿeverydayÿandÿsupposedlyÿnormalÿbehavior.ÿ
Evenÿmoreÿtheoreticallyÿimportantÿareÿdreams.ÿForÿdreams,ÿalsoÿ"normal"ÿ
phenomena,ÿexhibitÿinÿdetailÿnotÿonlyÿtheÿexistenceÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿbutÿalsoÿtheÿ
dynamicsÿofÿitsÿrepressionÿ(theÿdream-censorship).ÿButÿsinceÿtheÿsameÿdynamicsÿofÿ
repressionÿexplainedÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿandÿsinceÿtheÿdreamsÿofÿneurotics,ÿwhichÿareÿaÿ
clueÿtoÿtheÿmeaningÿofÿtheirÿsymptoms,ÿdifferÿneitherÿinÿstructureÿnorÿinÿcontentÿfromÿtheÿ
dreamsÿofÿnormalÿpeople,ÿtheÿconclusionÿisÿthatÿaÿdreamÿisÿitselfÿaÿneuroticÿsymptom."ÿWeÿ
areÿallÿthereforeÿneurotic.ÿAtÿleastÿdreamsÿshowÿthatÿtheÿdifferenceÿbetweenÿneurosisÿandÿ
healthÿprevailsÿonlyÿbyÿday;ÿandÿsinceÿtheÿpsychopathologyÿofÿeverydayÿlifeÿexhibitsÿtheÿ
sameÿdynamics,ÿevenÿtheÿwakingÿlifeÿofÿtheÿ"healthy"ÿmanÿisÿpervadedÿbyÿinnumerableÿ
symptom-formations.ÿBetweenÿ"normality"ÿandÿ"abnormality"ÿthereÿisÿnoÿqualitativeÿbutÿ
onlyÿaÿquantitativeÿdifference,ÿbasedÿlargelyÿonÿtheÿpracticalÿquestionÿofÿwhetherÿourÿ
neurosisÿisÿseriousÿenoughÿtoÿincapacitateÿusÿforÿwork."ÿ
OrÿperhapsÿweÿareÿcloserÿtoÿtheÿFreudianÿpointÿofÿviewÿifÿweÿgiveÿaÿmoreÿ
paradoxicalÿformulation;ÿtheÿdifferenceÿbetweenÿ"neurotic"ÿandÿ"healthy"ÿisÿonlyÿthatÿtheÿ
"healthy"ÿhaveÿaÿsociallyÿusualÿformÿofÿneurosis.ÿAtÿanyÿrate,ÿtoÿquoteÿaÿmoreÿtechnicalÿandÿ
cautiousÿformulationÿofÿtheÿsameÿtheorem,ÿFreudÿsaysÿthatÿfromÿtheÿstudyÿofÿdreamsÿweÿ
learnÿthat-theÿneurosesÿmakeÿuseÿofÿaÿmechanismÿalreadyÿinÿexistenceÿasÿaÿnormalÿpartÿofÿ
ourÿpsychicÿstructure,ÿnotÿofÿoneÿthatÿisÿnewlyÿcreatedÿbyÿsomeÿmorbidÿdisturbanceÿorÿ
other."ÿ
ThusÿFreud'sÿfirstÿparadox,ÿtheÿexistenceÿofÿaÿrepressedÿunconscious,ÿnecessarilyÿimpliesÿ
theÿsecondÿandÿevenÿmoreÿsignificantÿparadox,ÿtheÿuniversalÿneurosisÿofÿmankind.ÿNeurosisÿ
isÿnotÿanÿoccasionalÿaberration;ÿitÿisÿnotÿjustÿinÿotherÿpeople;ÿitÿisÿinÿus,ÿandÿinÿusÿallÿtheÿtime.ÿ
Itÿisÿinÿtheÿpsychoanalyst:ÿFreudÿdiscoveredÿtheÿOedipusÿcomplex,ÿwhichÿheÿregardedÿasÿtheÿ
rootÿofÿallÿneurosis,ÿbyÿself-analysis.ÿTheÿInterpretationÿofÿDreamsÿisÿoneÿofÿtheÿgreatÿ
applicationsÿandÿextensionsÿofÿtheÿSocraticÿmaxim,ÿ"Knowÿthyself."ÿOr,ÿtoÿputÿitÿanotherÿ
way,ÿtheÿdoctrineÿofÿtheÿuniversalÿneurosisÿofÿmankindÿisÿtheÿpsychoanalyticalÿanalogueÿofÿ
theÿtheologicalÿdoctrineÿofÿoriginalÿsin.ÿ
TheÿcrucialÿpointÿinÿFreud'sÿbasicÿhypothesisÿisÿtheÿexistenceÿofÿpsychicÿconflict;ÿtheÿ
hypothesisÿcannotÿbeÿmeaningfullyÿformulatedÿwithoutÿsomeÿfurtherÿspecificationÿofÿtheÿ
natureÿofÿtheÿconflictÿandÿtheÿconflictingÿforces.ÿNowÿFreudÿmadeÿrepeatedÿanalysesÿofÿtheÿ
fundamentalÿpsychicÿconflict,ÿatÿseveralÿdifferentÿlevelsÿandÿfromÿseveralÿpointsÿofÿview.ÿ
Letÿusÿatÿthisÿpointÿtryÿtoÿabstractÿtheÿcommonÿcoreÿfromÿtheseÿvariousÿaccounts.ÿ
InÿourÿfirstÿdescriptionÿofÿFreud'sÿtheoryÿofÿrepressionÿweÿusedÿtheÿwordÿ"purpose"ÿtoÿ
designateÿthatÿwhichÿisÿrepressedÿintoÿtheÿunconscious.ÿThisÿexcessivelyÿvagueÿwordÿ
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concealsÿaÿfundamentalÿFreudianÿaxiom.ÿTheÿpsychicÿconflictÿwhichÿproducesÿdreamsÿandÿ
neurosesÿisÿnotÿgeneratedÿbyÿintellectualÿproblemsÿbutÿbyÿpurposes,ÿwishes,ÿdesires.ÿFreud'sÿ
frequentÿuseÿofÿtheÿtermÿ"unconsciousÿidea"ÿcanÿbeÿmisleadingÿhere.ÿButÿasÿFreudÿsays,ÿ
"Weÿremainÿonÿtheÿsurfaceÿsoÿlongÿasÿweÿtreatÿonlyÿofÿmemoriesÿandÿideas.ÿTheÿonlyÿ
valuableÿthingsÿinÿpsychicÿlifeÿare,ÿrather,ÿtheÿemotions.ÿAllÿpsychicÿforcesÿareÿsignificantÿ
onlyÿthroughÿtheirÿaptitudeÿtoÿarouseÿemotions.ÿIdeasÿareÿrepressedÿonlyÿbecauseÿtheyÿareÿ
boundÿupÿwithÿreleasesÿofÿernotions,ÿwhichÿareÿnotÿtoÿcomeÿabout;ÿitÿwouldÿbeÿmoreÿcorrectÿ
toÿsayÿthatÿrepressionÿdealsÿwithÿtheÿemotions,ÿbutÿtheseÿareÿcomprehensibleÿtoÿusÿonlyÿinÿ
theirÿtie-upÿwithÿideas."ÿFreudÿisÿneverÿtiredÿofÿinsistingÿthatÿdreamsÿareÿinÿessenceÿwish-
fulfillments,ÿexpressionsÿofÿrepressedÿunconsciousÿwishes,ÿandÿneuroticÿsymptomsÿlikewise.ÿ
Nowÿifÿweÿtakeÿ"desire"ÿasÿtheÿmostÿsuitablyÿabstractÿofÿthisÿseriesÿofÿterms,ÿitÿisÿaÿ
Freudianÿaxiomÿthatÿtheÿessenceÿofÿmanÿconsists,ÿnot,ÿasÿDescartesÿmaintained,ÿinÿthinking,ÿ
butÿinÿdesiring.ÿPlatoÿ(and,ÿmutatisÿmutandis,ÿAristotle)ÿidentifiedÿtheÿsummumÿbonumÿforÿ
manÿwithÿcontemplation;ÿsinceÿtheÿtelosÿorÿendÿisÿtheÿbasicÿelementÿinÿdefinition,ÿthisÿ
amountsÿtoÿsayingÿthatÿtheÿessenceÿofÿmanÿisÿcontemplation.ÿButÿambiguouslyÿjuxtaposedÿ
withÿthisÿdoctrineÿofÿmanÿasÿcontemplatorÿisÿtheÿPlatonicÿdoctrineÿofÿEros,ÿwhich,ÿasÿ
elaboratedÿbyÿPlatoÿinÿtheÿSymposiumÿandÿtheÿPhaedrus,ÿsuggestsÿthatÿtheÿfundamentalÿ
questÿofÿmanÿisÿtoÿfindÿaÿsatisfactoryÿobjectÿforÿhisÿlove.ÿAÿsimilarÿambiguityÿbetweenÿmanÿ
asÿcontemplatorÿandÿmanÿasÿloverÿisÿtoÿbeÿfoundÿinÿSpinozaÿandÿHegel.ÿTheÿturningÿpointÿinÿ
theÿWesternÿtraditionÿcomesÿinÿtheÿreactionÿtoÿHegel.ÿFeuerbach,ÿfollowedÿbyÿMarx,ÿcallsÿ
forÿtheÿabandonmentÿofÿtheÿcontemplativeÿtraditionÿinÿfavorÿofÿwhatÿheÿcallsÿ"practical-
sensuousÿactivity,"ÿtheÿmeaningÿofÿthisÿconcept,ÿandÿitsÿrelationÿtoÿFreud,ÿwouldÿtakeÿusÿfarÿ
afield.ÿButÿSchopenhauer,ÿinÿhisÿnotionÿofÿtheprimacyÿofÿwill-howeverÿmuchÿheÿmayÿundoÿ
hisÿownÿnotionÿbyÿhisÿsearchÿforÿanÿescapeÿfromÿtheÿprimacyÿofÿtheÿwill-isÿaÿlandmark,ÿ
secedingÿfromÿtheÿgreat,ÿandÿreallyÿratherÿinsane,ÿWesternÿtraditionÿthatÿtheÿgoalÿofÿ
mankindÿisÿtoÿbecomeÿasÿcontemplativeÿasÿpossible.ÿFreudianÿpsychologyÿeliminatesÿtheÿ
categoryÿofÿpureÿcontemplationÿasÿnonexistent.ÿOnlyÿaÿwish,ÿsaysÿFreud,ÿcanÿpossiblyÿsetÿ
ourÿpsychicÿapparatusÿinÿmotion."ÿ
Withÿthisÿnotionÿofÿdesireÿasÿtheÿessenceÿofÿmanÿisÿjoinedÿaÿdefinitionÿofÿdesireÿasÿ
energyÿdirectedÿtowardÿtheÿprocurementÿofÿpleasureÿandÿavoidanceÿofÿpain.ÿHenceÿFreudÿ
canÿsay,ÿ"Ourÿentireÿpsychicalÿactivityÿisÿbentÿuponÿprocuringÿpleasureÿandÿavoidingÿpain,ÿisÿ
automaticallyÿregulatedÿbyÿtheÿpleasureÿprinciple."ÿOr,ÿ"Itÿisÿsimplyÿtheÿpleasure-principleÿ
whichÿdrawsÿupÿtheÿprogrammeÿofÿlife'sÿpurpose."ÿAtÿthisÿlevelÿofÿanalysis,ÿtheÿpleasure-
principleÿimpliesÿnoÿcomplicatedÿhedonisticÿtheoryÿnorÿanyÿparticularÿtheoryÿasÿtoÿtheÿ
sourcesÿofÿpleasure.ÿItÿisÿanÿassumptionÿtakenÿfromÿcommonÿsense,ÿandÿmeansÿmuchÿtheÿ
sameÿasÿAristotle'sÿdictumÿthatÿallÿmenÿseekÿhappiness:ÿFreudÿsaysÿthatÿtheÿgoalÿofÿtheÿ
pleasure-principleÿisÿhappiness."ÿ
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Butÿman'sÿdesireÿforÿhappinessÿisÿinÿconflictÿwithÿtheÿwholeÿworld.ÿRealityÿimposesÿ
onÿhumanÿbeingsÿtheÿnecessityÿofÿrenunciationÿofÿpleasures;ÿrealityÿfrustratesÿdesire.ÿTheÿ
pleasure-principleÿisÿinÿconflictÿwithÿtheÿreality-principle,ÿandÿthisÿconflictÿisÿtheÿcauseÿofÿ
repression."ÿUnderÿtheÿconditionsÿofÿrepressionÿtheÿessenceÿofÿourÿbeingÿliesÿinÿtheÿ
unconscious,ÿandÿonlyÿinÿtheÿunconsciousÿdoesÿtheÿpleasure-principle,ÿreignÿsupreme.ÿ
Dreamsÿandÿneuroticÿsymptomsÿshowÿthatÿtheÿfrustrationsÿofÿrealityÿcannotÿdestroyÿtheÿ
desiresÿwhichÿareÿtheÿessenceÿofÿourÿbeing:ÿtheÿunconsciousÿisÿtheÿunsubduedÿandÿ
indestructibleÿelementÿinÿtheÿhumanÿsoul.ÿTheÿwholeÿworldÿmayÿbeÿagainstÿit,ÿbutÿstillÿmanÿ
holdsÿfastÿtoÿtheÿdeep-rooted,ÿpassionateÿstrivingÿforÿaÿpositiveÿfulfillmentÿofÿhappiness."ÿ
Theÿconsciousÿself,ÿonÿtheÿotherÿhand,ÿwhichÿbyÿrefusingÿtoÿadmitÿaÿdesireÿintoÿ
consciousnessÿinstitutesÿtheÿprocessÿofÿrepression,ÿis,ÿsoÿtoÿspeak,ÿtheÿsurfaceÿofÿourselvesÿ
mediatingÿbetweenÿourÿinnerÿrealÿbeingÿandÿexternalÿreality.ÿTheÿnucleusÿofÿtheÿconsciousÿ
selfÿisÿthatÿpartÿofÿtheÿmindÿorÿsystemÿinÿtheÿmindÿwhichÿreceivesÿperceptionsÿfromÿtheÿ
externalÿworld.ÿThisÿnucleusÿacquiresÿaÿnewÿdimensionÿthroughÿtheÿpowerÿofÿspeech,ÿwhichÿ
makesÿitÿaccessibleÿtoÿtheÿprocessÿofÿeducationÿandÿacculturation.ÿTheÿconsciousÿselfÿisÿtheÿ
organÿofÿadaptationÿtoÿtheÿenvironmentÿandÿtoÿtheÿculture.ÿTheÿconsciousÿself,ÿtherefore,ÿisÿ
governedÿnotÿbyÿtheÿpleasure-principleÿbutÿbyÿtheÿprincipleÿofÿadjustmentÿtoÿreality,ÿtheÿ
reality-principle.ÿ
Fromÿthisÿpointÿofÿviewÿdreamsÿandÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿwhichÿweÿpreviouslyÿ
analyzedÿasÿproducedÿbyÿtheÿconflictÿbetweenÿtheÿconsciousÿandÿunconsciousÿsystems,ÿcanÿ
alsoÿbeÿanalyzedÿasÿproducedÿbyÿtheÿconflictÿbetweenÿtheÿpleasure-principleÿandÿtheÿreality-
principle."ÿOnÿtheÿoneÿhand,ÿdreams,ÿneuroticÿsymptoms,ÿandÿallÿotherÿmanifestationsÿofÿtheÿ
unconscious,ÿsuchÿasÿfantasy,ÿrepresentÿinÿsomeÿdegreeÿorÿotherÿaÿflightÿorÿalienationÿfromÿaÿ
realityÿwhichÿisÿfoundÿunbearable."ÿOnÿtheÿotherÿhand,ÿtheyÿrepresentÿaÿreturnÿtoÿtheÿ
pleasure-principle;ÿtheyÿareÿsubstitutesÿforÿpleasuresÿdeniedÿbyÿreality."ÿInÿthisÿcompromiseÿ
betweenÿtheÿtwoÿconflictingÿsystems,ÿtheÿpleasureÿdesiredÿisÿreducedÿorÿdistortedÿorÿevenÿ
transformedÿtoÿpain.ÿUnderÿtheÿconditionsÿofÿrepression,ÿunderÿtheÿdominationÿofÿtheÿ
reality-principle,ÿtheÿpursuitÿofÿpleasureÿisÿdegradedÿtoÿtheÿstatusÿofÿaÿsymptom.ÿ
Butÿtoÿsayÿthatÿrealityÿorÿtheÿreality-principleÿcausesÿrepressionÿdefinesÿtheÿproblemÿratherÿ
thanÿsolvesÿit.ÿFreudÿsometimesÿidentifiesÿtheÿreality-principleÿwithÿtheÿ"struggleÿforÿ
existence,"ÿasÿifÿrepressionÿcouldÿbeÿultimatelyÿexplainedÿbyÿsomeÿobjectiveÿeconomicÿ
necessityÿtoÿwork.ÿButÿmanÿmakesÿhisÿownÿrealityÿandÿvariousÿkindsÿofÿrealityÿ(andÿvariousÿ
compulsionsÿtoÿwork)ÿthroughÿtheÿmediumÿofÿcultureÿorÿsociety.ÿItÿisÿthereforeÿmoreÿ
adequateÿtoÿsayÿthatÿsocietyÿimposesÿrepression,ÿthoughÿevenÿthisÿformulaÿinÿFreud'sÿearlyÿ
writingsÿisÿconnectedÿwithÿtheÿinadequateÿideaÿthatÿsociety,ÿinÿimposingÿrepression,ÿisÿ
simplyÿlegislatingÿtheÿdemandsÿofÿobjectiveÿeconomicÿnecessity.ÿThisÿnaiveÿandÿ
rationalisticÿsociologyÿstands,ÿorÿratherÿfalls,ÿwithÿFreud'sÿearlierÿversionÿofÿpsychoanalysis.ÿ
ÿ
 ÿ
TheÿlaterÿFreud,ÿasÿweÿshallÿsee,ÿinÿhisÿdoctrineÿofÿanxietyÿisÿmovingÿtowardÿtheÿpositionÿ
thatÿmanÿisÿtheÿanimalÿwhichÿrepressesÿhimselfÿandÿwhichÿcreatesÿcultureÿorÿsocietyÿinÿorderÿ
toÿrepressÿhimself.ÿEvenÿtheÿformulaÿthatÿsocietyÿimposesÿrepressionÿposesÿaÿproblemÿratherÿ
thanÿsolvesÿit;ÿbutÿtheÿproblemÿitÿposesÿisÿlarge.ÿForÿifÿsocietyÿimposesÿrepression,ÿandÿ
repressionÿcausesÿtheÿuniversalÿneurosisÿofÿmankind,ÿitÿfollowsÿthatÿthereÿisÿanÿintrinsicÿ
connectionÿbetweenÿsocialÿorganizationÿandÿneurosis.ÿManÿtheÿsocialÿanimalÿisÿbyÿtheÿsameÿ
tokenÿtheÿneuroticÿanimal.ÿOr,ÿasÿFreudÿputsÿit,ÿman'sÿsuperiorityÿoverÿtheÿotherÿanimalsÿisÿ
hisÿcapacityÿforÿneurosis,ÿandÿhisÿcapacityÿforÿneurosisÿisÿmerelyÿtheÿobverseÿofÿhisÿcapacityÿ
forÿculturalÿdevelopment.ÿ
FreudÿthereforeÿarrivesÿatÿtheÿsameÿconclusionÿasÿNietzscheÿ("theÿdiseaseÿcalledÿ
man"),ÿbutÿbyÿaÿscientificÿroute,ÿbyÿaÿstudyÿofÿtheÿneuroses.ÿNeurosisÿisÿanÿessentialÿ
consequenceÿofÿcivilizationÿorÿculture.ÿHereÿagainÿisÿaÿharshÿlessonÿinÿhumility,ÿwhichÿ
tender-mindedÿcriticsÿandÿapostlesÿofÿFreudÿevadeÿorÿsuppress.ÿWeÿmustÿbeÿpreparedÿtoÿ
analyzeÿclinicallyÿasÿaÿneurosisÿnotÿonlyÿtheÿforeignÿcultureÿweÿdislike,ÿbutÿalsoÿourÿown.ÿ
ÿ
ChapterÿTwo:ÿNeurosisÿandÿHistoryÿ
ÿ
Theÿdoctrineÿthatÿallÿmenÿareÿmadÿappearsÿtoÿconflictÿwithÿaÿhistoricalÿperspectiveÿonÿtheÿ
natureÿandÿdestinyÿofÿman:ÿitÿappearsÿtoÿswallowÿallÿculturalÿvariety,ÿallÿhistoricalÿchange,ÿ
intoÿaÿdarknessÿinÿwhichÿallÿcatsÿareÿgray.ÿButÿthisÿobjectionÿneglectsÿtheÿrichnessÿandÿ
complexityÿofÿtheÿFreudianÿtheoryÿofÿneurosis.ÿ
Inÿtheÿfirstÿplaceÿthereÿareÿseveralÿdistinctÿkindsÿofÿneurosis,ÿeachÿwithÿaÿdifferentÿsetÿ
ofÿsymptoms,ÿaÿdifferentÿstructureÿinÿtheÿrelationsÿbetweenÿtheÿrepressed,ÿtheÿego,ÿandÿ
reality.ÿWeÿareÿthereforeÿinÿaÿpositionÿtoÿreturnÿtoÿtheÿvarietiesÿandÿcomplexitiesÿofÿ
individualÿculturesÿifÿweÿentertain,ÿasÿFreudÿdoesÿinÿCiviIiiationÿandÿItsÿDiscontents,ÿtheÿ
hypothesisÿthatÿtheÿvarietiesÿofÿcultureÿcanÿbeÿcorrelatedÿwithÿtheÿvarietiesÿofÿneurosis:ÿ"ifÿ
theÿevolutionÿofÿcivilizationÿhasÿsuchÿaÿfar-reachingÿsimilarityÿwithÿtheÿdevelopmentÿofÿanÿ
individual,ÿandÿifÿtheÿsameÿmethodsÿarcÿemployedÿinÿboth,ÿwouldÿnotÿtheÿdiagnosisÿbeÿ
justifiedÿthatÿmanyÿsystemsÿofÿcivilization-orÿepochsÿofÿit-possiblyÿevenÿtheÿwholeÿofÿ
humanity-haveÿbecomeÿ'neurotic'ÿunderÿtheÿpressureÿofÿcivilizingÿtrends?ÿÿToÿanalyticÿ
dissectionÿofÿtheseÿneurosesÿtherapeuticÿrecommendationsÿmightÿfollowÿwhichÿcouldÿclaimÿ
aÿgreatÿpracticalÿinterest."ÿ
Andÿfurthermore,ÿitÿisÿaÿFreudianÿtheoremÿthatÿeachÿindividualÿneurosisÿisÿnotÿstaticÿ
butÿdynamic.ÿItÿisÿaÿhistoricalÿprocessÿwithÿitsÿownÿinternalÿlogic.ÿBecauseÿofÿtheÿbasicallyÿ
unsatisfactoryÿnatureÿofÿtheÿneuroticÿcompromise,ÿtensionÿbetweenÿtheÿrepressedÿandÿ
repressingÿfactorsÿpersistsÿandÿproducesÿaÿconstantÿseriesÿofÿnewÿsymptom-formations.ÿAndÿ
theÿseriesÿofÿsymptom-formationsÿisÿnotÿaÿshapelessÿseriesÿofÿmereÿchanges;ÿitÿexhibitsÿaÿ
ÿ
 ÿ
regressiveÿpattern,ÿwhichÿFreudÿcallsÿtheÿslowÿreturnÿofÿtheÿrepressed.ÿItÿisÿaÿlawÿofÿneuroticÿ
diseases,ÿheÿsays,ÿthatÿtheseÿobsessiveÿactsÿincreasinglyÿcomeÿcloserÿtoÿtheÿoriginalÿimpulseÿ
andÿtoÿtheÿoriginalÿforbiddenÿactÿitself.ÿTheÿdoctrineÿofÿtheÿuniversalÿneurosisÿofÿmankind,ÿifÿ
weÿtakeÿitÿseriously,ÿthereforeÿcompelsÿusÿtoÿentertainÿtheÿhypothesisÿthatÿtheÿpatternÿofÿ
historyÿexhibitsÿaÿdialecticÿnotÿhithertoÿrecognizedÿbyÿhistorians,ÿtheÿdialecticÿofÿneurosis.ÿ
Aÿreinterpretationÿofÿhumanÿhistoryÿisÿnotÿanÿappendageÿtoÿpsychoanalysisÿbutÿanÿ
integralÿpartÿofÿit.ÿTheÿempiricalÿfactÿwhichÿcompelledÿFreudÿtoÿcomprehendÿtheÿwholeÿofÿ
humanÿhistoryÿinÿtheÿareaÿofÿpsychoanalysisÿisÿtheÿappearanceÿinÿdreamsÿandÿinÿneuroticÿ
symptomsÿofÿthemesÿsubstantiallyÿidenticalÿwithÿmajorÿthemes-bothÿritualisticÿandÿ
mythical-inÿtheÿreligiousÿhistoryÿofÿmankind.ÿTheÿlinkÿbetweenÿtheÿtheoryÿofÿneurosisÿandÿ
theÿtheoryÿofÿhistoryÿisÿtheÿtheoryÿofÿreligion,ÿasÿisÿmadeÿperfectlyÿclearÿinÿTotemÿandÿ
TabooÿandÿMosesÿandÿMonotheism.ÿ
Andÿtheÿlinkÿaffectsÿbothÿendsÿlinked.ÿFreudÿnotÿonlyÿmaintainsÿthatÿhumanÿhistoryÿ
canÿbeÿunderstoodÿonlyÿasÿaÿneurosisÿbutÿalsoÿthatÿtheÿneurosesÿofÿindividualsÿcanÿbeÿ
understoodÿonlyÿinÿtheÿcontextÿofÿhumanÿhistoryÿasÿaÿwhole.ÿFromÿtheÿtimeÿwhenÿheÿwroteÿ
TotemÿandÿTabooÿ(1913)ÿFreudÿsaysÿinÿMosesÿandÿMonotheismÿ(1937)ÿ"1ÿhaveÿneverÿ
doubtedÿthatÿreligiousÿphenomenaÿareÿtoÿbeÿunderstoodÿonlyÿonÿtheÿmodelÿofÿtheÿneuroticÿ
symptomsÿofÿtheÿindividual."ÿAccordingÿtoÿtheÿanalogyÿelaboratedÿinÿMosesÿandÿ
Monotheism,ÿ"Inÿtheÿhistoryÿofÿtheÿspeciesÿsomethingÿhappenedÿsimilarÿtoÿtheÿeventsÿinÿtheÿ
lifeÿofÿtheÿindividual.ÿThatÿisÿtoÿsay,ÿmankindÿasÿaÿwholeÿpassedÿthroughÿconflictsÿofÿaÿ
sexual-aggressiveÿnature,ÿwhichÿleftÿpermanentÿtraces,ÿbutÿwhichÿwereÿforÿtheÿmostÿpartÿ
wardedÿoffÿandÿforgotten;ÿlater,ÿafterÿaÿlongÿperiodÿofÿlatency,ÿtheyÿcameÿtoÿlifeÿagainÿandÿ
createdÿphenomenaÿsimilarÿinÿstructureÿandÿtendencyÿtoÿneuroticÿsymptoms."ÿ
ThisÿanalogyÿsuppliesÿFreudÿwithÿhisÿnotionÿofÿtheÿ"archaicÿheritage";ÿmankindÿisÿaÿ
prisonerÿofÿtheÿpastÿinÿtheÿsameÿsenseÿasÿ"ourÿhystericalÿpatientsÿareÿsuffering,ÿfromÿ
reminiscences"ÿandÿneuroticsÿ"cannotÿescapeÿfromÿtheÿpast."ÿThusÿtheÿbondageÿofÿallÿ
culturesÿtoÿtheirÿculturalÿheritageÿisÿaÿneuroticÿconstriction.ÿAndÿconversely,ÿFreudÿcameÿtoÿ
recognizeÿthatÿtheÿcoreÿofÿtheÿneurosesÿofÿindividualsÿlayÿinÿtheÿsameÿ"archaicÿheritage,"ÿ
"memory-tracesÿofÿtheÿexperiencesÿofÿformerÿgenerations,"ÿwhichÿ"canÿonlyÿbeÿunderstoodÿ
phylogenetically."ÿTheÿrepressedÿunconsciousÿwhichÿproducesÿneurosisÿisÿnotÿanÿindividualÿ
unconsciousÿbutÿaÿcollectiveÿone.ÿFreudÿabstainsÿfromÿadoptingÿJung'sÿtermÿbutÿsays,ÿ"Theÿ
contentÿofÿtheÿunconsciousÿisÿcollectiveÿanyhow."ÿOntogenyÿrecapitulatesÿphylogenyÿ(eachÿ
individualÿrecapitulatesÿtheÿhistoryÿofÿtheÿrace):ÿinÿtheÿfewÿyearsÿofÿchildhoodÿ"weÿhaveÿtoÿ
coverÿtheÿenormousÿdistanceÿofÿdevelopmentÿfromÿprimitiveÿmanÿofÿtheÿStoneÿAgeÿtoÿ
civilizedÿmanÿofÿtoday."ÿFromÿthisÿitÿfollowsÿthatÿtheÿtheoryÿofÿneurosisÿmustÿembraceÿaÿ
theoryÿofÿhistory;ÿandÿconverselyÿaÿtheoryÿofÿhistoryÿmustÿembraceÿaÿtheoryÿofÿneurosis.ÿ

ÿ
 ÿ
Psychoanalysisÿmustÿviewÿreligionÿbothÿasÿneurosisÿandÿasÿthatÿattemptÿtoÿbecomeÿ
consciousÿandÿtoÿcure,ÿinsideÿtheÿneurosisÿitself,ÿonÿwhichÿFreudÿcameÿatÿtheÿendÿofÿhisÿlifeÿ
toÿpinÿhisÿhopesÿforÿtherapy.ÿPsychoanalysisÿisÿvulgarlyÿinterpretedÿasÿdismissingÿreligionÿasÿ
anÿerroneousÿsystemÿofÿwishfulÿthinkingÿInÿTheÿFutureÿofÿanÿIllusion,ÿFreudÿdoesÿspeakÿofÿ
religionÿasÿaÿ"substitute-gratification"--theÿFreudianÿanalogueÿtoÿtheÿMarxianÿformula,ÿ
"opiateÿofÿtheÿpeople."ÿButÿaccordingÿtoÿtheÿwholeÿdoctrineÿofÿrepression,ÿ"substitute-
gratifications"--aÿtermÿwhichÿappliesÿnotÿonlyÿtoÿpoetryÿandÿreligionÿbutÿalsoÿtoÿdreamsÿandÿ
neuroticÿsymptoms-containÿtruth:ÿtheyÿareÿexpressions,ÿdistortedÿbyÿrepression,ÿofÿtheÿ
immortalÿdesiresÿofÿtheÿhumanÿheart.ÿ
TheÿproperÿpsychoanalyticalÿperspectiveÿonÿreligionÿisÿthatÿtakenÿinÿMosesÿandÿ
Monotheism,ÿwhereÿFreudÿsetÿoutÿtoÿfindÿtheÿfragmentÿofÿhistoricÿandÿpsychologicalÿtruthÿinÿ
JudaismÿandÿChristianity.ÿEvenÿMarx-inÿtheÿsameÿpassageÿinÿwhichÿtheÿnotoriousÿformulaÿ
"opiateÿofÿtheÿpeople"ÿoccurs-speaksÿofÿreligionÿasÿ"theÿsighÿofÿtheÿoppressedÿcreature,ÿtheÿ
heartÿofÿaÿheartlessÿworld."ÿButÿMarx,ÿlackingÿtheÿconceptÿofÿrepressionÿandÿtheÿ
unconscious-thatÿisÿtoÿsay,ÿnotÿbeingÿpreparedÿtoÿrecognizeÿtheÿmysteryÿofÿtheÿhumanÿheart-
couldÿnotÿpursueÿtheÿlineÿofÿthoughtÿimpliedÿinÿhisÿownÿepigram.ÿPsychoanalysisÿisÿ
equippedÿtoÿstudyÿtheÿmysteryÿofÿtheÿhumanÿheart,ÿandÿmustÿrecognizeÿreligionÿtoÿbeÿtheÿ
heartÿofÿtheÿmystery.ÿButÿpsychoanalysisÿcanÿgoÿbeyondÿreligionÿonlyÿifÿitÿseesÿitselfÿasÿ
completingÿwhatÿreligionÿtriesÿtoÿdo,ÿnamely,ÿmakeÿtheÿunconsciousÿconscious;ÿthenÿ
psychoanalysisÿwouldÿbeÿtheÿscienceÿofÿoriginalÿsin.ÿPsychoanalysisÿisÿinÿaÿpositionÿtoÿ
defineÿtheÿerrorÿinÿreligionÿonlyÿafterÿitÿhasÿrecognizedÿtheÿtruth.ÿ
ItÿisÿnotÿtoÿbeÿdeniedÿthatÿFreud'sÿearlierÿwritings,ÿespeciallyÿTotemÿandÿTaboo,ÿ
contain,ÿbesidesÿmuchÿthatÿlooksÿforwardÿtoÿMosesÿandÿMonotheism,ÿanotherÿlineÿofÿ
thoughtÿonÿtheÿrelationÿbetweenÿpsychoanalysisÿandÿhistory.ÿThisÿotherÿlineÿofÿthoughtÿ
worksÿoutÿtheÿnotionÿthatÿontogenyÿrecapitulatesÿphylogenyÿinÿaÿdifferentÿway.ÿTheÿ
psychoanalyticalÿmodelÿforÿunderstandingÿhistoryÿisÿnotÿneurosisÿbutÿtheÿprocessÿofÿ
growingÿup;ÿorÿrather,ÿmaturityÿisÿenvisagedÿnotÿasÿaÿreturnÿofÿtheÿrepressedÿinfantileÿ
neurosisÿbutÿasÿtheÿovercomingÿofÿit.ÿInÿeffect,ÿFreudÿcorrelatesÿhisÿownÿpsycho-sexualÿ
stagesÿofÿtheÿindividualÿwithÿtheÿstagesÿofÿtheÿhistoryÿpostulatedÿbyÿnineteenth-centuryÿ
evolutionary-mindedÿthinkersÿofÿtheÿtypeÿofÿComteÿandÿFrazer.ÿThusÿinÿTotemÿandÿTabooÿ
heÿsaysÿthatÿtheÿanimisticÿphaseÿcorrespondsÿtoÿnarcissism,ÿinÿbothÿtimeÿandÿsubstance;ÿtheÿ
religiousÿphaseÿcorrespondsÿtoÿtheÿstageÿofÿobjectfindingÿinÿwhichÿdependenceÿonÿtheÿ
parentsÿisÿparamount;ÿwhileÿtheÿscientificÿphaseÿcorrespondsÿtoÿmaturity,ÿinÿwhichÿtheÿ
individual,ÿwhoÿbyÿnowÿhasÿrenouncedÿtheÿpleasure-principleÿandÿhasÿacceptedÿreality,ÿ
seeksÿhisÿobjectÿinÿtheÿouterÿworld."ÿ
Thisÿlineÿofÿthoughtÿisÿaÿresidueÿofÿeighteenth-centuryÿoptimismÿandÿrationalismÿinÿ
Freud;ÿinÿitÿhistoryÿisÿnotÿaÿprocessÿofÿbecomingÿsickerÿbutÿaÿprocessÿofÿbecomingÿwiser.ÿ
ÿ
 ÿ
TheÿearlyÿFreud-ifÿweÿforgetÿtheÿlaterÿFreud-thusÿjustifiesÿtheÿ'quiteÿnaiveÿandÿtraditionalistÿ
viewÿofÿhistoryÿheldÿbyÿmostÿpsychoanalysts.ÿButÿthisÿlineÿofÿthoughtÿisÿnotÿsimplyÿ
inadequateÿasÿhistory;ÿitÿisÿinadequateÿasÿpsychoanalysis.ÿItÿbelongsÿwithÿFreud'sÿearlyÿ
systemÿofÿpsychoanalysis,ÿwithÿhisÿearlyÿtheoryÿofÿtheÿinstincts,ÿandÿwithÿhisÿearlyÿ(andÿ
traditionalist)ÿtheoryÿofÿtheÿhumanÿego.ÿ
ItÿisÿtrueÿthatÿtheÿimplementationÿofÿtheÿapproachÿtoÿhistoryÿadumbratedÿinÿFreud'sÿ
laterÿwritingsÿinvolvesÿgreatÿdifficulties.ÿFreudÿhimself,ÿinÿtheÿpassageÿsuggestingÿaÿ
correlationÿbetweenÿculturesÿandÿneurosis,ÿputÿhisÿfingerÿonÿtheÿheartÿofÿtheÿproblemÿwhenÿ
heÿpointedÿoutÿtheÿneedÿtoÿdevelopÿaÿconceptÿofÿaÿ"normal"ÿorÿhealthyÿcultureÿbyÿwhichÿtoÿ
measureÿtheÿneuroticÿculturesÿrecordedÿbyÿhistory."ÿFromÿtheÿpointÿofÿviewÿtakenÿinÿthisÿ
book,ÿtheÿdevelopmentÿofÿsuchÿaÿconceptÿisÿtheÿcentralÿproblemÿconfrontingÿbothÿ
psychoanalysisÿandÿhistory.ÿAndÿtheÿlackÿofÿsuchÿaÿconceptÿexplainsÿtheÿfailureÿofÿbothÿ
historiansÿandÿpsychoanalystsÿtoÿpursueÿFreud'sÿpioneeringÿefforts.ÿ
But,ÿifÿhistoriansÿhaveÿfailedÿtoÿfollowÿFreud,ÿpoetsÿhaveÿcharacteristicallyÿ
anticipatedÿhim.ÿIsÿthereÿnot,ÿforÿexample,ÿaÿstillÿunexploredÿtruthÿinÿtheÿstatementÿofÿtheÿ
GermanÿpoetÿHebbel:ÿ"IsÿitÿsoÿhardÿtoÿrecognizeÿthatÿtheÿGermanÿnationÿhasÿupÿtillÿnowÿnoÿ
lifeÿhistoryÿtoÿshowÿforÿitself,ÿbutÿonlyÿtheÿhistoryÿofÿaÿdisease.ÿAndÿnotÿjustÿtheÿGermanÿ
nation-whichÿisÿorÿusedÿtoÿbeÿtheÿscapegoatÿcarryingÿallÿtheÿsinsÿofÿtheÿWesternÿworld.ÿ
AccordingÿtoÿJamesÿJoyce,ÿ"HistoryÿisÿaÿnightmareÿfromÿwhichÿIÿamÿtryingÿtoÿawaken."ÿTheÿ
poets,ÿandÿNietzsche--Nietzsche'sÿGenealogyÿofÿMoralsÿisÿtheÿfirstÿattemptÿtoÿgraspÿworldÿ
historyÿasÿtheÿhistoryÿofÿanÿeverÿincreasingÿneurosis.ÿAndÿbothÿNietzscheÿandÿFreudÿfindÿtheÿ
sameÿdynamicÿinÿtheÿneurosisÿofÿhistory,ÿanÿeverÿincreasingÿsenseÿofÿguiltÿcausedÿbyÿ
repression.ÿNietzsche'sÿclimax--"Tooÿlongÿhasÿtheÿworldÿbeenÿaÿmadhouse"ÿ"-comparesÿ
withÿtheÿdarkÿconclusionÿofÿCivilizationÿandÿItsÿDiscontents:ÿ"Ifÿcivilizationÿisÿanÿinevitableÿ
courseÿofÿdevelopmentÿfromÿtheÿgroupÿofÿtheÿfamilyÿtoÿtheÿgroupÿofÿhumanityÿasÿaÿwhole,ÿ
thenÿanÿintensificationÿofÿtheÿsenseÿofÿguiltÿwillÿbeÿinextricablyÿboundÿupÿwithÿit,ÿuntilÿ
perhapsÿtheÿsenseÿofÿguiltÿmayÿswellÿtoÿaÿmagnitudeÿthatÿindividualsÿcanÿhardlyÿsupport."ÿ
Theÿnecessityÿofÿaÿpsychoanalyticalÿapproachÿtoÿhistoryÿisÿpressedÿuponÿtheÿhistorianÿbyÿ
oneÿquestion:ÿWhyÿdoesÿman,ÿaloneÿofÿallÿanimals,ÿhaveÿaÿhistory?ÿForÿmanÿisÿdistinguishedÿ
fromÿanimalsÿnotÿsimplyÿbyÿtheÿpossessionÿandÿtransmissionÿfromÿgenerationÿtoÿgenerationÿ
ofÿthatÿsuprabiologicalÿapparatusÿwhichÿisÿculture,ÿbutÿalso,ÿifÿhistoryÿandÿchangesÿinÿtimeÿ
areÿessentialÿcharacteristicsÿofÿhumanÿcultureÿandÿthereforeÿofÿman,ÿbyÿaÿdesireÿtoÿchangeÿ
hisÿcultureÿandÿsoÿtoÿchangeÿhimself.ÿInÿmakingÿhistoryÿ"manÿmakesÿhimself",ÿtoÿuseÿtheÿ
suggestiveÿtitleÿofÿGordonÿChilde'sÿbook.ÿThenÿtheÿhistoricalÿprocessÿisÿsustainedÿbyÿman'sÿ
desireÿtoÿbecomeÿotherÿthanÿwhatÿheÿis.ÿAndÿman'sÿdesireÿtoÿbecomeÿsomethingÿdifferentÿisÿ
essentiallyÿanÿunconsciousÿdesire.ÿTheÿactualÿchangesÿinÿhistoryÿneitherÿresultÿfromÿnorÿ
correspondÿtoÿtheÿconsciousÿdesiresÿofÿtheÿhumanÿagentsÿwhoÿbringÿthemÿabout.ÿEveryÿ
ÿ
 ÿ
historianÿknowsÿthis,ÿandÿtheÿphilosopherÿofÿhistory,ÿHegel,ÿinÿhisÿdoctrineÿofÿtheÿ"cunningÿ
ofÿReason,"ÿmadeÿitÿaÿfundamentalÿpointÿinÿhisÿstructuralÿanalysisÿofÿhistory.ÿMankindÿ
todayÿisÿstillÿmakingÿhistoryÿwithoutÿhavingÿanyÿconsciousÿideaÿofÿwhatÿitÿreallyÿwantsÿorÿ
underÿwhatÿconditionsÿitÿwouldÿstopÿbeingÿunhappy;ÿinÿfactÿwhatÿitÿisÿdoingÿseemsÿtoÿbeÿ
makingÿitselfÿmoreÿunhappyÿandÿcallingÿthatÿunhappinessÿprogress.ÿ
Christianÿtheology,ÿorÿatÿleastÿAugustinianÿtheology,ÿrecognizesÿhumanÿrestlessnessÿ
andÿdiscontent.ÿButÿChristianÿtheology,ÿtoÿaccountÿforÿtheÿoriginÿofÿhumanÿdiscontentÿandÿtoÿ
indicateÿaÿsolution,ÿhasÿtoÿtakeÿmanÿoutÿofÿthisÿrealÿworld,ÿoutÿofÿtheÿanimalÿkingdom,ÿandÿ
inculcateÿintoÿhimÿdelusionsÿofÿgrandeur.ÿAndÿthusÿChristianÿtheologyÿcommitsÿitsÿownÿ
worstÿsin,ÿtheÿsinÿofÿpride.ÿ
Freud'sÿrealÿcritiqueÿofÿreligionÿinÿTheÿFutureÿofÿanÿIllusionÿisÿtheÿcontentionÿ(alsoÿ
Spinoza's)ÿthatÿtrueÿhumilityÿliesÿinÿscience.ÿTrueÿhumility,ÿheÿsays,ÿrequiresÿthatÿweÿlearnÿ
fromÿCopernicusÿthatÿtheÿhumanÿworldÿisÿnotÿtheÿpurposeÿorÿtheÿcenterÿofÿtheÿuniverse;ÿthatÿ
weÿlearnÿfromÿDarwinÿthatÿmanÿisÿaÿmemberÿofÿtheÿanimalÿkingdom;ÿandÿthatÿweÿlearnÿfromÿ
Freudÿthatÿtheÿhumanÿegoÿisÿnotÿevenÿmasterÿinÿitsÿownÿhouse."ÿApartÿfromÿpsychoanalysisÿ
thereÿareÿnoÿsecularÿorÿscientificÿtheoriesÿasÿtoÿwhyÿmanÿisÿtheÿrestlessÿandÿdiscontentedÿ
animal.ÿTheÿdiscontentedÿanimalÿisÿtheÿneuroticÿanimal,ÿtheÿanimalÿwithÿdesiresÿgivenÿinÿhisÿ
natureÿwhichÿareÿnotÿsatisfiedÿbyÿculture.ÿFromÿtheÿpsychoanalyticalÿpointÿofÿview,ÿtheseÿ
unsatisfiedÿandÿrepressedÿbutÿimmortalÿdesiresÿsustainÿtheÿhistoricalÿprocess.ÿHistoryÿisÿ
shaped,ÿbeyondÿourÿconsciousÿwills,ÿnotÿbyÿtheÿcunningÿofÿReasonÿbutÿbyÿtheÿcunningÿofÿ
Desire.ÿ
Theÿriddleÿofÿhistory..ÿisÿnotÿinÿReasonÿbutÿinÿDesire;ÿnotÿinÿlabor,ÿbutÿinÿlove.ÿAÿ
confrontationÿwithÿMarxÿwillÿclarifyÿFreud.ÿItÿisÿaxiomaticÿinÿMarxismÿtoÿdefineÿtheÿessenceÿ
ofÿmanÿasÿlabor.ÿFreudÿhasÿnoÿquarrelÿwithÿtheÿMarxistÿemphasisÿonÿtheÿimportanceÿofÿtheÿ
"economicÿfactor"ÿinÿhistory:ÿheÿformallyÿpraisesÿMarxismÿforÿ"Itsÿclearÿinsightÿintoÿtheÿ
determiningÿinfluenceÿwhichÿisÿexertedÿbyÿtheÿeconomicÿconditionsÿofÿmanÿuponÿhisÿ
intellectual,ÿethical,ÿandÿartisticÿreactions."ÿForÿFreud,ÿworkÿandÿeconomicÿnecessityÿareÿtheÿ
essenceÿofÿtheÿreality-principle:ÿbutÿtheÿessenceÿofÿmanÿliesÿnotÿinÿtheÿrealityprincipleÿbutÿinÿ
repressedÿunconsciousÿdesires.ÿNoÿmatterÿhowÿstringentlyÿeconomicÿnecessitiesÿpressÿdownÿ
onÿhim,ÿheÿisÿnotÿinÿhisÿessenceÿHomoÿeconomicusÿorÿHomoÿlaborans;ÿnoÿmatterÿhowÿbitterÿ
theÿstruggleÿforÿbread,ÿmanÿdoesÿnotÿliveÿbyÿbreadÿalone.ÿ
ThusÿFreudÿbecomesÿrelevantÿwhenÿhistoryÿraisesÿthisÿquestion:ÿWhatÿdoesÿmanÿ
wantÿoverÿandÿbeyondÿ"economicÿwelfare"ÿandÿ"masteryÿoverÿnature"?ÿMarxÿdefinesÿtheÿ
essenceÿofÿmanÿasÿlaborÿandÿtracesÿtheÿdialecticÿofÿlaborÿinÿhistoryÿtillÿlaborÿabolishesÿitself.ÿ
ThereÿisÿthenÿaÿvacuumÿinÿtheÿMarxistÿutopia.ÿUnlessÿthereÿisÿnoÿutopia,ÿunlessÿhistoryÿisÿ
neverÿabolished,ÿunlessÿlaborÿcontinuesÿtoÿbe,ÿlikeÿFaust,ÿdrivenÿtoÿeverÿgreaterÿ
achievements,ÿsomeÿotherÿandÿtruerÿdefinitionÿofÿtheÿessenceÿofÿmanÿmustÿbeÿfound.ÿFreudÿ
ÿ
 ÿ
suggestsÿthatÿbeyondÿlaborÿthereÿisÿlove.ÿAndÿifÿbeyondÿlaborÿatÿtheÿendÿofÿhistoryÿthereÿisÿ
love,ÿloveÿmustÿhaveÿalwaysÿbeenÿthereÿfromÿtheÿbeginningÿofÿhistory,ÿandÿitÿmustÿhaveÿ
beenÿtheÿhiddenÿforceÿsupplyingÿtheÿenergyÿdevotedÿtoÿlaborÿandÿtoÿmakingÿhistory.ÿFromÿ
thisÿpointÿofÿview,ÿrepressedÿErosÿisÿtheÿenergyÿofÿhistoryÿandÿlaborÿmustÿbeÿseenÿasÿ
sublimatedÿEros.ÿInÿthisÿwayÿaÿproblemÿnotÿfacedÿbyÿMarxÿcanÿbeÿfacedÿwithÿtheÿaidÿofÿ
Freud.ÿ
Marxismÿisÿaÿsystemÿofÿsociology;ÿtheÿimportanceÿofÿtheÿ"economicÿfactor"ÿisÿaÿ
sociologicalÿquestionÿtoÿbeÿsettledÿbyÿsociologists;ÿFreudÿhimself,ÿspeakingÿasÿaÿsociologist,ÿ
canÿsayÿthatÿinÿimposingÿrepressionÿ"atÿbottomÿsociety'sÿmotiveÿisÿeconomic."ÿTheÿquarrelÿ
betweenÿpsychoanalysisÿandÿ"economicÿdeterminism"ÿarisesÿinÿtheÿtacitÿpsychologicalÿ
assumptionsÿbehindÿeconomicÿdeterminism,ÿandÿthereforeÿarisesÿonlyÿwhenÿweÿpassÿfromÿ
sociologyÿtoÿpsychology,ÿfromÿtheÿabstractionÿofÿsociety"ÿtoÿtheÿconcreteÿhumanÿindividual.ÿ
Theÿissueÿisÿnotÿtheÿimportanceÿofÿeconomicsÿbutÿitsÿpsychology.ÿMarxÿhimself,ÿthoughÿ
alwaysÿcomplicated,ÿisÿnotÿfreeÿfromÿtheÿtacitÿassumption,ÿheldÿgenerallyÿbyÿeconomicÿ
determinists,ÿthatÿtheÿconcreteÿhumanÿneedsÿandÿdrivesÿsustainingÿeconomicÿactivityÿareÿjustÿ
whatÿtheyÿappearÿtoÿbeÿandÿareÿfullyÿinÿconsciousness:ÿ"self-preservation"ÿandÿ"pleasure,"ÿ
asÿunderstoodÿbyÿtheÿutilitarians,ÿsummarizeÿtheÿpsychologicalÿtheoryÿimpliedÿbyÿtheÿ
ingenuousÿinvocationÿofÿcategoriesÿlikeÿ"economicÿnecessity"ÿandÿ"humanÿneeds."ÿ
Butÿtheÿproofÿthatÿhumanÿneedsÿareÿnotÿwhatÿtheyÿseemÿtoÿbeÿliesÿpreciselyÿinÿtheÿfactÿofÿ
humanÿhistory.ÿTheÿFaustianÿrestlessnessÿofÿmanÿinÿhistoryÿshowsÿthatÿmenÿareÿnotÿsatisfiedÿ
byÿtheÿsatisfactionÿofÿtheirÿconsciousÿdesires;ÿmenÿareÿunconsciousÿofÿtheirÿrealÿdesires.ÿ
Thusÿaÿpsychologyÿofÿhistoryÿmustÿbeÿpsychoanalytical.ÿ
InÿsoÿfarÿasÿMarxÿfacedÿthisÿquestionÿatÿall,ÿlackingÿtheÿconceptÿofÿrepressedÿ
unconsciousÿdesiresÿheÿcouldÿonlyÿcomeÿupÿwithÿaÿpsychologyÿofÿhistoryÿwhichÿcondemnsÿ
manÿtoÿbeÿeternallyÿFaustianÿandÿprecludesÿanyÿpossibilityÿofÿhappiness.ÿMarxÿneedsÿaÿ
psychologicalÿpremiseÿtoÿexplainÿtheÿunceasingÿbentÿforÿtechnologicalÿprogressÿsustainingÿ
theÿdialecticÿofÿlaborÿinÿhistory.ÿLackingÿtheÿdoctrineÿofÿrepression-orÿratherÿnotÿbeingÿableÿ
toÿseeÿmanÿasÿaÿpsychologicalÿriddle-Marx,ÿasÿaÿsympatheticÿcriticÿhasÿshown,ÿturnsÿtoÿ
biologyÿandÿpostulatesÿanÿabsoluteÿlawÿofÿhumanÿbiologyÿthatÿtheÿsatisfactionÿofÿhumanÿ
needsÿalwaysÿgeneratesÿnewÿneeds."ÿIfÿhumanÿdiscontentÿisÿthusÿbiologicallyÿgiven,ÿitÿisÿ
incurable.ÿQuiteÿspecifically,ÿnotÿonlyÿ"theÿabolitionÿofÿhistory"ÿbutÿalsoÿanÿ"economyÿofÿ
abundance,"ÿasÿenvisionedÿinÿMarx'sÿutopianÿphase,ÿareÿoutÿofÿtheÿquestion.ÿHenceÿtheÿdarkÿ
cloudsÿofÿpessimismÿinÿtheÿthirdÿvolumeÿofÿCapital,ÿwhereÿheÿsays:ÿ
ÿ
Justÿasÿtheÿsavageÿmustÿwrestleÿwithÿnature,ÿinÿorderÿtoÿsatisfyÿhisÿwants,ÿinÿorderÿtoÿ
maintainÿhisÿlifeÿandÿtoÿreproduceÿit,ÿsoÿtheÿcivilizedÿmanÿhasÿtoÿdoÿitÿinÿallÿformsÿofÿ
societyÿandÿunderÿallÿmodesÿofÿproduction.ÿWithÿhisÿdevelopmentÿtheÿrealmÿofÿ
ÿ
 ÿ
naturalÿnecessityÿexpands,ÿbecauseÿhisÿwantsÿincrease;ÿbutÿatÿtheÿsameÿtimeÿtheÿ
forcesÿofÿproductionÿincrease,ÿbyÿwhichÿtheseÿwantsÿareÿsatisfied.ÿ
ÿ
ButÿMarx'sÿassumptionÿofÿaÿbiologicalÿbasisÿforÿ"progress"ÿinÿhistoryÿreallyÿamountsÿtoÿaÿ
confessionÿthatÿheÿisÿunableÿtoÿexplainÿitÿpsychologically.ÿ
Psychoanalysisÿcanÿprovideÿaÿtheoryÿofÿ"progress,"ÿbutÿonlyÿbyÿviewingÿhistoryÿasÿaÿ
neurosis.ÿByÿdefiningÿmanÿasÿtheÿneuroticÿanimal,ÿpsychoanalysisÿnotÿmerelyÿassumesÿ
man'sÿFaustianÿcharacterÿbutÿalsoÿexplainsÿwhyÿmanÿisÿso.ÿToÿquoteÿFreud:ÿ
ÿ
Whatÿappearsÿ.ÿ.ÿ.ÿasÿanÿuntiringÿimpulsionÿtowardÿfurtherÿperfectionÿcanÿeasilyÿbeÿ
understoodÿasÿaÿresultÿofÿtheÿinstinctualÿrepressionÿuponÿwhichÿisÿbasedÿallÿthatÿisÿ
mostÿpreciousÿinÿhumanÿcivilization.ÿTheÿrepressedÿinstinctÿneverÿceasesÿtoÿstriveÿ
forÿcompleteÿsatisfaction,ÿwhichÿwouldÿconsistÿinÿtheÿrepetitionÿofÿaÿprimaryÿ
experienceÿofÿsatisfaction.ÿNoÿsubstitutiveÿorÿreactiveÿformationsÿandÿnoÿ
sublimationsÿwillÿsufficeÿtoÿremoveÿtheÿrepressedÿinstinct'sÿpersistingÿtension.ÿ
ÿ
Byÿtheÿsameÿtoken,ÿpsychoanalysisÿoffersÿaÿtheoreticalÿframeworkÿforÿexploringÿtheÿ
possibilityÿofÿaÿwayÿoutÿofÿtheÿnightmareÿofÿendlessÿ"progress"ÿandÿendlessÿFaustianÿ
discontent,ÿaÿwayÿoutÿofÿtheÿhumanÿneurosis,ÿaÿwayÿoutÿofÿhistory.ÿInÿtheÿcaseÿofÿtheÿ
neuroticÿindividual,ÿtheÿgoalÿofÿpsychoanalyticalÿtherapyÿisÿtoÿfreeÿhimÿfromÿtheÿburdenÿofÿ
hisÿpast,ÿfromÿtheÿburdenÿofÿhisÿhistory,ÿtheÿburdenÿwhichÿcompelsÿhimÿtoÿgoÿonÿhavingÿ
(andÿbeing)ÿaÿcaseÿhistory.ÿAndÿtheÿmethodÿofÿpsychoanalyticalÿtherapyÿisÿtoÿdeepenÿtheÿ
historicalÿconsciousnessÿofÿtheÿindividualÿ("fillÿupÿtheÿmemory-gaps")ÿtillÿheÿawakensÿfromÿ
hisÿownÿhistoryÿasÿfromÿaÿnightmare.ÿPsychoanalyticalÿconsciousness,ÿasÿaÿhigherÿstageÿinÿ
theÿgeneralÿconsciousnessÿofÿmankind,ÿmayÿbeÿlikewiseÿtheÿfulfillmentÿofÿtheÿhistoricalÿ
consciousness,ÿthatÿeverÿwideningÿandÿdeepeningÿsearchÿforÿoriginsÿwhichÿhasÿobsessedÿ
WesternÿthoughtÿeverÿsinceÿtheÿRenaissance.ÿIfÿhistoricalÿconsciousnessÿisÿfinallyÿ
transformedÿintoÿpsychoanalyticalÿconsciousness,ÿtheÿgripÿofÿtheÿdeadÿhandÿofÿtheÿpastÿonÿ
lifeÿinÿtheÿpresentÿwouldÿbeÿloosened,ÿandÿmanÿwouldÿbeÿreadyÿtoÿliveÿinsteadÿofÿmakingÿ
history,ÿtoÿenjoyÿinsteadÿofÿpayingÿbackÿoldÿscoresÿandÿdebts,ÿandÿtoÿenterÿthatÿstateÿofÿ
BeingÿwhichÿwasÿtheÿgoalÿofÿhisÿBecoming.ÿ
ÿ
ÿ