A TREA TI SE ON THE

D I FFERENTIA L GEO METRY

OF C URV ES A ND SURFA C ES

L UT ER
H PFAH L ER EISE NHA RT
PROFESSOR O F MATHEMAT ICS IN PRI
N CETO N U N I V ERSX T Y

f
Q
/”
“ f
x

G INN A ND COMPA NY
BOS TO N N EW Y OR K C H I C A G O LO ND O N
 P R EFA C E

h k h
T i s boo is a d e v e l o p men t from co urses w hi ch I ave gi ven in
b h t Ih
Pr ince to n for a num er of yea rs D uri n g t i s i me ave c ome to
th t b h b th
.

fee l a more w ould e a cco m plis e d y my s t u d en ts i f ey ha d

t t t h th
in rod u c o ry rea tise w ritte n in En gli s an d o er wi se a d a pte d to t e h
b th
use of men eginning e ir g ra d ua te w ork
h t I th th h h
.

C a p er is devoted to e eory of twi ste d c urves t e me t od

'

b th h h h
,

in general e ing a t w i c is us ua ll y fo ll o we d in di sc uss i ons of t i s

b
su je ct But in a ddi ti on Ih t th
ave in ro d u c e d e id ea o f mov in g a xes
h th t th th
. ,

an d ave d eri ved e formul as per a in ing ere t o fro m e pre vi o u s l y

b t
o tained Fi e n et Se rre formul as In th th
is w ay e s t u d en t i s ma d e
th th h h th b b
-
.

fam ili ar wi a me od w i c i s s i m il ar to a t use d y B ar o u x in

h fi t h
t e rst vol ume of hi s Lepons an d o t a t of Cesaro in hi s Geometri c
h th t h
,

I n tr i nseca T i s me od is no t o nl y of g rea t a d van age i n t e t rea t

t h t b b t
.

men t of ce r a in t o pics and i n t e sol u i on of p ro l ems u t i i s val u

b t th
,

a l e in d eve l o p ing g eome ric al ink i ng

h th b b t th t h
.

T e remai n d er of e oo k may e di vid e d in o ree p ar s T e

fi t t h t th th t
.

rs cons i s ing of C a p ers I I—V I d ea l s w i e g eo me ry of a s ur

th hb h h t th
, ,

fa c e i a e ne ig or ood of a poin t and t e d eve l o p men s erefrom

h b t
,

s uc as c u rves and sys tems of c urves d e fine d y d ifferen i al e qua

t h th th
ti ons T o a l arge e x en t t e me od is a t o f Gauss y w ic t e b h hh
t h
.
,

p ro per i es of a surfa ce are de ri ve d from t e di s c uss i on of tw o q ua d

r ati c di ffere n ti al forms tt h
Ho w ever li l e or no s p a ce i s gi ven t o t e
b t t t t th
.
,

alge ra ic rea men of differe n i al forms an d e i r in var iant s I n

t h th th fi t h t
.

addi i on t e me od of movi n g a xes as d efi ne d i n e rs c a p e r

h b t b b t t t h
, , ,

as een e x en d e d so as t o e a pplic a l e o an i nves ig a i on of t e

h
p ro perties of s u rfac es an d g ro u ps of s u rfa c es T e e xt en of e t th
th t t th t tt h
«
.

eo ry c on cern i n g ord i nary po i n s i s so g rea a no a em pt as

b th
ee n ma d e t o c ons ider t b
e e xc e p i onal p ro l ems For a di s c uss i on
h t h t t t
.

of suc q ues i ons as t e e xi s en ce of in e ral s of differen i al e qu a

b t th t
ti ons and oun d ary condi i ons e rea d er mus consul e trea i ses t th t g

hh t
w ic d eal par ic ul arl y wi th th b ese s u je cts
h t h th
.

In C a p ers V I I an d V III t e eory pre vi ous l y d eve l o pe d is

h th
appli ed t o seve ra l g rou p s of s u rfa c es s u c as e qua d ric s rul e d
t t t
, ,

surfa ces mi ni ma l surfa ces s u rfa c es of c ons a n t otal c u rva u re and

th h t
, , ,

s u rfa c es wi pl ane an d s p er ical lin es of c urva ure .

l
n “ , h ,
 PR E F ACE
h b
T e id ea of a pplic a ilit y of surfa c es i s i n t ro d u ce d i n C a pter I I I h
t
as a p ar tic ul ar c ase of c onforma l re p resen a ti on an d t ro u g ou t t e h h h
b b
,

ook a tt en ti on i s c all e d t o e x am pl es of a pplica l e surfa c es Ho w e v er

h b h h b
.
,

t e general pro l ems c on c erne d wit t e applic a ility of s u rfa ces are
h t h h h
dis c usse d in C ap ers IX an d X t e l atter of w ic d eal s e nti rel y
h h h h
,

wit t e re cen t me t o d of We ingar ten an d it s d ev el op ment s T e

h fi
.

rem aining four c a pt ers are d e v o te d t o a di s c uss i on of in nit es imal

h
d eforma tion of surfa ces c on gruen ces of s tra ig t li n es an d of ci r cl es
h
, ,

an d tripl y or t o g onal sys t ems of surfa c es

b h h b h
.

I t will e no tic e d t a t t e oo k c on t a in s many e x am pl es an d t e

fi h h h
,

s tu d en t will n d t a t w ereas c er t a in of t em are mere l y dire ct

h h
a pplic a ti ons of t e formul as o t ers c ons tit u t e e xt ens i ons of t e h
h hh h b
, .

t eory w ic m ig t pro per l y e incl u d e d as p ortions of a more e x

fi h
tens i ve treati se A t rs t I felt cons trai ne d t o gi ve su c references as
b h h
.

w ould ena l e t e rea d er t o c onsul t t e journal s an d trea ti ses from

h h th b b fi
w ic some of ese p ro l ems w ere t ak en u t na lly it seeme d es b t
h h h h
,

t o fu rn i s no su c k ey on ly t o remar k t a t t e En cyklopci d ie der ’

b h
'

m a th ema ti sch cn Wi ssen sch aften may e of ass i s t an c e A n d t e same

b b h h b
.

may e sa id a o u t referen ces t o t e sour ces of t e su je ct ma tt er of

h b tt h b b h
-

t e oo k Many i m por tan t ci a i on s av e een mad e u t t ere h as

b tt I
.
,

no t een an a em pt t o gi ve every referen ce Ho w e v er d es i re t o

bt h b h
.
,

a ck nowl e dg e my in d e e d ness t o t e t rea ti ses of B ar ou x Bi an c i

h fi h h
, ,

an d Sch effer s But t e di f cu lt y i s t a t for many years I a v e c o n

h h h b
.

sulted t ese au t ors so free l y t a t no w it i s i m p oss i l e for me t o say

h fi b I h
,

e xce pt i n c ert a i n c ases w a t s p e ci c d e t s o w e t o ea c

h h fi h h h
.
,

I n it s p resen t form t e ma t er i al of t e rs t e ig t c a pt ers as

b b h h
,

een gi ven t o e ginn in g cl asses i n ea c of t e l as t tw o years ; a nd

h h b th h
t e rema in d er of t e oo k wi certai n enl argement s as cons tit u te d
h h b
, ,

an a d van c e d c o u rse w ic h as een foll o w e d severa l times I t i s i m

b b h
.

poss i l e for me t o gi ve su ita l e cre dit for t e su gg es tions ma d e an d

b h b
th e ass i s t an c e ren d ere d y my s t u d en t s d ur in g t ese years u t am I
b
,

c ons cious of h elp fu l su ggestions ma d e y my c o ll eagues Professors

b t b
,

V e l en Mac l n n es an d Swi f an d y my former c oll ea g ue Professor

h h h
, , , ,

Bli ss of C ic ag o I wi s a l so t o t an k Mr A K K rause for ma ki n g

h h fi
. . . .

t e d rawing s for t e g u res

h
.

I t rema i ns for me t o e xp ress my a pp re ci a ti on of t e c ou rtesy

h b h t b
s o w n y Gi nn and C om pany an d of t e ass i s an c e giv en y t em h
h h b
d u ring t e pr inting of t i s oo k
,

H FAH N
.

LU T E R P LER E I SE HART
 C O N TEN TS

C HA TER IP

CUR V ES I N S P A CE
S ECT I N O

1 PA R A M E T R I C E Q U A T I O N S O F A C U RV E
.

2 O TH E R F O R M S OF T HE E Q U A TI O N S OF A C U R V E
.

3 LI N E A R E L E M E N T
.

4 T A N G E NT T o A C U Rv E
N
.

5 O R D E R O P C O N TAC T
. . ORMA L PLA N E
6 C U R VA T U R E
. .R A D I U S OF F I RS T C U R VA T U R E
7 O SC U LA T IN G P L A N E
N
.

8 PR IN C I P A L
. O RMA L A N D B IN OR M A L .

O SC U LA TIN G CI RC LE C ENT E R o r F I RS T C U RVA T U R E

F
9
. .

10 T O R S I O N R E N E T S E R R E T F OR M U LA S
F N
-
. .

11. OR M OF C U RVE IN T H E E I G HBO RH OO D O F A PO IN T T R E SI G N

OF T OR S I O N
1 2 C YL IN D R I C A L
. HE LIC E S
1 3 I N T R IN S I C E Q U A T I O N S
. .F U N DA M E N TA L T H EO R E M
1 4 RI C C A T I E Q U A T I O N S
.

1 5 T H E D ET E RM IN A T I O N O P TH E C OOR D IN A T E S O P A C U R VE D E F IN E D
.

B Y I TS I N T R I N S I C E QUA T I O N S
1 6 M OV IN G T R I H ED RAL
.

1 7 I L LU ST RA T I V E E X A M P L ES
.

1 8 O SC U L A TIN G SP H E R E
.

1 9 B E R T RA N D C U RVE S
.

2 0 T A N G E NT SU R FA C E o r A C U R VE
.

2 1 I NVOL U T E S A N D E VOL U T E S o r A C URVE

.

22 M I N I M A L C URVE S
.

CHA TER II P

CUR VIL IN E A R CO O RD I NA T ES O N A SUR A CE E N VELO P ES

F .

23 PA R M E T R I C E Q U A T I O N S O F A S U RF AC E
. A

2 4 PA RA M E T R I C C U RV ES
.

2 5 T A N GE NT PLA N E
.

26 O . PA RA ME T E R F A M I L I E S OF S U R FAC ES EN VE LO P E S
NE
-
.
 C ON T EN T S
S E TI
C O N
D E VE LO P A B LE S U R FAC ES R E C T I F Y IN G D EV ELO PA BL E
A PP L I C A TI O N S OF T HE MO V IN G T R I HE D RA L
27 .
.

28 .

29 . EN V E LO P E OF S P H E R E S C A N A L S U FA C ES
. R

C HA TER III P

L I N E A R ELEME N T O F A SUR FA CE D I FF ERE N T I A L P A R A ME

F ORM A L RE P RESE N T A TI O N
.

T ERS . C ON

LI N EA R E LE M E N T
I SOTRO PI C D E VE LO P A B L E
T RA N S FOR M AT I O N OF C OO RD IN A T ES
A N GLES B E TWE E N C U R VES T H E E L E M E N T A R EA
F A M I L I ES O F C U RV E S
. OP

MINI MA L C U R VES O N A S U RFAC E

VA R I A T I O N O F A F U N C T I O N
DI F F E R E N T I A L PA RA M ET ER S OF TH E F I R S T O R DE R
DI FF E RE N T I A L PA RA M E T E RS OF T II E S ECO N D O R D E R
S YM M ETR I C C OOR D IN AT E S
I SOTH ER M I C A N D I SO M E T R I C PA R AM E T E RS
ISO T II E R M IC O RT HOGO N A L S YST E M S
C O N FOR MA L R E P R ES E N TA T I O N
I SOM ET R I C R E P R ES E N TA T I O N A PP L I CA BLE S U RFA C E S
.

C O N FORM AL R E P R E S E N TA T I O N OF A S U R FA C E U P O N I TS EL F
C O N FO R MAL R E P R E S E N TA T I O N O F T H E PLA N E
S U R F AC E S O F R E VO LU T I O N
C O N FORM A L R E P R E S E N TA T I O N S O F T H E S PII ER E

C HA TER I V P

GEOME T RY O F A SUR FA CE N E IG H I N THE OR H OOD

O F A PO INT
B

F U N DA M E N TAL C OE F F I C I E NT S OF TII E S ECO N D O R D E R

R A D I US O F N O RMA L C U R VA TU RE
P R IN C IP A L R A D II OF N ORMA L C U R VA T U R E
LIN ES O F C U R VA T U R E E Q U AT I O N S O F R O D R I GU ES
.

T OTA L A N D M EA N C U R VA TU RE
E Q U A T I O N OF E U L E R D U PIN I N D I C A T RI x
.

C O N J U G A T E DI R E C T I O N S A T A PO IN T C O NJ UG A T E S YST EM S
A L
.

SYM P TOT I C LIN ES C HA RACT E R I ST I C IN ES

.

C O R RE S P O N D IN G S YST EM S O N Tw o S U R FAC ES
G EO DE S I C C U R VATU R E G EO D ES I C S
F F
.

U N DA M E N TA L O RM U LA S
 C O NT EN TS
S EC TI N
O

59 . G EOD E S I C T O RS I O N
60 . SP H E R I CA L R E P R ESE N TA TI O N
61 . R ELAT I O N S W A S U RFAC E A N D I T S S P H E R I CAL
B ET EE I
'
REP RE

H EL I CO I D S
SEN T A T I O N

C HA TER P V
F UN D AME N T A L EQU A TI O N S . T HE MO VI N G T R I H EDR A L
C HR I STOFF E L S YMB OLS
T H E E QU A T I O N S OF G A U S S A N D O F C O DA I ZZ

F U N D AM E N T A L T H EO R EM
F U N DAM E N TA L E QU A T I O N S IN A N OTH E R F O RM
T C OOR D IN A T ES MEA N E VOL UT E
A N G EN T I A I . .

T H E M OV IN G T R I H E D RA L
F U N DA M E N TA L E Q U AT I O N S OF C O N D ITI O N
LIN E A R E L EM E N T LIN ES OF C U R VA TU R E
C O N U G AT E DI R ECT I O N S A N D A S M PT OT I C D
.

J SP H E R Y I R EC TO N S .

I CAL R
F U N D A M E N TA L R E LA TI O N S A N D F ORM U LAS
EP RES EN T A TTO N
‘

PA RA LLE L S U R FA CE S
S U RFAC E S O F C E N TE R
F U N D AM EN TA L Q UA N T I T I E S FO R S U R FA C E S OF C E N T E R
S UR FA C E S C OM PL E M E N TA R Y TO A GI V E N S U R FAC E

C HA TER V I P

S S T EMS O F CUR V ES GEODES I CS

Y .

A SYM PTOT I C LIN E S

SP H ER I C A L R E P RE S E N TA T I ON OF A SY M P TOT I C L IN ES
FO R M U L A S '
OF T A N G E N T I A L E Q UA T I O N S
L EL I E U V R E .

C O NJ U G A T F S YSTEM S O F PA R A M ETR I C LIN E S

. I N V E RS I O N S .

S U R FAC E S O F T RA N SLAT I O N
I SO T H E RMA L C O N J U GATE S YST E M S
-

SP H E R I CA L R E P RE S E N TAT I O N O F C O NJ U GA TE S YST E MS
T A N G E N T I A L C O OR D IN A T E S PR O TE CT I V E T RA N S FORM A T I O N S
.

E Q UA T I O N S OF G EO D ES I C LIN E S
G EOD ES I C PA RA LL ELS G EOD E S I C PA RA M ET E RS
.

G EOD ES I C POLA R C OO R D IN A T ES
A RE A OF A G E OD E S I C T R I A N G L E
L IN ES OF S HO RTES T L E NG TH G E OD E S I C C U RVAT U R E
H
.

G EODES I C E LL IP S ES AN D Y P E R BOLA S
 CO NT EN T S
S U R F A C E S OF L I O UV I LL E
m . N

I N TEG RA T I O N O F T H E E Q U A T I O N OF G EOD ES I C L IN ES
G EOD E S I CS O N S U R FAC E S O F L I O U V I LL E
LI N ES OF S HO RTE S T L E N GTH EN VELO P E OF G EOD E S I CS
.

C HA TER P V II

QU A DR I CS . RULED SUR FA CES M I N I M A L SUR FA CES

.

C O N FOCA L Q U A D R I C S E LL IP T I C C OO R D IN AT ES
.

F U N DA M E N TA L Q UA NTI T I ES FOR C E N TRA L Q UA D R I CS

F U N D A M E N TA L Q UA NTI T I E S FOR T H E PA RA BOLO I D S
LIN E S O F C U RVA T U R E A N D A S YM P TOT I C LIN ES O N Q U A DR I CS
G EO DE S I C S O N Q U A D R I CS
G EOD E S I CS TH ROU G H T H E U M B I L I CA L PO IN TS
E LL IPSO I D R EF E R R E D TO A POLA R G EO DE S I C S YS TE M
PRO P E RT I ES O F Q U A D R I C S
E QUA TI O N S OF A R U L E D S U R FAC E
LIN E O F S T I C T I O N D EVE LO PA B L E S U RFA C E S
R .

C E N TR A L PLA N E PA RAM E TE R OF DI S T R I B U T I O N
.

PA R T I C U LA R F OR M OF TH E LIN EA R E LE M E N T
A SYM P TOT I C LIN E S O RT H OGO N A L P A RA M E TR I C S YST EM S
.

MINI MA L S U R FA C E S
LIN ES O F C U R VA T U R E A N D A S YM PTOT I C L IN ES A D O IN T MINI . J

M A L S UR FA C ES
MINI M A L C U R VE S O N A MINI M A L S U R FAC E
D OU B LE MINI MA L S U RFA C E S
A LG EB RA I C MINI M A L S U R FA C E S
A SSOC I A T E S U R FAC ES
F O R M ULA S OF S CH WAR Z

C HA TER V III P

SUR F A CES O F CO N S T AN T T O T A L CU V A T URE W SUR FA CES R

SUR FA CES P L AN E S P H ER I C A L L I N ES O F
.
— .

“7 1T H OR C UR
V A T URE

115 . SP H ER I C AL S URFAC ES O F R EVOLU T I O N

S U RFAC ES O F R EVO LU T I O N
G EO D ES I C PA RA M ET R I C S YST EM S A PP L I C A B I L I TY
1 16 . P S E U D O S P II ER I C A L

1 17 .
.

1 18 . T RA N S FO RMAT I O N O F II A Z Z I D A EIS

1 19 . T RA N S FO RMA T I O N OF B I A N C H I
12 0 . T RA N SFO RM AT I O N OF B AC K L U N I)
12 1 . T H EOR E M OF PE R M U T A RI L I T Y
 C ON T E NT S
SEC TI ON

T RA N SFOR M AT I O N OF LI E
F
122 .

12 3 . W—S U R FAC ES . U N D A M E N TA L Q U A NTI T I E S

124 . E VOLU TE O F A W S UR FA C E
-

12 5 . S U R FAC ES OF C O N S TA N T M EA N C U RVA TU R E
126 . R ULE D W S U RFAC ES
-

1 27 . SP H ER I C AL R E P RE S E N TA T I O N OF S UR FA CE S W I TH PLA N E LIN ES
O F C U Rv A T U R E IN BOT H S YST EM S
1 28 . S U RFA C E S W I T H PLA N E LIN E S OF C U R VA TU R E IN BOTH S YS T EM S
1 29 . S U R FA CE S W I T H PLA N E LIN E S OF C U R VA T U R E IN ON E S YST E M .

S U R FA CE S OF M O N G E
1 30 . M OLD IN G S U RFAC ES
13 1 . S U R FA C E S O F JOACH I M S T H A L
13 2 . S U R FAC ES W I T H C I RC U LA R LI N ES O F C U RVA T U R E
1 33 . C Y C L I D ES OF D U PIN
1 34 . S U R FA C ES W I T H SP H E R I C A L LIN E S OF C U RVA T U R E IN O N E
S YS T E M

CHA TER P IX

DE F ORM A TI O N O F SUR FA CES

PROB LE M O F MIN D IN G S U R FA C ES OF C O N STA N C U R VA T U R E
. T

S OLU TI O N O F TH E PROBL E M O F MIN D N G I

D E FOR MA T I O N OF MINI M A L S U R F AC ES
S ECO N D G E N E RA L PROB L EM OF D E FOR MAT I O N
D E FO R M A T I ON S WH I C H C H A N G E A C U RV E O N T H E S U RF AC E
IN TO A GI VE N C U RV E IN SP AC E
LIN E S OF C URVA TU R E IN C OR R ES PO N D E N C E
C O N UG A T E S YSTE M S IN C O R R E S PO N D E N CE
A SYM PTO T I C LIN ES IN C O RR E S P N D E N C E D E FORM A T I O N OF A
J

O .

R U LE D S U R FAC E
M E THOD O F MIN D IN G
PA RT I C U LAR D E FORM AT I O N S OF R U L E D S U RFAC ES

CHA ER PT X

DE F ORM TI O N O F SUR FA CES

A ME T H OD O F WE I N G A R T E N
. T HE

R E D U CE D F O R M O F T H E LIN EA R E LE M E NT
G E N ERAL F O RM U LA S
1 45 .

1 46 .

T H E T H EO R EM OF W IN GA R T E N
O TH E R F ORM S O F T H E T H EO R E M O F
147 . E

1 48 .
‘
I VE I N G A R T EN
1 49 . S U R FA C ES A PP L I CA B LE To A S UR FAC E OF R E VOLU TI O N
 C ON T ENT S
SE IN
CT O

1 5 0 MINI MA L LIN E S
. O N TH E SP H E R E PA R A M ET R I C
1 5 1 S U R FAC ES O F G
. O U R SA T . SU RFAC ES A PP L I CA B LE TO C E R TA IN
PA RABO LO I D S

C HA TER P X I

I N FI N IT ES I M A L DE F ORM A TI O N O F SUR FA CES

G E N ERA L PROBL E M
C HA RAC T E R I ST I C F U N C T I O N
A SY M PTOT I C LIN ES PA RA M ETR I C
A SSOC I A T E S U R FA CE S
PA R T I C ULA R PA RA M E TR I C C U RVE S
R E LA TI O N S B ETWE E N T H RE E S U R FA C ES S S S , I, O

S U R FAC E S R E S U LT IN G F ROM A N I N F INI T E S I M A L D E FOR M A T I O N

I SO T H E RM I C S U R FA C ES

C HA TER P X II

REC TI L I N E A R CO N GRUE N CES

D E F INI T I O N OF A C O N G R U E N C E SP H E R I C A L R E P R ESE N TA T I O N
N OR MAL C O N G RU E N C ES R ULE D S U R FA C E S OF A C O N R U E N C E
.

. G

LI M I T PO INT S PR IN C IP A L S U R FA C ES
D E V ELO P A BL E S U R FAC E S O F A C O N G RU E N C E F OC AL S U R FA C E S
.

A S SOC I A T E N OR M A L C O N R U E N C E S
.

D E R I V ED C O N G R U E N C ES
F U N DA M E N TA L E Q U A T I O N S OF C O N D I T I O N .

SPI I ER IC A L R E P R ESE N TA T I O N O F PR IN C IPA L S U R FA C ES A N D OF

D EV EL O P A B L ES
F U N DA M E N TA L Q U A N T I T I ES FO R TH E F OCA L S U R FA C ES
I SOTRO PI C C O N G R U E N C ES
C O N G R U E N C ES O F G U IC II A R D
PS E U DOS P H E R I CA L C O N G R U E N C ES
W—C O N G R U E N C E S
C O N G R U E N C ES OF RI B A U C O U R
C HA TER III P X

C YCL I C S Y S T EMS
1 74 . G E N ER A L E Q U A T I O N S OF C YC L I C S YST E MS
1 75 . C YC L I C C O N RU E N C ES
G

SPH E R I CA L R E P R ES E N TA T I O N O F C YC L I C C O N GRU E N C ES
I
{

17 6 . /
 C ONT ENT S
S EC TI N
O

S U RFAC ES O RTH OGO N A L TO A C YC L I C S YS T E M

178 . NORMA L C YC L I C C ON G R U E N C ES
17 9 . C YC L I C S YSTE M S FOR WH I C H TH E EN V E LO P E OF T H E PL A N E S
OF T H E CI RC LES I S A C U R V E
1 80 . C YCL I C S YSTEM S FOR WH I C H T H E PLA N ES OF TH E CI RC L E S
P A SS T H ROUG H A PO IN T

C HA TER
P X IV

T R IP L Y OR T H OGO NA L S S T EMS O F SUR FA CES

Y

T R IP LE S YS T E M OF S U R FA C E S A SSOC I A T E D W I TH A C YC L I C
S YST E M
G E N E RA L E QU AT I O N S T H EOR E M O F D U P IN
.

E Q U A TI O N S OF L A M E
T R IP LE S YST EM S C O N TA ININ G O N E F A M I LY O F S U R FA C ES O F
R E VOLU T I O N
T R IP L E S YST E MS OF B I A N C H I A N D O F
'

W E IN G A R T EN

T H EOR E M OF RI B A U C O U R
T H EOR EM S O F D A R B O U x
T R A N S FORMAT I O N OF C OM B E SC U R E

I N DE X
 D IFFERENTIA L GEOMETRY

CHAPTER I

CURV S IN SP C E AE
1 . Par ametr i c equ ati ons of a cur ve . C ons id er space r eferr e d to
fix ed r ec ta n
g u lar a x es , an d l et y, ) d en ote
2 as u su al th e c oOr di

n ates of a po int Wi t h r espec t to th ese ax es .I n th e plan e 2 : O

dr aw a c ir cle o f r adi us r an d c e n ter
( a, b) . Th e coOr di nates o f a

po in t P on th e c ir c le c an be e x pr essed i n th e for m

1 = = b+ r sin u ,
( ) x a + r c os u ,
y
W h ere ud en o te s th e an l
g e w hi c h th e r ad iu s to P ma k es Wi t h th e

pos i ti ve m—
ax is . As It vari es fr om 0 to
°
th e poin t P d esc ri b
es

th e c i r cl e . Th e q u an ti ti es a , b, r d ete r mi n e th e po si ti on an d S iz e
of th e c i r c le, W h er eas a d eter m i n es th e posi ti o n o f a po in t u po n i t .

In t is h sense it is a var i able o r

p ar a meter for th e
c i rc le . A nd equ ati ons (1 ) ar e c al led
p ar a metr i c
e u a ti o ns o f th e c ir cle
q .

A str ai
gh t li n e in pace i s dete r mi n ed by a
s

po in t on i t, 1 3 ( a, b, e), an d i ts d ir ec ti on c o si n es -

a, B , 7 . Th e latter fix al so th e sense of th e li n e .

L et P be an o t h er po i n t on th e l in e, and let th e
d istance RP be d en o ted b
y a, w h ich i s posi tiv e
or ne
g ati v e . Th e r ec tan
g u lar coOr d i n ate s O f P

ar e t h en e x pr essi ble in th e fo r m

2 = = b+ 8 =
( ) x a + u a, y a , z c + w y .

FI G I
To eac h v al u e of u th er e c o r r espon ds po in t a
'

th e li n e, an d th e coor di n ates o f an y po i n t th e li n e
'

on on are

ex pr essibl e as in Th ese q
e u ati ons ar e c o n se q u en tly
p ar a metr i c
e ua ti on s o
q g t line f the str ai h .

W en , as in fig 1 , a li n e segm ent P D , of con stan t lengt

h . h a,
per
pendicular to a li ne OZ at I), r evolves u nifo r ly a o ut OZ m b as ax is,
 CUR V ES IN S A CE P

an d at th e sam e ti me D m ov es al o n g it w ith u n i for m v eloci ty, th e

loc u s of P is c alled a ci r cu la r helix . I f th e lin e OZ be ta k en for th e
-
i s, th e i n i tial posi ti on o f P I) fo r th e po siti v e x ax i s, an d th e angle
z ax -

betw een th e latter an d a su bse u en t po si ti on o f P D be den o ted by q

u, th e q
e u ati o n s o f th e h el i x c an be w r i tten in th e par ametr i c for m

3 = = a si n u , = bu ,
( )
‘

a c os u , z
x
y
W h er e 6 i s d eter m in ed by th e v eloci ty o f r o tation o f
th e co n stan t

P D an d o f tr anslatio n o f T u s, as th e li n e P D d escr ibes a h

r ad ian , 1) m o ves th e d istan ce 6 alo n
g OZ .

In all of th e abo v e q
e u ati o n s u i s th e v ar i able or par ameter .

Henc e w i th ,
r efer en c e to th e loc u s u n d er c o n si d er ati o n , th e c o Or d i

n ates ar e fu n c ti on s O f u alo n e
’

. We in dic ate th is by w r i ting th ese

eq u ati on s

( 4) 93 y fa(u )
Th e fu n cti on s f f f3
l, 2,
h av e d efi n i te for ms w h en th e locus is a

c ir cle, str aig h t li n e o r c ir c u lar h eli x Bu t w e p r o c eed to th e g en

d
.

er al c ase an d co n si er e q u ati on s w h en fl f2 f3 , , ar e an
y fu nc

t io n s w h atev er , an al
yti c for all v alu es O f u , o r at least for a c er tain

domain Th e lo c u s of th e poin t w ose c oo r di n ates ar e g iv en by

"6
h
k
.

as i t ta es all v alu es i n th e d om ai n c o nsi d er ed , i s a cu r ve Equ a

d
.

tions ( 4 ) ar e sai to be th e equ a ti on s of the cu r ve i n the par ametr i c

for m Wh en all th e poi n ts of th e c u r ve do n ot li e i n th e same plane

.

i t i s c alled a spa ce cu r ve or a tw i sted c u r ve ; o th er w ise a plan e c ur ve , .

It i s evi d ent th at a n ec essar y an d su ffi cien t c on di tio n th at a

cu r v e d efi n ed by eq u ati on s
, be plan e i s th at th er e ex ist a ,

lin ear r elatio n betw een th e fu n c tion s su c h as ,

5
< ) a f . + b
f. + cf . + d 0,

w h er e a , b, c, d d en o te c o nstan ts n o t all e u al q to z er o . T is h con

d itio n i s satis fied q

by e u ati on s (1 ) an d bu t not by
If ui n 4
( ) b e r e lac ed b
p y an
y fu n c t i on of say

6
( ) v f( )
< > u ,

q
e u ation s
( ) assu me
4 a n ew for m,

7
< ) x s o» y s o) , z no) .

E g in
. . c as e 11 is d t b r al it li es n a seg ment b et w een tw o fi x ed v al ues ;
su ppo se o e e , o

w h en it i s c mpl
o ex , it li es w ith i n a cl sed eg n i n th e pl ane o f th c mpl e var i ab l e
o r io e o x .
 E QUAT I N S O OF A CU V E R

It i s ev id en t th y at th e v al u es of z , , 2,
g i ven by 7) for a
( v al u e

q
o f v, are e u al to t ose gi v en by ( 4 ) for h v alu e th e co r respo n di n g

of u
ob tain ed fro m
C onse u en tly e u ati ons (4) and ( 7) d efi n e q q
th e same c u r v e, a an d 1) bein g th e r espec ti ve par ameter s Sin ce .

th er e is n o r estr i c ti on u po n th e fu n c ti on 95, e x cept t h at i t be an a

lytic , i t foll o ws t at a h c u r ve c an be g iv en par a m etr i c repres en ta ti on

in an in fin i ty O f w ays .

2 . Oth er for m s of th e eq u ati ons of a cu rv e . If th e fi rst of e

q ua

tio n s ( 4 ) be so lv ed for i t,
g i vi n
g a (
M) r , t h en , i n ter m s o f a as :
pa ramete r , e q u at io n s 7
( ) ar e

8
( ) x r , 3/ Fax
), 2 Far )

h
I n t i s for m th e curve is r eall
y d e fin ed by t h e l ast t w o e u ati on s, q
or , i f i t be a pl an e c u rv e in th e i cy plan e, i ts equati on is in th e
-

c usto m ar y for m
9
( ) y = f (fv)

Th e po in ts i n spac e w ose h c oo r d in ates satisfy th e equati o n

y = F2( )
r li e o n th e c y d er w
li n h ose ele men ts ar e par al l el to th e

z ax i s and w h ose cr oss sec tio n by th e r y—

p lan e is th e c u r v e
y F ( )
x

k
-
.
2

I n li e m ann er th e eq u ati o n 2 = F (x ) d efin es a c ylin d er w h ose

, 3

elemen ts ar e par allel to th e y ax i s H ence th e c u r v e w i th th e

d
-
.

q
e u ati ons 8
( ) i s th e loc u s of p o in ts co mm on to tw o cyli n ers

w i th r e n di c u lar
p p
e a x es . C on v ersely, if lin es ar e d ra w n t g h
r ou h
th e po i n ts o f a spac e c u r ve n o r mal to tw o plan es e
p pr en d i c ul ar

to o ne an o t h er , w e o bta in tw o su c h c ylin d ers w h ose i n tersec ti on

is th e g iv en cur ve . Hen ce equations ( 8) furnish
. a pe r fec tl
y g en
er al d efi ni ti o n of a space c u r v e .

In g en er al , th e param eter a c an be eli min ated fr o m q ti (4)

e ua ons

in su c h a w a
y t h at t h er e r esul t tw o e q u ati on s, eac h f whi h i
O c n

v olv es all t h ree r ec tang ular c oOrdi n ate s . T h us ,

( 1 0) y , z
) 0, y,
z) 0.

Moreo ver , if tw o q
e u atio ns of t is h k in d be so l v ed fo r y an d 2 as

fu n c ti on s of r , w e
g et e q u ati o n s o f th e for m and , i n tu r n , of

th e fo r m by replac in g a:
by an ar bi trary fu n c ti o n o f n . Hen ce
e q u atio ns 1 0
( ) al so are th e g en er al e u at io n s o f a c u r v e q . It w i ll

be seen l ater t h at eac h of h

t ese q
e u ati on s d efin es a su r fac e .
 CUR V ES IN S A CE
P

It sh oul d be re m ar k d h w
e , o ev er , h
t at w h en a cu r ve is dfi de ne

as th e i n tersection of tw o cyl in d er s or of tw o s u r faces it

may h appen th at t h ese c u r v es o f i n ter sec tio n c o n sis t o f sever al

p ar ts, so th at th e q
n ew e u ati ons d e fi n e m or e t h an th e or ig in al o nes .

For ex am pl e ,
th e cu r ve d fi
e ne d b y th e p ar amet r ic eq uati ons
m z a, y z u2 , z z u3 ,

is a t w isted cubic ,
for every pl ane meets th e c u r ve i n th r ee po i n ts . T h us ,
th e pl ane
as by cz d 0
meets th e c u rve i n th e th r ee p o i n ts w h ose par ametr i c w alues are th e t
r oo s o f th e
e qu ati on cu3 bu ? an d 0 .

T hi s cubic li es u pon th e th ree cyli nd ers

21 222
z x 8
, , 21
8
22 .

Th e i n ter se cti on of th e fi rst and sec ond c yli nd ers is a cu rve of th e six th d egr ee ,

of th e fi rst and thi rd it i s of th e six th d eg ree w h ereas th e l as t tw o i n terse ct i n a ,

cu r ve of th e ni nth d egr ee H en ce i n every c ase th e gi ven c ubic is onl y a p ar t of

.

th e c u r ve of i n tersecti o n — th at p ar t w hich li es on all th r ee c yli nd ers .

A gai n w e may eli mi na te u fr o m equati ons ( i ) thus

, ,

my Z, (CZ,

of w hich th e fi r st d efi nes a h yper b oli c p arab oloid and th e sec ond a hyperb olic
p ar abolic c one Th e str aight li ne y : 0 z 0 lies on b o th of th ese su r faces
.
, ,

b u t no t on th e cyli nd er 3] 332 Hen ce th e i n tersecti on of th e su r fac es ( ii ) c onsi sts

.

of this li n e and th e c u bic Th e genera to r s of th e p ar ab ol o id are d efi ned b y

.

m z a, z z ay ; z = bcc ;

for l
all va u es of th e c onstan ts a and b F r om ( 1) w e see th at th e cubic meets each
.

gener ator o f th e fi rst famil y i n one p o i n t an d of th e se c ond famil y i n tw o p o i n ts .

3 . L i near el e m ent . By d efi n i ti o n th e leng th of an a r c o f a cur v e

is th e li mi t, wh en i t ex i sts, to w ar d w i c th e per i eter h h m o f an

 C U VE R S IN S ACE
P

U nless f ,
’
be z er o and th e c u rv e r e d u ce to a po int, at leas t o n e
of th e c o or d i n ates
'

m ust be i m ag i n ar
y . h
For t is c ase s i s z er o . Henc e
th ese i mag in ar y c u r ves ar e c alled cu r ves o f leng th z er o , or mi ni ma l
cu r ves . h
For th e pr esen t t ey w ill be ex clu ded from th e disc u ssi on .

m
L et th e ar c be th e par a eter of a g i ven c u r v e an d s and s e

i ts v alu es for tw o points M (cc y z) and

, , g ,,
By Taylor
’
s

t h eor e m we h av e

a:m ’
e

2
6
+
2
2
6
’
z + z e

d
w h er e an ac cent i n i cates d iffer en tiatio n w ith r es
pec t to 3 .

U nless cc g z ar e all z er o th at is u nless

' ’ '
th e lo cu s is a po i nt

z
, , , ,

an d n ot a c u r ve, o n e at l east of th e len g t h s x re, g, g z is

d
,
, ,

of th e or d er of mag n i tu d e of e . If t h ese len g t h s be d eno te by

‘

8x , 8g , Be, and e by 88 , t h en w e h av e

s l )“ 2 2 2
i l V 8z + 8g + 8z Bs + l

w h er e l2 d en o tes th e a
gg re
g ate of ter m s of th e sec on d an d h ig h er

o r d er s i n 83 . Henc e , as Ml appr oach es M th e r atio o f th l gth e en s

of th e c h or d an d th e ar c MM appr o ac h es u ni t ; an
1 y d i th li m it
n e

we h av e d 8 = dx
2 2 2
+ dg + d a
2
.

"
4 . Tangent to a cu r ve . Th e tang en t to a cu r ve at a
po in t M is
th e limi ti ng posi tion of th e secan t h
t r ou
g h M an d a poi nt M1 of
th e c u r v e as th e latter appr o ac h es M as a l i mi t .
 TA E N T
NG TO A CUR VE
If a , B 7 d en ote th e di r ec ti on c osin es o f th e tan gen t i n cou se

k
-

qu en c e of w e may ta e

1 9 = '
( ) 7 z .

Wh en th e par ameter a is an y w h atev er , t h ese eq u ati ons are

’
f; f .

T h ey m ay also be wr i tte n t us h
dz: dg dz
21 3 —
( ) ”
4?
a 7 d.

Fr o m th q
ese e u ations i t follow s t h at, i f th e con v en tio n be m a e d
th at th e po si ti ve di r ec tio n on th e cu r v e is t h at in w h ich th e par
amete r i nc r eases, th e positi v e di r ecti on u po n th e tang en t i s th e
sa me as u po n th e c u r v e .

A fun damen tal pro per ty o f th e tan g en t is di sc o v ered by c on

sid er i n g th e ex pr essi o n fo r th e di sta n c e fr o th e po in t M,, w i t m h
th e c o or d i n
'

ates to any line t h r ou

g h M . We wri te the e q ua

ti o n o f su c h a lin e in th e fo r m

X — —
'

x
_ I y Z
b

w h er e a, b, c ar e th e di recti on -
c osi n es .

Th e d istan c e fr o mM ,
h
to t i s li n e is eq ual to

w)e
'

r
” ’
2
( )3 a
y) % (br a +

[ Fe M )e —
z 1
2
+ cx
’
)e
W
Hen c e , if MM, b e consid er ed an i n fini te si mal Of th e first or d er ,

h
t i s di stan c e also is of th e fi rst o r d er u nl ess

a b c
9
! ! ,
x 2
y
in w hi c h c ase i t is of th e sec on d o r d er at least Bu t w h en th ese

d
.

q
e uati o ns ar e sati s fie , e
quati ons ( 22 ) d efin e th e tan en t
g at M .

Th er efor e, o f all th e lines t h ro u

g h a po in t o f a c u r ve th e tang ent
is n ear est to th e c u r ve .

Wh e never cti ons y 2 appea r in a f rmula it i understood that the are a is

th e fun
’
,
’
o s
th e par am te ; oth er w i se w e u se ff f2 f
5 in d a tin g by accen ts d e i vati ves w i th respect
’ '

e r , , ic r
to th e ar g umen t u .
 C UR VES IN S P ACE
5 . Or der of con tact . Nor m l pl a ane . Wh en th e c u r ve is su c h
t h at h
t er e ar e po i n ts fo r w hi h c

:
a
g
"
z
24
( ) I /
23 z

th e distan c e fr o mM ,
to th e tang en t i s of th e t ir d h or d er at least .

I n t is h c ase th e tan g en t i s sai d to h av e con ta ct o f the sec on d or d er ,

w h er eas , o r d i n ar ily, th e c on ta ct is f
o the fir st or d er . A nd , i n g en
er al, th e tang en t to a c u r ve h as c on tact o f th e n th or d er at a poi n t,

i f th e follo w in g c on di ti on s ar e sati s fi ed for n 2, n -

1, and n

( n)

2
( )5

Wh en th e par a m eter of th e c u r ve is an y w h atever , q

e uati ons

2
( )5 ar e r ed u c i bl e to th e r es
pec ti ve e q u ati on s

"
fl
' ”
f ff )
fé ”
" '

l a
( —l ) ( —1 )
j;
! ,
fl f1 f2
n n

m
Th e plan e n or al to th e tang en t to a c u r ve at th e poi n t o f
c ontact i s c alled th e n or ma l
plan e at th e
po in t Its e u ation i s . q
26 —z = 0
( > < X >v ,

w h er e a, B , y h
« av e th e v alu es

EX AM PLES

1 . q ti ons of th e ci r cu l ar h eli x (3 ) i n th e form

Pu t the e ua

2 Ex p ress th e eq u ati ons o f th e ci r c ul ar h eli x i n ter ms o f th e ar e meas ured fr om

.

a po i n t O f th e c u rve and S h ow th a t th e t an gen ts to th e c u r ve mee t th e el ements o f

,

th e ci r c u l ar c yli n d er u nd er c onstan t angl e .

 F IR S T CU RV A TU RE

6 . Cu rv atu r e . Radi u s of fi r st cu rv atu r e . L et M M, be

, tw o

po i nts of a c u rv e, A s th e l eng t h of th e ar c betw een t h ese o i

p n ts,
and A O th e an gle betw een th e tan gen ts . Th e li miti n g v alu e of

A O/
As as M, appr oac h es M , na m ely d d/ds, m easu r es th e r ate of

c h an
g e of th e direc ti on of the ta ng en t at M as th e po in t of con

tac t m ov es al on
g th e c u rv e . h
T is li mi ti ng v al u e is c all ed th e
fir st cu r vatur e of th e c u r v e at M an d i ts rec ipro cal th e r ad iu s of
d
,

fi r st cu r vatur e ; th e latter w ill be den ote by p .

In or d er to fin d an ex pr essio n for p i n ter ms o f th e qu an ti ti es

d efi n in g th e cu r ve w e i ntr o du c e th e i d ea o f sph er i cal r epr esen ta
k
,

tion as follow s We ta e th e Sph er e

. o f u n i t r adi us wi th cen ter

at th e or i gin an d dr aw radi i par allel to th e posi ti v e d ir ec ti ons of

th e tan g en ts to th e c ur ve, or su c h p a or t i on of it t h at n o tw o
tang en ts ar e par all el . Th e loc us of th e e x tr emities is a c u rv e

u pon th e h
sp er e, w h ich is i n on e -
to -
o n e c o r r espo nd en ce wi th th e

g i v en c u r ve . In this sen se w e h av e a s
ph er i cal r e r esen ta ti on ,
p or

s her i cal i n d i c atr iz , O f th e cu r v e

p .

Th e an g le A O be tw een th e tang en ts to th e c u r v e at th e po in ts
M M, is
, m eas u red by th e arc o f t h e g reat c i rc le be tw een t h eir

re
p r ese ntativ e po i n ts m, m o n th e s
, p er e h . If Ao d en o tes th e
leng t h of th e ar c of th e h
sp er i c al i n d ic atr i x b et ween m an d m,,
th en by th e r es ul t at th e close o f
§ 3,

A O
_
Ad
Henc e we h ave

2
( 7)

w h ere d o is th e li n ear ele t of th e h

Sp er i c al i n d icatri x .

Th e c oOr di n ates o f th e dire c ti on -

c o sin es a , B , 7 of th e
tangen t at M; c o nse

( 3
2 7

When th e are 3 i s th e p h
t is for mul a b m ec o es

Hereafter w e r efer to thi s as th e u ni t spher e .

 CUR V ES IN S A CE
P

H o w ev er w h en , th e par a m eter is an
y w h atev er , u, w e

fr om

da 1 d 1
2
( )9 13
(
bfl
d8 du ¢
and 3
”

[ O
W
H ence we fin d by su b tit
s u tion

( 3 0)

w hi c h so m ti m
e es is wr i tten t h us

Th e Si
g n of
p i s n ot d eter min e y t db h ese fo r mu las . We m k
a e

th e c onv en ti on th at it is al w a s
y po siti v e and th us fix th e sense o f

a di splac emen t on th e
'
sph er i c al i nd i catr ix .

7 . Oscu l atin g pl ane . C o nsid er th e plane t r ou g th e tangent to h h

a c u r v e at a poin t M h
an d t r ou h
g a poin t M, of th e c u r v e Th e
‘

d
.

li mi ting po si tion o f t is plan e as M, h appr oac h es M is c alle th e

osc ula ti ng
pla n e a t M In d er i v i n g i ts. q
e u ati o n an d th u s establis h
i ng i ts e x isten ce w e assu me t h at th e ar e 3 i s th e par a m eter , and

ta k e th e coOr din ates o f M, i n th e for m

Th e e
qu ati on of a plan e th r oug h M (x g , , z
) i s of the fo r m
3
( )2 ( X

X , Y , Z b ei n
g th e cu r r en t c o or d in ates . Wh en th e plane passes
 O SC U LA TIN G P L N A E
Elimi n ati ng a, b, c fr om e q ati
u ons
( 3 4) w e o bt ai n , as

th e e q u ati on of th e osc ul ati n g plan e,

:Y y Z z
z
X a
' '
g
z
x
" ”
x
y

Fr o m thi s w e fin d t h at w h en th e c ur ve is d e fi ned by e u ati ons ( 4 ) q

in t mer s of a g en er al
p ar a m ete r a, th e q
e u ati o n of th e oscul ati n
g
l an e is
P X — z Y— g Z — z
’ ’ ’
3
( )6 f, f , f, o .

”
£
” 1
1 .
fg

Th e plane d e fin ed by ei t er o f t ese e u ati ons is h h q un i q ue e x cept

wh en th e tan g en t at th e po i n t h as c o n tac t o f an o r d er hi g h er t h an

th e fi rs t . I n th e latte r cas e e q u ati o n s ( 3 4 ) ar e n ot in d epen d en t,

as fo ll o w s fr o m and i f th e c on tac t o f th e ta n g en t is Of th e n th

o r d er , th e q
e uati ons ‘”
b ‘"
z
)c
"
0
x a
y
for all v al u es of r up to an d i nc l u d in g n ar e n o t in depen d en t of

o n e an o t h er . Bu t for r = n + 1 , t is h e q u ati o n an d (3 3 ) ar e in d e

p en den t, an d w e h av e as the e q
u atio n o f th e osc u latin g plane at t is h
Sin u lar po i n t,
g X — z Y— y Z 2
" ’
a
g
i n + 1) +1)

W h en a cur v e is plane, an d i ts plan e is ta en fo r th e zy plane, k -

th e q
e u ati on ( 3 5 ) r ed u ces to Z 0 H en c e th e osc u lati n g plan e .

of apl an e la tter , an d c o nse q u en tl

y is th e
same fo r C on v er s ely, w h en th e os cul atin
g
l an f a c u r v e is all i ts po in ts, th e c ur ve is plan e,
p ; o

for all th e po i n ts o f in d
th e fix e osc ulati ng plan e .

Th e equa ti on of th e e of th e tw isted cubic 2 ) is rea dil y

re d u cibl e to
V
(i) u3 0,

w here X ,
Y, Z ar e c ur ren iti o u of th e osc ul ati ng plane
and th e fa ct tha t th e osc ul a tin g pl ane mee ts

th e cur ve o nl ( i ) is a c u bic i n u it fo ll o w s
,

T hen in t :( i) we ha ve

w uz + t g
gu + uaur =3n u rueu = ze
g
 CUR ES V IN S P A CE
B y me ans th ese rel ati ons th e eq uati on Of th e pl ane th r ough th e c or r esp ondi ng
Of

th ree p oi n ts o n th e cu bic is red u cibl e to

— —
(X 3
) y
x o o (Y
h
T is plane p asses th r ough th e p oi n t (To yo zo); h en ce w e h ave th e th eorems , ,

The poi nt s of c ontact of th e thr ee osc u lati ng pla nes of a tw i sted c ubic thr oug h a
poi nt n ot on th e c urve li e i n a pla ne thr oug h the poi nt
‘

The oscu lati ng pla nes a t thr ee poi nts of a tw isted c ubi c meet i n a poi nt w h i c h li es
i n the plane of th e thr ee poi nts .

By means o f th ese
th eor ems w e c an establi sh a d ual re l ati on i n sp ace by mak
i ng a p oi nt c or respo nd to th e pl ane th r ou gh th e p oi n ts o f o sc u l a ti on o f t h e th ree
o sc ul ati ng pl anes th r ou gh th e p oi n t a nd a pl ane to th e po i n t o f i n t erse cti o n o f th e
,

th r ee pl anes w hich oscu l ate th e cubic at th e p oi n ts w h er e it is met by th e pl ane .

I n p ar tic ul ar to a poi nt o n th e c ubic c orr esp ond s th e osc u l ati ng pl ane a t th e p oi n t

, ,

and vic e ver sa .

8 . Pr inci pal nor m al and bi nor m al . Evid en tly t h er e ar e an in

fi ni ty of n or m als to a c u r v e at a poi nt . Tw o o f th ese ar e o f par
tic u lar inter est :th e nor m al w h ich ,
li es i n th e o sc ulati n
g pl an e at

m h h
[

th e poi nt, c alled th e pr i n cipa l n or ma l ; an d th e n or al, w ic is

er en d ic u lar
p p to t is plan e, h c alled th e bi nor mal
d
.

If th e d ir ec ti o n -
c osi n es o f th e bi n o r mal be den o te by A, u, v,

w e h av e fr o m ( 3 5)
A ll :: v
(y z
r
y
rl
)(
l
z x
ll _

In c onsequ en c e o f th e i d en t ity
2 (y z
’ " ’ ” 2
Ex 'z
Ex m ’
z y )
th e v alu e of th e com m o n r atio is r edu ci blby means of ( 1 9 ) an d
e

2
( )8 to We ta k e thg
p j
osit ve d irec ti o n o f th e bi n or mal to
be su c h th at h
t is r ati o sh all
‘

be + p; th en
 CUR V ES IN S A CE P

9 . Osculating cir cle . Center of fir st cur vatur e . We h av e d efi ned

th e osc ul atin g l an e to a c u r v e at a poin t M to be th e li mi ti ng
p
osi ti o n o f th e pl an e d e ter mi n ed by th e tan g en t at M an d by a
p
poin t M, o f th e p h M l
cu r v e, as g t h th e latter ap r oac es a on e c u r ve .

W id
e c on s th i l i th i pl
er n o w w h i h h th e c rc e m t n s an e c as e sa e an

g tent M t
ah d as
p th h M Th
e c u r v e, an
g l i m i ti g p i asses r ou
,
. e n os

ti f th i
on o i l M pp h M i ll d th
s c r c e, as l ti g i l
,
a r o ac es , s ca e e oscu a n c rc e

t th
o t M It i
e c u r ve a i d t th t i t t 0 i th p i
s ev en a s c en er 0
s on e r n

cip l am l tM H
n or w i th f
a a t y fix d xen ce,i p r e er en ce o an e a es n s ace,

di t f C d t d by X Y Z
.

th e coor n a es o f th f m
o,
en o e 0, 0, 0,
ar e o e or

X 0
= x + r l, Yo = g r m, Z0 = z r n,

w h er e th e absolu te v al u e o f r i s th e r ad i u s o f th e osc u l ati n

g c ir cl e .

In o r d er to fin d th e v al u e of r , w e r etu r n to th e con sider ati on

of th e c i r cle, w h en III , d oes n ot h i ts li mi ti ng posi ti on , an d w e

av e

l et X , Y , Z ; l, , m, , n ; r
, ,
d en ote r es ec ti vel
p y c oo r d in ates o f th e c en

ter of th e c i r cle, th e d ir ection -

c o si n es o f th e d i ameter t h r ou
g hM
an d th e r ad iu s If m, , g , , z , be th e coo r di n ates
. of M, , h yh
t e av e th e
v al u es and si n c e M i s o n th e c i r c le, w e
,
h av e

r,
2
= E(X ex
’ I
Q
e E
P ”

If w e n otic e t h at 2 237, 0, an d after r ed u c i n

g th e b
a o ve e q u ation

d i v i de t h r ou
g h by c
“
, w e h av e

1 1, o,

w h er e 7) i n vol ves ter ms of th e fi rst an d h ig h er or d ers in e . I n th e

 CEN T ER OF CUR VA TURE
Th e li n e n or m al to th e osc u latin g pl an e at th e c en ter o f c u r v a

tu re is c alled th e pola r li ne or ola r o f th e c u rv e fo r th e c orre

p
s
po n din
g po i nt . Its e q u ati o ns ar e

X — x —
pl Y — g — pm Z — z —
pn
X a

In fig 2 0 . represen ts th e c en ter of c u r vatu r e an d UP th e polar

line for M .

A cur ve may be loo ked u pon as th e pa th of a po in t mov in g un d er th e acti o n of

a system Of for ces F rom this po i n t o f iew it is conveni en t to take for paramete r
. V

th e time w hich h as el apsed si n ce th e po i n t p assed a gi ven positi o n L e t t d eno te th is .

par ameter A s t is a fun cti on o f s w e h ave

.
,

dz dz ds
a
ds dy
i s dz
=7
de
dt ds dt dt dt dl dt dt

Hen ce th e

manne r b y inc ans o f

,
t

w e have
(
may be rep rese n ted by th e l ength 4 l aid off o n th e tangent to th e c ur ve In lik e
2 :
ch ange o f th e positi on of th e po i n t w ith th e ti me o r i ts veloc ity
r a e of ,

.
,

di m ( PS 1 as 9 d2 ( 1? 1’
(1 s ds 2

dl? dl l P dt titz dl2 P ( i t2 p dt

F ro m this it th at th e ra te o f ch ange of th e ve lo city a t a po i n t o r th e

is seen ,

ac c eler ati o n may be re p rese n ted b y a ve cto r i n th e osc u la ti n g pl ane a t th e po i n t

, ,

th rough th e latter and w h ose compo nents on th e tan ge n t and p r i n cipal nor mal

t th e c u r vatu re of a pl ane cur ve de fi ned b y th e eq u a ti on M ( r , y)d r

. ,

(z , y)d y o is

3
( 3 1 2 N 2
)
2 . S ho w th at th e n o r ma l pl anes to th e cu r ve ,

:a
a si nz u, y a sin u c os u , z a c os a ,

p ass th ro ugh th e or igin and fi nd th e sph er ic al indi c atr ix o f th e c ur ve

, .

3 Th e str aight lin e is th e onl y real cu r ve o f z er o c u r vatu re a t every po i nt

. .

4 D er i ve th e fo ll ow in g p r o per ti es of th e t w iste d c u bic

.

( a) I n any pl ane th ere is o ne li ne and o n l y one thr o ugh w hich tw o osc u l ati ng
, ,

pl anes can be d raw n .

(b) F ou r fix ed osc u l at in g pl anes are cu t b y th e li ne of in tersecti on o f any tw o

osc ul a tin g pl an es in fou r po in ts w h ose c m ra ti o is c onstan t .

( c ) F ou r p lanes thr ough a var i able tan ge n t and four fi x ed po i n ts of th e c u r ve

are i n co nstan t c ross r a ti o - .

( d) Wh a t is th e dua l of ( c) by th e resul ts of § 7 ?
 C UR V ES IN S AC P E

5 . De ter mi ne ctio n so th at th e p r i ncip al nor mal s to

th e for m o f th e fu n th e
c ur ve a: u y sin u z o (u) are p ar all el to th e yz pl ane
, ,
-
.

6 F i nd th e oscu l ati ng pl ane and r adi us of fi rst c u r vatu re o f

.

a: a c os a b sin u y a si n u b cos u z o si n 2 a
, , .

10 . Tor sion . Fr enet Ser r et for

-
m ul as . I t h as been seen th at, un

less be plan e, th e o sc ulati ng plan e v ar i es as th e poi n t

a c u r ve

m o v es al on g th e c u r ve Th e c an g e i n th e d i r ecti on d epends
. h
evi d en tly u po n th e fo r o f th e c u r v e m
Th e r ati o o f th e an gle A O, .

betw een th e bin or mals at tw o poi n ts o f th e cu r ve an d t h eir c u r v i

lin ear d i stan ce A s e x pr esses ou r i d ea o f th e m ean c h an

g e i n th e
d ir ec tion of th e osc u lati n g plan e . A nd so we ta k e th e li i t of m
h
t is r atio , as o n e po i n t appr o ac h es th e ot h er , as th e m easu r e o f

th e r ate of h
t is c h ang e at th e latter poi nt . h
T i s li mi t i s c alled

th e secon d cu r va tu r e, o r tor si on , of th e c u r v e, an d i ts i n verse th e

r a di u s o f secon d cu r va tu r e, or th e r a di u s o f tor si on Th e latter
d
.

w ill be en o ted by 7 .

In or der to establis h th e e x i sten c e of h

t is li mi t an d to fi n d an

ex pr ession for i t i n ter m s of th e fu n c tion s d efi n i ng th e c u rv e,

w e dr aw r adi i of th e u n it sp er e h par allel to th e posi ti ve bin or mals

o f th e c u r ve an d ta k e th e loc u s of th e en d po in ts o f t ese r adii as h
h
a sec on d sp er i c al r epr esen tati on o f th e cu r v e Th e coii r d in ates O f
.

po in ts o f th i s r epr esen tati ve c u r ve o n th e sp er e ar eh 7t , u, v

. Pr o
ceedi n
g i n a m ann er similar to t h at in 6, w e ob tai n th e q
e u ati on

1 do
2
7 ds

w h er e d o , i s th e lin ear ele m en t o f th e s

ph er i c al i ndi c atr i x of th e
bi n o r mals .
 FR E E T SER ET
N -
R FO M L R U AS
In or d er to fi nd th e v alu es of
'
A, u,
’
v
'
, w e differ en ti ate w it h
r es
pe c t to s th e id en ti ties,

an d, in c o nse q u en c e of O btain

X X + up —
'
l
f
W: O ,
al U l Bp + 7 P = 0
-
' ’
.

Fr o m th ese, by foll o w s th e pr opo r tion

an d th e factor of ro
p p o r ti o n al i ty is t l /r, as is seen fr om
Th e al
g ebr ai c sign o f r d ete r mi n ed by th e latter e
is not q uati o n .

We fix i ts Si
g n by wr itin g th e abo v e propo r ti on t us : h
I m n
( 4 8) T

I f th e iden ti ty l = ny — vB be di fi er en tiate d wi t
'

h pec t to
r es s

th e r esult is r ed u c ible by an d 4 8 ) t
( o

4
( )9 l =
’

Si mil ar e x pressi ons c an be fou n d fo r m

’
an d n
’
. G at h i er ng to

g et h er t h ese r esults, w e h av e th e foll o wi ng form ul as fu n d m

a en tal in
th e t h eo r y of tw iste d c u r ves, an d c alled th e Fren et Ser re t fo
-
nlas

l n

l = m=
' ’

As an e x ample , w e d er i v e an o t h er e x pr essi on for th e tor si on .

If th e e q u ati on x p(y z
l fl _ z'
y
"
)
be differen ti ated w it h r es e c t
p to s, th e r esu l t may bew r i tten
’
l P
p( az
m _ II
as
m
.

7
p
h
If t i s equ ati on an d si mil ar on es for m/ / be m ul tiplie by l m
n r d
d
r, , ,

n r es ectiv el
p y an d a d ed , w e h av e, in conseq u en ce of 5 0) an d
(
 CUR ES V IN S A CE
P

Th e l ast t h r ee of e
q u ati on s 5 0
( )g i ve th e r ate o f c h an
g e of th e
d ir ecti o n -
c osi n es o f th e oscu lati ng plan e o f a c u r ve as th e po i n t of

osc ul atio n m o v es alon g th e c u r ve . Fr o m t h q

ese e u ati o n s i t follow s
th at a n ec essar y and su f
fi ci en t c on d iti o n th a t th i s r ate o f c h an
ge
at a poin t be z er o is t h at th e v alu es of s for th e po i nt ma e k th e
d eter mi n an t in e u ati o n
q 5
( )1 v an is h . h
A t su c a po in t th e o sc u lat
i ng plan e is said to be sta ti on ar y .

11 For . m of cur v e i n th e nei gh bor h ood of a poi nt . Th e si gn of

tor si on . We h av e made th e c on v en tion t h at th e positi ve d ir ec ti on s

of th e tan g ent, pr i nci pal n or mal, and bin or mal h
s all h av e th e same

r elati ve o r i en tati on as th e fix ed a
c
g z—
a x es r espec tively Wh en w e
k
.

ta e t h ese lin es at a po in t MO for ax es , th e q

e u ation s of th e c u r ve

c an be pu t i n a v ery c o n v en i en t for m . If th e c oor d i n ates be ,

ex

pr essed i n ter m s of th e ar e m easu r ed fr om MO , w e h ave fr o m 1

( )9
an d ( 41 ) t h at for s 0
=l, =
i = 0
' ’ " "
cc
g z
-
0; x z 0, g n z
”
.

Wh en th e v al u es o f l an d X fr o m (4 1 ) and ( 3 7) ar e su bsti tu ted in

th e fou r t h q
of e u ati ons w e o bt ai n

5 2 ' ” —p
( ) z y )
P T
P
Fr o m t i s h an d si m il ar e x pr ession s for g ’”
and z
’”
we fin d t h at

fo r 8 O
1
_ p 1

E
"

7 7 2 P
7 7
H enc e by Maclau r i n s
,
’
t h eo r e m, the c oor d in ates x , y , z can be ex

p r e sse d i n th e for m f 1
 THE SI G N OF T O R S I ON 19

0 at M, . Henc e , un l ess th e o sc u l ati n g pl a n e i s stati o n ar y at

a p o i n t, th e c u r v e c r osses th e plan e at th e po i nt
"E
F urt er
. ore, h m
w h en a
po in t m o ves alo n
g a cu rv e in th e posi ti ve d ir ec ti on , i t
fr om th e po siti v e to th e n e ati v e si d e o f th e o sculati ng
passes g
pl ane at a po i n t, o r v ic e v er sa, ac c or d i ng as th e torsi o n at th e

latter i s posi ti v e o r n egativ e In th e for er case th e . m c ur v e is

sai d to be si ni str or sum, in th e l atte r d ex tr or sum

k
.

As an ot h er conse q u en c e of h
t is q
e u ati on , w e r em ar h
t at as a

var iabl e po in t M on th e c u r ve appr oac h es , d

MO th e i stan c e fr o m M
to th e os c ulati n
g plan e at Mo is o f th e h
t ir d o r d er o f m
ag n itu d e in
co mpar ison w it h MMo . By means of th e ot h er q
e u ati ons (5 3 ) w e

fin d t h at th e d istan ce to an y o t h er pl an e t r o u
g M,
ihs h of th e

se con d o r d er at m ost . H en ce we h av e th e t eor em h :

The oscu la ti ng la ne to a tw isted c ur ve a t a n or din a r oi nt i s
p yp
d by the c u r ve, a n d of a ll the lan es thr o ug h the o in t i t li es
cr osse
p p
nea r est to the c u r ve .

Fr om th e seco n d of 5
( )3 i t is seen t h at y i s pos i ti v e for su f
h
c i en tly s mall v alu es of 8 ,
po si ti ve or n e ati v e
g H en c e, i n th e
.

n ei
g h b h or oo d o f an or di n ar
y po in t, th e c u r v e li es en tir ely o n o n e

si d e o f th e plan e d eter min ed b

y th e ta n en t a n d bi n or
g al — m on

th e sid e O f th e posi ti v e d ir ec tion o f th e pri nc ipal n or al m

d k
.

T h ese p ro
pe rt i es of a tw iste curv e ar e d isc o v er ed , li e wise ,

fr o m a c o n sid er ati on bf th e pr o j ec ti o n s u po n th e coo r d in ate pl an es

Of th e a
pp ro x im ate c u r ve, wh ose e q u at io n s co n sist of th e fi rst
terms i n j
Th e pro ec tio n o n th e osc ul ati ng plan e i s th e

p a ra bo la z z s,
y
= sP/2 p, w h ose ax is i s th e p r i n c i pal n o r al m
to t h e c u r ve O n th e plane Of th e ta ng en t an d bin or mal i t is
z
.

th e c u bi c .v = s, w h ic h ha s th e tang e n t to th e
c u rv e for an i n fi ec tion al tan g en t p j
. A n d th e c ur ve ro ec ts u po n

th e plan e of th e bin or mal an d pr in c ipal n or mal i n to th e semi

c u bic al
par abo la y :
p, Z = wi t th e latter for h
c u spid al tan g en t .

T hese lts are rep rese n te d b y th e foll ow i ng fi gu res w hich pictu re th e pro
re su ,

jec ti on O f th e c u r ve u po n th e osc u l ati ng pl an e nor mal pl ane an d th e pl ane of th e , ,

tangent and bi nor mal I n th e thi rd fi gu re th e hea y li ne co r re spo nd s to th e c ase

. v

w h er e is po siti ve an d th e d o tte d l in e to th e cas e w he re

r is nega ti ve r .

‘ T his result can be d er i ved r ead il y b y geomet ical co n i derati ons

r s .
20 CU R VES IN SP CE A

p r ec edi ng resu lts ser ve al so to gi ve a means o f d e ter mi ni ng th e var i ati on i n

Th e
th e osc u l ati ng pl ane as th e p o i n t mo ves a l o ng th e c u r ve B y means o f ( 50) th e .

di r ecti on cosi nes i F can be gi ven th e for m

-

, ,
v

l m n°
X = l\o + — v = vo + — s +
T

w h er e th e sub sc r ipt nu l l indic ates th e val ue of a fu ncti on for s O and th e u n

w r itten t er ms ar e of th e se c on d an d high er te r ms i n 3 I f th e c oor di na te ax es ar e .

th ose w hich lead to th e val u es of x i for th e p oi n t of p ar ameter as ar e ,

t, v

63
X 0, p v 1,
a
.

to w ithi n t er ms of high er or d er ,
and c onse quently th e equ ati on of thi s osc u l ati ng
pl ane at this p oi nt M1 is 58

If w e pu t Y po, w e c oordi nate of th e poi n t i n w hich thi s pl ane is cu t by

get th e z -

th e p o l ar li ne fo r th e p o i n t s O it is peas/ 0 H en ce acc or di ng as 0 is p ositi ve 7 .

,
1

o r n eg a ti ve at M th e osc u l ati ng p lane at th e near b y p o i n t M1 c u ts th e p o l ar li ne fo r

,
-

M on th e neg ati ve or p ositi ve sid e of th e osc ul ati ng pl ane at M .

12 Cyli ndr ical h el ices

. .

A s ano th er ex ampl e of th e use o f for mulas ( 50) w e d er i ve sever al p rop er ti es o f "

cyli nd r ic al helic es By d efi n iti on a c yli nd r ic al h eli x is a cu r ve w hich li es u p on a

.
,

cyli nd er and c u t s th e el ements of th e cyli nd er u nd er c onstan t angl e If th e ax i s of .

2 b e tak en p ar all el to th e el emen ts o f th e c yli nd er w e h ave 7 c onst H enc e ,

.
,

fr om
Z
’
1 0,
,
y 0,
p r

fro m w hich it foll ow s th at th e cyli nd r ic al h elic es h ave th e fol low i ng p r oper ti es

Th e pr i nc ipal nor ma l i s per pend i c ular to theelement of the c yli nd er at the poi nt ,

and c onsequently c oi nc id es w i th th e nor mal to th e c yli n d er at the

poi nt
The r ad i i offi r st a nd sec ond cur vatur e ar e i n con stant r ati o .

Ber t r an d h as establi sh ed th e c o nver se th eo r em : Ever y curve w hose r ad ii of fi r st

and sec ond c ur vatur e ar e i n c onstant r ati o i s a cyli nd r ic al helix I n o r d er to p r o ve .

it w e pu t
, p and remar k fr o m ( 60) th at
7 K ,

da dx dfi da (17 dv
K 1 K y K 9
de da ds da da ds
fr om w hich we get a : a, e: x u
, + b, 7 :x v + c ,

w h er e a ,
b, c ar e c onstants . F ro m th ese equ ations w e fi nd
 CU R VES IN SPA CE
12 . c us of th e c en ters of cu r vatu r e of a t w isted c ur ve of c onstan t fi rst
Th e lo
c u r vatu re i s a cu r ve of th e same k i nd .

1 3 Wh en all th e osc u l a ti ng pl anes o f a c u r ve p ass th r ou gh a fi x ed po i n t th e

.
,

cu r ve is pl ane .

1 4 D eter mi ne f ( u) so th at th ec u r ve a: a cos a y
. a sin u z = f ( u) sh al l b e , ,

pl ane Wh at is th e for m of th e c urve

.

13 I ntr insi c equations Fundamental th eor em L et 0 1 and 0 be

. . .
2

tw o c u r ves d efin ed i n ter ms of th ei r r espec ti ve ar c s s an d l et poi n ts

d
,

u pon eac h w i th th e same v al u es of 3 c or r espon We assu me .

,

fu r th er mor e th at at c or r espon di ng poi n ts th e r adi i of fi rst c u r va

,

tu r e h
av e th e sa m e v al u e, an d also th e r ad i i o f secon d c u r vatu r e .

We s h all s h ow th t a 01 an d 02 ar e c on
g r u en t .

By a mo tion i n space th e po in ts o f th e t w o c u r v es for w h ic h

8 0 c an be ma e to c oin c id e i n su cd h a wa
yt h at th e tang en ts,

pr in cipal n or m als, an d bi n or mals to th em at th e poi n t coi n ci de

also Hen ce if w e
. u se th e n o tati o n o f th e pr ecedi ng sec tions an d

i n d icate by su b scr ipts 1 an d 2 th e fu n c tions of 01 an d 02, we h ave,

h
w en 3 O,
5
( )4 a

an d o t h er similar e u ati o n s q .

Th e Fr enet—
Ser r et fo r m u las for th e tw o c u r v es are

da 1 ll d l1
”
de I o de

d a2
é ’
ll
e
2
a
2

de p de 3
th e fu n cti o n s w ith ou t su b sc r i pts b ei n
g th e same for bo t h c u r ves .

If th e e q u atio n s o f th e fi r st r ow be m ul tipli ed by a , l, , , r es
pec
tiv ely, an d o f th e sec o n d r ow by a p lp i n an d all add ed, w e h ave

55
( ) ( a a
1 2 + l l al i z ) O,

an d conse u en tl +ll X 7x c on st
q y a a
l 2
.

T ish c o nstan t is q
e u al to u n i ty fo r s 0, as is seen fr o m and

h en ce fo r all v al u es o f s w e h ave

a
,
 fl m m src Q
E U A TI ON S 23

b
C om in i ng t i s h q
e u atio n w i th th e i den ti ties

= 1
= t f 31 3 .
3
a
f 3
+ 2 + x a + + x

w e obtai n ( a
1
a
)
?
2
Z
(1 l, ) 2
( k1 M) 2
0 .

Hen ce a
1
a
,,
X l
z x g
. Mor eov er , si n ce in li k e m ann er

B , 52 , 7, 7 2, w e h av e

d d
(yr

C o n se q u en tly th e di fferences r x
p g,
2 _2 ar e co nstan t .

, ,, 1 2

Bu t for s 0 t h ey ar e z ero , an d so w e h av e th e t h eo re m

fi secon d cu r vatu r e a r e the same

Tw o cu r ves w hose r a di i f
o r st a n d

fu ncti ons o f the a r e a r e con

g r ue n t .

Fr o m thi s i t fo ll o w s t h at a c u r v e i s d ete r mi ne d , to w i thi n i ts

posi ti o n in spac e, by th e ex pr essi on s fo r th e r ad ii o f fi rst and seco n d

c u rv atu r e in te r m s o f th e ar c A n d so th e e u ations of a c u r ve . q
may be w r i tte n in th e for m
56
( ) P 7

T h e y ar e called i ts i ntr i nsic e u ati ons

q .

We i n q ui r e w h eth er t w o eq u ati ons

, c on v ersely, i n w h i c h fl
an d f are an y fu n c ti o ns w h ate ver o f a par am ete r s ar e i n tr in si c ,
,

u a ti ons o f a c u r v e fo r w h ic h 3 is th e l e n th o f are
q g .

In an sw er ing th i s q u es ti o n w e sh o w i n th e fi rs t plac e th at th e , ,

eq u ati on s

du 1) dv w dw
(5 7) ( ls
— ,

ds da
p

ad mi t of t h ree sets o f solu ti o ns, n am el

y

w hi ch ar e su c h th at fo r eac h v alu e o f s th e q u an ti ti es a , B , 7 ;
l, m, n ; X , p, v ar e th e dir ec ti o n c osin es o f h
t ree mu tu ally per pen
k
-

dieu let li n es . In fac t, we no w h

t at a system 5
( )7 ad mi ts of a

u ni q u e set of solu tion s w h ose v al u es for 8 : O ar e

g i v en ar bi tra

ril
y . C o nse q u en tl
y t h ese e q u ati on s ad mi t of t hr ee sets o f so lu ti on s

P icar d T aité d A naIyse

, r
’
,
V ol II ,
. p . 31 3 ; Go ur sat, Cou r s d ’
A n al yse é
Mat h mat iq ue ,

Vb l . II p 356
, . .
24 CU VES R I N st ACE ’

w h ose v alu es for s O ar e 1 , O, O; O, 1 , O O, O, 1 r espectiv el

y
.

By an ar g u m en t si mi lar to t h at applied to e q u ati on 5

( )5 w e p ve
ro

th at for all valu es o f s th e sol u ti on s 5

( )8 satisf th e
y c on d i ti on s

5
( )9 0,

In lik e m ann er , s m ee i t follo w s fr o m (5 7) t h at

da dv dw
— O,

we p r ove t h at t h ese solu ti on s satisfy th e c on d itions

6
( )0

Bu t th e con d iti o n s 6 0
( ) ear equ ivalen t to an d co n se

q u en tl
y th e t h r ee sets of fu n c tion s a, B , y; l, m,
r n ; 7x , a, v ar e

th e d ir ectio n c osi n es -
of th r ee m u tu all
y r en d i cular
p p
e lin es for all

v al ues of 3 .

Su ppose we h ave su c h a set o f solu ti on s . For th e c u r ve

6
( )1 a d s, y = Bds , z

th e fun ctions a, B , y ar e
r th e d ir ec tion -
c osi n es o f th e tang ent, an d

sin ce d8
2
= d z 2 + d 2 + dez, m easu r es th e ar c o f th e c u r ve Fr om
y 8 .

6
( )1 an d th e fi r st of 5
( )7 w e
g t
e

d z
x l
2
d y m d z
z n ,
1
’ , ,

5 5 5
z 2 z 5
de de p da

He nc e i f p be posi tive for all v al u es o f s, i t is th e ra d i us o f c u r va

tu r e of th e c u r ve an d l, m, n ar e th e d i r ec tion -
c osi nes o f th e

pr i n c i pal n o r mal
i n th e po si ti v e sen se I n c on se u en c e o f (4 0) th e . q
fu nc tio ns X , a, v ar e th e d ir ec tion co sin es o f th e bi n or mal ; en ce -
h
h
fr o m (50) an d th e t i r d o f (5 7) i t follo w s t at 1 is th e r adiu s o f h
tor sio n of th e c u r ve . T h er efor e w e h av e th e follow ing t h eo r em

fu n da m ental i n th e t h eo ry of c u r ves

Gi ven an t
y wo an al
f yti c u n c ti on s, o
f w hi ch the f meror

i s posi ti ve for a ll va lu es of 8 w i thi n a cer ta i n d omai n ; ther e ex i sts a

cu r ve for w hi ch p T an d s i s the a r e, for va lu es o f s in

the g i ven d oma i n . The deter mi n a ti on f
o the cu r ve r edu ces to the fin d
i ng f thr ee sets of solu ti on s of equ ati on s
o f
sa ti s yi ng the con di ti ons

an d to qua dr atu r es .
 RI OCATI E U ATI ON S Q 25

We pr oc ee d n ow to th e in tegr atio n o f eq u ati on s Sin ce eac h

set of i n tegr al s o f th e d esir ed k in d m u st satisfy th e r elati o n

6
( )2

we in tr od u ce w ith D ar bo u x t w o fu n c ti ons 0
'

an d a) , d efin ed by

n + iv 1+w
l — w u — iv

u — iv 1+ w

l — w u + iv

I t is evi d ent th at th e fun c ti ons a "

an d ar e con u g ate j i m ag i n ar i es .

Solving for u , v, w , we g e t

cf + m
it : 9 3

w
'

If t h ese v al u es be su bsti tu te d in e q uati o ns i t i s fo un d t h at

th e fun c ti ons a an d w ar e so lu tio n s o f th e e q uati on

dd i
0
ds 2 r
p

A nd c o nv er sely, an y tw o d iffer en t solu ti o n s of w hen su bs ti

tu te d i n lead to a s e t o f so l u tio n s o f e q u ati o ns 5

( )7 satisfyi n
g
th e relatio n O ur pr oblem r ed u ces t h en to th e i n teg r atio n of

q
e u ati on

14 . Ri ccati eq u ati ons . E q u ati on 6

( )5 m a
y be wr i tte n

2 Me 3
L N0 ,

w h ere L, M N ,
are fun c tio ns of s . T ish q
e u ati o n is a
g en er ali z ed
for m o f an q
e u ati o n fi rst stu di ed by an d co nse q u en tly

is na m e d for hi m . A s Riccati e q u ati on s oc c u r fr e q u en tl

y in th e

th eor
y of c u rv es an d su rfac es, w e s h all establis h sev er al o f t h ei r

properti es .

Th eor e m Wh . en a
p a r ti cu lar i nteg r a l f
o a Ri cca ti q e u a tion is
kn ow n , the g en er a l in teg r a l ca n be o bta in ed by tw o qu a d r a tu r es .

Lc cons sur la Th eo r ie Gener a te d es S u rfa es , V o l I , 22 W e s a

c .r efer to p is
. . h ll th
t ea tise fr eq uentl
r y, and for b r evi y t gi c
v e o u r re fere n es t h e for m B a r o ux I , 22 b
1 C f F rsyth
.
,

. o , Dif erentia l Eq u a ti o ns , a ch p
v ; a so . l C h
o en, D ifi er en ti al Eq u a ti o ns ,
‘

pp . 173 177 -
.
26 CU RVES IN SPACE
L et 9, be a particu lar i n tegr al of If we pu t
th e q
e u ati on for th e d eter min ati on of ( ) I is

d <f
>
6
( )7 0 .

ds

A s t is h q
e u ati o n i s lin ear an d of th e fi r st or d er , it c an be solv e d by
tw o q u adr atu r es . Sin c e th e g en er al i n teg r al o f ( 6 7) i s of th e for m
a f2 (s) , h
w er e a denotes th e co nstant o f in tegr ati on , th e
g en er al in te g r al o f q e u ati on 66
( ) i s of th e for m

w h er e P, Q R, S , ar e fu n c ti on s of 8 .

Th eor e m Wh. en tw o p a r ti cu lar i n teg r a ls of a Ri ccati equ ati on ar e

know n , the g en er a l i n teg r al ca n be fou n d by on e u a d r a tu r e

q .

L et 0, and 92 be tw o solu ti ons o f e u ati on q If w e ef

fect th e

su b stitu ti on 0
;
T l 0 th e q
e u ati o n in «f
i

2 (M + s w r N : 0 .

If t i s h e u ati o n
q an d 6
( )7 be m u lti plied by l / l
x r an d l /ct r es ec
p
ti vely, an d su b tr ac ted , th e r esu l ti n
g q
e u ati o n i s r ed u c i ble to

1
3
( 8
014 9
( 1 C o nse q u en tl
y th e
g en er al in tegr al of

(6 6) i s g iven by
9— 9
f
t
6 —
< 9>

w h er e a i s th e c o nstan t o f i n teg r ation

k
.

Sin ce q
e u atio n 6
( )8 m a
y be l oo ed u
p on as a li n ear fr ac tio nal

su b stitu tion u pon a , fo u r

par tic u l ar sol u tions 9 , 9 , 9 , 0 , c or r e
1 2 8 4

s
pon din g to four v al u es d
l,
a
2,
a
s,
a
4
of a , ar e i n th e sa m e cr oss r ati o -

as t h ese c on stan ts . H en ce w e h ave th e t h eor e m

The cr oss r a t o -
i f
o an
y f ou r
p a r ti cu lar i n teg r als f
O a Ri ccati
e u ati on is c onstan t
q .

Fr o m th i s i t foll o w s t h at if t h r ee
par ti cu lar i n tegr als ar e k no wn,
th e g ener al i n tegr al c an be obtai n ed w i th ou t q u ad r ature .
 D E T E RMIN A T I ON o r COORD IN A TES

15 . Th e det er min ati on of th e cobr dinates of a cu r v e d efined by

its intr i nsi c q
e u ati ons . We r etur n to th e co nsi d er ati o n o f e u ati on
q
6 5 n d in d i cate b
( ) a
y
d P + Q aP +o
= 1 , 2 , 3)
as ( i

si x
p ar tic u l ar i n te
gr als of t ish q
e u ati o n . Fr o m t h ese w e obtain

t h ree se ts o f solu ti on s o f e u ati o ns

q m
na el
y

a :

an d si m ilar
x pr essions i n 0 2 a), 0 3 a) r espec ti vely for B m u ;
e , , , , ,

7, n, v Th ese ex pr essi ons sa ti s fy th e c o n d i tio ns

. In or d er
th at 59
( ) also m a
y be satis fi ed w e m u st h av e
“ w,
r

cu (D
t ‘

w h i ch is re d u c i bl e to
a
7
( )2

H en ce eac ht w o o f th e t h ree
pairs o f c o n stan ts a
l , b, ; a
, , b, ; a
s,
63 »
for m a h ar m o n i c r a n
g e .

Wh en th e v alu es ( 7 0) fo r a
},
a)
,
ar e su bsti tu ted i n th e e x pr essions
for a, B , 7 , it is fo u nd t h at

1 a b
a = — 4 J U+ i
a
l
61

a — b
g

l 0 6
3 3

a
s
“
be

w h ere , for th e sa k e of br evi ty, w e h av e pu t

— z —
z g—
( P R l (Q Z
S )
2 (P S — QR)
28 CU R VES IN SPA CE
Th e fi cients of
c oef U, V, an d W in ( 73 ) ar e of th e same for m as

th e x pressi ons ( 7 1 ) for a, l, 7s B m, u ; «

y, n, v Mor eover th e
d
e .
, .
,

e q uati o n s of c on i tio n 5
( )9 ar e e q u i valen t to H en ce t h ese

coefii c ien ts ar e th e d i r e cti on -

cosi nes of t h r ee fix e dd ir ecti on s i n
spac e m u tu ally per pen d ic u lar to o n e an o th er . If li n es t h r ou
g h th e

or ig i n of cobr d i n ates par allel to t h ese h

t ree li n es be tak en for a n ew

set o f a x es th e e x pr essions fo r a, B y wit

« h r efer en ce to t h ese a x es
d
, ,

r ed u ce to U, V, W r especti vely * . Th ese r esults may be state t h us

If the g ener al soluti on o f e u a ti on

q 6
( )5 b e

aP Q
6
( )8
aR +S

the c u r ve w hose r a di i of fir st and second cu r va tur e ar e p and 7

r es
p ec t vel i y i s g i ven b
y

d8,
2 (P S — QR) 2 (P S — QR)
RS — P Q
P S— QR
It m u st be re m ar k h ed t at th e n ew ax es o f c oo r d in ates ar e n o t

n ec essar ily r eal, so th t w h a en i t i s i mpo r tan t to k no w w h eth er th e

c u r ves ar e r eal it w ill be ad visa bl e to con si d er th e g en er al for m u las

An ex ample of th is w ill be g i v en later .

We sh all appl y th e p recedi ng resu l ts to several p r obl ems .

When th e c u rve is pl ane th e to rsi o n is zer o and c on versel y ,

. For th is c ase equ a
ti on ( 6 5) r e d u ces to
33 — 30
P
,
of w hich th e gener al i n tegral is

8 a f
t
ff
-f ae
—W
,

w h ere a is an arbi tr ary c onstan t ,

and by ( 2 7) a is th e measu r e of th e ar c o f th e
sph er ic al i ndic at r ix of th e tang en t . T hi s so l uti on is o f th e for m w ith
P Q = R = 0, S
w
e l
‘

z z
, .

T h er efore th e cobrdi nates are gi ven by

( 75 )
f cos o d s, y
f si n c d s, z 0 .

H ence th e c oordi nates of any pl ane cu r ve can be pu t i n thi s form .

Thi s i s th e same thi ng as t ak i ng

al -
bl = 1 , G2 — b2 = i , b3 =0 .

f Sc h effers, A n w en d u ng der D i fier enti al I n teg r al Re h n ung c f Geome tri c ,

'

u nd au
Vol 1 , . p . 2 19 . i ic
Le ps , 1902 .
30 CU R VES IN SPA CE
EX AMPLES

1 Fi n d th e c oordi nates of th e cyli nd r ical h eli x w h ose i nt r i nsic equ ati ons are
3

2 . h ow th at th e h eli x w h ose i ntr i nsic equ ati ons ar e p

S ( s2 li es r

u po n a c yli nd er w h ose c r oss se cti o n i s a c a ten ar y-

.

3 Est abli sh th e fo ll ow i ng p r op er ti es for th e c u r ve w ith th e i n t r i nsic equati ons

.

p a s ,
b
1s
'
w h ere a an d,
b ar e c on st an ts

( )
a t h e C ar tesi an c o or di nates ar e red u cib le to zzze ” c os t
y =A e " si n 1
3 z :B e“ t
,
t
, ,

w h ere A B h are fu n cti on s o f a and b ;

, ,

b) h e c u r ve li es u p on a ci r c u l ar c one w h ose ax i s c oi n cid es w ith th e z ax is and

( t -

cu ts th e el emen ts of th e cone u nd er c onstant angl e .

16 . Moving tr ih edr al . In 11 we took for fix ed ax es o f r efer

en c e th e tang en t, pr in cipal n or m al, and bi n or m al to a c u r v e at a

poi n t M, of i t , an d e x pr essed th e co or d i nates of an

y ot h er po i n t o f
th e cu r v e w i th r es
pec t to t h ese a x es as po w er ser ies i n th e ar e 8

of th e c u r ve betw een th e t w o poi n ts Si n ce III, i s any poin t of th e

.

c u r ve, t h er e h
i s a set o f su c ax es for eac of i ts poi n ts H en ce, h .

i n stead o f c on sid er i n g onl

y th e po i nts wh ose lo cu s i s th e c u r ve,

we may loo k u po n th e m ov in g point as th e in ter sec ti on of t hr ee

mu tu ally per pend ic u lar lin es w ic h h m ov e alo n

g w ith th e poin t,
th e w h ole fi g u r e r otating so th at i n eac h position th e lines coin
c id e w i th th e tan g en t pr i n c ipal n or mal an d b in or m al at th e poi n t
, , .

We sh all r efer to su ch a c on fi g u r ation as th e movi ng tr ihedr al .

In th e p b le m
sol u tion o f c er tai n
s i t is ro o f ad v an tag e to r efer th e
c u r v e to t is h m
o vi ng tr i ed r al as ax es h . We p r oc eed to th e c on

sid er ati o n of t is i d ea h .

Wi th r e fer en c e to th e tr i h ed r al at a poi nt 111 , th e d ir ectio n

cosin es of th e tan g en t, pr i n cipal n or mal, and bin o r m al at M
h av e th e v al u es

a = 1, l = o, m = 1 , K = p = 0,

A s th e tr i h ed r al beg ins to m o ve, th e r ates o f c g h an e of th ese

fu n c tion s w i th s ar e found fr o m th e Fr en et for mu las ( 5 0) to

h av e th e v alu es

as 1 £17 dl
0
E? 5
,
ds da

_1 d )”
0 1 d”
" ds "
7 ds 7 ds
 MOV IN G TRI HED RA L 31

L et C d en o te c oor dinates r eferr in g to th e ax es at Ill an d

E , n, ,

f
’
, th os e w i th r efer en c e to th e ax es at M
’
an d l et MM
’
A s ,
z

fi S i n c e th e r a te o f c h an e of a i s z er o an d a = 1 at III
(se e
g .
g ,

th e c osin e o f th e angle between th e E an d ax es i s 1 to w i th i n

k
-

ter m s o f h ig h er th an th e fi rst o r d er i n A 8 L i ew ise th e c osin e o f .

th e an gle betw een th e Ean d n ax es is

’
A s/ p W e c al cu late th e
-
.

c osi nes of th e an gle s be tw een all

th e ax es and th e r esu l ts may be

d
,

tabul ate as follo w s

5 7
7 C

(8 1 )
1)

Pi c . 4

L et P be a h
po in t w ose co or d i n ates w i t r espec t to th e tr i edr al h h
at M ar e E , 77, {1 Su ppose t at as h M
d escr ibes th e g iv en c u r ve C,
P descr ibes p I t m
a a
y aat
pph en t
‘
I at
. i n t i s m o ti o n h
P i s fix ed h h
r el ativ ely to th e m o vi n
g tr i edr al , bu t i n
g e n h
er al th e c an e i n th e
g h
positio n o f P w ill be d u e n o t o nly to th e mo t io n o f th e tr ih edi al
bu t also to a motio n r elati ve In th e latter g en er al c ase, i f P
to i t .
’

d eno tes the po in t on I c or r espo n di ng to M o n C, th e co or di n ates

‘ ’

’
o f P r elati v e to th e ax es at M an d M may be wr itten
’

—
5 4 13 1 5 , § + A 1 § s E+ A 2 £ 17 + A2 77, § + A2 C
T h us A 2 O i n d ic ates th e v ar i atio n of a fu n c ti on 9 r el ati v e to th e
m ov ing tr i h ed r al, an d A 1 0 th e var i ati o n d u e to th e latter an d to
th e m o ti on of th e tr i h ed r al .

Tow i th in ter ms of h ig h er o r der th e c oor din ates of M ar e ’

A s 0 0) w ith r espec t to th e ax es at M an d wi th th e ai d o f 8 1
( , , ( ) ,

th e equ ati ons o f th e tr ansfo r m ati o n of c obr di nates w i th r espe c t

to th e tw o ax es ar e ex pr essi ble th u s
A
E
) -

77 +A m
“ Al c
32 C U RV ES IN SPA CE

T h ese r e d u ce to

A£
_ e
g A ? A C n + A2n
A8 A3 A3 A8 1

é Aw
fi
A8 A8 p 7

I n th e l i m it as M appr oac h es M th ese equ ati ons b eco m e

+ _
ds ds p ds ds p
-
r ds ds -
r

th us
80
-

213
d en otes th e b
a solu te r ate of c h an
g e of 9, and
d0
a
h
t at

to th e tr i h edr alfl
‘
r elativ e

If t d en otes th e d i stan ce betw een P and a p oi nt PI 77 ,

1

th at is t =
2
(E ,
we find by m ean s o f th e
fo r m u las 8
( )2 t h at
dt 81:
da da

If a, b, 0 d en ote th e d ir ection -
c osin es o f P E w it h r espec t to
th e a x es at M , t h en

n1 = n + bt, ct .

Wh en we e x pr ess th e c o n d i ti on t h at
l E Q,
as w ell as E n C
, 17 ,
1
”

, ,

q
satisfy e u atio n s ( 8 w e ar e br o ug t to h th e follo w ing fu n dam en tal
r elations b et ween th e v ar i ati ons o f a , b, c :
8a da 6 86 db
,
g
+ +
c
’
de 013 p da da p 7

If th e po i n t P r emain s fixe d in space as M m o v es alo ng th e

c u r ve, th e left and e h m mb er s q
o f e u ati o ns 8
( )2 ar e z er o an d

d
-

th e equ ation s re u ce to

df di
‘

?—
7 7)
84 1,
da p ds 7

Moreover , th e d ir ection -
c osin es of a lin e fix e d in spac e sati sfy

th e q
e u ati o ns

as

C f Cesar e , Lezi oni d i Geometri c I n

. mnseca pp
’

, . 1 22 1 28
-
. Na pl es , 1896 .
 MOV IN G TRI HED RAL 33

T h es e ar e th e Fr en et Serr et for -
m ul as, as mig t h h av e be en
ex pected .

We sh all sh o w t h at th e solu ti on of th ese e q u ations c arr i es with

i t th e sol u tio n of Suppo se we h ave th r e e sets o f sol u ti ons

of a, l, x ; B , m, p ; 7, n, v, w h ose v al u es for 8 : O are

( 86 ) 1, 0, 0; 0, 1, O; 0, O, 1 .

T h ey ar e th e d irecti on c osi n es , wi th r es
pe ct to th e m o vi n
g tr i h ed ral

d
-

w it h v erte x M of h t r ee fix ed ir ec tions in spa ce m u tuall y per pen

d
,

di c ular to on e an oth er Let 0 be a fix e po in t, and th ro u

g h it
d k
.

ra w th e li n es w i th th e dir ec ti o n s j u st fo u nd Ta e th ese li n es
z M
.

for c obr di nate a x es an d let I , y , d en o te th e c oor din ates o f

wi th respect to t h em . If f, C d en ote th e c obr di n ates of 0

wi th respect to th em ovi n
g t h
r i ed r al , t en h E C ar e the
f M w i th
,

c ob r d i n ate s o r es ec t to th e tr i
p h edr al wi th v e rte x at

0 an d e dg par all el to th e co rres o ndin

es
p g edg es o f th e tr i h d
e r al

at M . C onsequ ently w e ave h

E =

If t h ese v al u es be su b tit t d i s u e n
( 84 ) an d w e ta k e ac coun t of

5
( )0 an d we fin d th t th q a e e u ati o ns ar e identic al ly sati s fie d .

If £0 Co den ote th e v al ues of E

, 71
0» C fo r s 0 i t follo w s fr o m , ,

86
( ) an d ( 8 7 ) t h at t h ey di ff er only i n si n fr o m th e ini ti al val u es
g
of x H n if w w r i te in co n fo r m i t wi th
y 2
, e
, ce . e
y ,

88
( ) £0 8 d8 7 618 Co
‘
1 9 3] ,

and su bsti tu te th ese v al u es in t h yb m

e eco e th e g en er al solu

ti o n o f e u ati o n s q We h ave seen th t th a e sol u ti on o f e q

d
ua

ti ons 8
( )5 re u ces to th e in teg ration of th e Ri oc ati e q u ati o n

1 7 Ill ustrati ve
. en u nples . As an ex am p le of th e fore o n g i g meth od co nsi d er
we
th e cu r ve w hi ch is th e l oc us of a po i nt on th e tangent to a tw isted c ur ve C at a
co nstan t dista n ce a from th e po i n t o f co nta c t .

Th e c oordin ates o f th e po i n t M1 o f th e c ur ve w i th re feren ce to th e ax es at M

are a 0 O,
I n this ca se eq ua ti o ns ( 82 ) red u ce to
,
.

61 7 a at
dc p da
34 C U RVES IN SPA CE

Henc e if 31 d eno tes th e l ength o f ar c of 0 1 fr om th e p oi n t c orr espo ndi ng to s O

on C ,
we h ave
a? 3

f(
8

1 ds,
0 p

and th e di recti on c osi nes of th e tangen t

-
to 0 1 w ith r efer en ce to th e mo vi ng ax es

are gi ven by
‘
71 0 .

H en c e th e tangen t to C I is p ar all el to th e os u c l ati ng pl ane at th e c or respondi ng

p oi nt of 0 .

By means of (8 3 ) w e fi nd
fi
d
’
(Sa l a a p a

ds ds
pv m p m
Pr o ceedi ng i n li k e manner w ith 191 an d 7 1 , and m ak i ng use o f ( ii ) , we h ave
6m ag 2
’ ’
pp a 63 1 ap p p
2 ? 2
(1 2
2
63 1 P 53 1 P ) a2 P
57 1 “P

2 2
53 1 T ( G p)

F ro th ese ex pr essi ons and

m we o btai n th e foll ow i ng ex p r essi on for th e s uare q
of th e fi r st c u r vatu r e o f C l :

1 l
,
app a2 p2

? G2
a?
2 il 2
1 2 2 2
a
( p)
-

p1 p p

Th e di r ecti on c osi nes of th e p r i ncip al

-
nor ma l of 01 ar e

I1 P1 ml 2
P1 71 1 P1

B y mean s of ( 40) w e d er i ve th e fo ll ow i ng ex p ressi ons for th e di r ecti on c osi nes of

-

th e bi nor mal
aQ m
’
PPI app

3 (1 2 \/
2
a2 2 2 2 3 a2 2
( p) ( gp ) p
- -
7 7 a p

In d er to fi nd th e ex p r essi on for 7 1 th e r adi us of tor si on

or , of 0 1, we h ave onl y to
sub stit u te th e ab o ve val ues i n th e eq u a ti on

11 57 “ P
T1 53 1 V a2 + p2 ds p

We l eave thi s c alcul ati on to th e rea d er and p r oc eed to an a pp licati on of th e

p rec ed i ng r esu l ts .

We i nq u i re w heth er th ere is a c ur ve C such th at C , is a s ra t ight li ne . Th e

nec essar y and su ffi ci en t c on diti on is th at l /pl b e z er o ( Ex . 3, p . F ro m ( iii ) it
fo ll ow s th at w e must h ave
 I L L U STRA TIV E EX A MPL ES 35

F m th e se c ond of th ese equa ti ons

ro - it fo ll ow s th at C must be p lane ,
an d fro m

th e fo r mer w e get, by i n tegrati o n

w here c is a constan t of in te grati on If th e po in t 3 . 0 be ch osen so th at w e may

take c log a“ this equati on red uc es to
,

If 0 d eno tes th e angl e w hich th e line C , makes w ith th e —

ax i s , we have ,
fro m (i )
,

tan o

i
D fferen tia ti ng this e qua ti on w i th p t to s
res ec ,
w e c an pu t th e re su lt in th e fo r m

do
da
consequentl y

Wh en th ese val ues ar e substitute d in equa ti o ns weo bta i n th e coordi nates of C

i n th e fo r m

or , in te r ms of 0 ,

— a
[ log tan
g+ cos y z a sin o
.

Th e cur ve w ith these eq uati ons is c all ed th e t actr iz A s j ust seen it pos esses
, ,
r .
,

th e p ro per ty th a t the re is asso ci a te d w ith i t a st r a ight li ne su ch th at th e se gmen ts

o f th e ta ngen ts be t w ee n th e po i n ts of ta ngen c y a nd po i n ts o f i n te rse cti o n w ith th e

given line are o f c onsta n t l en gt h

’

Th eorem Th e or th ogo nal t aj ec tor i es of th e oscu lati ng p la ne of a t w isted c ur ve ca n

. r

be found by quad r atur es .

W i th referen ce to th e movi n g ax es th e co r di nates o f a po in t i n th e osc u la t ing

o

pl ane are ( 5 Th e n ec essar y an d suffi ci en t c o nditi o n th a t this po i n t d esc r ibe

,

an o r th ogona l t r aj ecto r y o f th e osc u l ati n g pl ane as M moves al o ng th e gi v en c u r ve

3 3
5
8 2
is th at — and — in ( 82 ) be zero Hen ce w e h ave fo r th e d eter mi n ati on of z and n
.

th e eq ua ti ons ds dy r
17 P 09 ‘

i
”
E 0r
dd dd

w here a is gi ven by Elimi n ati n g 5, we have

( 191 1
1, p.

do ?

Hen ce 1, can be foun d by quad ra tures as a fun cti on of a , and c onseq uen tl y of 3 ,

and then f is gi ven dir ectl y .

36 C U RV ES IN SPA CE

Pr o bl em . Fi nd c c ond i tion that a c ur ve li e up n a spher e

a ne essar y and su fli czent
’

o .

If f { d eno te th e c oordi nates of th e c en ter and R th e r adi u s of th e sph er e

, , ,

w e h ave 52 7
2
{ 2 R 2 Si n c e th e c en ter i s fi x ed th e d er i va ti ves o f E 7 ya r e
7 .
, ,
1 ,

gi ven by C onsequ en tl y w hen w e di fferenti ate th e ab ove equ ation th e resu lt

, ,
.

i ng e qua ti o n red u ces to f : 0 w hich sh ow s th at th e no r ma l pl ane to th e c u r ve

,
'
at ea ch p o i n t p asses th r ou gh th e c en te r of th e sph er e I f thi s equ a ti on b e di fferen .

tiate d w e get ) , p ; h enc e th e c1en ter o f th e sph ere is o n t h e po l ar li ne fo r each

po i n t A noth er d iffer enti ati on gi ves together w ith th e p recedi ng th e fol low i ng
.
, ,

c oordi nates of th e c en ter of th e sph ere

n = p. r=
'

( 91)
-
rp .

Wh en th e asl t of these equ ati ons is di ffer en ti ated w e obta i n th e d esi red c onditi on
0 .

C onvers ely w h en th is c ondition is satisfi ed th e p oi nt w ith th e c oordi nates ( 9 1 ) is

, ,

fi x ed in sp ace and at constan t di stance from poi n ts of th e cur ve A cur ve w hich .

lies u pon a sph ere i s c all ed a spher i cal c u r ve H enc e equation ( 92) is a n ecessary
.

and suffi ci en t c onditi on th at a c ur ve be sph er ic al .

EX AMPLES

1 C b e a pl ane cur ve and C ; an or thogonal t raj ecto ry of th e nor mals to C

. L et .

Sh o w th at th e segments of th ese n or mals b et w een C and C , are of th e same l ength .

2 Let C and C , b e tw o c u r ves i n th e same pl ane and say th at th e p oi n ts c or r e

.
,

spo nd i n w hich th e c ur ves are me t b y a li ne th r ough a fi x ed po i n t P Sh ow th a t .

i f th e tangen ts at c or respondi ng p oi n ts ar e p ara ll el th e tw o c u r ves ar e si mil ar ,

and P i s th e c en ter o f si milit ud e .

8 . cus of th e p oi n t of p r oj ecti on of a fi x ed p oi nt P u pon th e tangent to

Th e lo
a c u r ve C i s c all ed th e p ed al c u r ve o f C w ith resp ect to P Sh o w th at i f r i s th e .

distanc e fr om P to a po i nt M on C and 0 th e angl e w hich the li ne P M mak es

,

w ith th e ta ngen t to C at M th e ar e 3 1 and r adi us of c u r vatu re pl of th e ped al

,

c u r ve are gi ven by

w h er e s and di us of c u r vature of C
p are th e ar c an d th e ra .

4 F i nd th e i n t r i nsic and p ar amet r ic eq uati o ns of a pl ane cu r ve w hich is su ch

.

th at th e segmen t o n any tangen t b et w een th e po i nt of c on tact and th e p r omoti on

o f a fi x ed p o i n t i s o f c onsta n t l ength .

5 F i nd th e i n t r i nsic eq uati o n o f th e pl ane c u r ve w hich meets u nd er cohstant

.

a ngl e all th e li n es p assi ng th ro ugh a fi x ed p o i n t .

6 Th e pl ane c u r ve w hich i s su ch th at th e loc us of th e mid p oi nt o f th e seg

.
-

ment o f th e nor ma l b e t w ee n a p oi n t o f th e c u r ve and th e cen ter of c u rv atu re is

a st ra ight li n e i s th e c ycl oid w h ose i n t r i n sic eq u a ti on is p“ 32 a“ .

7 I nvestigate th e c u rve w hich i s th e l oc us of th e po i n t on th e p r i n cip al normal

.

o f a gi ven c u r ve and at c o ns ta n t distan ce fr om th e latter

'
.
.
 CU R VES IN SPA CE
Hen ce w h en p is con stan t th e c en te r s o f th e oscu l ati n
g sp er e h
an d th e oscu lati ng c i r cl e c o i n c i d e . T h en th e r adi u s o f th e sp er e h is
n ec essar il
y c o n stan t . C on v er sely, i t follo w s fr o m th e q ti
e ua on 9
( )3
t h at a n ec essar
y an d su f
fi ci en t c o n d itio n th t R ba e c on

stan t is
’
= 0,
p 7

t h at is, ei t h er th e c u r vatu r e is c o n stan t, o r th e c u r ve

h
i s sp er i c al .

q
If e u atio n s ( 94 ) d iffer e nti ated w i th r es
pec t to s,

w e
g et

— 7\ 3+ P)
7
( T

9
( )5 y

Fr o m th ese e x pr es
si on s it is seen th at

th e c en ter of th e
osc u lati ng Sp er e h is
fix ed only in c ase

h
o f Sp eri c al cu r ves .

A lso, th e tang en t to
th e locu s o f th e cen

ter i s par allel to th e

bi n or ml a . Go mb i n

in g th i s resul t w i th
a r ev i o u s o n e, w e
p
m:
FI G 5 '

h ave th e t h eor e

Th e pola r lin e for a

p oin t on a cu r ve i s tang en t to the locu s f
o the
c en ter o f the osc ula ti n
g spher e to the cu r ve at th e cor r es on d i ng
p p oi n t .

T ish r esul t is re
p r esen ted in fig 5 , i n w . hi h c th e cu r v e i s th e
l oc us of th e po i n ts M; th e poi n ts 0 , Cl , 0 2 , ar e th e c or r espo nd

i ng c en ters o f c u r vatu r e ; th e plan es M ON MI CI N I

, , are n or mal

to th e c u r ve ; th e li nes CF , Cl P l , ar e th e polar li n es ; an d th e

poi n ts P , P P 2, ar e th e cen ter s of th e osc u lati ng sp er es h .

 BERTRA N D C U RV ES 39

19 . Bertr and cu r v es . Ber tr an d propo sed th e follo wi n g proble m

To deter mi n e the c ur ves w hose r i n ci a l n or ma ls ar e the r i n ci a l
p p p p
no r ma ls o f an other cu r ve . h
I n solv i n g t i s pr oblem w e m a e u se o f k
th e m o v i ng tri h ed r al . We mu st find th e n ec essar
y an d su f
fi ci en t
c on di ti o n th at th e po in t MI G: 0 ,
1
; k, C 0) g en er ate a c ur v e 01
w h ose pr i n c i pal n or mal co i n c i d es w i th th e n ax is -
of th e m ovin g
tr i h edr al Sin c e th e po in t Ml re ains on th e m m o vi n g —
n ax is, w e
d
.

h av e df ti l : 0
”
A n d sin ce M1 ten s to o ve m at r ig ht an gles to
d
.

thi s a x is , 81 ) 0 . No w equ ati ons ( 82 ) re uc e to

1 :
ds p

Fr om th e seco n d w e see t h at k is a c o ns ta n t Mor eo v er if m den otes

m k
.
,

th e an
g le w h ic h th e tan g en t at Ml a es w it h th e tan g ent at M
we h ave, fr o m th e first an d h
t ir d o f th ese equ ati ons,

tan a) 158 hp
55 7
( k P)
si n a) c o s as si n a)

p k

We h av e seen 1 1) t h at acc o rd i n
g as r is po sitiv e or ne
g ative,

th e osc ul a tin
g pl ane to a c u r ve at a po in t M ’
n ear M c u ts th e
po l ar lin e for M belo w or abo v e th e osc u latin g pl an e at M Fr o m .

th ese co n si d er ati ons i t follo ws t h w h en

at r > 0, a) is i n th e t i r d, h
fo u rt h or fi rst q u ad r an ts ac c o r d in
g a s k 0 k or k 0
d
, p , p,

and w h en r < 0, a) is i n th e secon d, first, or fo u r t h q u a r an t,

ac c or di ng ly . I t is re ad il
y fo u n d t h at th ese r esu lts ar e c ons isten t

wi t h q e u ati on

By m eans o f ( 9 7) i t i s fo un d fr om ( 96 ) that
88 1
ds

th e n eg ativ e Sig n be i ng ta k en so t h at th e left -

h an d m mb e er m ay
be posi ti ve .

T u s far h we h av e e x pr essed o nly th e c o n d ition th at th e loc u s

of M1 ou t th e mo v in g n ax is or th og onally bu t n o t th at th is ax is
-

h
s all be th e pr in c ipal n or al to th e m cu r v e 01 also . Fo r t is h w e

c onsi d er th e ovin g tr i ed r al for C

1
m h an d let a
, , bl , c
l
d en o te th e
40 CU RV ES IN SPA CE

di r ecti on -
cosin es w i th r es
pec t to i t of a fix e d dir ection i n Space,

as MID in fig 6 . . T h e
y sati sfy equ ati o n s Si m il ar to na m el
y

d al bl d b1 c d cl 6
99 — — 1
( ) 3 51 i r d 81 d sr 7
1

If a, b, c ar e th e d i r ectio n -
c osi n es of th e

sa m e d ir ec ti on , w i th r es ect
p to th e mov
in g tri h d
e r al at M , we m u st h ave a
1
a c os ( 0 + c sin w ,
61 : 6, c a si n «0 0 c os ( 0 , for all po ssi bl e c ases,

d
1

as en u m er ate abo v e . Wh en t h ese valu es are sub

sti tu ted i n the b

a ove e u ati ons , w e q g et, by m eans

FI G 6
.
Of

b+ — a sin a
si n a)
( o co s w

p p1 7
1 si n 00 c os co sin co sin w cos

kp k

Sin a)

p 7
1
7 8 111 ( I)

Si n ce t h q
ese e u ati o n s mu st be tr u e for ev er y fix ed lin e, th e c oef
fi
c i en ts o f a, b, c in eac h of th q
ese e u ati on s m u st be z er o . Th e
r esu l ti n
g q
e u ati o n s o f con di ti on r edu ce to

w c o n st .
,

Si n 0) c o s a) sin to

7
1
k
Si n ce 0) is a con stan t, q
e u ati on 9
( )7 i s a lin ear r elati on b et w een
th e fi rst and secon d c u r vatu res of th e c u r ve C . A n d th e last of

e q u atio n s 1
( 00) S h o ws t h at a Si milar r elati on h ol ds for th e c u r ve C, .

C onver sely, gi ven a c u r ve 0 w h ose fi rst and secon d c ur v atu r es

sati sf th e r elati on
y
A B
( 1 01 ) p r

w h er e A, B , C ar e constan ts d i ffer en t fr o m z er o ; i f w e tak e

cot w
 TAN G EN T SU RFA C E OF A C U RV E 41

an dfor p1 an d r 1 th e v al u es gi v en by eq u ati o ns ( 9 9) ar e sat

isfied i den tic ally, an d th e poi n t ( 0, k , 0) on th e pr i n ci pal n or m al

g en er ate s th e c ur v e Cl , con ug a te j to C . We gat h er t h ese r esu lts

abo ut th e c u r ves of B ertr an d in to th e foll o win g t h eore m

A necessar y an dfi d i tio n tha t th e

sw icien t pr i nci a l nor ma l
p c on :
b h r i n ci al n or ma ls o f a secon d i s th at a linea r
of on e cu r ve e t e
p p
r elation ex ist betw een the fi r st a nd sec on d cu r va tu r es ; the d ista nc e

betw een f
cor r espon ding
p oi nts o the tw o cu r ves is cons ta n t, the o scu

la ti ng pla nes at these poi nts cu t u n der cons ta n t ang le, an d the tor si ons

of the tw o cu r ves ha ve the same sig n .

We co ns i d er , fin ally , sev er al par ticul ar c ases , w hi c h we h av e

e x cluded in th e c ons i d er ati o n q

o f e u ati o n

Wh en 0 0 an d A O, th e r a ti o o f
p an d r is co n sta n t . H en c e
th e c ur v e is a h eli x and i ts j
c o n ug ate is at in fi n i ty . W h en A 0,
th at i s,w h en th e c u r ve h as c on stan t to rsion the c on j u gate c u rv e ,

c o in c i d es wi th th e o r i i n al
g W h en A C 0 k is i n d eter m i nate ;
.
,

h ence plane cur v es ad mi t of an infi n ity of conj ug ates — th ey ar e ,

th e c u r v es p ar a llel to th e gi ven c u r ve . Th e o n ly o t h er c ur v e

whi c h h as mor e t h an on e c on u j gate is a c ir c u l ar h el i x , for s in c e

p an d r ar e c onstan t, A/O be g i ven

c an any v al u e w h ate v er ; b tho

th e gi v en h eli x an d th e c ir c ul ar el i c es h c on u j g ate to i t are trac ed

on c ir c ul ar c yli n der s wi th th e sa me a x is .

20 Tangent su r face of a cu r v e For th e fu rt h er d isc u ssi on of

d
. .

th e pr oper ti es o f c ur v es it is n ec essar y to i n tr o u ce certain c ur ves

an d su r fac es w hi c h c an be assoc iated wi th th em H ow ev er in co n

d
.
,

si d er in
g t h ese su r fac es w e li mi t ou r isc ussi on to t h o se proper ti es
w h i ch h av e to d o wi th th e associated c ur v es, an d leav e ot h er c o n

si de rati o n s to tpl ac h
es iei r
n l at r
p p
e roc apters
er h .

Th e to tality of al l th e poi nts o n th e tang en ts to a tw i sted cu rv e C

c onsti tu te th e ta ng en t surface of the cu r ve A s t us d efin e , th e su r . h d
fac e c onsi sts o f an in fi n ity of straig t li n es , h w hi h c ar e call ed th e

g en er ator s of th e su rfac e A n y po in t P on t i s sur fac e li es o n on e

. h
h
o f t ese lines, an d is d ete r m
in ed by t is li n e an d th e di stan ce t fro h m
h
P to th e po in t M w er e th e li n e o u c es th e c ur v e, as i s s o wn in t h h
fig 7 If th e c oor di n ates x g r o fM are e x pr essed in ter m s of th e
d
. .
, ,

are a, th e coor in ates of P ar e

g i v en by

C z e z t»
i '
42 C U RV ES IN SP A C E

W h er e th e ac cen ts d en o te d iffer en ti atio n w i th r es

pec t to 3 . When
th e eq u atio n s o f th e c u r ve h av e th e g en er al fo r m
z =

th e coor d i nates of P c an be ex pr essed t ush

77 =
f fi (u ) =
C fa(u
'
f (u)
(1 03 ) 2 ( )
u v , ) v
a ,

t
w h er e
+ fr
”
if .

h
Fr om t i s i t i s seen t at h v i s e q u al to th e d istanc e MP o nl
y w h en 8

is th e par a eter m .

q
A S g i v en by e u ati on s ( 1 02 ) or th e co or din ates o f a po i nt
on th e tan g en t su r face ar e fu n cti on s of tw o
par ameter s . A r ela
ti on b etw een t h ese
par ameter s,

su c h as

( 1 04 ) f <8 9 t) 0,

defi n es a c u r ve w h ic h lies u pon

th e s u r fa c e . Fo r w h e n t h i s
,

Fm 7 .
e q u atio n is solved fo r t in ter m s

o f s an d th e r esu l ti n e x pres
g
si on is su b stitu ted in th e coor di n ates f, n, 2
; me
fu n c ti o n s of a si n
g l e par am eter , an d c o n se u en tl
y th e q
loc u s of th e poi n t (5 , n, C) i s a cu r v e
By defi n i ti o n , th e el ement o f ar c o f t is cu r v e is
g i v en b
yh
df i dn + d C
f 2
-
fi
. h
T is i s ex pr essible by ean s of ( 1 0 2) an d m
( 4 1 ) i n th e for m 2

1 05 d ” : 1 — 2
de + 2 ds dt as,
( ) o
2
p

w h er e t is su pposed to be th e ex pr ession in 3 obtain ed fr o m

and
p i s th e r ad i u s o f c u r v atu r e o f th e cu r ve C, of w h ic h th e su r

face is th e tan g en t su r face . h

T is r esu lt i s tr u e
.
w h atev er be th e
r elati o n H enc e e q u ati o n ( 1 05 ) gi ves th e el e ment of length
of any c u rv e o n th e su r fac e, an d do is c alled th e li n ear ele ment f
o

the su rface .

A c cordi n g as t in eq u ati ons

( 1 0 2 h
) as a po si ti v e or n egative

valu e, th e poin t 1 1 s
‘

on the po rti on if th e tangen t d ra wn in th e

 TA N G EN T SU RFA CE OF A C U RV E 43

po si ti ve d i rec ti o n fro m th e c u r ve o r i n th e o p o si te
p d i r e c ti o n . It
is n ow ou r pur pose to g et an i d ea of th e fo r m o f th e su r fac e i n th e
n ei
g h b h or oo d of th e cu r v e .

In con se u en c e ofq 5
( )3 e q u ati ons ( 1 02) c an be w r i tten
1
_
6p
2 ’
8 1 p
2
2p 6 p

1 2
8 +
fi pr

Th e plan e 5 : 0 c u ts th e su rfac e i n a c u r v e I T h e poin t M0 o f C,

‘
.

a t w ic 8 h h
0, is als o a poi nt o f F Fr o m th e abo v e ex pr ess io n .

h
for Ei t i s seen t at for po in ts o f P n ear
MO th e pa r ameters 8 an d t di ffer o n ly i n
Si
g n . H en ce, n eglec tin g po w ers of s an d
t of h h ig er o r d ers, th e e u ati on s o f F in q
th e n e ig h b h or ood of MO ar e

2
t
§ = or
29

By elimi nati n g t fr o m th e l ast tw o e q ua

tio n s, w e fi n h
d t at i n th e n ei g bo r h h oo d o f

M0 th e c u r ve F h as th e fo r m o f a se m i

c u bic al p arabo l a w i th th e n ax is, t -

h at is
th e n o r mal
pr in ci pal to C, fo r c u spid al

tan gen t Sin c e an

y po in t of th e c urv e C
k
.

c an be ta en for M0 , w e h av e th e t h eor e m: F 10 . 8

The ta ng en t su r fa ce o fa c ur v e con si sts o f tw o sheets c o r r espon d i ng

,
r es
p ecti vely to posi ti ve a n d n eg a ti ve va lu es o f t, w h i c h ar e ta ng en t to

one an other a long the cu r ve, an d thu s for m a sha r ed

ge
p .

O n t is h acc o un t th e cu r ve is c alled th e edg e o f r eg r essi on o f th e

su r face . A n i d ea of th e fo r m of th e su r face may be had fr o m fig 8 . .

21 . I nvolu tes and ev ol utes of a cu rv e . Wh en th e tan g en ts of a

c ur v e C ar e n or mal to a cur ve Cl , th e l atte r i s c alled an i n volute of

C, an d C is c all ed an evolu te o f Cr AS t h us defi n ed, th e in v o lu tes

of a twi ste d cur v e li e u
po n i ts tan gen t s ur fac e, an d t h ose of a
44 CU RV ES IN SPA CE

l an e cu rv e in i ts plane Th e latter i s o nly a par ticu lar case of th e

p .

m h b m
fo r er , so t at th e pr o l e of fi nd in g th e in v olu tes of a c u r v e is
t h at o f fin d i ng t h e c u r ves u pon th e tan gen t su r face w h i ch cut the

g en er ators or t ogo nally h .

We w r i te th e equ atio ns of th e tang ent su r face i n th e for m

A ssu mi ng t h
is th e par a eter o f the cu rv e, th e pr o lem r e
at s m b d u ces

to th e d eter min ation o f a r elati on e tw een t an d s su c t at b h h

By m eans o f 5
( )0 t i s h r ed u ces to d t + d s = 0, so th at t= c — s,

w h er e c is an ar bi t r ary c o n stan t . H ence th e c o or di n ates 23

1,
z
o f an i nv ol u te ar e e x pr essible i n th e for m
—s = B( —
( 1 06 ) x
,
x + a
( c
), gl y+ c s
), e + y( r c -
s
)
.

C or r espon ding to eac h v alu e o f c t h er e is an in volu te ; q

c on se u en tly

a c u r ve h as ni n fin ity of i nvolu tes

a . If tw o i n v olu tes co r r espo n d
to v alu es c an d c2 o f c, th e se
g m en t o f eac h tangent betw een th e
d
1

c u r ves is o f len
gt h C
l
_c z
. H enc e th e i nv olu tes ar e sai to for m a

syste m of
p a r a llel c u r v es on th e
tan g en t S urface
k
.

Wh en 3 is no w n th e i nvolu tes
ar e
g i v en di r ec tl l
y y
u e f q u ati on s

Hen s? th e “
compl ete de
ter mi n ati on of th e in vol u tes o f a

0 g i ven q
c u r v e r e u ir es o n e qu ad

r atu r e at m ost .

Fr o m th e d efi ni ti on of t an d

i ts abo ve v al ue, an i n v olu te can

be g en er ate dm ec h an ically i n th e fo llo w in g m an n er , as r epr esen te d

i n fig 9 Ta . . k e a str i ng o f leng t h 0 an d br i ng i t i n to c oi nc id enc e

w i th th e c u r ve, w i th o n e en d at th e poin t e : 0 ; c all th e o t er h

end A . If th e fo r m er poi n t be fix ed an d th e str ing be u n w ou nd
g r ad u all
y fro m th e c u r ve b
eg in n i n
g at h
A , t i s poin t w ill trac e ou t

an i n volu te on th e tang en t su r fac e

d
.

By i ffer en tiating equ ati ons we g et

l (o ) de m (c )
8
, dg l =
8
—ds , dz l
p
46 CURVES IN SPA CE

th e fi rst i t follow s t h at
p i s e u al to p; c onse u ently MO l ies on
q q
th e polar line of C at M . h
Th e o t er equ ati o n s o f con i ti on c an be d
w r i tten
de q
p k 0 0 .

ds r

Eli m inati ng 1c, w e

g et

ds Pd q
e
We a
p+g
.

For th e sa e of c o n v en i en ce
k we p t
u to an d obtain by
i n tegr ation
9
tan (w c
),

w h er e c i s th e c onstan t o f i n tegr ation A s 0 i s ar bitr ar y th er e i s .

,

an i n fi ni t o f evolu tes o f th e c u r ve C ; th ey ar e d efi ned by th e

y
follo w ing equ ation s i n w h ic h c i s c on stan t for an evolu te bu t
,

ch an es w i th i t
g

z + np v
p tau m
(
Fr o m th e dfie nition of g i t follo w s t h at
q/p i s e q u al to th e tan g en t

of th e ang le w h ic h MM, ma k es w i th th e pr i nc i pal n or mal to C at

M .

C alli ng t is h an
g l e 0, w e h av e 0 a) c . Th e for eg o mg r esu lts
g i ve

the follo w i ng t h eor e m

A cu r ve C ad mi ts of an i nfinity f
o evolu tes ; w h en ea c h f
o the
nor mals to C, w hi c h ar e tang en t to on e o f i ts evolu tes, i s tu r n ed
thr oug h the same ang le i n the cor r es on d ing n or
p ma l plan e to C, these
n ew n or ma ls ar e ta ng en t to another evolu te o fC .

In fig 5 th e loc us . of th e poi n ts E i s an evol u te of th e g iv en

c u r ve .

Eac h syste m o f n or m als to C w h ic h ar e tang en t to an ev ol u te C0

con stitu te a tang en t su rface o f w h ic h C0 i s th e e d g e o f r e r essio n
g .

H en ce th e e volu tes o f C ar e th e ed
g es o f r e ressi on o f an
g infi n i ty
of tangen t su r fac es, all o f w h ic h pass t h ro u
g h C .

F ro m th e d efi niti on of (0 it fo l low s th at w c onstan t onl y w hen th e cu rve C

is
is pl ane . In this c ase w e may tak e to eq u al to z er o Th en w h en c
. 0 w e h ave
t
th e evolu e Co in th e plane of th e cur ve . Th e oth er evo l u tes lie u po n th e r ight
 MIN IMA L C U RVES 47

cyli nd er for med of th e nor mal s to th e pl ane at poi n ts of Co an d cu t th e el emen ts ,

o f th e c yli nd er un d er th e c o n sta n t an gl e 90 c and c o nse qu en tl y ar e h elic es

°
.
,

H ence w e have th e theorem

The evo lutes of a pla ne cu r ve ar e the hel ices tr ac ed o n the r ig ht cylind er w hose
base i s th e pla ne evol ute C onverse l y ever y cyli nd r i ca l hel ix is the evolute of a n
.
,

i nfi nity of pla ne c urves .

EX AMPLES

1 . Fi n d th e co ordi nate s of th e cen ter of th e os u a nc l ti g Sph ere of th e tw isted

cu bic .

2 . gl e betw een th e radi us o f th e os c u l ati ng sphere for any c ur ve and th e

Th e an

l o cus of th e cente r of th e Sph er e is eq u al to th e angl e be tw ee n th e radius of th e

osc u l at i ng ci r cl e an d th e l oc us of th e ce n te r of c u r vatur e .

3 Th e l oc u s o f th e cen ter o f c ur va tur e of a c ur ve is an evo l u te o n l y w h en th e

.

c u r ve is pl ane .

4 F i nd th e r ad i i o f fi rst and se c ond c u r vatu re o f th e c u r ve a;

. a s in u co s u ,

y :(1 cos2 u z a Sin u Show th at th e cur ve is spher ic al and gi ve a geomet rical

z
,
.
,

constr u cti o n F in d i ts evol u tes

. .

6 D er i ve th e p ro per ti es of Be r tr and c u r ves

. 19 ) w ith ou t th e use of th e mo v i ng

6 . Fi
d th e i nvolu tes and evol u tes of th e tw isted cubic
n .

7 D e ter mi ne w h eth er th ere is a cu r ve w h ose b i no rm als are th e b i no rm als o f a

.

se co nd c ur ve .

8 D er i ve th e resu lts of § 2 1 by means o f th e mov i ng t r ih ed ral

. .

22 . Mini m al curv es In th e pr ec edi ng d isc u ssio n

. we h av e m ad e
e x ception of th e c u r v es, d efin e d b
y

z y =f
s ( ) u ,

w h en th ese fun ctions satisfy th e c o n di tio n

( 1 07)
As t gi h
n ares e
y m
cu r v es ar e o f i nter est i n cer ta in par ts of th e
i a

h
t eor y of su r faces, w e d ev ote this c losi ng sec ti o n to t ei r disc ussi o n h .

Th e equ ation o f con di ti o n may be w r i tten in th e for m

’
f.

w h er e v is a constan t or a fu n c ti on of u . T h ese e q u ation s are

‘

q
e ui valen t to th e follo wi ng
l— v
2 “
1+ ” l
1
( 0 8)
2
 C U RV ES IN SPAC E

At m ost, th e co mm on r atio is a fim c tion o f u , sa

y f (a ) A nd so

d d
.

if we i sr eg ar ad d i ti ve c o nstan ts o f i n teg r ati on , as th e

y can be
re m ove d by a tran slation of th e cu r v e in s
pace, w e c an r epl ace

th e abo v e e u ati ons q by

x z
z
1 i bi

é
“

f
( 1 09) f(u )d u , g i ja
q d u , f(u )du
v .

We c onsid er fi r st th e case w h en v is c on stan t an d c all it a . If

w e c h an
g e th e par ameter of th e c u rv e by re
placin
( )da
u by a

n ew ar a
p m eter w h ic h w e call u , w e h ave, w i th ou t loss of g en er ali ty ,

2 2
1 1
( 1 1 0) :
a
a a
z = au .

2 2

For eac h v alu e o f a t h ese ar e th e q

e u ati o n s o f an i m a
g i n ar
y
str ai
g h t li ne ht ro u
g h th e or i
g i n . m
Eli inatin g a, w e fi nd t h at th e
en velope o f th ese lin es i s th e i m a
g i n ar y con e, wi th ver te x at th e
or i
gin, w h ose equ ation is
2 2
( 1 1 1 ) 95 +g + 0 .

Every point on th e con e is at z er o distan c e fr om th e v er te x , an d

fr o m th e equ ati on s o f th e li n es i t is seen t h at th e d i stan ce b et w een

an
y t w o poi nts o n a lin e is z er o . We call t h ese
g en er ator s of th e
con e mi ni mal str a ig ht li n es T roug h h any po i nt in space t h ere ar e

d
.

an in fi nity of t h m ; th
e ei r ir ection -
c osi n es ar e pr opor ti onal to
2 2
1 a l +a
i
2 2
w h er e a is ar bi trary Th e loc u s o f th ese lines is th e cone w h ose
.

v er tex is at th e poi n t an d w h ose en er ator s pass th r ou g h th e c ir cl e

g
at i n fi n i t
y For th e equ atio n in h o m og en eou s c obr din ates o f the
.
,

S h er e o f u n i t r ad iu s and c en ter at th e or i i n i s x + g + z
2 ’ “ 2
p w
g
so th at th e equ ations o f th e ci r c l e at i n fi ni t ar e
y
w = 0 .

H en ce th e c on e
( 1 1 1 ) passes t h r ou
g h th e c ir cle at i n fi ni ty .

We consider n o w th e c ase wh er e v i q
n e u ati o n s ( 1 0 9) is a fu n cti on
of u . If we ta k e h
t is fu n c tion of u for a n ew par a m eter , and for
co nv eni ence call it u , e u ations q ( 1 09 ) ma
y be w r itten in th e for m
 MINI MAL CU RV ES 49

w h er e as is seen from
,
F (u ) c an be any fu n c tion of i t diff er en t

fr o m z ero .

If w e r eplace E (u ) by th e th ir d d er i vative o f a fu n cti on f (u ),

t h us E ( u )= f ( ) q
u , e u ati on s 1 1 2 c an be in te r ate
( ) g by pa r ts an d pu t d
in the for m 1 ’
z
< 1 uf <u >
5
i ’
g ( 1 i af ( ) a if(a ) ,
2

z u f (u )
Sin ce F mu st be di fi eren t fr om z er o f (u ) c an
, h av e any for m th o er

t h an c u
1
2
+ c u
2
c
,,
w h er e c
l,
c
,,
c
,
ar e ar bi t r ar y co nstan ts .

1 . Sh ow
th at th e tangen ts to a mi n imal c ur ve ar e mi n imal li nes and that a ,

cur ve w h ose tangen ts are mi n i mal li nes is min imal .

2 Sh ow th at th e oscu la ti ng p la ne o f a mi ni ma l c ur ve can be w r itten ( X

. x )A

+ ( Y g) B +( Z w h e re A Q
+R A pl ane w h ose eq u a ti o n is
‘

o f this so r t is c al l ed an isotr opi c pla ne .

Sh ow th a t th r ou gh each po i n t o f a pl an e tw o m ini mal st raight li n es pass

w hi ch lie i n th e l atte r
. .

4 D eter mi n e th e o rd er o f th e mi ni mal c u r ves for w hi ch th e fun cti on f in ( 1 1 3 )

.

sa tisfi es th e co ndi ti o n 4 f f 5f 2 0
’”
' "
.

5 Sh ow th at th e eq u ati ons of a mi n imal c u r ve for w hich f in ( 1 13 ) sa tisfi es th e

.
,

co ndi ti on 4 f bf ? w h ere a is a c o nsta n t c an be pu t in th e for m

’” ” ’3
af
"
, ,

gcos t ,
y £si n t
3
, z
§
i t
.

a a a

GENERAL EX AMPLES

1 . Show th at th e e ua q ti ons of any p lane c ur ve c an be pu t in th e for m

x :
f c os y fi s n

and d etermi ne th e geometr ical signi fi can ce of

2 P ro ve that th e nec essa r y an d suffi ci en t c on di ti on th at th e par ameter
. u in th e
eq ua ti ons 9:
=f1 (u ) y = f3 (u) h ave th e Si gni fi can ce o f in Ex 1 is
, .

ff a f1 fi =
— ” ”

f
3 . Prove th at
genera l proj ecti ve t ransfor matio n t ransfor ms an osc ul ati ng
th e
p lane o f a c ur ve in to an osc ula ting pl ane o f th e transfor m .

4 Th e p r in cipal nor ma l to a c ur ve is n or mal to th e l oc us o f th e c en ters of

.

c u r vature at th e po ints w here p is a max i mu m o m i n i mu m r .

 CU RV ES IN SPA CE

5 . c er tai n plane cu r ve possesses th e p r oper ty th at if 0 be its cen ter of cu rva

A
tu re for a po i nt P Q th e p roj ecti on of P on th e z ax i s and T th e po i n t w h ere th e
,
-
,

tangen t at P meets this ax i s th e area of th e t r i angl e C Q T i s cons tan t F i nd th e

,
’
.

e q uati o ns of th e c u r ve i n ter ms of th e an gl e w hich th e tangen t forms w ith th e z ax is -

.

6 Th e bi nor mal at a po i n t M of a c u r ve i s th e li miti ng p ositi on of th e c ommon

.

pe rpendicu l ar to th e tangents at M and M as M appr oach es M ’

,
’
.

7 Th e t angen ts to th e S ph er ic al i ndic at r ic es of th e tangent and bi nor mal of a

.

tw isted curve at cor respo ndi ng po i n ts are p arall el .

8 A ny c u r ve u po n th e unit Sph ere ser ves for th e Sph eri c al i ndic at ri x of th e

.

bi normal of a cur ve of c onstant torsi on F i nd th e coordi nates of th e curve . .

9 Th e equ ati ons

.

ldh hd l hd l ldh
a z a
f —s
h2 + k2 + l2
g =a
fh 2
+ k 2
+ l2

w h er e a is c onstant and h k , ,
l are fun cti ons of a S i ngl e p arameter d efi ne a cu rve
,

w h ose r adi us of torsi on i s a .

1 0 I f i n Ex 9 w e h ave
.
,
.
,

k = sin n0 + Si n x o, 08

w h ere x and n are c onstan ts w h ose rati o i s c ommensur abl e th e i nteg rands are ,

ex p ressibl e as li near h omog eneous functi ons of si nce and c osi n es of multipl es o f 0 ,

and c onsequentl y th e c ur ve i s al geb raic .

1 1 Eq uati ons ( 1 ) d efi ne a famil y of ci r c les i f a b r are fu n cti ons of a paramete r

.
, , ,

t Sh ow th a t th e d eter mi nati on of th ei r or th ogonal t r aj ector i es requ i res th e so l u ti on

.

o f th e Ri oc a ti eq u ati on ,

(1
w h ere 0 =tan u /2 .

1 2 F i nd th e vector represen ti ng th e r ate o f ch ang e of th e acc el erati on of a

.

movi ng po int .

1 8 Wh en a c u r ve i s sph er ic al th e c en ter of c u r vatu re for th e p o i nt is th e foo t

.
,

of th e p erpendic u l ar upon th e o sc ul ati ng pl ane at th e p o in t fr om th e c en ter of th e

Sph ere .

1 4 Th e rad ii of fi rst and sec ond c u r vature of a cu r ve w hich li es u pon a sph ere
.

and c u ts th e mer idi ans u nd er c onstan t angl e are i n th e re l ati on 1 or bp2r 0 ,

w h ere a and b are c ons tan ts .

1 6 A n epitr oc hoid a l cur ve is generate d by a po i nt i n th e p lane of a ci r cl e w hi ch

.

r oll s w ith ou t slippi ng o n anoth er ci r cl e w h ose pl ane mee ts th e pl ane o f th e fi rst

, , ,

ci r c le u nd er c ons tant angle F i nd i ts equ ati ons and S h ow tha t it is a sph er ic al c urve
. .

1 6 If tw o cur ves are i n a one to one c orr esp o nd en c e w ith th e tangen ts at

.
u -

cor respondi ng p o i n ts parall el th e p r i ncip al nor ma ls at th ese po i n ts ar e p aral lel

,

and lik ew i se th e b i n or mals ; tw o c u r ves so rel a ted are said to b e d ed u cibl e from

one ano th er b y a tr ansfor mation of C ombescur e .

1 7 I f tw o c u rves ar e i n a one to o ne c orr esp ond en c e and th e oscu l ati ng planes

.
- -

at c orr espondi ng po i nts are p aral lel eith er c u r ve can be o btai ned from th e oth er
,

by a t r ansfor mati on of Combescure .

 G EN ERAL EX A MP L ES 51

18 . Sh ow that th e ra dius of th e os u ac l ti ng Sphere of a cu r ve is gi ven b y

R 72 4 2 ? 2 1 2, w h ere th e p r i me d eno tes differ enti ati on w i th
]
’” ” ” ’
2
p [ z y z

r es e p ct to th e ar c .

p di ng po in ts of a tw isted cur ve and th e loc us of th e center of

'

19 . At co rres o n

i ts osc u la ti ng sph ere th e p r i n cipal no r ma ls are p ara ll el an d th e tangen t to one ,

cur ve is p arall e l to th e bi nor ma l to th e o th er ; also th e p rod u ct of th e rad i i of

torsi on of th e tw o cu r ves is equa l to th e p rod u ct of th e radi i of fi rst cur vatu re ,

o r to w ithi n th e sign acco r di ng as th e posi ti ve d i recti ons of th e p r i n cipa l normals

,

are th e same or di fferen t .

2 0 De ter mi ne th e tw is ted c ur ves w h ich are such th at th e ce n ters of th e sph eres

.

o sc u l ati ng th e c ur ve o f ce nte rs f th e osc ula ti ng sph ere s o f th e gi ven c ur ve are po in ts

p
o f th e l atte r .

2 1 Sh o w th at th e b inor mal s to a c ur ve d o n ot constitu te th e ta ngen t sur fa ce

.

o f ano th e c u r ve r .

2 2 De te r mi ne th e d irec tio ns o f th e p r i n cipal nor ma l and bi nor ma l to an involu te

‘

o f a gi ven c u r ve .

2 8 Sh ow tha t th e eq ua ti o ns
.

:
11 y z

w here ( )
u (1 W? 2
(1 W)
‘

3 and i p(14) is any fun cti on w ha te ver d efine a

,

curve of c onsta nt c ur vature .

2 4 Pr ove tha t w h en u
.
p( u) tan u in ex ample 23 th e c ur ve is alge b ra ic , , .

2 5 Pr ov e tha t i n or d er tha t th e p r i n cip al nor ma l s o f a c ur ve be th e bi no r

.

9 must h o ld w h ere a and b are co n

mals of ano th er th e rel ati on a —
2
,
5) ,

yq
’
stants . Sh ow th at su ch c ur ves are d efi ned b e ua tions of ex ampl e 23 w hen
(1 n (1 W
(1 We r r ) e !

26 . L et X ) , a] , f r he th e oo rd i na es c t of a po in t on th e u ni t sph ere ex p ressed as

fun cti ons of th e ar e 6 1 of th e u r ve S c . how tha t th e equa ti ons
23 ek
f h l da l k cot u
fgul r ; a i fldd l
r ,

y ek
f fl l dd
’
l k co t v
1 k 1 )da 1 , '

z Ck
f ’l dd ’

l k co t (a ffi ne; 1
X y 1 )da l ,

w here k and are co nsta n t e i 1 and th e pr i mes i ndica te d ifi eren tia ti on w ith
w
, ,

r espe ct to q d efi ne a Bert rand c ur ve fo r w hi ch p and r satisfy th e rel ation

,

S how also that 1 1 ; are th e di r ecti on c osi nes of th e bi nor mal to th e co n j ugate
,
r -

cur ve .
 CHAPTER II

CURVILINEAR COORDINATES ON A SURFACE . ENV ELOPES

23 . Par ametr ic eq u ati on s of a su r face. In th e pr ece i ng c apter d h

w e h ave seen th at th e c o or d i n ates o f a poi nt on th e tang e nt s u r fac e

o f a c u r ve ar e e x pr essible i n th e for m
(1 )
w h er e

ar e th e q
e u ati ons o f th e cu r ve, an d v i s pr opor ti on al to th e istance d
b etw een th e poi nts ( f, 77, C), (x y, )
2 on th e sa
g m e en er ator Sin ce
d
, .

th e coor in ates of th e su r face ar e ex pr essed by ( 1 ) as fu n cti on s of

tw o i n d e end en t ar ameter s u , v,
p p
th e qe u a ti ons f
o the su rface may
be w r i tten
=f
( u, v
)
y
r ,

=f u )
( v

z
2 , ,

f3 (u , v) .

C on si d er also a s
p er e of r a h d i us
a w h ose c en ter is at th e or i
g in 0

fi
( g . If 1) d en o tes th e an g le,

m e asu r e d i n th e posi ti v e se n s e,

w h ic h th e pl an e t h r ou
g h t h e z a x is
k
-

Fro 10
.

and a
po i n t M o f th e s
p h m er e a es

w i th th e x z
p l an e, an d u en o tes t h e dan g l e b etw een t h e r ad i us 0 M

M
-

an d th e posi ti v e z ax i s, th e-
co o rdi n at es o f m ay b e w r i tten

3 = a si n u cos v, = a sin u si n v, =
( ) x
y z a c os u .

H er e , ag ain , th e c oo r di n ates o f an
y po i n t on th e h
sp er e ar e ex

p r essi bl e as fu n c tio n s of t w o par ameter s, an d th e e ua ti ons o

q f the

s
ph er e ar e o f th e for m
Notic e that i n thi s case f , is a fun cti on of u al one .

52
54 C U RV I L IN EA R C OORD IN A TES ON A SU RFA CE

I t may be sai d t h at e u ati on

q 6
( ) i s ob tai n e d fr o m equ ati on s 2
( )
m
by eli i nating u an d v . h
T i s is a p ar ti c ul ar for m o f eli mi nati on,
th e m or e g en er al g i v i n
g an i mplic i t r el ati o n betw een 33,
y, z , as

(7) :
F ( t , y, z) 0 .

If w e h av e a loc u s of
p oi n ts w h ose c oo r d in ates satisfy a r elation

of th e for m i t is a su r face i n th e abov e sen se . For , i f w e ta k e

it and y equ al to an
y an al
yti c fu n cti on s o f u and v, n a m ely f1 an d

f ,,
and su stitu te b in b
w e o tain z f3 ( u, o
).

In li k e m ann er e q u ati on ( 7 ) may be solv ed for z an d on e or m or e

z
,

e q u ati ons o f th e for m ( 6 ) o tain ed, b u n l ess d o es n ot appear in

In th e latter c ase t h er e is a r el ati on b et w een :
a an d y alon e, so t at h
th e su r fac e is a cylin d er w h ose el e men ts ar e par allel to th e z ax is,
-

an d i ts par a m etr i c e q u ati on s ar e of th e for m

“7 y =f
2 ( )
u , z =f
s (
u’ v
) ’

H en c e a su r face c an be defi n ed an alyti c ally by q

e u ation s

or Of t h ese for m s th e l ast i s th e old est . It w as u se d

ex clusiv ely u ntil th e ti m e of Mong e w h o pr oposed th e for m ,

th e latter h as th e ad v an tag e th at m any o f th e e qu ati o n s w h i c h

d
,

efi n e pr oper ti es o f th e su r face ar e simpl er i n for m th an w h en ,

eq u ati on ( 7) i s u sed Th e par ametr i c m eth o d o f d efi ni ti o n i s d u e

.

to G au ss I n m any r es
pec ts it is su per i or to b th o of th e ot h er

d d
.

m th e o s . It w ill be u se almost en ti r ely in th e follow ing

tr eatmen t .

24 Par a m etr i c curv es Wh en th e par a m eter u in q

e u ati on s 2
( )
dfi
. .

is pu t e u al to q a con stan t, th e r esu lti n

g q
e u ati on s e n e a c u rv e on

th e sur face for w h i ch i s th e par ameter If w e l et u v ar y c on tin u

2) .

ously, w e g et a c on tin u ou s ar r ay of c u r ves w o se to tali ty con sti h

tu tes th e su r face . H enc e a su r fac e may be considered as
g en er ated

by th e m oti on o f a c u r ve T h us th e tang en t su r face of a c u r v e is

d db
.

esc r i b e y th e tan gen t as th e poi n t of c on tac t m ov es along th e

cur ve ; and a sp er e r esu l ts h fr o m th e r ev ol u ti on o f a c i r cl e a b ou t

a d ia m eter .

We h av e j u st seen t h at u on a su r face
p (2) t h er e lie an i n fi n i ty
of cu r ves wh ose equ ati on s ar e
g i ven b
y qe u ation s w h en u is
constan t, eac h con stan t v al u e o f u d eter mi n i n g a c u r v e . We c all

thm e th e cu rv es u = con st. on th e su r face . In a si m il ar w ay,

 PA RA METRI C C U RV ES 55

h
t ere i s an in fini te fam il y o f c u r v es v const .
‘
Th e c ur ves of

th tw famili es ar e c alled th e par ametr i c for th e gi ven

cu r ves

v
ese o

q
e u ati ons o f th e su r face, an d u an d ar e th e cu r vi li n ea r coor d ina tes

of a p o in t u po n th e sur faces } We say t h at th e posi ti ve d i r ecti

of a p ar a m etr i c cu r ve is t h at in w h ic h th e par a m eter in creases .

If w e r eplace v in e q u ati on s 2 b
( ) y a fun cti on of u, say

( 8)
th e coo r d in ates r , y , z ar e fu n c ti on s g le par a ete r u , an d
of a si n m
q
c on se u en tly th e loc u s o f th e po in t
( y
z, , z ) is a c u r v e H en c e .

e quation ( 8) defi nes a c ur v e on th e su r fac e For ex ample,

th e q
e u ation v = au d efin es a h eli x on th e c
yl in d er

= a c os u , = a sin u , z = v
r
y .

Fr e q u en tly e u ati on q 8
( ) i s w r i tten i n th e i mpli cit for m ,

9
( ) F (u , v
) O .

C on v ersely, an
y c u r ve u po n th e su r fac e is d fi db
e ne y q
an e u ati on

of t hi s for m . For , i f t be th e par a mete r o f th e c u r ve, bo t h u an d v in

e q u ati ons 2
( ) ar e fun c tion s of t; h
t us it Elimi
n ati n
g t be tw een t h ese e q u ati on s, w e
g et a r elati on su c h as

We r etu r n to th e c on si d er a tio n of th e c h an
g e of par a m eters,

d efi ned by e q u atio n s To a pai r o f v al u es o f u

l
an d v
,
th ere

co r respo n d u ni q u e v al u es of u and v . O n th e c o n tr ar y, i t may

h a
ppen h
t at an o t h er p air o f v al u es of u an d v
g i v e th e sa m e

z
l 1

v al u es of u an d v B u t th e v alu e s of z , i b 5 ) w ill be
.
y g v e n y( ,

th e sam e i n bo t h c as es ; t is h foll o w s —fr o m th e m ann er i n w ic h h

th ese e q u ati o ns w er e d er i ved . O n t is h ac c o u n t w h en q e u ati o n s 4
( )
are so lv ed fo r u
1
an d v, i n ter ms of u an d v, an d th er e is mo r e
th an o ne se t o f solu ti o n s, w e m u st spec i f
y w h ic h solu ti on will
be use d . We w r i te th e sol u ti o n

= = ( I) ( u ,
( 1 0) u
1
v
), v
, 2
v
) .

I n te r m s o f th e o r i
g i n al
par ameters, th e
para m etr i c l ines it
,
co n st .

an d v
1
c on st . h av e th e e u ati on s, q
( I) b,
v
) a,
2 ( u, v
)
’‘ O n
ph re d efined b y eq u ati ns (3) th c u v es v : const are mer i d ians and
t he s e o e r .

u : nst pa
co ll l. ra e s .

f W h n a pl an i s
e f d to t angul c o d i n at s th e parametr ic lin es ar e th e
e re er r e rec ar o r e ,

tw fa mili es of t aight li n es pa r all l t th coo d i na te ax e

o s r e o e r s .
56 CU RV I L IN EA R C OO RD IN ATES ON A SU RFA C E

w h er e a an d 6 d en ote c on stan ts . U n less u or v is absen t fr o m

eit h er o f h
t ese e q u ati on s th e c u r v es ar e n ec essar ily d isti n c t fr o m
th e par am etr i c c ur ves u = co n st . an d v = c onst . Su ppose, now , t h at

1) d oes n ot appear i n ( D1 ; t h en u l is c onstan t w h en u is c ons tan t,

an d vi ce v er sa . C on se q u en tly a c u r ve u
1
= c on st . is a m embe r o f

th e fa m ily o f c u r ves u co n st H enc e w h en a tran sfor mati on of

d
.
,

par ameter s is m a e by m eans o f e u ati o ns o f q th e fo r m

: ( p (u , : (D2 v),
“
1 r ) ”
1 (
: : ( D u ),
2 (
“ ”
1 1

th e tw o s
y ste ms o f par ametr i c c u r ves ar e th e same, th e d ifi er en c e
b ei ng in th e v alu e o f th e par ameter w i c h h
i s constan t alon g a c u r v e .

EX AMP LES

1 . A c
hich is th e l o cu s of a famil y of straight li nes w hich meet anoth er
sur fa e w ,

st r aight li ne o r th ogo n all y and ar e ar r anged acc o r di ng to a gi ven law is c all ed a

: i t cos v y u sin v z
,

r i g ht c onoi d ; i ts e qu ati on s are of th e fo r m a Sh ow , ,

th at w h en (v) a c ot o b th e c onoid is a hyper b olic p ar ab o l oid .

2 F i nd th e e q u a ti o ns of th e r ight c o n o id w h ose ax i s is th e ax is o f z and w hich

.
,
2 2
p asses th r ou gh th e ellipse a: a _2 y z
,
-

2 b c

3 . ph ere of r adi us a is d efi ned b y

Wh en a s fi nd th e r el ati on b etw een u and
1) a l ong th e c u r ve o f i n te rse cti on o f th e sph ere and th e su r fac e ‘ ‘
h ‘
y z a .

Sh ow th at th e c u r ves of i n tersecti on are fou r g r ea t ci r cl es .

4 p on th e su rface a: u 1} cos c y
. U si n e z
\’
'

3 u d eter mi ne th e
2
,
\’ u 2
, ,

cu rves w h ose tangents mak e w ith th e z ax i s th e angl e tan 1 2 Sh ow th at t w o -

-

o f th ese c u r ves p ass th r ou gh ever y p o i n t and fi nd th ei r r adii o f fi rst and se c on d ,

c u r vatu r e .

25 . Tangent pl ane . A tan g en t li n e to a c u rv e u po n a su r face

is called a ta ng en t lin e to the f

su r ac e at th e po in t o f c o n tac t . It is
evi d en t h h
t at t er e ar e an i n fi ni ty o f tang en t lin es to a su r fac e at a

po i nt . W h ll h e s a s o w t h at all o f h
t ese li n es li e i n a plan e, w h ich
is c alled th e ta ng en t plan e to th e sur face at th e po i n t .

To t i s h en d w e c o n sid er a c u r ve 0 u
pon a sur face an d let
M( x
y , , z) be th e point at w h ic h th e tang en t is d ra wn . Th e
e qu ations o f th e tang en t ar e 4)
—
E x n
— y
 TA N G ENT PL A NE 57

w here E , Car e th e c oor di n ates o f a poin t o n th e li n e, d epe n di ng

fo r t h eir v al u es u
po n th e par a m eter k q
If th e e u ati on in c u r vi
v
.

li n ear c oor di n ates o f th e c ur v e C is b

th e a ove eq u ati ons

da
z =l i
ds
du
’1
1! = x ,
dz
da
2 = 7t
da

w h ere th e pr i m e in di cates di fi ereu tiation . In o rd er to obtai n th e

loc u s o f t h ese tang ent li n es, w e eli mi n ate an d X fro m th es e

q
e u ati ons . h
T is giv es

1 : n— y C

w h i ch evid en tl
y is t h e e u ation o f a
p l an e t ro u
g qth e po in t M h h
d
.

Th e n or mal to t i s
p la n e at th e
ph
o in t o f c o n tac t is calle th e

n or mal to th e sur fac e at th e po in t .

As an ex a mpl e, qua ti on of th e ta ngen t pl ane to th e tange n t sur face

w e fi nd the e

o f a c ur ve a t any po in t If th e v a l ues fro m ( 1 ) be su bs t itu ted in eq ua ti on

.

th e resul tin g eq uat io n is red u ci b le to

f — fi fl
—
fz f fs -

Hen ce th e eq ua ti on ta ngen t plane is i nd epe nd en t o f v

of th e . and d epends on ly
p
u on a . In co nsequ en ce o f (I w e have th e theo re m
,

The ta ngent pla ne to lhe ta ng ent surface of a cm e is the sa me at a ll poi nts of a

generator ; it is the osc ulati ng pla ne of the cm e at th e po i nt w her e the g ener ator

to uches th e cun e .

Whe n th e sur fa e c is d efi ned by an equa ti on of th e for m F (1:y z) = 0 w e , , ,

imagi ne tha t z y z , , are fun c ti ons of u and o and di ffere n tia te w i th respect to
,

th e l a tte r This gi ves

.

EF E EF E EF
z y
+ £ z

az eu az im an
‘

ey fu sc 811 81)

‘
In referw ces of th is sort the Boman numer als refer to th e ch apter .
58 C U RV I L IN EAR COO RD IN ATES ON A SU RFA C E

By means of th ese equ ati ons th e e q uati on ( 1 1 ) of th e tangent pl ane c an be gi ven

th e for m
— Z
(E )

Wh en th e Monge form of th e eq u a ti on o f a su r fac e ,

n ame ly z f (x , y), i s u se d
it is c ustomar y to pu t
( 14)

C onsequen tly th e equation of th e tangen t pl ane is

—y q — s
( 1 5) (f ) (
“

I n th e fi rst chapter w e fou nd th at a cu rve i s d efi ned by tw o equ ations of th e for m

.

( )
1 6 F1 (a:y, , z ) 0, Fz ( at, y, z ) 0.

Hen c e cu rve is th e l o c us o f th e p o i n ts c ommon

a to tw o su r faces . Th e q
e ua

tions of th e tangen t to th e c u r ve are

f— x n y f —
a
dz

w h ere dz ,
d y, d z sa ti sfy th e relati ons
a
. fi dy +
§
dy +
8 172
— dz _O
:-
.

5 31 62 oz

C onsequentl y th e eq uations of th e tangen t c an be pu t i n th e for m

__ L
ar e aFg an. aF1 5 172 aFl
"
as , ar e 6 13 1 a a
by oz az oy oz as: 82 :o z 8x ay ay as :
C omp ar i ng this resu lt w ith w e see th a t th e ta ngen t li ne to a c u r ve a t a po i n t M

is th e i n terse cti on of th e tangen t pl anes at M to tw o su r fa c es w hich i n terse ct al on g

th e c ur ve .

EX AMPLES

1 . h ow th at th e vol ume of th e te trah ed r on for med b y th e c oor di nate pl anes and

S
th e tangent pl ane at any p oi n t o f th e su r face a; u y v z a /uv is c onstan t , ,
3
.

th a t th e su m of th e squ ares of th e i n ter c epts of th e ax es by th e ta n

x u 3 si n sv, y as 2

at any po i n t is c onstant .

3 . G i ven th e
ight c onoid for w hich ¢ (v) a sin 2 v Sh ow tha t any tangent
r .

pl ane to th e su r fac e c u ts i t i n an ellipse and th at if p er pendic ul ars be d r aw n ,

to th e gener ators fro m any po in t th e fee t of th e p erpendic ulars lie i n a pl ane

 EN V EL OP ES 59

4 h ow th at th e ta ngen t pl anes at po in ts of a gene ra to r to th e r ight cono id for

. S , ,

w hich ¢ ( v) a x /tan 0 mee t th e pl an e 2 z 0 in p ara ll e l li nes

,
.

5 . Fi n d th e e ua q ti ons of th e tangen t to th e c u r ve w hose equ ati ons are

6 . Fi n d th e e qu a ti ons of th e tangen t to th e c u r ve w h ose eq uati ons are

z z < + z uz a ) a
s
.
a t no a ) = a'
.

and s ow h th at th e c ur ve is pl ane .

7 . Th e dista nc ep i t M of a su r face to th e ta n gen t p lane at a near b y

fro m a o n
' -

p o in t M is of th e se c o nd or d er w h en MM is o f th e fi rst ord er ; and fo r other pl anes ’

th r ough M th e distan c e from M is o r di na r il y of th e fi rst o rd er ’

.

26 . On e par a -
m eter famil i es of su r faces . Envelopes . An q
e u ati on

o f th e for m

1
( )8 F ( r , y, z , a ) 0

d efi n es an in fi ni ty o f su r fac es, eac h su r fac e bei ng d eter m in e d by a

v al ue of th e par a meter a . Su c h a s
y ste m
W ra me ter

Th e t w o su r fac es co r r espo n d in
g to v al u es a an d a o f th e
’
par a m
eter m ee t i n a c u r ve w h ose e q u atio ns may be w r i tten

= Or
F (az, y, z , a
’
) : z
F ( r , y, , a )
( x y z
o d _a

As a
’
appr o ac h es a , t ish c u r ve ap r o ac
p h es a li mi ti ng for m wh ose

eq u ati ons ar e

8F (x y’ z a
)_ 0
E (x a = O,
, ,
1
( )9 , y, z , ) .

8a

Th e c ur v e th us d efi n ed i s call ed th e c ha r a cter i sti c of th e surface of

par a m eter a . As a v ar i es w e h ave a family o f t h ese c h ar ac ter i stics,

and th ei r l oc u s, call ed
p th e en velo e of th e family of surfac es, is a

su r face w h ose e q
u ati o n i s obtain ed b
y eli mi n atin g a fr o m th e tw o
equ atio n s h
T is eli min ati o n may be acc omplis h edb y solvi ng

th e seco nd of
( 1 9 ) for a, t h : us

a
( x ,

ar d b
su sti tu t i n
g in th e first with th e s u lt
re

F e, y, z. c h) 0 .
 EN V ELOPES

Th e q
e u ati on of th e tang ent plan e to t is h su r face is

as at —x
+
84
) 82:
( E H
—z = O
) .

Fo r a par ti c u l ar val u e of a , say ao, equ ati on s 1

( )9 dfi e ne th e cu rv e

in w h ic h th e su r fac e F (a, g , z , ao) O m eets th e en v el ope ; and fr o m

o f ( 1 9 ) i t follo w s t at h s of h q
th e sec on
fi at all i n t t is cu r v e e
o ua
p
ti on ( 20 f th
) o e tang ent plane to th e en velope r e u ces d to

h h
T i s, o wever , i s th e q
e u ati n of o
th e tang ent plan e to th e sur face
E (x , g , 2 , ao ) =O . If we h
say t at tw o su r faces w i t th e sa e tan h m
g en t plan e at a co mm on po i n t are tan g en t to on e an ot h er , w e h av e

flj j m d ope ofi a fami lg
l

par amgter i s tang ent

to each su r face alon
g th e c har a cter i sti c gf the latter i u
,

Th e e q u ation s ofth e c h ar ac ter i stic o

fth e su rfac e ofpar am eter a 1
ar e

:
( 21 ) F (z , g , z , c
l)
0,

T ish c h ar acter i sti c m eets th e c h arac ter i sti c 1

( )9 i n th e poin t w hose
codr di n ates satisfy 1
( )9 an d or , w h at i s th e sa me t i ng, h e uaq
ti o n s 1 9 nd
( ) a

F (az, y, z, a
,)
F (x , g , z , a )
“ ‘
a
1

As a
l
a
ppr oac h es a , h
t is poi nt of i n ter sec tion ap r oac
p h es a li mi ti ng
posi ti on w h ose c o or di n ates sati sf
y th e t h r ee Equ ations
EF
( 22)
Ba

If t h ese equ ati ons be solv e d for x , g ,

z , w e h ave

2
( )3 fr ( a) , 3/ fa(a) °

T h ese ar e par a m etr ic q

e u ation s of a cu rv e, w h ic h '

i s c alle d th e
edg e o f r eg r ession of th e envelo
pe .
 EN V EL OPES

Si n ce t h q
ese e u ati on s dfi e ne th e tang en t to th e c u r v e, h ym
t e u st

be q
e u i valen t to th e q
e u ati on s

X
!
x Y
!
g Z
!
z
x z
y
H ence we m u st h ave
’ ' ’
= 0, ' ’ ’ ’ ’ ’
=0
( 26 ) dx + bg + cz a r + bg + c z .

If th e fi r st of t h ese e u ati on sq be di ffer en tiated w i th pect to s,

r es

th e r esu lti n equ ati o n is r ed u ci bl e, in c onseq u en ce of th e secon d

g
Of to " "
dx + by + 0 .

h
Fr om t is equ ati on an d 2 6
( )w e find

620 ( l l ll
) (l n
(
/ ll _ g lx ll)
g
(1 1 z
y I 2 x
y .

H ence by 7) w e h av e th e t h eor e m
On the en velo e o f a on e— a r a meter fami lg of plan es the lan es
p p p
oscu la te the edg e f
o r eg r essi on .

We leav e i t to th e r ead er to pr ov e t h at th e edg e of r eg r es

si on of th e o sc ulatin g pl an es of a t w i sted c u r ve is th e c u r ve

i tself .

Th e env elope of th e plan e n or al to th e pr i n cipal n or al to m m

a c u r v e at a o in t o f th e c u r v e i s c alled th e r ectifyi ng d evelo
p p
a ble of th e l atter . We s h all fi n d th e eq ua ti o n s of i ts e d g e of

re r essi on .
g
Th e equ ati on of h
t is pl an e i s

2
( 7) ( X

If w e d iffer en ti ate t i s h q w i th r espect to th e ar c of th e c u r ve

e u ati on

k
,

an d m a e u se of th e Fr en et for mulas ( I w e ob tai n ,

2
( )8 (X 95+ +<Y -

y> + E +< Z — z
)

Fr om t h q
ese e u ati on s w e d er i ve th e equ ations of th e c h ar ac ter

isti c in th e for m
X =x + Y=g + a Z = z +
 REC TI FY I NG D EV EL OP A BL E 63

t being th e par amete r po i n ts o n th e c ar ac ter is ti c In or d ef to

of h .

find th e v alu e of t cor r espo n d i ng to th e po i n t w er e th e c ar ac ter h h

h
isti c to u c es th e edg e o f r eg r essi on , w e c o mbi n e t ese e u ati o ns h q
wi th th e deri vati v e of 2
( )8 w i t h r es
pec t to 8, na mely :

— Y — +< —
< X x
) +( y) Z z
>

and obtain

H ence th e coo r di n ates o f th e ed

g e o f r egr essi o n of th e r ec ti fi
y gn

d ev elopable ar e

( 2 9) § =x + ‘

r, n =
y+ §=z+

Pro bl em . Un d er w hat co nditi ons d oes th e eq u ati on F( a, y, z ) z 0 d efi ne a d evel

opab le sur fac e

We assume th at a , y, z are cti ons o f tw o par amete rs u v su ch th at th e c u r ves

fun , ,

u c onst ar e th e gen era tors

.
,
and v co nst are an y o th er li n es Th e eq uatio n o f
. .

th e tan gen t pl ane is

8F EF
— y) — + (Z —
( )
1
(X z )
ayf

Th is q ti on sh ou ld
e ua involve u and be ind epend ent of 0 . I ts ch ara cter istic is
g i ven b y ( i ) and

11 A
82 : B ay C
Eu n
a

w here ha ve pu t ,
for th e sak e o f b revi ty ,

62 1? an?
A = (X —y
) —— + Z —
( )
Z
55 ay
an? 52 1?
B : X — :
)
z
az
*
y _ may , ” z _2 )

asp ear
) + ( y) + ( 2 )
E az ay az

Si nc e q ti on ( i ) is ind ependent of v
e ua ,
we have

A _
: B
62
82] 62
+ +C
6v 60 60

C omparing q ti ons ( 11) and ( iii ) wi th

e ua w e see th at

C —X
82 611
 EN V EL OPES

wh er e x d eno tes a factor of p r opo r ti onality If w e eli mi nate X x .

, Y 11, Z z
and x fr om th ese equati ons and ( i ) w e obta i n th e d esi red c onditi on ,

2 as by as az
8x

EX AMP L ES

1 . Fi
d th e envelope and edge of r egressi on of th e famil y of p lanes nor mal to
n

a gi ven c u r ve .

2 F i nd th e recti fyi ng d evel op abl e o f a c yli nd r i cal h elix

. .

3 Pr ove th at th e rectifyi ng d evelop abl e of a cu r ve is th e polar d evelop ab le o f

.

i ts i nvo lu tes and c o nversel y

, ,

4 F i nd th e ed ge of reg ressi on o f th e e nvel o pe of th e pl anes

.

x si n u y eos u z au O .

5 D eter m in e th e envelop e o f a one p ar ameter famil y o f p lanes par all el to a

.
-

gi ven l i ne .

6 G i ven a o ne par ameter famil y o f pl anes w hich cu t th e c

.
-
r y pl an e u nd er con -

stan t angl e ; th e i n ter se cti ons of th ese pl anes w ith th e l atter pl an e envel op a

cu r ve C Sh ow th at th e edge of r eg r essi on of th e en vel ope of th e pl anes is an

.

evol u t e o f C .

7 Wh en a pl ane cu r ve li es on a d evel op abl e su r fa c e i ts pl ane mee ts th e ta ngen t

.

pl anes to th e su r face i n th e tangen t li nes to th e c ur ve Deter mi ne th e d evelopabl e .

sur fac e w hich p asses th rou gh a p ar ab o l a and th e ci r cl e d esc r ibed i n a per pendic u l ar ,

pl ane on th e latus rectum for di amete r and sh ow th at it is a c one

, ,
.

8 D eter mi ne th e d evel op abl e su rfac e w hich p asses th ro ugh th e tw o p ar abo l as

.

y
2 4 am z 0 ; m2
,
4 ay z b an d sh ow th at i ts edge of reg ressi on li es o n th e
, ,

su r fac e y z (b z)
s
.

28 . Appli cati ons oi th e m i ov ng tr i h ed r al . b m

Pr o le s con cer n

i ng th e en velope of a f m ily
a o f su r fac es ar e som tim
e es mor e
r ea d
ily solve d w h en th e su r fac es ar e r eferr e d to th e m ov i n
g
h
tri edr al o f a c u r v e, w h ic h is associ ate d in so m m
e anner wi th
th e fa m ily o f su r faces, th e par a m eter of poi nts on th e cur ve

b ein
g th e par a m eter o f th e fa il
y m .

L et
3
( )0 N E77 t , , o 0
 APP L ICA T I ON S OF THE MOV I N G TRI HED RAL 65

defin e su c h a fa mily .
of su r faces . Sin ce E ,
‘

C are fun cti ons of s,

th e e wq ti o ns of th e c h ar ac ter is ti cs ar e 3
( )0 an d

31? d ; 51?
dF 31?
g 53
"
at
dc 26 de 81; de at d e 88

Bu t th e c h
arac ter isti cs bei ng fix e d in s
pac e, w e h av e
( I , 84)

df 13 d?
1)
1, 5 11

(3 1 ) da da d : 7

H ence th e eq uations of th e c h ar ac te ris tics are

8F 17 BF
( 3 2 F : O’
as a; 7 23

If, for th e sa k e of br evi ty w e l et ( ME C c) 0 d en o te th e second

d
, , ,

of t h q
ese e u ati ons, th e e g e o f r e r essi on
g is d efin ed by ( 3 2) and

34> 8¢ n 3¢
+
86 BC T 88

For ex a mpl e ,
l c t g p lanes o f a cu r ve is d efi ned w ith refer
th e fami y of os ula in
en ce to th e mo vin g tr i h ed r a l b y f : 0 In this case th e se co nd o f (82 ) is
. O and ,

( 33 ) is
5 g 0 Hen ce th e tangents ar e th e char ac ter istics and th e edge o f re gres
.

si on is th e c u r ve ; fo r w e ha ve 5 : n 0 -
z .
,

I n like ma n ner th e famil y o f nor mal pl anes is d efi ned b y f 0 No w th e se co nd .

of ( 32 ) is q — p o ; co nseq uen tl y th e po l ar lines are th e cha rac ter is tics Eq ua ti o n (33 )

z .

red u ces to f — 0 ; h en ce th e l oc us o f th e ce n te rs of th e osc u l a t ing sph eres is

'
l pr
th e edge of regressi on ( cf Th e envelope is ca ll ed th e pola r developable
. .

Th e osc u lati n
g h
Sp eres o f a twiste d c u rv e c o nsti tu te a fa m ily
o f su r fac es w hi ch is r eadil
y stu d ied by th e fo r eg o i ng m e th d o s .

Fr om 1 8 ) i t follow s that th e e q u ati on o f t es e s

p e h
r es i s h
—
F f
2
+ + { 2
1
p1) +

Th e seco n d o f equ ati ons 3

( )2 fo r t is h c ase is

’
( T
P) 0,

w hi c h , sin c e s
p er i c al h
cur v es ar e n ot c o n si d er ed , r e d u c es to C 0 .

A nd q
e uati on 3
( )3 i s 17 0 , so t h at th e c oh r d inates o f th e ed
g e of

r eg r essi on ar e 6 ): 1 C : 0 . Hen ce :
The oscu l at in
g c i r c es o
l f a cu r ve ar e the c h a r acter i stic s f i ts
o osc u

lating p h s
er es ; an d the c u r ve i tself is the edg e o f r eg r essi on o f the

en velo e o
p f the spher es .
 EN V EL OP ES

29 . Envel ope of sph er es . Canal su r faces We consid er n ow any

.

family h
o f sp er es o f o n e par ameter . Refei r ed to th e m ov i ng tr i
h ed r al of th e c u r ve o f cen ter s, th e e q u ati on of th e h
sp er es is
2
+n+ c — 2 e 2
= o
5 r .

By m ean s o f 3
( )2 we fi nd t h at a c
-
h ar ac ter isti c i s th e c i r cle in
w ich h h
a sp er e is cu t by th e plan e

Th e r ad i u s of h
t is c i r cl e is e q u al to r V I— r
”
. H ence th e h
c ar

ac ter ist1 c is i mga i n ar

y w h en r
’2
> 1, r ed u c es to a
po i nt wh en
’2
an d i s r eal for r < 1
By m ean s of (3 3) we find t h at th e c oor di n ates of the edg e of

re
g r essi on ar e g i v en b
y
3
( )4 6 — rr'
,
=
n [1 5 m m > p[
—r —2
1 '2 2

H ence th e edg e of r e
g r essi on con si sts o f tw o par ts w i th c or r e

spo n di n g poi n ts sy mmetr i c ally placed w i t h r espect to th e

-

osc u

lati ng plan e of th e c u r ve of cen ter s 0, u nl ess

i —
r d r 0

Wh en t ish c on d i ti on is sati s fi ed th e edg e is a single c u r ve, an d i ts

po in ts li e i n th e oscu lati n
g p l an es o f C W e av e seen t at t is . h h h
i s th e case w i th th e osc u lati n
g p s e h
r es o f a c u r ve W e s all s o w . h h
th at w h en th e b
a o ve c o n d i ti o n is sati s fi ed th e s
ph er es o sc ulate

th ei r ed g e of r eg r essi on 01
We w r ite th e b
a ov e e q u ati on i n th e fo r m
—
(3 5 ) p[ 1
’2
r ,

wh er e e is 1 or — 1, so t h
p may be posi ti ve
at .

We h ave seen h
1 6 ) t at th e absol u te an d r elati v e r ates o fc h an g e

w i th s of th e coor d in ates }, 17,

a { of a po int on C, ar e i n th e r elation s

BE
88
g
ds
r

“
377 _ d
88 ole
—
H
t
;
a:
83
at
ds
'
n
p p r

Wh en th e v al u es 3
( )4 ar e su bst itu ted i n th e ri
g h t h -
an d membeis
of t h ese equ atio n s, w e o btain , in c o n se u en c e o f
q

if 577
83 83
 ENV EL OP E OF SP HERES 67

H ence th e li n ear ele m en t 38 , of C, is gi v en by

Since t h ese ar e th e di r ecti on -

c osi n es of th e tan g en t to 0 1 , w e see

th at h
t i s tan gen t i s n or m al to th e osc u lati ng plan e to th e c u r ve o f

c en ters C . Mor eo ver , th ese di rec ti on -

cos in es mu st satisfy ( of. I , 83 )
q
th e e u ati on s

8a da 6 86 db a e
, +
88 de p 83 de p 7

Hen c e w e h ave

3
88 1
2
5
2
1 s
8 2
:
er 1 8
1

fr om w h i ch i t foll o w s t h at th e r ad i u s o f c u r vatu r e p1 of CI is

' ”
3
( )8 p1 ee r V 1 r ,

w h er e e
’
is + 1 or 1, so t hp1 m
at a
y b e po s i t i ve . Sin ce, now , th e
d ir ec ti o n -
cosi n es o f th e pr i n c i al n o r m al
p a v e t h e h v al u es

2
5
2
8 3 77 32
5
3 9) pl a P1
38 1 .

i t follo w s t h at th e pr i n c ipal n o r m als to C an d C, ar e p ar allel .

Fur t h er mor e si n ce h
t ese q u an ti ti es m u st sati sfy e q u ati on s

ha v e
,

we 3 3
8 6 8 1, e 83
g 1
— _
E
’

38 3 pp 38 5 P 5
38 5 "

w h er e p{ d eno tes th e d er i v ati v e o f p1 wi th r espec t to 3 1 By m ean s .

of ( I 5 1 ) w e fin d th at th e r adi us of to r si on r , of C, is g i v en by
,

: e
l
77
1 ppi '

Fr o m 8
( 8) w e fin d p ’
,
so h
t at th e r adiu s R, of th e o sc u
PP
h
l ati n g sp ere of C1 is g i v en by Rf pf P ? 7
1
2
an d c on se q u en tl
y
th e o sc ulati ng sp er es of 0 1 ar e h of th e sa me r adi us as th e g i v en
h
sp er es .
 EN V EL OP ES

Th e dir ecti on -
c osin es of th e tan g en t, pr in c ipal n or mal , an d bi n or

mal to 0 1 ar e fou n d fr o m ( 3 6 ) an d ( 3 9) to be

71
"
1 ; 11 = n = 0, m f _e' ; fll = v =0 '
1 1 l

H en ce th e c oo r d in ates (I , 9 4 ) o f th e cen ter of th e o sc u latin

g sp h er e

of 01 ar e r ed u c i ble, in con sequ en c e o f to

—
—
6 + l a Pink s
I 0, 77 M i a — p ne i 0, C ma pia 1
= 0 v

T h er efor e w e h av e th e t h eor em

When th e e dg e f
o r eg r essi on o f a fami ly of s
ph er es f
o on e par am
eter h as on l
y on e br an ch, the spher es oscu la te the edg e .

Si n c e 7 d oes n ot appear in e q u ati on i t follo ws t h at w h en

r i s g iv en as a fun cti on o f s, t h e i n tr i n si c e q u ati ons o f th e cu r v e of

cen ters ar e

w h er e th e fu nc ti on f (s) i s ar bitr ar y . Mor eover , an

y c u r ve w ill ser ve
for th e c u r ve o f cen ters o f su c h an en v el o
pe o f sp er es h . Th e d eter
mi n ati on o f r r e q u i r es th e solu ti on of e q uatio n 3
( )5 an d c on se q u en tl y
i n volves tw o ar bitr ar y c on stan ts

d
.

W h en all th e h
sp er es of a family h ave th e sa m e ra i u s, th e
env el ope is c all e d a c a n al su r a ce f . Fr o m 3
( )4 i t i s seen t h at in
t ish c ase a c h ar ac ter istic is a g r eat ci r cl e . Mor eover , e q u ation 3
( )5
r edu ces to p r . H ence a n ec essar
y an d su f
ficien t c on di tion th at

th e ed e of r e r essi on o f a can al su r fac e con si st of a sin gl e c u r v

g g
is t h at the c u r v e o f cen ters be o f c on stan t c u r vatu r e and th e r a i us d
of th e h
sp er e equ al to th e r adi u s o f fi r st c u r vatu r e of th e c u r ve .

GENERAL EX A MPLES

1 . Let MN be a gener ator of th e r ight c onoid

x z u c os v, y = u sin v, z =2k cosec 2 v,

M b ei n g poi nt i n w hich it meets th e z ax is Sh ow th at th e tangent pl ane at N

th e -
.

meets th e sur fac e i n a h yper b o l a w hich p asses th rough M and th at as N mo ves

:
,

al ong th e g en er ato r th e tang en t at M to th e h yper b ol a d esc r ib es a

pl ane .

52 z2
2 poi n t moves on an ellipsoid 5—2
. A
a f
i _ 1 so th at th e di recti on of i ts
c2
mo ti on al w ays p asses th r ough th e p er pendicu l ar fr om th e c en ter on th e t ang ent
,

pl ane at th e p oi n t Sh ow th at th e p ath of th e p oi nt is th e cu r ve i n w hich th e ellipso id

.

’ m
is cu t h y th e su r face x y z const w h ere l z m z n l n z l.
,
1
 C HA PTER III

LINEAR ELEMENT OF A SURFACE . DIFFERENTIAL PARAMETERS .

CONFORMAL REPRESENTATI ON

30 . L inear el e m ent . U pon a su r face S, d efi n ed by q

e u ati o n s in
th e par ametr i c for m

1
( ) 5” =f
1 ( u’ y =f
2 (u’ fa ( u a )
v ,

w e sel ec t any c ur v e an d w r i te i ts equ ati on s ( M u, v ) =0 . Fr o m 3

we h av e t h at th e lin ear el e ment of th e c ur v e i s g iv en by

d e = dx
2 2
+ dg +
2
M ,

6x 83 : 8g 3g
da d o, dg da d o, dz
Bu 81) 3a

th e d ifi er en tials d a , d v sati sfyi n

g th e c on d iti on

33
da + 99 d ?) 0 .

Ba 81)
If w e pu t

:
82 825 8g 8g as as
8a 31) 3a 82) an 81)
f‘

oz

81)

or , in b
ab r ev i ate d for m,

e q u ation 2
( ) bec o mes

d 8 = E du + 2 q
2 2 z
4
( ) dv d .

Th e fun c tion s E, F, G t h us d efi n ed w er e fi r st u sed by Gau ss .

Wh en th e su r face is r eal, an d lik ew ise th e c u r vi li n ear cobr d in ates

‘ D isqu i si ti ones g ener al es i r c ca super fici es cu vas ( Engli sh t

r r ans al ti on b y Mo r e head
an d Hilteb eitel )
p 18 , . . Pr i nceton , 1 902 . U n l ss o th rw i se st ted
e e a , all r efer en es c to Gauss
ar e to thi s t r ansl ati on .
 o
.

L IN EA R EL EMEN T 71

u , v, the fu n c tio ns J B V5 , ar e r eal . i ve sh all u n der stan d also t h at

th e lat ter ar e po si ti v e h i h . T er e s, o w ev er , an i mpo rtan t ex c ep

tio n al c ase, n a m ly w h
e b th E d en o an G are z er o ( cf .

For an y o th q ti (4)
er c u r v e e u a on w i ll h av e th e sa m e for m , bu t
th e r elati on be tw een d a an d dv w ill d epen d u po n th e c u r ve .

C o nse qu en tl
y th e v al u e o f d e, g i ven by is th e ele ent m of

o f an y c u r ve u po n th e su r fac e I t is c all e d th e li near elemen t Of

d
.

the sur a ce f ( cf . Ho w ev er i n , o r d er to av o i c i rc u ml oc u ti o n ,

w e s h all fr e q u en tl
y c all th e e x pr ession fo r d s th e lin ear2
ele m en t,

t h at h h
is, th e r i g t an d m embe r o f e u ation
-
q w h ic h is also call ed

the fir st fu n da men tal qu a d r ati c for m Th e . coe f

fi c ien ts of th e lat
ter , n amel
y E, F, G , ar e called th e fu nd amenta l qua nti ti es of the
fir st or d er

k
.

If, for th esa e of br evi ty, we

p ut

2g 82

5 A My , 2) an Bu
( ) ay az
e(u , v
)
av av

i t follo ws fr o m 3
( ) and 5 t
( ) h at

6
( ) EG

H en c e w h en th e sur fac e is real an d li k ewise th e par a m eter s,

th e q u an ti t
y E G F i s
m
d i f
f e
2
r en t fr o m z ero u nl ess A , B , an d C
'

z ero
ar e . Bu t i f A , B , an d C ar e z er o, i t follo w s fro m 5
( ) t h at u

and v are not i n d epen den t, an d conse u en tly e q q u ati o ns

( 1 ) d efin e

a c u r ve an d n ot a su r fac e . H ow ev er i t may appen th at for

, h
cer tain v al u es of u an d v all th e qu an ti ti es A , B , C v an is h .

Th e cor respon di n
g po in ts ar e c al led si n u la r
g p o in ts o f th e su r

face T h ese poi n ts may be isolated or co ns ti tu te on e or m ore

d
.

c ur v es u pon th e su r fac e ; su c c ur v es ar e h calle si ng ul ar li nes

d
.

In th e foll o w i n g isc ussion onl

y o rd in ar
y po in ts w ill be c on

sid er ed .

Fr o m th e precedi ng re mar ks it foll ow s t h at for real su rfac es,

r eferr ed to r eal c oor di n ate l in es, th e fun c ti on H d fi d by

e ne

( 7)
is r eal , a
nd i t i s posi tive by hyp th o esis.
 L IN EAR EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

31 tropi c developabl e Th e ex cepti onal c ase w h er e th e sur fac e is i magi nary

. Iso .
,

an d H i s z er o i s affo rd ed by th e t ang en t sur fac e o f a m i n i mal c ur ve

,
Th e eq ua .

ti ons of such a su rface are ( of 22 ) .

1 _ 2 u2

f
l l u2

f
- -

y =2
2

f ¢( u u )du ( )
u ¢> u v,

w h er e (u)is a fu n cti on ofu d ifi er ent fr om z er o I t is r eadil y found th at E=v2 .

F r: G 0 and c on se q u e
,
n tl y E G F 2 0 Th is equ ati on is lik ew i se th e suffi ci en t .

c onditi on th at th e su r face be of th e ki nd sought Fo r w h en it is sat isfi ed th e equa .

, ,

ti on of th e li near el emen—t can b e w r itten d az ( VE du If x d eno te an

i n tegr ati ng factor of x /E du x /d and a fun cti on u l b e d efi ned b y th e eq u ati on ,

l
44 /d ) d u l th e ab o ve e q u a ti o n b ec ome
,
s d s2 — du
f H en c e i f w e .
,
x fiz
tak e fo r p ar amet r ic c u r ves u l c onst and any o th er system for v1 const w e . .
,

h ave F, 0 G1 0 I n o ther for m these equ ati ons ar e

,
.

89 :am By fly as as
5 71 1 aul au l 5171

In a cc or d an ce w ith th e as e u al t q ti on w e put
?
2
as 1 l u
,

50 1 2

w h er e k is u ndetermi ned .

By i n tegr ati o n w e h ave

1 — ui
(i ) 2
z =u 1
f k dv1 + v,

ll , p, b ei ng functi ons of u l al one Wh en th ese val ues are su bstitu ted

. 9 . i n th e fi rs t
of th e ab ove eq u ati ons o f c onditi on w e g et ,

2
8h 2
an
1 u
1 ) 8u + z ( 1 + u
1 ) au + 2 “ 1
1 1

to be t isfi ed by x p and
sa , ,
v.

Th e e q u a ti on o f th e t angen t p lane to th e su r fac e ( 1) i s r ed ucib le to

( 1 — u
3)< X — x )+ z =
) 0 .

Hen ce th e su r fa e c d evel op abl e Si nce i ts edge of r eg ressi on is a mi ni mal cur ve

is .

( Ex . 4, p . th e th eorem i s p ro ved Th e su r face is c all ed an i sotr op ic d evelopable

.
.

32 Tr ansfor m ati on of coor di nates It i s r ea d ily fo un d t h at th e

d
. .

fu nc ti on s E, F, G ar e u n al tere in v alu e by an
y c h an
ge of th e
r ec tan
g ul ar a x es . B ut now w e s all s o h h w th at t h ese fu n ctio n s
c hg an e t h ei r v alu es w h en t h er e is a ch gan e of th e c u r v ili n ear

c oor i nates d .
 TRAN SFORMA TI ON OF C O ORD I N ATES

L et th e tr ansfor m ati on of coor di nates be d efi n ed by th e equ ati ons

(8) u u
( u
,,
v
l) ’
”
( u
p
v
1 );
th en w e h av e

21 : Es au Bz au 8x 813 314
Bu , E
u E
u v E
E u av, Eu av, 8 0 av,
, ,

“t 62 :
If w e pu t E1 2E u
,
av,

w e find th e relati ons

E, = E 2F

G1 E

H en ce th e fu n d am ental qu an titi es of th e first or d er assu m e n ew

fo r ms w h en th ere is a c h ang e o f c u rv i lin ear coh r di nate s .

Fro m 8
( ) e
w h av e, by differ en tiation ,

3
‘
da 1 du + d v, ,
ml
,
3 v1

Solvi ng t h q
ese e u ati o n s for d u , , d o” we
g e t

1
_
_ _fi
8 611 ,
w here
( 1 0)

Henc e we h av e
éfl lg
’

Bu 8 av , v 8 1

m 1 av
8 Eu ,
1
8 an,
Bu ao

8 ( u ,, v ) ,
1
8 (u, v
) 8

Fr o m ( 9) we fin d th e relati on

E, G, 8 ( EG
2
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T O F A SU RFA CE

h q
By m ean s of t i s e u ation an d th e r elati on s w e c an tr an sfor m
e u atio n s ( 9) i n to th e follo w i ng :
q

2
Ff EG F

E, G, EG ‘
Ff F

33 Angl es betw een cu r v es Th e el e m ent of ar ea U pon par a

a

k
. . .

m etr i c lin e u = fo r po sitive sen se th e

c on st we ta e d ir ec tion
k
.

in h h
w ic th e par ameter u i n cr eases, and li ew i se u po n a c u r v e
u c on st th e d ir ec ti on i n w i c
. 1) i nc r eases h h
I f d e and d s den o te .
v u

th e ele m ents of arc o f c u r v es u = c on st . an d u = c onst . r es

pec
ti vely, w e find , fr o m
1 4 d ev /Ed u , as /Z
i dv
( ) x
,
x .

H enc e i f a , B ”, y, an d a B u, 7“ d en o te th e d i r ec ti o n -
c osi n es o f th e
tange n ts to th ese c u r v es r especti v ely, w e h av e

1 ar 1 3g
A)! 2 a, _ , _ ,

x /E aw /E
N an

1 8x 1 8g
,

V G Ev

We h ave seen t h at t h ro u
g h an or din ar y po i nt of a su r face

th ere p asses on e c u r v e of par ameter u an d on e o f par ameter s .

If, i g 1 1 , (0
as i n f d en o tes th e ang le, betw een 0 an d
°

d
.

for m e by th e posi ti ve di r ec tions of th e tang en ts to t h ese cu r v es

at th e poi nt, w e h av e

(1 5 ) c os w a nd .) 7 m
and

( 1 6)
 G L ES B ETW
V EEN C U RV ES 75
N
A

When tw o fa mi li es o f c u r v es u po n a su rface ar e su c h th at

t h r ou
g h an
y po i nt a c u r v e o f eac h family, an d bu t on e, passes,
an d w h en , mo r eo ver , th e tang en ts at a po in t to th e tw o c u r v es

t h r ou
g h it ar e
perpe n di c u lar , th e c u r ves are sai d to for m an

or thog on al s ste
y m. Fr o m ( 1 5 ) w e ha ve th e t h eor em

necessa r y a nd su zc ien t con di ti on

fi tha t the pa r ametr i c lines upon
'

A
a su r a ce f f m or an or thog on a l syste m i s tha t F : 0 .

C onsid er th e s m all q u adr il ateral fi

( g 1 1 ) . w h ose v er ti ces are

th e po in ts wi th th e c u r vi li n ear coo r d in ate s ( u, v

) ( u + d u, v
)
v
, ,

( u, v + d v), (u da, d o) . To w i thin te r m s of h igh er ord er th e

o pposi te si d es o f th e fig u r e are e q ual . C onse q u en tl y i t is a
pprox i
mately 3 par allelog ra m w h ose sid es

are of l en t
g hE d it an d \/ d and
+d v)
,v

th e i ncl u d ed an l e is m Th e area
g .

of h
t i s par all elog ram is c al led th e

ele ment of a r ea o f the f

su r a ce . I ts
e x pre ssi on is

1 7 d E= sin w V E G d u d v s ud v
FI G 11
( ) .

If C is an
y c ur v e o n a su r fac e, th e di r ec ti on -
c osin es a , B ,
«
7 of

i ts tan gen t at a
poin t h av e th e for m

dz
de Eu d s 8

dz du
de de

If we pu t d v/
du 7x an d r eplac e d s by th e posi ti v e s u ar e r oo t o f q
th e ri
g ht h an d member of th e abo v e e x pr essi ons c an be w r i tte n
-

6 23
76 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

Fr o m th ese r esu lts i t is seen t h at th e d ir ec ti on -

cosi n es d epen d
no t u
p on th e absolu te v alu es of du an d d o, bu t u po n t h eir

r ati o X . Th e v al u e o f 7k i s o bt i a ne db y di ffer en tiati on fr o m th e

e q uati on of 0, na m ely

1
( )9 ¢ (u , v
) 0 .

L et C, be a sec on d cu r v e m eetin
g 0 at a poi n t M, an d let
th e d i r ec ti on -
cosin es of th e tang en t to C, at M be a , 8 , 7
, 1 1

T h ey ar e g i v en by

8x 8a :
89 81)
20 ,
an 88 81) 8s

an d si mil ar e x pr essions fo r B ,
an d y ,,
w h er e 8 i ndi cates v ar i ation

i n th e dir ec tion of C,
d
.

If 0 en otes th e an
gle b et w een th e posi ti ve d i r ec ti on s to C
’
an d

C, at M , we h ave, fr o m ( 1 8) an d

2 1 9 + 36 1 + 7 7 ,
E du 8 u
( ) cos aa
l

an d

T ish ambig ui ty o f sign i s d u e to th e fac t t h at 0 as d efi n ed i s one

of tw o an
g l es wh ich to g et h er ar e e q u al to We ta k e th e
upper sig n , th us d eter mi n in
g 0 . Th i s g iv es

do 81)
8 m0: H
de 83 d e

The sign i fi c anc e of th e a ove c oice w ill be poi n ted b h ou t s h or tl

y .

W en in par tic ular 0 , is th e cur ve u = c onst t

h . h r ou
g h M , we

h av e 81) 0 an d 8s so th at

Fr o m th ese equ ati ons w e o bt i a n

2
( )4 tan 0,

The an gl e 01 bet w een th e posi tiv e h alf tangen t sto th e par a

m etr i c c u r ves h as b een un iqu ely d efi n e d . Hen ce th ere i s, i n
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T O F A SU RFA CE

5 h ow th at th e equ ati ons o f a c u r ve w hich li es u p on a r ight co ne and cu ts all

. S
th e g ener ato r s u n d er th e same an gl e a r e o f th e fo r m a: ce c os u y si n u
f'“ a“
ce , ,

z be w h er e a b and c ar e c onstan ts Wh at is th e p r oj ecti o n o f th e c u r ve upo n

2 d “
, , ,
.

a pl ane p er p endic u l ar to th e ax i s of th e c one F i nd th e r ad i us of curvatur e of

th e cu r ve .

6 F i nd th e equ ati o ns of th e cu r ves w hich bise ct th e angl es b etw een th e p ar a

.

met r ic c u r ves of th e p ar ab ol oid i n Ex 3 . .

34 . Fa il i es m of cu r v es . An q
e u ati on o f th e for m
2
( )7 (
Mu, v
)
w h er e c is an ar bi tr ar y con stan t, d efi n es an i n fi ni ty of c u r ves, or a

family of cu r ves , u pon th e su r face . T h r ou

g h an
y p o i n t o f th e sur

fac e t h er e passes a c u r v e o f th e family . For , g iv en th e c u r vili n ear

c oor di n ates of a po i n t, w h en t h ese v alu es ar e su b sti tu te d in 2

( 7)
b
w e o tai n a v al u e of 0 , say co ; t h en ev i d en tl
y th e c u r ve f
c) 0
0

passes t h r ou
g h th e poi n t . We i nqu ir e w h eth er h
t i s fa m ily ‘

of

c u r ves c anbe d efi n ed by an o t h er e u ati on q . Su ppose i t i s possible,

an d l et th e e u ati on be
q
2
( )8 w e, v
) K .

Si n ce 0 an d lo ar e c on stan t al ong an
y c u r v e an d v ar y i n passing
fr o m o n e c u r ve to an ot h er , eac h is n ec essar il
y a fu n cti o n o f th e
ot h er . H ence «if is a fu n cti o n o f Mo r eo ver i f «(r i s any ,

fu nc ti on of q
e u ation s 2
( )7 an d
( 2 8 ) d efi n e th e same famil
y of

c u r ves .

Fr o m q
e u atio n
( 2 4 ) i t i s seen t h at th e dir ec tion , at any po i n t, o f

th e c u r ve o f th e family t h r ou
g h th e poi n t i s d eter min e d by th e
valu e of d v/du . We ob tain th e l at ter fr o th e equ atio nm
84>
da ?d
9
o 0,
Bu av

w h ic h is der i v e df ro m ( 2 7) by diff er en ti ati on .

L et
f( ) c) n , v c be an i n teg r al o f an or d in ary di ffer en tial q
e u ati on

o f th e fi r st or der and fi r st d eg r ee, su c h as

3
( 0) M (u , v
)d a N (u , e
)d o O .

Th e c u r ves m
d efi n ed by th e fo r er e u ati on ar e c alled i nteg r a l cu r ves q
o f e u ati onq m
Fr o th e i n teg r al e u atio n w e g et e u atio n ( 2 9 ) q q
by d iffer en tiati on . It m u st be possi ble t h en to obtain e u ation q 30
( )
 FA MI L I ES OF C U RV ES 79

fr o m th e i nteg r al q
e u ati on an d Bu t 0 d ea r i n
o es n ot
pp a

con se u en tly q th e l atte r q

e u atio n differs fr o m (30) by a fac to r

at most . Henc e MS !
c)
N
“
-

a
P= O Su ose
pp .
, now , h
t at w e h ave

M it — N
s i
fn
r
an ot h er in teg ral of as x fl u, c
) = c. T h en
o
: 0 .

Th e eli m inati on of M
an d N fr o m th ese e qu atio n s gi v es
f
a( u v)
) as»
,
i

fr o m w hi c h i t foll ow s th at \[r is a fu n cti on o f Mor eo v er «i can ,

f

by any fu n cti on of Bu t w e h av e seen tha t if x lr is a fu n c ti o n

of c h f m ili f r ves 4 st an d « r h sam e
t t e
, a es o c u > c o n ( c o ns t are t e . . .

Hen ce all i n teg r als o f equ atio n (3 0) of th e for m 0 or

3b : e
d e fin e th e same family of cur v es How ev er equ atio n ( 30) may .
,

ad mi t o f an in te ral in w h ic h th e c o n stan t o f i n tegr atio n en te rs

g
i mpli ci tly, as F (u , v, a
) = 0 . B u t i f t is be h solv ed fo r c, w e o bta in
on e or
. more in teg r al s o f th e for m Hen ce an e q u ati on o f th e
for m ( 3 0) d efi n es on e family o f c u rv es on a su r fac e A lt h ou
g h
d
.

t h e d ete r mi n ation o f th e c u r v es w h en h
t us d efi ne r e u ir es
q th e
i n te g r a tio n of th e e u ati on , th e di r ec ti on o f an y c ur v e at a o in t
q p
is g i ven dir ec tly by ean s of m
I f at eac p o i h
n t of i n tersec ti o n of a cu r v e C1 wi th th e cu r v es

of a family th e tan g en ts to th e t w o c u r v es ar e pe r pen d i c ul ar to

o n e an o t h er , C1 i s c all e d an or thog on a l tr aj ecto r y f
o the c u r ves . Su p
pose t h at th e famil y oi c u rv e s i s d efi n ed by q
e u atio n Th e

5u gu
3 ”
r elatio n be tw een th e r a ti os , w hi c h d eter min e th e di r ec

ti o n s of th e tan gen ts to th e t w o c ur v es at th e poin t of i ntersec ti on ,

is g iven by q
e u ati o n If w e r epl ace by
if » w e obtain

3
( )1 (gN FM )d a (FN GM )d v 0 .

Bu t an
y i n te r al
g c u rv e of t ish e q u ation is an or t h o
g on al tr a j ec tor y

o f th e
gi v en c u r ves . Hen ce a family o f c u r ves ad mi ts of a fa m ily
of o r t h o
g on al tr a j ec to r i es . T h ey ar e d efi n ed by e u atio n q
w h en th e d iffer en tial equa tio n o f th e c u r v es is i n th e for m

Bu t w h en th e family i s d efin ed by a fi n i te q
e u ati on , su c h as

th e e q u ati o n o f th e o rt h o
g on al tr a j ec to r i es is

d v =0 .
 L IN EAR EL EMEN T OF A SU RFACE

As an ex a mpl e, we consid er th e fam y il of ci r cl es in th e plane w ith cen erst

on th e az ax s w
-
i hose equ ati on is

(i ) x 2 2
+y

w h er e u is th e p arameter of th e famil y and a is a c onstan t In or der . to fi nd th e

: c onst
o r th og onal t r aj ect or i es of th ese c u r ves w e tak e th e li nes a ,
.
, y const .

for p ar amet r ic c ur ves i n w hich c ase

,

E =G =l,

and w r i te th e equati on ( i ) i n th e form thus

1
z + (y
2
d2 =
) 2a
5
.

Now q ti on ( 32) is 2 my do: (x 2

e ua y
? a2
)dy 0, of w hich th e i n tegr al is

y 2 vi

w v
h ere is th e constan t of i n teg ration H en ce th e or th ogo nal traj ector i es are cir cles
.

w h ose c en ter s are on th e y ax i s -

.

An or d i nary d ifferen tia

l equation of th e secon d d eg ree, su c h as

v = 0,
2
33
( ) E (u, v
)d u + 2 S ( u, v )d u d v + T (u , v
)d
2

is equ iv al en t to tw o e
qu ation s of th e fi r st d eg r ee, w h ic h ar e foun d
h q
by solvi ng t i s equ ati on as a u a r atic i n do H en ce equ ati on ( 3 3) d
k
.

d efi nes tw o fa ilies o f c u r ves u po n th e su r face We see th e con

m .

d i tion t h t th
a e c u r v es of on e m
fa ily be th e or t oh g lt j o na r a ector i es

of th e o th er , or , in h
ot er w or ds, th e con d i tion th t ( 3 3) b th
a e e equ a

tion o f an or t h o
g on al syste m , as pr ev i ou sly d efin e d . If k 1 and k,

den ote th e tw o valu es of —

52
2 b t i o a ne df ro m we h ave

2S R
“
‘

T T
i

Fr o m ( 26 ) it f ll o ow s t h at th e c on d iti on t h at th e tw o d i r ec ti ons at

a po i n t cor respo n d i n g to x
,
and x
,
be per pen icu lar is d
x = 0 .

If th e b
a ov e valu es ar e su b stitute d i n t is h equ ation, we h ave

th e c on d ition sou
g ht ; it is

ET + GR — 2 FS = O .

i rr o
-
«
 MINIMAL CU RV ES 81

35 Minimal curv es on a su rface An q

e uati on of th e for m (3 3)
dm
. .

is o bt ain ed by e u atin g to q z er o th e fir st fun a en tal f m f

or o

a sur fac e . h
T i s giv es
'

E du i 2 q
f
-
dv d ’
: o,

an d it dfi e n es th e d ou blfa ily o f i
e m m agin ar
y c ur v es of lengt h
z er o w hi ch li e on th e sur face I n t is . h c ase equ ati on 3
( 4) redu ces
to E G h en ce th e mi i m n al lin es on a su r fac e for m an

h
or t o
g on al syste m l
only w h en th e su r face is an iso tr 0 pic d evelop

able

A n i mpcir tan t
'

ex ample o f th ese li n es is furn is h e db y th e syste m

on th e h
sp ere . If we ta k h
e a sp er e of u n it r adi us an d cen ter at

th e o ri
g i n, i ts e
qu ati on , x
2
+ z
2
= 1, c an be wr itten in ei t h er of

th e for ms
x + iy 1+ z

l —z x —i
y
—i 1+
x y z

l —z x + iy

w h er e u and v d en o te th e respecti ve rati os an d eviden tl

y are c on u
j
d
,

g ate i m a
g i n ar i es . If t h ese fou r equ ati o ns are solve for x , y, 2 , w e fin d

:
a
u v i (v u )
uv 1 nu 1

Fro m th ese e x pressions we fin d t h at th e lin ear ele m ent, in terms

o f th e par a m eters u an d v, i s g i ven by

4 du d v
2
( 1 nu
)
H ence th e c ur v es u c ons t . an d v c onst . are th e lin es o f len
gt h
z ero .

Elimin atin g u fr o m th e fi rst tw o an d th e las t tw o of e q u ati ons

w e
g et
— v2 — 2 i = 0
)y v ,

( 3 7)

H ence all points of a c ur v e 1) con st . l ie on th e

— v’ Y — 2 i v = 0,
)
— v2 = O,
)
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA C E

w h er e X , Y Zd, en o te cu r r en t c oor d in ates . In c o n se q u en ce o f

th q
ese e u ati o ns c an be w r i tten
X —x Y — yo Z —z
o

v
2 —1 2
i (v + 1 )

w h er e 330 , g o,
re
0
ar e th e c oo r di n ates o f a par ticu lar po in t .

m an n er th e c u r v es u c on st . ar e th e m in i mal li n es

2 2
1 -
a
’
i (l + a
) 2 a

EX AMPLES

1 . Sh o w th at th e most gener al or thogonal sys e t m of ci r cl es i n th e pl ane is th at

of th e mple i n § 34
‘

ex a .

2 . Sh ow th at on th e ight c ono id a: i t cos v y

r
,
u s n v,i z av, th e cu r ves
d u2 ( u2 a? )d v2 0 for m an o r th og onal system .

3 . W h en th e c oeffi ci en ts of th e l i near el emen ts of tw o su r faces ,

(i s
,
2
El an? 2 Fl d ud v Gl d vl ,
2
d ag Egd u2 2 d uav n oQ,

ar e n ot p r op or ti onal and p oi n ts w ith th e same cur vili near c oordi nates on each of
,

th e su r fac es ar e sa id to c or r esp on d th ere i s a u n iq u e o r th ogon al system o n one

,

surfac e c or resp ondi ng to an or th og on al system on th e o th er ; i ts eq uati on is

F E
( 1 2 17 12 d u 2
2 1) ( E G1 E 1 0 ) d uav G
+( 1 g F 0 2 17
1)dv2
2 0 2 .

4 . I f 01 and 82 ar e solu ti ons of th e eq u ati on

52 0 1 alog x oo
w as 2 6a 613

w h ere x is any fun cti on o f a and 3 , th e e qu ati ons

2

(
l 00l
z + zy
ff e da +
X
— dB
86
,

A
-
— iy
f
i

x l

'
>

Z =i
f 01 02 d af + l

d efi ne a sur fac e referr ed to i ts m i n i m al li nes .

36 . V ar i ation of a fu nct i on . L et S be a su r face r efer r e d to any

syste m o f coor di n ates n , v, an d let ¢( u, v

) be a fun cti on of u an d v .

Wh en th e v al u es of th e c oor d in ates of a po i n t M o f th e su rface ar e

su b stitu te d in b
w e o tain a n u mb er 0 ; an d c onsequ ently th e cu rv e

3
( )8 l(
‘’ u , v
)
 V A RI A T I O N O F A FU N C TI ON 83

passes t h ro u
g h M . In a di s plac emen t fr o m 211 alon h
g t i s c u r v e th e
v al u e o f ) rem ain s 4 th e sa m e, bu t in an
y ot h er di r ection i t c an g es h
an d th e r ate of c h an
g e i s g i v en by

34> 34>
—
k
Bu
ds
( ME 2 Fk Gt
x

w h ere k : d v/d u d eter mi n es th e d ir ec t ion . As t h us wr i tten i t is

u n d erstoo d t h at th e d en om i nato r of th e r ig h t h -
an d membe r is
po si ti ve .

d d)
For th e pr esen t w e consid er th e absol u te v al u e o f an d w r i te
a}?
f if k
Ev

w h er e e is z h 1 accor di n g as th e sig n of th e n u merato r is posi tive or

n e ati v e
g . Th e mi n imum v al u e of A is z er o an d c orr espo n d s to th e
di r ecti on alon
g th e c u r ve In o r d er to find th e max im u m v alu e
q
w e e u ate to z er o th e d eri v ati v e ofA w ith r es
pect to lo. h
T is gi v es

Eff
)
F
80

Fro m (3 2) it f ll w th o o s at h
t is v al u e of :
h d ete r mi n es th e d ir ecti on
at r igh t g lan t th t es o e an
g en t to 1
< ) c at th e po i n t
By su bsti tu tin g
.

h
t is v al u e o f k in 3
( )9 w e
g et th e m ax i mu m v al u e o f A H ence . :
The difier en ti a l qu otien t 55
2? fu nction (Nu
'

f
o a , )
v at a
poi nt on a

f
su r a c e va r i es in va lu e w i th the d ir ect ion f m
roth e
p oi n t . It e u a ls
q
z er o i n the dir ecti on ta ng en t to the cu r ve < )
1 0 , a nd a tta i n s i ts g r ea test
a bsolu te val ue i n the d ir ectio n n or ma l to thi s cu r ve, thi s va lu e being

A m eans of r epresen tin

g g ra
ph i c all y th e m a
g ni tu d e of th e di ffer
en tial q u oti en t A fo r an
y d i r ec ti on i s
g i v en by t h e foll o w in g t h eor em

If in the ta ng ent lan e to a su rfa ce at a oin t M the os i ti ve ha lf

p p p
tang ents at M , cor r es on din
p g to f p
a ll va lu es o k , osi ti ve an d n eg ati ve,
 L IN EA R EL EMPIN A SU RFA CE
'
"
V
J (

be dr aw n , an d on them the cor r es

p w
'
.
3
l en
g ths A be la id u. ) I
. M
,

the locu s f
o the ex tr emi ti es of Ji m . m r hs i s a ci r cle in u m ! the

cu r ve con st .

Th e pr oof of t is t eor e IS Si pli fi ed i fhw e efi r h m

c t a f zan sfor m
mation of cu rvili near c oor di nates T u s w e ta e for t h e n e w cobr . h k
din ate li n es th e c u r ves 4) con st . an d t h eir o r t h o
g o n al tr a j ec to r i es .

We let th e for m er be d en o ted by u 1 c o n st and th e latter b

y
d
.

v
1
= co nst .
, an d in i c ate by subscr ipt 1 fu n c ti on s i n ter s o f t ese m h
par a m eter s . No w F1 : 0, so t h at

A:

w h er e 7c1 d en otes th e v alu e of d vl /

du 1 w h ic h d eter mi n es a
g i v en

d ir ec ti o n , an d th e max imu m len g t h i s (Ev

-

i . Fr o m (2 3) we h av e

w h er e 90 i s th e angl e w h i ch th e g iv en dir ec ti on ma k es with th e

tan gen t to th e c u r ve v c o n st . H en ce i f w e r e ar
g d th e tang en ts
at M to th e c u r ves vI c on st an d u
1
c on st as a . x es of coiir dinates
i n th e tan g ent plan e, th e coor d i n ates of th e end of a se
gm en t o f

leng t A ar e h
E1 + Gk 6?
c
Th e d istan ce fr o m th i s
poi n t to th e mid poin t -
of th e m x im ma u

se
g m en t, m easu r ed alon
g th e tan
g en t t o v
l
c on st .
, is r ead il
y
fou n d to be
2 E1
a w h i ch p r o v es th e t h eo r em .

37 . Differ ential par a m eter s of th e fi r st or der . If w é pu t

94
> 54
>
2F
8 u av

e q u ati on 4
( )0 c an be w r itten

w h er e n ow th e difi er ential q u o tien t cor r espon ds to th e d ir ectio n

n or m al to th e c ur v e 4) c on st . Th e left -
h an d m mb e er of h
t is
86 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

Fr om (4 1 ) i t i s seen h
t a t w h en w e pu t

d <l>

equ ati on 4
( 3) b e co m es

4
( )4 A, 9 1 .

A s d efin e d ,
9 is a fun ction of ( ) f; h en ce th e fa m ily o f c u r ves

9 c o n st i s th e sa m e as th e family < > l c on st Suppose we h ave

k
. .

su c h fa i ly, an d w
a m e ta e th e c u r v es 9 c o n st . for th e c u r v es

u = co n st an d t ei r . h or t h o
g o nal tr a j ec tor i es for v = co n st .
, h
t us
effec ti n g a c h an
g e of par am eter s . Sin c e A ,u = 1 , i t foll ow s fr o m
4
( )1 t h at E = 1, and c on se u en tly q th e li n ear ele m en t is

4
( )5 ds
2
du
2
G dv
z
.

Sin c e n ow th e lin ear ele ment of a c u r ve v = c on st is da , th e leng t

r . h
of th e c u r ve b et w een i ts poi n ts of i n ter secti on w i th tw o c u rv es

u n o an d u u
,
is u
,
no . Mor eov er , h
t is l eng t hi s th e same fo r
th e seg men t of ever y c u r v e v = c on st b et w een th ese tw o cu r v es

d
. .

For t i s h r eason th e latter c u r ves ar e sai to be para llel C on .

v er sely, in o r d er t h at th e c u r ves u c on st of an o r t o on al s s
g
.
y h
tem be par allel, i t i s n eces r y t at th e li n ear
sa h elemen t of th e
c u r ves v c on st . W epen d en t o f v . H en ce E m ust be a fu n c
tion of u al on e, w h i ch by a tr an sfor m ation of coor din ates
, , c an be
mad e q
e u al to u n i ty H en ce w e h ave th e th eor em
.

A n ecessar y an d su fii ci en t con d i ti on that the cu r ves o f a family

be par allel i s tha t ( 37
const . be a f u n cti on o f 4m

L et (
p c on st . an d x v i con st . be th e e q u ati on s o f tw o c u r ves

u pon a su r fac e, t h ro u
g h a
poi nt M , an d let 9 d en ote th e an l
g e
betw een th e tang en ts at M If w e pu t

2
EG F

th e e x pr essi on ( 2 1 ) for c os 9 c an be w r i tten

A . ( 4x i l)
l
c os 9 =
 D I FFEREN T I AL PA RA METERS 87

Sin ce c os 9 is an i n var i an t for tr an sfor matio n s of c oo r din ates, it

foll o w s fr o m th i s q
e u ati o n NV) al sotihs aat
n in v ari an t I t i s .

c alled th e mix ed d iffer en ti al par ameter of the fir st or d er A n i e . mm

d iate cons equ en ce o f 47
( ) is t h at

‘'
f) O

is th e con di ti on o f or t h og o n ali ty o f th e c ur v es qS cons t . an d

l
i w const .

N ow q
e u ati o n 22
( ) c an be wr i tten
1
si n 9
av av

w h ic h by m eans of th e fu n c ti on 8 ( u, v ), d efin ed t h us by D ar bo u x }

9 (it «n

c an be wr itten in th e abbrev i ated fo rm

Sin ce all th e fu n c ti on s in t i s iden tity ex cept 6 h ( t l)

c , x r ar e kn o wn
to be i n v ari an ts , w e h av e a
p r oo ft h at it also is an in v ar i an t . It
is a mix ed d i fferen tial par a mt e er of th e fi rst o r d er . Fro m 4
( )7
an d 4
( )9 i t fo ll ow s t h at

5
( )0 A?
( 45, v) i ) f Ash A 132 ;

q
c on se u en tl
y th h
e t r ee i n v ai i an ts d e fin ed t h us far ar e n ot in d e

pen den t o i o n e an o t e r h .

Fr om ( 41 ) an d ( 46 ) i t follo w s t h at

G
A , (u , v
)
H

and fr om t h ese w e find

A f(u ,
2
5
( )1 6 ( u, v ) A, u A ,v v
)
C on se q u en tly

A 1v A1u
52 2 2 2
6 (
u, v
) 8 ( u, v ) 8 ( u, v
)
H en ce E , F, an d G ar e di ffer en ti al in v ar i an ts of th e fi rst ord er .

Leco ns, V ol III , . p . 1 97 .

 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

A n ot h er r esu lt of t h ese e q u ati ons i s th e foll o w i ng If

d
.

eter s of the su r face ar e c h ang ed in acc or an ce w i th th e

“
1
“
1 (
u, v
) , ”
1 (u, v
) ,

and th e r esu lti n

g li n ear element is w r i tten ,

ds 2
E1 du f 2 F1 du l dvl G1 d vf,

th e v al u e of E1 i s giv en by

WW v ) I, 1

an d F1 an d G1 ar e fou n d i n li k e m an ner In c onse q u en ce of 5

( )1
db
.

t h ese e q u ati on s ar e e u i valen t q to wh i c h w er e fo un y d ir ect

c alc ulation .

38 m
Di ffer enti al par a eter s of th e second or der T h us far we

dd
. .

h av e c o nsid er e i ffer en ti al in var i an ts o f th e fi r st or der only. We

i n tr o d u c e n ow on e o f th e secon d o rd er , d iscov er ed by Beltr ami f

To t is h en d w e stu d
y th e i n te r al
g

b
l (g , 40 612 AI M ), x r
l) H d u d v,

fo r an or d i n ar y por ti on of th e su r fac e bo u n d ed by a close d c ur ve 0

( cf For con ven ien ce w e pu t

:
.

G 91
5
( )3
Bu av
_ 71
T
’

so t h at, in q
c o n se u en ce o f we h av e

M gé —
fi N du d v .

an
h
T is may be w r i tten

M 3v
3
N (I)
8M
an
EN
av
du dv .

If w e apply G r een
’
s t h eor e m to th e fi r st i n teg r al, t is h equ ati on

r ed u ces to

5
( )4 II M dv — N du ) a
s
61)

Ric er ch e di li si applic ata all a geomet i a Gi om ale di matematzche, V ol II

‘

* ana r .
,

p . 365 .
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFAC E

T h ese in var i an ts an d o t h er s, w hi ch c an be o bt i
a n ed by an eviden t
e x tension of thi s m the od , i n volve fu nc ti ons I
«r, E, F, G, an d
t h ei r d er i vativ es .

C on ver sely, h
w e s all s o h w t h at ever
y in var iant of th e for m
BE 2 8
I z
fl E’ F’ G’
b

w h er e «f, i ar e i n depen d en t fu n cti on s, i s e x pr essible by m eans

of th e sy mb ols A an d (9 A lr eady w e h av e seen h
t at E, F, an d G
d
.

can be ex pr esse i n ter ms of Al a , Al v, and A1 (u , v

) Mor eover
.
, fr o m
4
( )8 i t follows th at

Q v
) , E ® (u , X ),
Eu av

w h en 7x i s an y fu n cti on w h atever H en ce all th e ter ms i n I c an be

d d
.

ex pr esse i n ter m s of th e s
ym b ols A an d (9 , a li
pp e to

71 6 vs i
( ),
P
‘
i

Si nc e u an d v do n ot appear e x plici tly i n I, w e c an effec t a c h ang e

of ar a meters, r eplacin g i t an d v by ( 1
) an d « f r espec ti vel , an d con
i
p y
q
se u en tly w e e x pr ess I in ter m s of an d th e d iffer ential
i nvar i an ts o bt ai n ed by applyi ng th e oper ator s A an d G) to t h ese

fu n c tion s In c ase ) i s th e o n l
<1
y fu n cti on appear i ng i n I , w e c an

k
.

ta e for p 1 , i n th e c h an
g e of par a meter s, an
y i n v ar i an t o f ( f
), su c h as

A1 4) or A 4) 2 , so l o ng as it i s n ot a fu n c tion of E, F, or G .

EX AMPLES

1 . Wh en th e li near el emen t of a su rface is i n th e form

da“ 7\( du2 d uz),
w h er e 7x is a fun cti on o f u and 0 b o th u and v are so l u ti ons of th e eq u ation A 0
, 2 0,
th e di ffer en ti al p ar ameter b ei ng for med w ith respe ct to th e r igh t h and memb er -
.

2 Sh ow th at o n th e su r fac e
.

x =u c os v, y z u si n v,

th e c u r ves u c onst are p ar all el . .

3 W h en th e li near element is i n th e for m

.

d s2 c os2 a du 2 si n2 a dv2 ,
w h ere a is a fu n cti on of u and v, b oth u and v are so u l ti ons of th e eq u ati on
A1 ( 0, A1 0) 2 A2 0 ( A1 0

C f Be . ltr ami , l . c .
, p . 35 7 .
 YMM
S ETRI C C OORD I N A TES 91

4 . If th e c ur ves co nst
co nst for m an or th ogo na l sys tem on a su r face
.
, l
a
l .
,

th e p r o j ecti on on th e z —
ax i s o f any displ ac emen t on th e sur fac e is gi ven b y

dz div d d¢
j
ds do V23 ), 7
'

w h ere ds and do ar e l
th e e emen s of t l en gth of th e c ur ves ¢ z c ons t .
, 1
11 const .

res pe cti vel y .

5 . If f and 45 are an y fu n cti ons of u and 0, th en

cu m:

g
)
f b ef a¢ ee

2 _
_
C
—
A1 (f 9
A”
Ga 8 cu 613 Cu ba

A¢ f =— f
a
Azu + —
E
f 8’f
A1 0
1 0 ) 2
8
A1 0
év
.
,
eu 6 02

39 . Sy mm etri c coor di nates . We h av e seen t h at h gh t r ou ev er y

p o i n t o f a sur fac e t h ere pass tw o min i mal c u r v es w hi h li c e en tir ely

on th e su rface, an d t h at th ese Cur v es ai e d efin e db y th e d iffer en ti al

e q u ati o n
2q dv G du g
: 0 .

I f th e fini te e q u ation s o f t h ese c ur ves be wr i tten

a
( u, v ) c o nst .
, B( u, v
) co ns t .
,

i t foll o w s fr o m (42 ) t h at

5
( )7 0, M 3) 0

Sin c e for an
y par a m eters

A v A ( u, v ) A1 u
58 E 2
a
2 2
—
8 (
u, v
) 8 (u , v
) ® ( u, v
)
w h en th e c u rv es u = c on st B = con st ar e ta k en par ametr ic ,
as

G
.
, .
,

th e c orr espon d in
g c o efli c i en ts E an d ar e z er o , an d c onse u en tly q
th e lin ear elemen t o f th e su rface has th e for m
5
( )9 de
z
m ad e ,

w h er e in gen eral X is a fu n cti on of a and t) C onv ersely as fol

, , .
,

lo w s fr o m w h en th e li n ear elem en t h as th e for m (5 9) eq u a

ti on s satisfi ed an d th e ar am etr i c c u r v es ar e m in i mal
p .

tr an sfor m ations of coordi nates w h i c h p r eser v e th i s

lin ear elemen t ar e th o se w hi c h leav e th e mi n i m al li n es

h
t at is
 L IN EAR EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

w h er e F and F1 ar e ar bi tr ar
y u n cti o n s W en ever th e l in ear ele
f . h
m en t h as th e for m h
w e say t at th e par ameter s ar e symmetr i c .

Th e above resu l ts ar e
g i v en b
y th e t e ore h m
When a an d B ar e s
y mmetr i c coor di n a tes o
f a f
su r a ce, an
y tw o

a r bi tr ar y fu n cti ons of a an d B r espec ti vely ar e sy mmetr i c coor di

n a tes, an d they the on l
”

ar e on es.
y

Th e g en er al lin ear element o f a su r fac e c an be w r i tten as th e

r o d u c t o f tw o factors, n a mel
p y

F + iH
6
( 1) ds
”
fi du + dv VEd u +
vs

If t an d t1 d e no te i n teg r ati ng fac to r s of th e r es

pec ti v e ter ms of th e
ri
g h t h an dm m e ber of h
t is eq u ati on, a
pai r o f s mmetr i c c o brd i n ates
y
d
-

is g i ven by th e q u a r atu r es

dv da ,

dv dB .

Wh en t h ese v alues ar e su b ti t t d i
s u e n an d r esu l t co m
1
par ed w ith it is seen th t 7
a x
1

Th e fi rst of equ ati ons (6 2) can be re

pl ac ed by

F i iH
- -
8a
t
x /E ‘
av

m
Eli i nating t fr o m t h ese e q u ation s, w e h av e

8a
av
If

If t ish e q u ati o n be m ul tipl ied by th e r esult c an be

r ed u ce d to
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T O F A SU RFA CE

C onsid er , for i nstan c e, th e c ase

( 6 8) ¢I + W
f
1
F (¢ fi b)

Fr om th e C au c y Ri e h -
m an n d ifi er en tial q
e u ati on s

( 6 9, is m ,
a . n
a
94
> as
» ea 34>

i t follo w s t h at c)
,
an d ar , ar e
f i fun ction s of bo t h
s an d «if
a H en c e .

th e c u r ves d, ) c on st .
, i,
ar c on st . ar e d i ffer en t fr o th e systemm
co n st Si milar r esul ts h h
ol d w en + i i s r e laced
p
dm
.

by — i i n th e ar g u men t of th e ri
g h t h -
an emb er of Henc e
Ther e i s a dou ble i nfini ty o f i sometr i c syste ms f lin es upon a su r
o

fa ce ; w hen on e system i s kn ow n a ll th e other s c a n be fou n d d i r ectl

y .

If th e valu e 6
( )6 for a be su bstitu ted i n th efi r st of equati ons
the r esu ltin equati on is r ed u c ible to
g
Asp— A s w as i f ) 0 .

Sin ce 1
< ) an d ar ar e r eal,
i h
t is e q u ati o n is e q u i valen t to

7
( )0 A 1 4) 2 A d", A dd) , ‘’
l) 0°

Fr o m 5
( )8 i t i s seen t h at h
t ese e q u ation s ar e th e con d i ti on h
t at

E G, F : 0, w h en an d ar ar e
i th e par ameter s . Hen c e q
e u ati on s

( 7 0) ar e th e n ec essar
y an d su f ci en t c on d i ti on s
fi th at < ) an d i r
1 l be
i so metr ic par ameter s
db
.

h
A g ain , w en a i n (65 ) i s re l a
p ce y i x lr , an d all th e fu n c
ti ons ar e r eal , w e h av e

( 71 ) A, ¢ 0, AN o .

C on v er sely, w h en w e h ave a func tion 4) satisfying th e fi r st of h

t ese

equ atio n s, th e ex pr essi on

_
7
“

T
is an e x act d ffi er en tial . C all i t ( b it ; t h en

F e _E e G
a a
av
bu
Q an {i v as
»

H bu H av
 I SOTHERMI C ORTHO GON A L S S E MS
Y T 95

5¢ 34
>
If th ese e q u ati o ns be sol ved for -
a w e g Gt
an av

c ii
t
a " a
F
Bv bu 84>
H

Wh en w e e x pr ess th e c on di ti on w e fin d t h at
5v
App Mor eover , t h ese tw o fu nc ti o n s 4
) an d
[
\r satisfy

in q
con se u en ce o f 7
( )2 an d and t h er efor e th e
y ar e i so metr i c

par a m eters . Hen ce

A n ecessar y an d su fii ci en t cond iti on tha t I be the i sometr ic par am
()

eter o f one fami ly of an i sometr i c system on a su rfa ce i s tha t A ¢

2
0;
the isometr i c pa r ameter of the other fami ly i s g i ven by a qua d r a tu r e .

I n cid entally w e r emar k th at if u an d v ar e a

p air of i so m etr i c

par a m eters, q
e u ati on s 7
( )2 an d
( 73 ) re d u c e to

41 I soth er mi c ort h ogonal syste m s. I f th e lin ear el e men t of a

d
.

su r fac e i s g i ven i n t h e fo r m (6 7) an d th e par a m eters ar e c h an

g e

in d
ac cor an ce w i t h
th e e u ation s q
=
B f , =
f2 ( ),
(
1 ( )
u , 31 v

th e lin ear elemen t be c o m es

dc : “

w her e th e ac cen ts in dic ate differ entiati on . Ho w ever , h

t i s tr an s
for m atio n of par a m eter s h as n ot c h an
g ed th e cobr din ate li n es ;
th e c oef ci en ts
fi ar e n ow no lo ng er q
e u al, bu t i n th e r elati on

E E ’
G V

wh ere U V den ote fu nction s o f u

an d an d v r es
pec ti v ely .

C onversely w h en th is r elatio n i s
, satis fi ed th e lin ear ele m en t

may be w r i tten

an d by th e tr ansfor mation o f c oor d in ates,

 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

i t is b r ou
g h t t o th e for m w h atev er he U an d V; and th e c oor

d i n ate lin es ar e u n alter ed . H en ce

A n ecessar y a n d su fli ci en t con d i ti on that an or thog on al syste m f
o

p ar a metr i c li n es on a su r ace f for m an i sother mi c syste m i s tha t the

coe fii cien ts o f the cor r es ond ng
p i li n ear ele men t sati s fy a r elati on o f
the for m

We see k n ow th e n ecessary and su f

fi c i en t con dition w hich a

fu n ctio n m(a , v
) m u st satisf
y in or d er th at th e cu r ves to const .

an d th ei r or th go on al tr a j ector ies for m h mi y t m

an i sot er c s s e .

Ei th er (0, or a fun ction of i t, i s th e i th m i p

so erm t f th c ar a e er o e

c u rv es (0 co n st . We d en ote h
t is par a m t by 96 ; th
e er f( ) en w .

Si n ce <f
> m u st be a solu ti on o f equ ation s 7
( )1 w h , b
e ti t ti
av e, on su s u on ,

7
( )6 A2 0) A 1 00 0,

w h er e th e p ri m es i n d ic ate di ffer en ti ati o n w i th r espect to m . h

If t is
equ ati on is wr i tten i n th e for m
”
9
3
9
f (w )
Ai m

w e see t at h r ati o of
th e tw o differ en ti al par a eters i s a fu n c
th e m
h
ti on of a) C onv ersely, i f t i s r ati o i s a fu n cti on o f w , th e fu n ction
d
.

b
f (w ), o tain ed by tw o qu a r atu r es fr o m
7
( )7 ff
e
A ,”
— d“
:
w i ll satisfy equ ati on s H enc e
A necessar y a nd su flici ent con di ti on that a fami ly of cu r ves

(0 con st. an d th ei r h g on a l tr aj ector ies for m

or t o an i sother mi c sys

tem i s tha t the r a ti o o f Aza a n d A l a) be a fun ction of (0 .

Su ppose We h ave su c h a fun c tion a) ; t h en th e or t h og on al tra

jec to r i es o f th e c u rv es (0 c onst can be fo un db y qu d

a r atur e for ,
d
.

th e iffer en tial equ atio n o f t h ese tr a j ec tor i es is

8w a(f
7 8 _ F du F—
( ) av
-

If equ ation 7
( )6 be w r i tten i n th e for m
an)
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

EX AMPLES

1 Sh o w
th at th e mer idi ans and p ar all el s on a sph er e for m an iso thermal o r th o
g
o nal syst em an d d e ter mi ne th e i so th er mic p ar ame ters
,
.

2 . Sh o w
th at a system of c onfo c al ellipses and h ype r b ol as for m an i sothermal
or th og on al system i n th e pl ane .

3 . Sh o w th at th e su r fac e

’ ’

b?)( 612 as ) 5 ( b2 a
?
)( b2 cs ) 0 ( c2 a? )( 62 — b2
)
i s an llipsoid
e ,
and th at th e p ar amet r ic cu r ves for m an isoth erm al or th ogonal system .

4 . Fi n d th e c u r ves w hich bisect th e an gl es b e t w een th e p ar amet r ic c ur ves o n

9

2 b 2 2

and s h ow th at th ey for m an i soth er mal or th ogonal sys e t m .

5 . ter mi ne
De so th at on th e ri ght c ono id a: i t cos c y u sin 19 z (v) , ,
z

th e p ar amet r ic cu r ves for m an i so th er mal o rth og on al system and S h o w th at th e ,

cu rves w hich bi sect th e angl es b et w een th e p ar ametr ic c u r ves for m a system of

th e same k i nd .

6 Ex p r ess th e r esults of Ex 4 p age 8 2 i n ter ms of th e p ar ameters

. .
,
and f ,
i

d efi ned by
42 Confor m al r epr esent ation Wh en a on e- to- on e c orr espon d
k
. .

en c e o f an y i nd i s establ is h edbetw een th e poin ts o f tw o su r

faces, ei t h er su r fac e may be sai d to be r e r esen ted on th e ot er
p h .

T h if u s, w e r oll o u t a c yli nd r i c al su r fac e u pon a plan e an d say

th t th p i
a e o n ts o f th e su r fac e c or r es
p ond to th e r es ecti ve po i n ts
p
o f th e p lan e i n to w ic t e
y a re h h h
w e ave a r epr esen ta d eveloped , h
ti o n o f th e su r face u po n th e plan e Fu rt er or e, as t er e i s n o . h m h
str etc in
g h
o r folding o f th e su r fac e i n t i s d ev el opmen t o f i t u pon h
th e pl an e, l eng t h
d th e m ag ni tu de o f angles ar e u n al
s of lin es an

ter ed I t i s evid en tly i mpossible to ma e su c a r epr esen tation o f

. k h
e v er y su r face u pon a plan e, an d, i n
g en er al, tw o su rfac es o f t i s h
k in d d o n o t ad mit o f su c a r epr esen tati o n u pon o n e an o t er h h .

How ever i t i s possi ble , , as w e s h all see, to re

p r esen t o n e su r fac e

u pon an o t h er in su c h a w ay th at th e an
g l es betw een c orr espon d

i ng lin es on th e s u r faces ar e e u al
q . I n t is h c ase w e sa
y t h at one

su r face h as f
con or ma l r epr esen ta ti on on th e ot h er .

In or d er to ob tain th e c o ndi tion to be sati s fi ed fo r a con for mal

re
p r esen tation o f tw o s u r faces S an d S,
’
w e i magi ne t h at t h ey ar e
r efer r e d to a c or r espo nd in
g syste m of r eal lin es in ter m s of th e
 C ON FORMAL REP RESEN TA T I ON 99

sa me par am eters u , v, an d t h at c orr es o n di n

p g po i n ts h av e th e sa m e

c u r v ilin ear coor di na tes . We wr ite

’
t h eir lin ear el emen ts in th e
r es
pec tiv e for ms
g ’ ' ’
ds = E d u + 2 q d sa
2 2 z '
d v+ d , d u k 2 F dud v + G d u
-
.

’
Sin ce th e an
g l es a) an d ai be tw een th e c obr di nate li n es at corre

spo n di n
g po in ts mu st be q
e u al , i t is n ec essar y h
t at

If 00 an d 0; d en o te th e an
g l es w hi c h a c u r v e on S an d th e c orre

s
po n d in
g c ur v e o n S
’
r es
pec ti v el
y m ak e w i th th e c u r ves v c onst .

at poin ts of th e for m er c u r v es, w e h av e, fr om ( 2 3) an d

H 2
(
— 9
H da
, sin ( m 0)
x /E d s x E de
/
H '
dv '
H ’
da
sin
” ( co
/E ds
fi
z
’
x / ds x
'

h
By ypo t esis co ih ’
a) an d 03 j:90 , acc or d in
g as th e ang l es hav e

th e same o r o pposi te sense . Hen c e w e h av e

H ’
dv H
d B H da H du
:
’

ef de J }?d s
’
( 5 de «
’
5 dc
f

ac c or din
g to th e sense o f th e an
g l es
. Fro m t h q
ese e u ati on s w e fi nd

w hi ch , in co mbin ati on w i t h may be wr i tte n

E ’ '
F G
E F G

w h er e 2
t den o tes th e facto r of
pr o po rti on al i ty, a fun cti on of u an d

v i n g en er al . From (8 3 ) i t follo w s at o nce t at h

8
( )4

A nd so w h en th e pr opor ti o n 83
( ) is sa tis fi ed , th e q
e u ati ons
(8 1 )
an d 8 2
( ) follo w . H ence we h ave th e t h eor e m
A n ec essar
y a n d su
fi c ien t c on d i tion tha t the re r esentat on i of tw o
p
f
su r ac es r e fer r ed to a cor r es on d in
p g syste m of li nes be f mal
con or is
1 00 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA CE

that the fir st fu n damen ta l c oe

fii ci en ts of the tw o f
su r a ces be pr opor
ti on a l, the f a ctor
p ofp ro or ti on a li ty bei ng a f u n cti on o f the par am

eter e the r epr esen ta tion i s d i r ec t or i n ver se acc or di ng as the r ela ti ve

p osi ti ons o f the posi ti ve ha lf tang en ts to the pa r ametr i c cu r ves on the

tw o f
su r a ces ar e the same or s
ymmetr i c .

L ater w e s all h fi n d mean s of o tai ni ng b con for m al r epr esen tati on s

d
.

Fr o m 84
( ) i t follo w s t h at s m all ar cs m easu r ed fr o m cor r espon
’
i n g po in ts on S an d S alo ng c or r espon ing c u rv es ar e in th e sa d m e

r atio , th e fac tor o f pr opor ti o n al i ty ei n

g i n g en er al a fu n c ti on b of

th e posi ti on of th e poi n t . C o nver sely, w h en th e r ati o i s th e sa m e

fo r all c u r v es at a poin t, t h er e is a r el ati on su c h as w i th t a

fu n c tion of u an d v at m ost. A nd Si n c e ith olds for all dir ec tion s,

we m u st h av e th e pr opor tio n On th i s acco u nt w e may say
h tt
t a w o su r faces ar e r epr esen te d con for mall
y u
pon one an ot h er

wh i en n th e n ei
g hb h or oo d of eac hpi a r of hm o olo ou s poi n ts
g cor r e

spon d in g sma ll l g th
en s ar e r
p po o r ti o n al .

43 . I som etr ic r epr esentati on . Appli cable sur faces . Wh en in par

ticular th e fac tor t i s q
e u al to u n ity, cor r espon di ng s m all len g t h s

q
ar e e u al as w ell as an gl es In t is h c ase th e r e r esen tati on
p is sai d
d
.

to be i sometr i c, an d th e tw o su r faces ar e sai to be appli ca ble Th e .

sign i fi can ce o f th e latter ter m i th s at th e por ti on of on e su rfac e in

th e n eighb h d f or oo o ev er y po i n t c an be so bent as to be m ad e to
c oi n c i d w i th th
e e c or r espon d
in g por tion of th e o t er su r face w i t h h
t t hi g
ou t s r e c d pli n or u c ation I t is ev iden t t at su c an appli ca
. h h
ti on o f o n e su r fac e u pon an ot h er n ecessitates a c ontin u ou s ar r ay o f

su r fac es applic able to bo t hS an d S, . h

T is pr oc ess o f tr ansfor ati on m
d efor ma ti on , an d called a d e or m o f S and v i ce v ersa
is c all ed SI i s f .

An e x ample of h
t is i s affor d ed by th e r olli n
g o f a cyli nd er on

a plan e .

A lt ou gh h a c on fo r mal r epr esen tati on c an be esta bli h d b

s e et w een
an
y t w o su r fac es, it is n ot tr u e, as w e s h all see la t er ,th t a any tw o
su r faces ad m i t o f an iso metr ic r esen tati on
b er
‘
re u
pon o n e
p .

Fr o m tim e to ti me w e s all h m eet w i t h ex amples of app

l

d
'
.

fac es, an d in a later c h apter w e sh all len g tl 3m

iscu ss at .

w h i ch ar i se c on cer n i ng th e appli ca b ility of su r faces i ‘

d dd
.

w e con si er h er e an ex am ple affor e by th e tang en t f

d
.

tw iste c u rv e .
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T O F A SU RFAC E

H en c e a co n fo r mal re
pr esen tation i s d efi n ed i n th e m ost g ener al
w ay by th e q
e u ati on s

8
( )6 “
1 51
”
01

87
( )
w h er e F an d F1 ar e ar bi tr ar y fu n c ti on s w h i c h mu st be co n u j g ate
i mag i nary w h en th e su r fac es ar e r eal .

I n stead of i n ter pr etin g 8

( )5 as th e li n ear elemen ts o f tw o su r

fac es r efer r ed to t h eir m in imal li n es, w e c an loo k u pon t hm

e as

th e li n ear
M
el em en t
”
of th e sa m e su i
M
fac e i n ter m s
« ” M
of tw o se ts o f

par ameter s r e fer r i n

g to th e m in i mal li n es Fr om t i s
p om t . h of

V ie w e q u ati on s ( 8 7 efi n e th e m ost
g W
e n er al c on fo r m al

re
pr esen tati on o f a su r fac e u pon i tself . If we l i mi t o u r co n si d er a

ti on to r eal su r faces an d u t as befo r e,

p ,

B = ¢ l1 +
“
1
<> 2 f
4
th e fu n c ti on s ( f l
,
« » an d ( fl f , Nl
‘

l
are
pai r s o f i sot h er mic par ameter s .

Now e q u ati o n s 8
( )7 m a
y b e w r i tten

8
( )8 4h f i sh F ( <i> i i i ?)
C on se q u en tly w e h av e th e t h eo r e m
When a
p f
air o i soth er m i c
pa r a meter s S
q l
,
« »
fa
o f
su r a ce a r e kn ow n
and the su rfa ce i s r efer r ed to the li n es cf ) con st .
,
f
ar c on st .
, the

most g en er a l confor ma l r epr esen ta ti on _of th e su rfa c e u o n i tsel

p f i s

obta i n ed by ma ki ng a poin t ( qb cor r es o n d to the

p p o in t s
h) , ,

i n to w hi ch it can be tr an sfor med i n a ccor d a n c e w i th e u a t on

q i

As a c o r ollar y o f t h i th s eo r e m , we h av e

Wh en a
p i a r
f
o i sother mi c
par a me ter s i s k n ow n for ea ch of tw o

a ll the confor ma l r e r esen ta ti on s of on e su rfa ce u on the

su r faces , p p
other c an be fou n d d i r ectly .

C o n si der tw o pair s o f i so t er mi c par ameter s h I

‘ ’ an d ( f for
a su r face S, an d su ppose t ei r r el ati on i s h
89
( ) 4
31 + i ‘i’i = F (¢ l
f)
"

If tw o c u r ves 0 an d C, ar e in c or r espo n d en ce in t is h re
pr esenta

t ion , t h ei r p ar a m etr i c e q u atio n s mu st be th e sa m e fu n c tion al r ela

ti on b et w een th e par ameter s, na m ely,

f (¢ i )
i f O, f ‘ ’ii ) O
 C ON FORMA L REP RESEN TA TI ON 1 03

Den ote by 0 an d 91 th e an l
g es w hi c h 0 an d 01 ma k e w i th th e

c ur ves « f i c on s t . an d x pl z c o nst . r es
pec ti v el
y . If w e wr ite th e

lin ear element of S i n th e tw o fo r ms

ds = x“
( r
d (
W) , d sf d i f f),

i t follo w s fr o m ( 23 ) t h at

cos 0 si n 0

d if f

\/d
¢f dx f
r

Fr om t h ese ex p r essio n s w e deri ve th e follo w i ng

_
d ¢ + i d~
h ne ws
,

d ¢ — i d i [r d ¢ , — i d \lr ,

so t h at in c o n se q u en ce o f 8
( )9 w e h av e

z i ( a‘ — 0)
‘ if )
e ,

Faw n)
w h er e F0 is th e fu n c tio n c on u j g ate to F, an d th e ac c en ts i n d ic ate
d iffer en tiati on w i th pec t to th e ar gu men t
r es . If I
‘
and F1 ar e

an ot h
pai r
er o f c o r r es o n d in
p g c u r ves, an d t eir h an
g l es ar e d en o ted
by 9 an d 0 i t follo w s fro m ( 9 0) th at
w e a te n
e

0, 91 9 0 .

For , th e ri
g h t
~
h an d member of 9
( )0 is m er ely a fu n c tion of th e

po si tion of th e po i n t an d i s i n d epen den t of d ir ec ti o ns . Hence in

any c o n for mal r e pr esen tati o n defi n ed by an e q u ati o n o f th e for m
8
( 9) th e an
g l es be tween c o rr espo n di n
g c u r v es h av e th e sa m e sen se .

Wh en , now , th e c o r r espo n d en c e sati s fi es th e eq u ati on

91 i = F if ),
3 + f1 (¢
th e e q u ati on an al o o u s
g to ( ) is
9 0

e
F
'
M ’ if )

H ence 0, -
0;

c on se q u en tlyth e cor r es o n din

p g an l es ar e e
g q u al in th e i nv erse sense .
1 04 L IN EAR EL EMEN T OF A SU RFA C E

45 . Confor m al r epr esentati on of th e pl ane . For th e plan e th e

p r ec ed i n
g t h eo r em may be stated t h us

The most g en er a l r ea l con or f mal re

p r esen ta t on o i f the plan e upon

i tself i s obtai n ed by making a poi n t (x , y) cor r espon d to the poi n t

(x l, w her e x l + i y1 i s an fu n cti on of a
y i y or r i y : .

We r ecall th e ex am pl e of 4 1, n ame ly
55 1 W 1
:
a iy
r

w here c is a r ea l c onstan t . T his equ ati on is equ i val ent to

x ( x 2 r )( c
c ? a)
”
c‘,

H en c e t h e p arall el s a: c onst and y c onst i n th e cr y pl ane are rep resen ted

. .
,
-
,

i n th e x l yl pl ane b y ci r cl es w hich p ass th o u gh th e or igi n an d h ave th e i r cen ters

-
r

o n th e r espe cti ve ax es C on ver sel y th ese ci r cl es i n th e x y pl ane c orrespond to

.
,
-

th e p ar a ll el s i n th e x yI pl an e l
-
.

If w e pu t
2 2 2 93 + y =r ,
z f+ yf
e uaq ti ons (ii ) and ( iii ) may b e w r itten

W1 C2 .

H en ce c orr espondi ng p oi nts ar e o n th e same li ne th r ough th e or igi n and th eir ,

d istan c es fr o m i t ar e su ch th at rr l 0 2 On thi s acc ou n t eq u ati ons ( iv) ar e .

said to d efi ne an i nver si o n w i th r espec t to th e c i r c le a? y

2 C2 or si n c e r
1 c /
fi r
, , ,

a tr a nsfor mati on by r ec ipr ocal r ad i i vec tor es .

F r om 44 i t foll ow s that cor resp ondi ng angles are equal in th e inverse sense .

Fo r th e c ase

( V) 231

th e q ti ons anal ogous to ( i v) ar e

e ua

23 2 1

H enc e th e p oi n t P 1 031 yl ) c orrespo ndi ng to P (:

,
s y) li es on th e l i ne w hich i s th e ,

reflecti on i n th e x ax i s of th e li ne OP and at th e di stan c e OP ,

-
cfl/r Evid entl y
, .

thi s t ransfor mati on is th e c ombi nati on of an i nversi on and th e t ransformati on

231 21, yl y.

One fi
d th at th e t ransformati ons ( i ) and ( v) h ave th e foll ow i ng p ro per ti es
n s

Ever y str aig ht li ne i s tr ansfor med i nto a c i r c le w h i c h passes th r oug h the or ig i n ;

and c on ver sely .

Ever y c i r c le w h ic h d oes not pass thr ough the or ig i n is tr ansfor med i nto a ci rcle .
1 06 L IN EA R EL EMEN T or A SU R ACE F

Sin c e e u ati o n
q ( 95 ) m u st be di r ec tly tr an sfo r mable i n to it
follo w s t h at

9
( )6 3B ”2
2 RE ”
: 0, SA 1 ” 2
0.

As t h ese e q u ati o n s ar e of th e fo r m h ei r
g en er al i n tegrals
t

ar e sim i la r to Hen c e th e most g en er al for s o f ( 9 3) fo r m

ou r pr obl e m ar e

(9 7)
agai n . AM .

d a
3
a
4
63 5 64

Mor eov er w h en , t h ese v al u es ar e su bsti tu ted in an q

e u ation in
“
v B1 of th e for m th e r esu lti ng e q u ation in a an d Bi s of

h
t is for m
kw kd
.

Equ ation (9 1 ) may li e ise be lo o e u pon as d efi ning a in

ter m s of B so t h at a , as a fu n cti o n of B satis fi es an q
e u ati on o f th e
d
, ,

for m si milar ly for a

1
as a fu n c tio n of B1 . Hen ce i f w e h ad u se

w e s ou l d h h av e b ee n br ou gh t to r esu lts an alo

g ou s to an d
th er efo r e th e m ost g en er al for ms of 94
( ) fo r ou r p bl e ro m ar e

as
_ b m 6.
. 31
6 3+b
Ii en ee
Wh pla n e i s d efi n ed i n symmetr i c
en a p a r a meter s a , B , the most
en er a l confor ma l r epr esen ta ti on of the pla n e upo n i tself, for w h i ch
g
’

ci r c es cor r es
l on d to ci r cles or str a ig ht li n es, i s g i ven by ( 9 7) or
p

EX A MPLES

1 d u ce th e equ ati ons w hich d efi ne th e most gener al c on fo r mal r epr esentati on

. De
? d o2 u p on itsel f
o f a su r f c
a e w ith th e li n ear el emen t ( 13 2 d v 2
( a2 u ) z . .

2 Sh o w th a t th e su r fac es
.

at z :i t cos v,

a z u cos v, z =a c osh
~
1

ar e a ppl ic abl e F i nd th e c u r ve i n w hich a pl ane th r ou gh th e z ax i s c u ts th e l atter

.
-

su r fac e and d ed u c e th e eq ua t i o ns of th e c o nfo r mal r ep r ese n t ati on of th ese su r fa c es

,

o n th e pl ane .

3 W h en th e r ep r esen tati o n i s d efi ned b y

. w h a t a r e th e c o o rdi n a tes o f th e

c en ter an d r adi us o f th e ci r cl e i n th e a pl ane w hich c o r r spo nd s to th e ci r cl e o f l

-
e

c en ter (0 d ) and r ad i us r i n th e pl ane

,
a -

Th e t mati o ns ( 97) an d (98) pl ay an i mp o r tant r ol e i n th e th eo r y o f functi o ns

r ansfo r .

Fo r a mor e d etail ed st ud y of th em th e r ead er i s r efer r ed to th e tr eati ses of Pic ar d , D ar b o ux ,

and F or sy th .
 SU RFA C ES OF REV OL U TIO N 1 07

4 .how th at in th e co nfor mal rep rese n ta ti on ( 9 7) th ere ar e i n general tw o

S , ,

di sti nct poin ts each of w hich c o rrespo nds to itse lf ; al so th at if 7 and 6 are th e
,

va l u es of a at th ese po i n ts th en ,

2
(1 1 (1 4 V ( (1 1 0 0 + 4 0 20 3

ai 04 a ux -
l 4 0 2 613

5 . Fi
d th e co nditi on tha t th e o r igi n be th e onl y po in t w hich c o rrespo nds to itse lf
n ,

and sh ow th at if th e q ua n titi es a l (1 as a, are real a c ir cl e i n t h e a pl a ne th r ou gh

, 2 , , ,
-

th e or igi n 0 c or respond s to a ci r cl e i n th e a l pl an e th rou gh 0 a nd tou chi n g th e oth er

f -

ci r cl e ; al so th at a c i r cl e tou chi ng t h e x ax is at 0 c orrespo nd s to itself -

.

b
w h ere a and b are c onstan ts d efi nes a
a
6 . q tion 2 a , ( a b)
Th e e ua a r
,
a

c onformal rep resen ta tion of th e pl ane u po n itse l f su ch th at ci r cl es abou t th e or igi n ,

an d s tr aight li n es th r ou gh th e l a tte r i n th e a —pl ane cor respo nd to c onfo c al ellipses

a nd h ype r bo l as i n th e d l pl ane -
.

7 . c onfor mal rep resen tati on a l l o g a to l i nes par a ll el to th e x and

I n th e r

y ax es i n th e ( x x pl ane th ere c o rrespo nd li n es th ro ugh th e o r igi n and ci r cl es ab ou t

- -

it in th e a pl ane and to any or th ogo nal system o f st raight li nes in th e a —pl ane
-

, l

an o r th og on al syste m o f l o gar ith m ic spir a ls in th e a pl an e -

.

46 . Su r faces of r ev ol u ti on . By d efi n it io n a su r fa ce o f r e volu tion

i s th e sur fac e
g en er ate d
by a
plan e c u r v e w en th e
p l an e o f th e h
c ur v e is m d
a e to r o ta te abo u t a li n e i n th e
plan e Th e v ar i o u s .

osi ti ons o f th e c u r v e ar e c all ed th e mer i d i an s o f th e su r face, an d

p
th e c i r c les d escr i be d by eac h po i n t of th e c ur ve in th e r ev ol u ti on

ar e c all ed th e pa r a llels . IV e ta k e th e a x is of ro tatio n for th e z a

-
x is,

an d for x —
ax i s an d g
-
a x is an y tw o li n es per pendi c ul ar to o n e an o t h er ,

an d to th e z a
-
x is , an d m eetin g i t in th e me po i n t For an y posi
sa .

ti o n of th e plan e th e q
e u ati o n o f th e c u r ve ma
y be wri tt en 2
w h er e r d en o tes th e di s tance o f a po in t o f th e c u r v e fr o m th e z ax is -
.

We h h
let v d en ote th e angl e w ic th e plan e in an y o f i ts posi tio ns,
k
,

ma es wi th th e fez -

p
l ane . Hen ce th e e q u ati o n s o f th e su rfac e ar e

9
( )9 :r
a c os y r sin v,

T h e li n ear ele men t is

( 1 00) de
z
= 1 2 2 2
[ dr + dv
'
7

If w e
p t
u

( 1 0 1 )

th e li n ear el e m en t i s tr ansfor m ed i n to

( 1 02)
? g
as A (du
 L IN EA R EL EMEN T OF A SU RFACE

w h er e x is a fu n ction of u , wh i ch h
s o ws h
t at th e mer i dians an d

par all els for m an i sot h er mal syste m A s t is h c h an

g e o f par a m eter s

d
.

oes n o t c h an
g e th e par a m etr ic li n es, th e e
tio
q a u
w
n

x = u, = v,
y

d efi n e a eo
nf or mal e of
_
th e su r face o f re volu ti on u po n

th e in w h ich th e m er idian s and p ar al le

lscor r espon d E h
t e

str a ig h t li nes x c o n st an d y; c on st. r espec tivel

y
d fini
. .

alox odr omi c

“

By e ti o n cu r ve on a su r fac e of r ev ol u tion 1 s a

c ur ve w h ich c u ts th e m er i di an s u n d er c on stan t an
g l e Evid en tly
d d
.

it is re
p r esen te on th e plan e by a str aig t li n e H en ce lox o h . ro mi e

c u r ves on a su rface o f r evol u ti on ( 9 9 ar e

) g i v en by

w h er e a b c ar e cons tants
, , .

I nc id entally w e h av e th e t h eor e m
When the lin ear e e l men t fa
o f
su r a ce is r edu ci ble to the for m

2 2 z
'

8 l ( du + dv
) ,

w her e 7x i s a fun cti on of u or v a lon e, the su rface i s a

ppli cable to a

r evolu ti on

:
f
su r a ce o f .

Fo r , su ppose th at h is a function of u alon e . Pu t r V7 an d

solve t ish equ ation for u as a fu n c ti on of r If th e r esulti ng

d
.

e x pr ession be b
su stitu te in we fin d, by a u ad ratu r e, th e q
fu n ction for w h ic h e q u ati on s d
(9 9) efi n e th e sur fac e of
r evolu ti on w i th th e g iven lin ear ele m ent .

When i n parti cu lar , th e su r face of r evolu tion is th e

, h
u n i t sp er e,

w ith c enter at th e o r ig in , w e av e h
= Vl — 2
r si n u , r cos u ,

w h ere u i s th e angl e w h ic h th e r ad i us vec to r o f th e poi n t ma k es

w i th th e posi tive z ax is Now -

.

l og tan

Hence th e equ ations of corr espon d en ce ar e

x = lo
g tan
g,
g = v .
110 L IN EA R EL EMEN T O F A SU RFA C E

Wh en t h ese v al u es a r e su bsti tu ted in 1

( 04) i t is fou nd t h at w e

m u st h av e
bl : b “ : b = b = 0,
3 2 3

so t h at th e par ti c u lar for m of

( 1 04 )
if
is q
e u i valen t to

1 i

Fr o m th ese q
e u ation s an d ( 1 03 ) we fin d t h at th e q
e u atio n s

of th e str aig ht lin es j o i n in

g c o r r espo n d i n g po i n ts o n th e s
ph er e

an d lane ar e r ed u ci bl e to
p

X Y l —Z
d + B i ( ,3 — a
) 2

Fo r all v alu es o f a an d B th
lin es pass t r o u g th e po in t ( 0, 0,
ese h h
H en c e a point o f th e plan e c or r espon di ng to a g iv en poi n t P u po n
h
th e sp er e i s th e po in t o f i n ter sec tion w i t th e plan e o f th e lin e h
j o i n i ng P w i th th e pole ( 0, 0, h
T is for m o f r epr esen tati o n is
c alled th e ster eog r aph i c
p j
r o ec ti on of th e h
Sp er e u pon th e plan e .

h
I t i s ev id en t t at a lin e i n th e plan e c o r r espon ds to a ci r c le o n
h h
th e sp er e ; t i s c i r cle i s d eter mi n ed by th e plan e of th e pole an d
th e g i ven lin e
k
.

We w ill close h
t is c h apter w it h a few r em ar s ab ou t th e con

fo r mal re
p r esen tati on of th e h
Sp er e u po n i tself Fr om th e for e
k
.

g o in
g r es u l ts we no w th at ev er y su c h re
pr esen tati on o f th e
h
Sp er e ( 1 03 ) i s
g i v en by e u ati on s q o f si milar for m in a ,, B,, w er e h
th e latter are g i v en by ( 8 6 ) or an d t h at for c on for mal pre re

sen tati o n s w i th c i r cl es in cor r espon d en ce a

1
and B1 h ave th e val ues

9
( )7 or

We c on si d er i n par ti cu lar th e case

“ “
1
a
s
(1
4 6 3

a a a d
s 4 l

Th e e x pr essi on s of th e lin ear ele m en ts of th e h

Sp er e fou nd
to be r ed u c i ble to

4 d a dB 4 d a , d Bl 4 d a dB

By By
2
( 1 “
( 1 “
13 0 ( 1 “

Her e we h ave used th e upper sig ns in

 STEREOG RA P HI C P RO J EC TI O N 111

H en ce e q u ati o n s ( 1 05 ) d e fin e an isom etr i c p re r esen tati o n of th e

h
sp er e u po n i ts elf Si n c e an l
g es ar e pr eserv ed i n th e sa m e sen se

k
.

by t ish re
presen ta ti on may be loo ed u po n as d eter mi n i n g
a m o t io n of c o n fi g ur ati on u
p on th e sp ere h into n ew p o si ti ons

u po n it . Th e stati on ary po i n ts i n th e ge n er al mo tio n , if t h er e

are an y, c o r r espon d to v alu es o f a an d , w ic ar e B h h r oo ts of

th e r es ec ti v e e u ati o ns
p q
1 06 t— = O
2 —
( ) a
l ) a
, , a u
2 +( a
,
a
, ) u

I f t1 an d t2 ar e th e roo ts o f th e for mer , t h ose o f th e latter ar e —l i

/l
an d H ence t h ere ar e fo u r po in ts stati on ar y i n th e m oti o n ;
t h ei r c u r vili n ear c oor di n ate s are

Fr o m ( 1 03 ) i t i s seen t h at th e fi rs t tw o ar e at i nfi n i ty, an d th e
last t w o d ete r min e po in ts on th e s
ph er e, so t h at th e m o ti on is a

r o tati on abo u t t ese

po in ts h . I f th e z a
-
x is i s ta k en fo r th e a x is of

ro tatio n , w e h av e fr o m ( 1 03 ) t h at th e r oo ts of
( 1 06 ) m u st be co an d

0; h ence a
2
a
s
: 0, so h
t at ( 1 05 ) bec omes
a

I f th e r o tati on is real , t h q
ese e u atio n s m u st be of th e for m
m M
B
-

“ e “, ,
I

w h ere a) is th e an l
g e o f ro ta ti o n .

EX AMPLES

1 . Fi n d th e e u a q ti ons of c
th e su r fa e o f revo u l tion w ith th e li near el ement
dsit du2 a?
'

( u2 )d v
2 . Fi n d th e l ox od r om ic c ur ves on th e su r fa ec
a : u cos v, y u si n v, z a c osh -
l
lt

a
,

an d fi n d th e equ a tions of th e c
su r fa e w h en refer re d to an o r th ogo nal sys e t m of

3 . Fi
d th e genera l eq u ati ons o f th e co nfo r ma l rep rese n ta ti on of th e obl ate
n

sph ero id u po n th e pl an e .

4 Sh ow th a t for th e su rface genera ted b y th e re vo l u ti on of th e evo l u te o f

.

th e ca te nar y a bo u t th e b ase of th e hatter th e lin ear e l emen t i s red uc 1 b le to

(i s2 du2 u do“ .
112 L IN EA R EL EMEN T O F A SU RFA CE

5 . great ci r cl e on th e u n it S ph er e c u ts th e mer idi an v :0 i n l atitu d e a u nd er

A r

angl e a F i nd th e equation of its stereogr aphic p r oj ection

. .

6 D eter mi n e th e ster eog r aphic p r oj ecti o n o f th e c u r ve a: a si n u cos u

.
,

y a c os2u z a si n u fr om th e p o l e (0 a
, , ,

GENERAL EX AMP LES

1 . Wh en there i s a one p oi n t cor respond ence b etw een tw o su r faces th e

-
to -
o ne ,

c r oss r ati o of four tangen ts to o ne sur face at a po i n t i s equal to th e c r oss r ati o of

- -

th e c o r respo ndi ng ta ngen t s to th e o th er .

2 G i ven th e p ar ab ol o id
.

a: 2 au cos v y 2 bu s i n
,
v z 2 u 2 a os2
( c v b si n’v
)
, ,

w h ere a and b are c onst an ts D ete r mi n e th e equ ati on of th e c u r ves o n th e su rfa c e

.
,

su ch th at th e tan gen t pl anes al ong a c u r ve mak e a c on st an t an gl e w ith th e c r y pl ane -

.

Sh o w th a t th e gener a to rs of th e d eve l o p abl e 2 en vel op ed by th ese pl anes mak e a , ,

c onstan t angl e w ith th e z ax is and ex p ress th e c oor di nates of th e edge of r egr essi on
-

i n te r ms o f v .

3 F i nd th e or th og onal t raj ecto r i es of th e gener a to rs of th e su rfa e 2 i n Ex 2

.

c . .

Sh ow th at th ey are pl an e c u r ves and th a t th ei r p r oj ecti ons o n th e soy pl ane are -

i n vo l u tes of th e p roj ecti on of th e edge o f regr essi on .

4 L et C b e a c u r ve o n a c one of revo l u ti on w hich c u ts th e genera tors u n d er

.

c onstan t angl e and 0 1 th e l o cu s of th e centers of c u r vatu r e o f C Sh ow th at 0 1

,
.

li es u p on a c one w h ose el emen ts it c u ts u nd er constan t angl e .

5 W h en th e p ol ar d evel op abl e of a c u r ve is d evel op ed u p o n a pl ane th e c u rve

.
,

d egenera tes i nto a p oi nt .

6 W h en th e recti fyi ng d evel op abl e o f a c u r ve i s d evel op ed u po n a pl ane th e

.
,

c u r ve b ec omes a str aight li ne .

7 D eter mi ne (v) so th at th e r ight c ono id

.
,

a : u cos v y : u sin v z , ,

sh all b e applic abl e to a su r fac e o f r evo l u ti on .

8 D ete r mi ne th e eq uati o ns of a c on for mal re p resen ta ti on of th e pl ane u pon

.

i tsel f for w hich th e p ar all el s to th e ax es i n th e a l pl ane c or respond to li nes th rough -

a p o i n t ( a b) and ci r cl es c on c en t r ic ab ou t it i n th e a pl ane
,
-
.

9 Th e eq u ati on a ;
. 0 si n a w h er e c i s a c o nstan t d efi nes a c onfor mal repr e
, ,

sc u ta ti on o f th e pl ane u p on itsel f su ch th at th e li nes p ar all el to th e ax es i n th e

a pl ane c or resp ond to c on fo c al elli p ses and h yp er b ol as i n th e a l pl ane

- -
.

1 0 I n th e c onfo r mal rep r esen t ati on o f th e pl ane u p on i tself gi ven by a 1

. 12 ,
( ,

to l i nes p ar all el to th e ax es i n th e a I pl ane th ere c or resp ond eq u il ateral h yper b ol as

-

i n th e a pl ane and to th e p encil o f r ays th r ou gh a p o i n t i n th e a l p lane and th e ci r

-
,
-

cl es c on centr ic ab ou t it th ere c orr esp onds a system of eq u il a ter al h yper b ol as th r ough

th e c orresp ondi n g p o i n t i n th e a pl ane and a famil y o f c onfoc al C assi n i o val s
-
.

1 1 Wh en th e sid es of a t r i angl e u p on a su r fac e o f r evol u ti o n are lox od romic

.

cur ves th e sum of th e th ree angl es is eq ual to tw o r ight angl es

,
.

1 2 Th e onl y c onformal pe rspec ti ve repf

. esentati on of a sphere upo n a plane is

gi ven b y
 CHAPTER IV

GEOMETRY OF A S URFACE IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD OF A POINT

48 Funda m fi ci ents of
ental coef th e secon d or der I n t is h c h a
pter

d M
. .

w e stu y th e fo r m f of ia su r ace n h h
th e n eig bor ood o f a p oin t

of i t, an d th e ch t f th
ar ac er O e c u r v es w h i h li
c e u pon th e su r face

an d pass t h r ou
g h th
“

p i te W o n . e r eca ll th t tha e tang en ts at M to

all t h ese c u r v es li e i n a
pl an e, the ta ng en t pla n e to th e s u r fac e at

th e poi n t
M(
.

Th e q
e u ati on o f th e tan gen t plan e at re,
y , z
), n amely ( II ,

m ay be w r i tten
= 0,
(5 z
>Z

h av e pu t

83
] 8z
1 Eu an
2
( ) H fly
av

We d efi n e th e posi tiv e d ir ec tion of th e n or mal 2 5 ) to be t ht a

fo r w h ich th e fu n c tion s X , Y Z ar e th e d i r ec tion c osin es Fr o m th i s

v
-
.
,

d efi ni ti on i t fo llow s t h at th e tang en ts to th e c u r v es co n st . an d

u c o n st . at a poi n t an d th e n or m al at th e po in t h ave th e sa me
m u tu al o r i en tatio n as th e x
y an d z a -
x es .

Fr o m ( 2 ) follow th e id e ntiti es

8x
3 X
an

w h ic h ex pr ess th e fac t th at th e n or mal i s per pen dicu lar to th e tan

g en ts to th e c o ord in ate
'

c u r v es . q
In co nse u en ce O f t ese i den ti ties h
th e e x pression for th e d istan c e p fr o m a poin t M (u’
du , 1} d v)
to th e tang en t plan e at M is of th e secon d d or er in da an d dv .

It may be w r itten

4
( ) p Ed “
2
D d a + 2 D d u dv
'
e,

1 14
 CO EFFI C I EN T S O F T HE SEC ON D ORD ER 115

w h ere e d en o tes th e a
gg g re ate O f ter m s Of th e t ir dh an d hi gh er
’ ”
o r d ers i n da an d d v, an d th e fu nc ti on s D , D , D ar e d e fi n ed by
2

5
( ) 2 Ev “

If e q u ati o ns 3
( ) be d i ffer en tiate d w i th r es e c t
p to u an d v r es
pec
ti vely, w e
g et

” 2 ”

2 x + 2
2 x
2
so eq u a tio n s 5 m
( ) ay be w r itten

2
D z

z x
En e v
2 '

6 1
2
5 17

Th e q u adr at ic d iffe r en tial fo r m

8 I = D d u + 2 D dud v 2 ' "

D dv
2
( ) ( ) -

is c alle d th e fu n d a men tal for m o f th e su r face and th e fu n c

seeo n d ,

ti o ns D D D th e fu n d a men ta l coefli eien ts of the sec on d or d er

” ’
We
k
, , .

leav e i t to th e r ead er to sh o w th at th ese coe ffi c i en ts li e th ose of th e ,

fir st o rd er ar e i n v ar ian t fo r any d isplac emen t O f th e sur face i n spac e

, .

L ater w e sh al l h av e o c cas io n to u se t w o sets o f for m u las w h i c h

w ill n ow be d er i v ed .

Fr om th e e q u ati o n s of d efi n i tio n,

8x
2E u Ev
,

w e et d iffer en tiati o n an d si mpl e r ed u c ti o n , th e fo llo w in g

g ,
1 5E a OF l aE
8x 0 x
_ 53 3

2E u fiu
z 0
3 11
,

8 2) Eu
2
“
Eu 2 Ev
,

:
,

2
1
25 25
$ 33
A A

55 —

{3
35 8
1 13 aF l aG 913 3
1 12 l aG
'

Eu af
-

av z em
’
28 0 av
?
2 30
116 GEOMETRY OF A SU RFACE A BOU T A POI NT

A g ain , i f th e ex pr essions (9) be su bsti tu ted in th e left h and mem

d
-

ber s Of th e follow i ng equ ati on s th e r ed u ce r esu l ts m ay be w r i tten

d
,

by m ean s o f 2
( ) i n th e for mi n ic ated

gli
H y

F @_ H Y
av

Similar i d en ti ties c an be fou nd by per m u tin g th e letters a

s,
y
, z

Fr o m th e fu ndamen tal r elati o n

2 2 2
X Y Z 1

w e O bt by d i ffer en ti ati on
ai n , w i th r es
pec t to u an d v r especti vel
y,
th e i d enti ties

1
( )2

T h q
ese e u ation s an d 7
( ) c on sti tu te a s ste
y m of t h r ee e q uations

8X EY 8Z 8X fiY EZ
li n ear In 2 and a syste ml i n ear I n
.
0

Sol vi ng
an av
.

u cu 8 1) 82)

g
2
an d for , w e fin d, by mean s of

ED 82:
'
EX FD G D 8x FD ’

an

av

Th e ex pr essi ons for ar e Obtai n ed by r eplac in

g a:
by y
an d z r es
pec ti v ely .

Bymeans o f th ese eq u ati ons w e sh all p r o ve th at a r eal c

su r fa e w h ose fi rst and
sec ond fu nd amen t al c oef
fi ci en ts ar e i n p r op or ti on , th us

D D
2
”

E F G

w h ere x d en otes th e factor of p r op or ti onality is a i i o n ,

~

,
n a pl ane We assume
.

th at th e mi n i mal li nes are p ar amet r ic I n conse ten e . tL “ ive

( 1.

so th at equ ati ons ( 1 3) b ec ome

11 8 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A BO U T A P OIN T

cu r v e tangen t to MT ; an d v i ce v er sa . We c on sid er i n par tic u lar

th e c ur ve in w h ich th e su r face is cu t by th e plan e d eter in ed by m
MT an d th e n or mal to th e su r face at M We c all i t th e n or ma l

secti on tan g en t to MT l et p, d en o te i ts r adiu s Sin c e th e

an d

d
, .

ri
g h t h
-
an m e mb er O f e u ati o n
q ( 1 6 ) i s th e same for C an d th e

n or ml a sec ti on tang ent to i t, w e h av e

C OS ( 1)
— a

P P"

w h er e e is + 1 or -
1, ac c or d i ng as w i s l ess or
g r eater th an a r i
g h t
an
g l e ; for p and p ,
ar e posi ti ve . E q u ati on 1 7
( )g i v es th e foll o w
i ng t h eo r e m of Meu snier :
The cen ter of cu r va tu r e o f an
y cu r ve u
p on a su r a ce f is the pr o

j ecti on u
p on i ts i g pla n e of the cen ter of
osc ula t n
f the
c u r va tu r e o

n or mal secti on tang en t to the cu r ve a t the poi n t .

In o r d er to av o i d th e amb ig u ou s si
g n in we i n tr od u ce a

n ew fu n ctio n R w h ic h is q lt
e ua o p ”
w h en 02 co 2 7r /2 , an d to p ,

w h en 7r /2 z :6 2 an d c all i t th e r ad i u s of n or ma l cu r vatu r e O f th e

su r face for th e g i ven d i r ection MT . As t h us d efi n e dR , i s g i ven by

1 2
D d u + 2 D du d v ' —D " olv2

R E du + 2 q 2
dv + d
2

Now we may state Meu sn ier s th eor e m ’

as follo ws

If a se
g men t, equ a l to tw i ce the r a di u s o f n or ma l cu r va tu r e for a

g i ven d i r ec ti on oi n t on a su r a ce, r om the

at a
p f be lai d o
f f p oi nt on

the n or ma l to the su r fa ce a nd a s h er e be d escr i bed w i th th e seg men t

, p
f or d i ameter , th e c i r cle in w hi ch the s her e i s met by the oscu la ting
p
plan e of a c u r ve w i th the gi ven di r ecti on at the poi n t i s the ci r cle o f
cu r vatu r e o f the cu r ve.

50 . Pr inci pal r adi i Of nor m al cu r v

a
tu r e . If w e pu t t e q ua

ti on 1 8 bec omes
( )
H
1 D+ 2D t+D t
_
I 2

aw R
. E + 2 fir + fi fi

Wh en th e pr oport io n ( 1 4) i s satisfi ed, R i s th e sa mf

e o r all val u es

O f t, be i n
g 0 0 fo r th e
pl an e, an d t h c o n st an t
e
fo r th e sp er e h .

For any ot h er su r face R v ar i es c c

‘

i ti n u o u sly wi th t A n d so w e
.
 P RIN C IP AL RA D II O F CU RV A TU RE 1 19

se e k th e v alu es of t for w hi h c R is a m a x i mu m or mi n i mu m .

To t h is en d w e di ffer en ti ate th e abo v e ex pr essi on w i th r es

pec t
to t an d pu t th e r esu l t e q u al to z er o . h
T is g i ves
‘
’ ”
2
( )0 ( 17 + 1) t)( E + 2 F t + G t
2
) ( F + G t)(1) 2 D t+ D r O,
or 4
a

2
( )1 ( FD + (E

Wi th ou t lo ss Of en er ali ty w e c an assu me t h th e par a m etr i c

'

any at
g
c u r ves ar e s u c h h t at E 0, so t h at w e h ave th e id en ti ty
’
D G )( ED
2 ” ’

( 2 2 ( ED GD ) 4 ( FD FD )

?
2
i
’
( ED
9 ”
4 f :( 1517 FD ) + ED GD FD )
7

Wh en th e su r face is re al, an d the par am eters also, th e gh t h d

ri -
an

m ember of t ish q
e u ati o n is po sitiv e . Si n c e th e le ft h d m m b
-
an e er

is th e d iscr i min an t of e q u atio n th e latter h as t w o r eal an d

d isti n c t r o ots .
is
Wh en th e tes t ( II I 34 ) is , a
ppli ed to e u ati o n q
h po i n t d eter min ed by th e
'

i t is fo u nd t at th e t w o d i r ec tio n s at a

r o o ts O f 2
( )1 are
per pen dic u lar . Hen ce
A t ever y or d i na r y poin t of a s ur fa ce ther e i s a d i r ecti on for w h ich

the r a d i us o f n or ma l c ur va tu r e is a max i mum an d a d ir ection for

w hi ch it is a mi n imu m , an d they ar e at r ig ht a ng les to one a nothe r .

T h ese lim iti ng v al u es of R ar e c all ed th e pr i n cipa l r a d ii o f

no r ma l c ur va tur e at th e po in t . T h ey ar e e q u al to eac h tho er fo r
th e plan e and th e s
p h er e, an d th ese ar e th e o nly r eal su r fac es

w ith h
t i s pr o per ty .

Fr om ( 2 0) an d ( 1 9) w e h ave
4 “

U + D% D + D% 1
F + Gt E + Ft R
" '

Hence th e follo wi ng r el ati o n s h old betw een th e pr in c ipal r adii

th e corr es on d in
p g v al u es Of t

E +Ft
F + Gt 0 .

i
d er th at th e tw o r oo ts be eq ual th e d isc ri mi nant mus t van ish T is is i 90 9
In or , . h

si h le for rea l su face s t h r tha n spheres and pl an es as seen fro m

o er Fo r an rma 3 1?
, ,

u face O f t hi k i nd efe ed t i ts li nes of l eng th ze ro w e h a e fro m ( 2 1) th a t I) d D

"
s r
‘

s r rr o . v

i s zero si n ce F 0 Th e ani shi ng o f t h e d i sc i mi n an t i s also th e n ec essar y and sufiw ifin‘

‘

, . v r

condi tion th at th e numerator and d enomin ator in ( 19) have a common fac tor .
1 20 G EOMETR Y OF A S URFACE A BO U T A P OIN T

Wh en t is el i mi n ated fr o m th ese equ ati o n s, w e

g et th e q
e u ati on

2 4 — ’2
” r
ED ”
2 FD ’
R —
Ea F
2
0,
( ) ( D D D )1 ( + GD ) ( )
w h ose r oots ar e th e pr i n c ipal ra d ii . If t h ese r o ots be den ote db y p1
an d p 2,
we h av e
1 1 ED + GD N
2 FD ’

2
Pl 9. H
” 12
1 DD D

Pi pe H

A lt h ou
g h q e u ati o n s 1
( )4 h ol d at all
poi nts h
of a sp er e an d a

p l an e, an d for n o o t er su r face,h i t may h

ppen t at for cer tain par
a h
ti c u lar poi n ts o f a su r fac e t h ey ar e satisfi ed A t su c points R, h
d
.

as g i v en b y i s th e sam e for all ir ecti o n s, an d th e q

e ua

ti on ( 21 ) v an is h es i den ti c ally Wh en po1 n ts o f h

t is k din e x is t th ey

d
.

ar e c alle u mbi li ca l p oi n ts of th e su r face .

EX AMPL ES

1 . Wh en th e equ ati on O f th e su rfac e i s z f (113, s owh th at

_p 9
_Q 1 ’
X ,
Y, Z
2 2
v q
r , s, t
D, D D
'
,

az oz
Where 9 v i

or , by

2 . Sh ow th at th e n or ma l s to th e r ight c onoid
x =u cos v, y z u si n v,

alon g a gener ator for m a h yp er b ol ic p ar ab ol o id .

3 Sh ow th at th e p r i n cip al r ad n O f nor mal c u r vat ur e o f a r ight c onoid at a

.

po i n t di ffer i n sign .

4 F i nd th e ex p re ssi on for th e r adi us of n or mal c ur vat ur e of a su r fa ce o f r evolu

.

ti on at a po i n t i n th e di r ectio n of th e l ox od r omic cu r ve th rough it w hich makes th e ,

angl e a w ith th e mer idi ans .

5 Sh ow th at th e mer idi ans and p ar all el s on a su r face of r evo l u ti on a: u cos v

.
, ,

y “ sin v z : (u ) are th e di recti ons i n w hich th e ra dius of normal curvature is

z .
,
z
,

max mu m and mi ni mu m ; th at th e p r i ncip al r adii are gi ven b y

i

1 1 W u )
'
2 i 2 l
(1
’
PI a ) P2 u (l ¢ )
and th at pg is th e se men o f th e n or mal g t b et w een th e p o i n t of th e sur fac e and th e
i cti
n terse on of th e n or ma w th e z ax s l ith -
i .

6 Sh ow th a t Al s
” o l X 2 and :
A1 ( c , y) h er e th e di fferenti al p aram
X Y, w

e ters/ar e for med w ith r es e p ct to th e li near elemen t Of th e sur fac e .

1 22 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A B OU T A P O I N T

a
If t h q
ese e u ati on s

a
be mu l tiplied by
az
Z
i 2
— 9
_
u
r espec tivel
y an d

gZ
ad d ed , and by _ an d add ed, w e
pec ti vely
—‘ r es et
,
g
8v
E du + d
q +d 0

Bu t t h q
ese e u ati on s ar e th e sa me as Hen ce
The n or ma ls to a su r a ce a long a c u r ve o
f f i t for m a r uled surface
w hi ch i s a d evelopa ble on ly w hen the cu r ve is a li n e of c u r va tu r e in
thi s c a se the poi n ts of the edg e of r eg r essi on ar e the cen ter s of n or ma l

cu r va tu r e of th e su rfa ce i n the d ir ecti on of the cu r ve .

Th e coo r d i n ates o f th e pr i n cipa l cen ter s o f cu r va tu r e ar e

x + P1 X = + Y z
'
2 l P1 Z
y1 y P1 7
" "

y
’ 1
2
( )8
a
f + s a. M , 2
2
2

Wh en th e par ametr i c c u r ves ar e th e lin es o f c u r vatu r e, e u a

q
tion 26
( ) i s n ecessar ily o f th e fo r m

2
( )9 7x d u d v O,

an d c o n sequ en tly w e mu st h av e ED ’—
FD 0, FD ”
GD = 0
’
.

Sin c e ED ”
GD 0, t h q
ese e u atio n s ar e e q u i valen t to

F : 0, D = 0
’
3
( )0 .

C on ver sely, w h en t h ese c on d i tion s ar e satis fi ed q

e u ati on 26
( )
d
,

re u ces to th e for m H en c e
A n ecessar y a n d su fii ci en t con di ti on that th e lines f
o c ur va tu r e be

p ar a metr i c i s tha t F an d D be
’
z er o .

m
L et th e li n es o f c u r vatu r e be par a etr i c , an d l et pi an d p2 d en o te
d m
th e pr i n c ipal r a ii of n o r al c u r v atur e o f th e su r face i n th e d ir ec
tions of th e li n es o f c u r vatu r e v c on st an d u. c on st r espec tiv el
.
y .

Fr o m ( 1 9) w e fin d
1
3
( )1 ,

P1 E

q
an d e u ati on s (1 3 ) b eco m e
8X ay av as
_ — —
p1 pi Fl
ez?
’ i

8u au cu au
8X n;
e ar
_ P2 _ , az 32
P
p2
5?
"

av av 5v av 55
Th ese e q u ati on s ar e called th e e u a ti on s o
q f Rod r i u es
g .
 TOTA L A N D MEAN C U RV A T U RE 1 23

52 . Total an d m ean cur v atu r e . Of fu n d am en tal i mp t o r an c e in

th e d isc u ssi on of th e n at u r e o f a s ur face i n th e ne ig h b h or oo d o f

a po in t ar e th e pr od u c t an d the su m of th e pr i n c ipal c u rv atu r es at

th e poi n t T h ey ar e c alled the tota l cu r va tu r e of th e su r fac e at

d
.

th e po in t an d th e mea n cu r va tu re r espec ti vely . If t h e

y be d en o te

by K an d K m, w e h av e, fr o m
1 DI
V — D ":

Pe
1 1 ED + GD — 2 FD ’"

P1 P2

Wh en Ki s posi ti ve at a po in t M , th e tw o pr inc ipal ra dii h av e

th e sam e sig n , an d c o n seq u e n tly th e tw o c en ters o f pr i n c ipal c ur v a

tu r e l ie on th e sa me si d e o f th e ta ng en t plan e . As all th e c en ters

of c u rv at u r e of o t h er n or mal sec ti o ns li e b et w een th ese tw o , th e

po r ti o n of th e su r fac e i n th e hb h
n eig or o od of M lies en ti r ely o n

o n e side of th e tan g en t plan e . Thi s c an be seen al so in anot h er

w ay . Sin c e H
is positi v e, w e us
2
av e D D D m th ”
-
’2
0 . H en ce
th e di stan c e fro m a n ear by po i nt to th e tan g en t plan e -
at M , sin c e

i t is pr opo r ti on al to gre fu n dam en tal fo r ( I) m d oes n ot

c h an g e sig n as d v/du i s v ar i ed

d
.

Wh en Ki s ne
g ati v e at M , th e pr i n c ipal ra ii di ffer i n si
g n , an d

co n se u en tly q par t of th e su r fac e li es o n o n e si de of th e tan g en t

p l an e an d par t on th e oth er . In par ti c u l ar t h er e ar e tw o d ir ec tio ns,

g i v en by E du + 2 D du dv
g ’
( 111
2
: O,

for w h ic h th e n or mal c ur v atu r e is z er o . In t h ese d ir ecti o ns th e di s

tan ces of th e n ear by po i n ts o f th e s urface fr o m th e tan g en t plan e,
-

as g i v en by ar e q
u an ti ti es o f th e t i r d or d er a t least Hen ce h .

h
t ese li n es are th e tan g en ts at M to the c ur ve in w hi c h th e tang en t

plan e at M meets th e sur fac e .

A t th e poin ts fo r w i c is h hK z er o , o n e of th e pr in c i pal r adii is

infi n ite . At t h ese p o in ts < 1) h as th e fo r m V
( 7) da an d

v anis h es i n th e d ir ec ti on fi du 0 . Bu t as d v/d u passes

th r ou
g h th g i v en by t is e u ati on , ( I) d o es
e v alu e h q h
n o t c an e si n
g g .

H en ce th e su r fac e li es on one side of th e tang en t plan e an d is tan

g en t to i t al on
g th e a b o ve di r ecti on .

t ta l c ur vatu re i s
Th e o s ometi mes c all ed th e Ga ussi a n c u r vatu re afte r th e cel eb rated ,

geo met e w h uggest ed it as

r os a sui tab l e measure of th e c ur vat ur e at a po in t Cf G a u ss p 15 . .
, . .
1 24 G EOMETR Y O F A SU RFA C E A BOU T A P OIN T

An ch or r i ng or tor e i s a su r face w ith p o i n ts of all th r ee ki nd s Su ch a su r

an , ,
.

fac e may b e gener a ted b y th e r o t a ti on of a ci r cl e of r adi u s a ab ou t an ax i s i n th e

pl ane of th e ci r cl e and at a di stan c e b a) fr om th e c en ter of th e ci r cl e Th e .

p oi n ts at th e d istance b from th e ax is lie i n tw o ci r c les and th e t angent pl ane to ,

th e to re at a p o i n t of either of th e ci r cl es i s t angen t all al ong th e ci r cl e H en c e th e .

su r fac e h as z er o c u r va tu r e at all p oi n ts o f th ese ci r cl es A t every p oi n t w h ose d is .

tan ce fr om th e ax i s is greater th an b th e surface li es on one sid e of th e tangen t

pl ane w her eas w h en th e distan ce is l ess th an b th e tangen t pl ane cu ts th e su r face
, , ,
.

T h er e ar e su r faces for w h ic h Ki s posi ti v e at e v er

y po i n t, as,
for e x ample th e ell i psoi d an d th e elli pti c par a b oloi d Mor eover
d
, .
,

fo r th e hyp er boloid o f on e s h par abolo i th e

eet an d th e h yp b er olic

c ur vatu r e i s n eg ati v e at every poi nt Su rfaces of th e for m er type

d
.

ar e c alle su rfa ces of osi ti ve cu r va tu r e, o f th e latter t e su rfa ces

p yp
f n eg ati ve
o cu r va tu r e .

L ater 64 ) w e sh all
p r ove th at w h en Ki s z er o at all po in ts of

a su r face th e latter i s d ev elopabl e, an d co n v er sely .

53 . Equati on of Eu l er . Du pi n i ndi catr ix . Wh en th e li n es of

c u r v atu r e a r e p ar a m etr ic, e q u ation 1

( )8 c an be w ri tten , in c on

q
se u en c e of
( III , 2 3) an d i n th e for m
z
1 008
2
0 si n d
3
( )4 ’
R P1 P2
w h er e 9 i s th e an
g le betw een th e d i r ec ti on s w h ose rad i 1 o f n or mal
cu r vatu r e ar e R an d Pr E q u ati o n 3
( )4 i s c alled th e equ ati on f
o Eu ler .

Wh en th e total cu r vatu r e K at a
poi nt

i s positiv e, p1 an d p2 for th e poi n t ave h

m
th e sa e sig n , and R h as t is sig n for all h
di r ec ti on s If th e tan g en ts to th e li n es
k
.

of c u r vature at th e poi nt M be ta en for

,

c oor d i n ate ax es, w i t r espec t to w i c f h h h

F1 G 13 an d are c o or d in ates, an d seg men ts o f
n
°

leng t hi @ be laid ofi fr o m M i n th e tw o d ir ecti ons c or r espon d

i ng to R, th e loc u s o f th e en d po i n ts o f t h ese seg m en ts i s th e ellipse

fi
( g 1 3 )
. w h q
ose e u ati o n is
5
2

h
T i s elli pse is c alled th e D upi n i n di catr i x for th e po i n t . Wh en , in

part icul ar , a q
n d p ar e e u al , th e i nd i catri x is a c i r cle Henc e th e
d
p, 2
.

D u pin i n icatr i x at an u mbili l p i t i ca o n s a c i r cl e For t is h

r easo n su c h a poin t is so m tim e ll d es ca e a ci r cu lar p oin t .
1 26 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A BOU T A P OIN T

EX AMPLES

1 . Sh ow th at mer idi ans and p ar all el s o f a su r fac e of r evo l u ti on ar e i ts li nes

th e
of c ur vatu e r ,
and d et er mi ne th e ch ar a ct er o f th e d evel op abl e su r fac es for med b
y
th e n or mal s to th e su r fac e al o ng th ese li nes .

2 Sh o w th at th e p ar ame t r ic li nes on th e su r fac e

.

a b
— v
), z
t ight li nes F i nd th e li nes of c u r vatu r e
ar e s r a . .

3 Wh en a su r fac e is d efi ned by z
.
f (as y) th e ex p r essi ons for th e c u r vatur es ar e , ,

rt 82

“ i
(1 p qb
an d th e e qu ati on of th e li nes of c u r vatu r e i s
? s dz ? i ? ?
p ) 10 q p lt (1 q ) r ]dwd y [t (1 (1
2
)
8 d
] y 0 .

ce y cos
4 . Th e p r i n cip al r ad n o f th e su r fa
g 2 0 at a p o i nt (it , y, z ) ar e
Fi n d th e li nes of c u r vat ur e .

5 . i ve th e equ ati ons

D er of th e tor e d efi ned
,
in § 52 , an d p r ove th erefr om th e
resu lts st a ted .

6 . Th e su m of th e l c u r vatur es in
n or m a tw o o r th ogonal di rections is c onstan t .

7 . Th e Eu l er equ ati o n c an b e w r i tten

2 mm
— —
P1 + 92 ( PI P2 ) C OS 2 0

54 . Conju g ate dir ecti ons at a poin t . Conju gate syste m s . Tw o

c u r v es o n a su r fac e t h r ou
g h a
po i nt M ar e sai d to h a ve con u a te
g j
di r ecti on s w h en th ei r tan g en ts at M coi n c id e wi th c on u g ate j di am
eter s of th e D u pin in d ic atr i x for th e po in t T ese tan g ents ar e . h
also par allel to con u ate d i a
g e t j
er s o f th e c o n ic i n w i c th e m
su r h h
fac e i s cu t by l an e ar allel to th e tan en t pl an e to M an d v er y
a
p p g
n ear it . d
L et P en ote a poi n t o f t i s c on ic an d N the po i n t i n h
w h ic h i ts plan e a c u ts th e n o r mal at M Th e tari gen t plan e to .

th e su r fac e at P meets th e pl an e a i n th e tang en t lin e at P to th e

c on i c . Mor eover , h
t is tan gen t l in e i s par allel to th e d i am eter c on a j
g ate to N P . H en c e as P pp a r o ac h es M th is tang en t lin e appr oach es
'

th e d i ameter of th e D u pin i nd ic atr i x , w h ich is j

c on u g ate to th e
d iam eter i n th e d ir ec ti on MP . Hen ce w e h ave (cf § 2 7)
.

Th e char a cter i sti c o f the ta ng en t pla n e to a su r face ,

as the poi n t

f
o con tac t moves a long a cu r ve, i s the tang en t to the su r ace f i n the
di r ecti on j
con ug a te to the cu r ve .
 CON J U G A TE D I REC TI ON S 1 27

By means of t i s t h h eo e r m we d er i v e th e an alyti cal con di ti o n for

j
con ugate directi o n s .

If th e q
e u ati on o f th e tang en t plan e i s

— = 0,
(f Z
)Z

f, if b ei ng c u rr en t c obrd in ate s, th e c h ar ac ter isti c is d efin ed by

h
t is e q u ati o n , an d

d
(f

w h er e s is th e ar c o f th e c u r v e alon g w hi c h th e po in t o f c o n tac t

m ov es . If by, 82 d en o te i ncremen ts o f x , g , z in th e d i r ec tion

j
c o n u gate to h
th e c u r v e, w e av e, fr o m th e abo ve e u ati o ns, q
8d + 8n + 8s = 0 .

If i n c r emen ts o f u an d v i n th e co n u j gate d ire ctio n be d eno ted

Sn and h
t is e q u atio n may be wr itten

36
( ) D d ubu D
’
( d u 8v dubu ) "
D d v8v O .

Th e d ir ec ti o n s c on u j g ate to an y c u r v e o f th e family

3
( 7) c o nst .

ar e
g i v en by

8u + v i
ii —p
’ "
3
( )8 D
0

A s t is ish a
'

difi er en tial e q u ati o n of th e first o r d er an d fi r st d egr ee,

i t d efin es a on e -

p ara mete r family of c u rv es . T h ese c u r v es an d th e

c u r v es gb co n st . ar e said to fo r m -

j
a co n u a te s ste
g g m . Mor eov er ,

an y tw o famili es o f c u r ves are sai d to fo r m a c o n u g ate j y s ste m

wh en th e tan gen ts to a c u r v e o f eac h f mily
a at t h ei r po i n t of in te r

sec ti on h av e c on u ate
g j di rec tio n s .

h
Fr om (3 6 ) i t follows t at th e cu r ves c on u gate to th e c u r v es j
v c o n st ar e defin ed b
.
y 1) 8a
’
D Sv 0 C o n se u en tly i n o r d e r . q ,

th at t h ey be th e c urv es u c onst .
, w e m ust h av e D
’
e q u al to z er o .

A s th e conv erse also is tr u e, we h ave

A necessar y and su fi cien t con di ti on that the par a me tr i c cu r ves

for m j m is that D "

a con ug ate s ste
y . be z er o .
1 28 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A BOU T A POIN T

We h ave seen 5 1) t h at th e lin es o f c u r vatu r e ar e c h ar acter i e z d

by th e pr o per ty t at, h wh en th ey ar e par a m etri c, th e coef
fi cien ts F
’
an d D ar e z er o Hen ce .

The lin es f cu r vatu r e for m

o a con u j g a te system and the onl
y
or thog on al conj ug a te s stem
y .

If th e lin es of c u r v atu r e ar e par a m etr ic , an d th e an

gles w h i ch
a
pair o f con u j g ate d ir ec ti o ns m ak e w i th th e tang en t to th e c u r ve

v c o nst . ar e den oted by 0 an d we h av e

i n
’

du

so th q
at e u ati on 36
( ) may be pu t i n th e for m

g
tan d tan ens — s
,

w h ic h is th e w ell k n o wn -
e
qu ation of con u j g ate di r ecti on s of a c on i c .

55 . Asy m pt oti c lines . Ch ar acter i sti c l in es . Wh en 0 ’

is e q u al to 6,
equ ati on 3
( )9 r ed u ces to H en c e th e as m
y ptoti c d i r ecti on s ar e

self c on u gate
-
j . If i n equ ation ( 3 6 ) w e pu t 8v/8u do/du , w e o btai n

D d v = 0,
z ’ ” 2
(40) D d u + 2 D d u dv

w h ich d eter mi nes, c on se u en tly, q th e as m

y pto ti c d i r ec ti on s at eac h
poi n t of th e su r face . Th i qs e u ati o n defi n es a dou le fa b m ily f o

c u r v es u pon th e su r face, tw o of w h ic h pass th r ou

g h eac h pi t o n

an d ad mi t as tang en ts th e asy mpt otic d ir ections at th e poin t Th y

. e

are c all ed m
y p toti c li n es o f th e sur face
th e as .

m m
Th e asy pto ti c lin es ar e i ag i n ar y on su r faces o f posi ti ve c u rv a
tur e, r eal on su r fac es of n eg ati ve c u r v atur e, an d c on sist o f a si ng le
r eal family on a su r fac e o f z er o c u r v atu r e .

Recalli ng th e r esu lts o f 5 2, w e say t h

th e tangen t plan e to
at

a su r fac e at a poin t cu ts th e su rfac e i n asympto tic li n es i n the

hb
n ei
g h or oo d of th e poin t As an i mmed iate q
c o n se u en ce, we

d
.

h th t
ave a th e generators o f a r ule su r fac e for m on e fa ilym of

asympto ti c lin es .

Si n ce an as m
y pt oti c li n e i s self c on u-
j g ate, th e c h ar ac ter i sti cs o f

th e tang en t plan e as th e poi nt o f co n tac t moves along an asymp

to ti c lin e are the tang ents to th e latter . H ence th e oscul ati ng

plan e o f an asy mpt o ti c lin e at a po in t is th e tang en t plane to th e

1 30 G EOMETR Y OF A SU R A CE F A BO U T A PO IN T

mi ni mu m a ng le betw een j
con ug a te d ir ecti on s at
p the
i o nt i t i s the
on l
y con u
g j a te s
yste m w hose d i r ecti on s ar e s mmetr i c
y w i th r es ec t
p
to the d i r ecti on s f the
o li n es of cu r va tu r e .

T h ese l in es ar e c alle d th e c har a cter i sti c lines . I t is of i n ter est

to n ote t h at e q u ati o ns 3
( )5 an d 41
( ) ar e si milar , an d t h at th e r eal

as
ym pto tic d i r ec ti o n s u po n a su r face o f n e ati ve c u r v atu r e ar e
g
sym m etr i c w i th r es
pec t to th e d i r ec ti ons of th e li n es of cu r v atu r e

k
.

As j u st seen , if 0 is th e an
g l e wh ich on e c h ar acter isti c li n e ma es

w i th th e li n e o f c u r vatu r e v c o n st
p at a oi n t, th e ot h er c h ar ac

k
.

ter i sti c lin e ma es th e an

g l e 9 . H enc e th e r adii o f n o r mal c u r v a

tu r e for t h ese d ir ec tio n s q

ar e e u al, an d co n se u en tly a n ecessar
y q
a nd su f
fic i en t co n di tio n th at th e c h ar ac ter isti c c u r ves o f a su r face

be par am etr ic i s
4
( )2 D :0 ’
.

56 Cor r espondi ng syste s on tw o su r faces

. m . By r eason ing si milar
to h » 3 4 w e establi s
t at o f g th e t eor e m
; h h
A n ecessar y a n d ffi ci en t con d i ti on that the cu r ves d efin ed by
su

2 S du d v + T d v = O for m a conj ug a te system upon a su r

2 2
R du +
face ’8
R D + TD ”
2 SD = 0 ’
.

Fr om t is h we h av e at o n ce

If the secon d
q u a d r ati c for ms of tw o f
su r a ces S an d SI ar e

—D ” d v2
if
2 2 ’
B da + an d D l d u + 2 D d u dv -
f l , and a
1

oi n t on on e su r a ce f is sa i d to cor r es on d to the poin t on the other

p p
w i th the same va lu es o f u an d v, the e u a ti on
q
2 " H
du D1 D
— du d v p; p
'
= 0
2
dv D1 D

d efin es a syste m of cu r ves w hi ch i s con ug a te j for both su r faces .

By th e m th e od s o f 50 pwe r ov e t h at t h ese c u r v es ar e r eal w h en

h
ei t er o r b tho of th e s u r faces S, S i s
,
“

p of osi ti ve c u r v atu r e . I f th e
c u r vatu r e o f S is n e ati ve an d
g i t is r e fer r ed to i ts asy pto tic lin es, m
th e q
abo v e e u ation r ed u ces to

2 ”
D , dv = 0
2
du .
 G EOD ESI C CU R VA U E T R 1 31

Hen ce th e s
yste m is r eal w h en D1 an d D{
’
h av e th e sa me sig n , t h at

i s, w h en th e c u r v atu r e o f SI i s po siti v e .

A n ot h er q
c onse u en ce o f th e abo v e t h eo r e m is

A n ecessar y an d su fi c ien t con d i ti on th a t mas

y p toti c li n es on on e o
f
j s stem on the other i s
tw o sur f a ces S, SI cor r es
p ond to a con ug a te y

B D 1 + o n) ,
”
2 mix 0 .

EX AMP LES

1 . Fi n d
c u r ves on th e genera l surfac e of re vo l u ti on w hich ar e conj u gate to
th e
th e l ox od r omi c c u r ves w hich cu t th e me r i d i a ns u nd er th e an gl e a .

2 F i n d th e c u r ves o n th e gener al r ight c o no id Ex 1 p 56 w hich ar e co nju

. . .
,
.
,

gate to th e ort hogo nal tr aj ecto r i es of th e g ene ato rs r .

3 W h en th e equa ti ons o f a sur fac e ar e o f th e for m

.

I Z UI , g z yl , Z Z U2 + 1r
29

Where U an d I U2 are fun cti ons of l

u a one, and V1 an d V2 o f 1) a o ne , th el p ara
met ic c u r ves
r are plan e an d for m conj u gate system
a .

4 . P r o ve th at th e sum of no r mal r ad ii at a po i n t in c on j uga te d ir ec ti ons is

consta n t .

5 . W hen c
a su r fa e o f re vo u l ti on is referr e d to i ts mer idi ans an d p aral l els ,
th e
asy mpto tic li nes c an be fou nd b y q uadra tur es .

6 . F i nd th e asympto tic lin es on th e su r face

a c os i t

s mo
7 .ter mi ne th e asympto ti clin es u po n th e su r face 2 z y si n :and th ei r or th og
De
o nal tr a j ecto r i es Sh ow th a t th e Z aX i S be l o ngs to o ne of th e l a tt er fam ili es
.
-
.

8 F i nd th e asympto tic li n es o n th e su r fac e 2 313

. 2 x yz z? 0 and d ete r mi ne ,

th ei r p r oj ecti ons on th e r y pl ane -

.

9 Pr o ve th a t th e p r od u ct of th e n o r ma l r ad i i i n co n j u ga te dir e cti ons is a max i

.

mu m for ch ar acte r istic lin es and a mi n i mum fo l in es of cu r vatu r e r .

1 0 Wh en th e p ar me tr ic l ines are an y w h atever th e eq u ati on of ch ar acter

. a
,

isti c li nes is

D G D E D F D ED ) 2 FD D ] d ude
2 ’
[ ( D 2 (
”
d 2 [ D ( GD
' ”
)
”
a

[ 2 D ( GD FD D ( GB
” ’

)
’ ’
0 .

57 Geod esi c cu r vatu r e Geodesi cs C on sid er a c u r ve 0 u po n a

M
. . .

su r face an d th e tang ent plan e to th e su r fac e at a oi nt of C

p .

Pr o j ec t or t h o
g o n ally u po n t is tan gen t plan e th e po r ti o n h of th e
c urve i n th e h h
n eig bo r o o d of M, an d l et 0 d en o te t is pr o
’
h j ec tion .

Th e c u r ve C is ”
a n or m al s ec ti o n of th e pr o j ec ti n g c yli n d er , an d C
is a c ur ve u
p on th e latter , tan g en t to C
’
at M . Henc e th e th eo re m
1 32 G EO METR Y OF A SU RFA CE A BO U T A P O IN T

of Meu snier c an be applie

’
d to t h ese t w o c u r ves . If l /
pg d en o tes th e
cu r v atu r e o f C an d « f
I th e an
g le b etw ee n th e
pr i nc ipal n o r mal to O
and th e po si ti v e d ir ec ti on o f th e n or mal to th e c lin d er at M, w e av e
y h
1 _ c o s x lr
.

Pg P

In or d er to conn ec t t ish r esu lt w i th h

o t er s, i t is n ecessary to
dfi e ne th e posi tiv e d ir ec ti on o f th e n or al to th e m cyli n d er T is h
k
.

n or m al li es i n th e tan en t
g p l an e to th e su r fac e . We m a e th e
c on v en ti on t h at th e positi ve d ir ec ti on s of th e tang en t to th e c u r v e,

th e n or mal to th e y li
c n der , an d th e n or mal to th e su r face s h all

h av e th e sa m e m u tu al o r ien tations as th e posi tiv e n , y an d z -

a x es .

Fr om t is h ch oi c e o f d ir ec tion i t follo ws t h at if, as u su al, th e d i r ec

ti on -
c osi n es o f th e tang ent to th e c u r ve be d m/d s, dy/d s, de/
d s, t h en

t h ose o f th e n or mal to th e cylin d er ar e

dy dz
4
( )6 Y Zd s

”
Th e c u r vatu r e o f C is c al led th e g eodesi c cu r va tu r e o f C, an d po
'
th e f g eod esi c cu r vatu r e A n d th e center of c u r vatur e
r adi u s o . of C

is c alled th e cen ter of g eod esi c cu r va tu r e of C

d
.

Fr om its d efi nition th e g eo esi c cu r vatur e is positive or n eg a

ti v e acc or di ng as the oscu lati n pl an e o f C lies o n o n e si d e or th e
g
h
o t er o f th e n or mal
p lan e to th e su r fac e t r ou g h h th e tang en t to C .

Fr om (45 ) i t follow s t at the h cen ter o f fir st cu r vatu re of C i s th e

p j
r o ec ti o n u pon i ts o scul ati n
g pl an e of th e c en ter of g eo esic d
c u r v atu r e . Mor eover , th e m
for er is also th e pr o j ec ti o n of th e

cen ter o f c u r vatu r e of th e n or mal sec ti on tang en t to C

H en c e th e plane t h r ou
g h a
p oi n t M of 0, n or mal to th e li ne
j oi ni ng th e c en ters of n or ml a an d
g e d
o esic c u r vatu r e at M i s th e
,

osc u lati ng plan e of C for thi s poi nt, an d i ts i nter sectio n wi th th e

j oin is th e cen ter o f fi r st c u r v atu r e .

By defi n i ti on 4 9) 5 d en otes th e an gle w hi c h th e po si ti ve

d irecti on o f th e n or m al to the su r face m k
a es w i th th e posi tive
d ir ection of th e pr in cipal n or mal to C, angles being easur e m d
to w ar d th e m
bin or al H en c e equ ati on (4 5) can be w r i tten
.

1 si n ce

Po
1 34 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A B OU T A P O IN T

Wh en th ese ex pr ession s ar e su bstitu ted i n an d i n th e r ed u c ti on

w e ma k e u se o f 1
( )0 an d w e ob tai n

1 1 ds ds

F G
ds d
w h er e L an d M h ave th e sig n i fi can c e

an d a
d_v

av d e 2 on ds

8 G du
dy

ou d s d e 2 av

h
Fr o m t is i t i s seen t h at th e g eo d esi c c u r v atu r e of a c u r ve d epen ds
’ ”
u
po n E, F, G, an d is e n tir ely i n depen den t of D , D , D .

Su ppose h
t at th e par am etr ic li n es fo r m an or t h og on al syste m ,

an d th at th e r ad iu s o f g eo d esi c c u r vatu r e o f a c u r v e v c on st . be
d en o ted by pg u I n t i s . h c ase F : 0, d s fi du . Hen ce th e above
q
e u ati on r ed u c es to
1 1 aVE
50
a . VE G n

In li k e man n er we fin d t h at th e geo desi c c u r v atu r e o f a c u r ve

u = c o n st . i s g i v en by
1 1 ave
6” VE G at
P

As an i mm edi ate q
c on se u en ce of th ese equ ati o ns we h av e th e
t h eo r e m
Wh en the p ar a metr i c lin es u
p on a su r f a ce f or m an or tho on a l
g
s
y ste m, a n ecessa r
y a n d su
ffi ci en t c on d i ti on tha t the c u r ves v con st .

or u = con st be g eod esi cs i s tha t

. E be a f u n c ti on o f u a lon e or G of v
a lon e r es ecti vel
p y .

It w i ll n ow be sh o wn h
t at
pg ”
is ex pr essible as a fu nc ti on of

d iffer en ti al par ameter s of v for med w i th r es

pec t to th e lin ear ele

men t (III ,
Fr o m th e d efi niti on of t h ese para m eter s 3 7, 3 8) i t follo w s
th at w h en F: O

1 1 8
t
A 1 (v, V5 )
a
 G EO D ESI C C U RV A TU RE 1 35

Hen ce by s ubs ti tu tion

,
in w e o btai n

1 Ag v
+ AI v

P VA l v

I n li k e mann er , we fin d

1
+ AI u,

T h us w e h av e s h o wn th at th e g eod esi c cur v atu r e o f a par am etri c

lin e is d ifi er en ti al param eter of th e c u r vil in ear
a c obrdi n ate o f th e

h
li ne Si n c e t is c u r vatur e is a geo metr i cal pr o per ty of a li n e, i t i s
.

n ecessar ily ind e en d en t o f th e c oi ce o f para meters, and t u s i s

p h h
an in v ar i an t . T ish w as ev i den t a p r i or i , bu t w e h av e j ust s h o wn
th at i t is an in var ian t of fer en ti al par ameter type
th e d if
dfi
.

Fr om th e e ni ti o n o f th e posi ti ve d ir ec ti on of th e n o r m al to a
su r fac e an d th e n or mal to th e c
y l i n d er o f
p r o ec tio n , i t folj
low s t h at th e l atter fo r a c u r ve v c o n st i s th e d i r ec ti o n in w ic
. v h h
in c reases, w h er eas , fo r a c u r ve u con st .
, i t is th e d i r ec tio n i n wh i h c

u d ec r eases . Hence i f th e latter

, c u r v es be defin ed by — u c onst .
,

e q u ations ( 5 2) an d (5 3 ) h ave th e sam e si

g n .

I f, no w , w e i magi n e th e su r face r eferr ed to an ot h er para m etri c

syste m , fo r w hi c h th e li n ear el e men t is

5
( )4 de
2
E du + 2 q2
dv G dv , g

th e c u r ve w h ose g e od esi c c u r vatu r e i s g iv en by (5 0) w ill be d efin ed

by an e q u ati o n su c h as ¢ (u , v
) con st A n d i f th e sign o f 4) be
.

su c h th at 4) is i n c r easing i n th e d i r ec ti on of th e n o r m al of i ts pr o

j
ec tin
g c
yli n d er , i ts
g eo desic c u r v atur e w ill be gi v en by

Pg

w h er e fer ential parameters

th e di f ar e for m ed w ith respe c t to
I f tw o su rfaces ar e appli c able, an d po i n ts o n eac w i t th e sa e h h m
c u r v ilin ear c oor d ina tes co rr espo n d , th e
g eod esi c c u rv atu re o f th e

c u r ve ( ) I co n st . o n eac h at corr es o n d in
p g poin ts w ill be th e sa m e

in q
con se u en ce o f H en c e
Upon tw o appli ca ble su rfa ces the g eod esi c cu r vatu r e o f cor r esponding
cu r ves, a t cor r espon di ng p oin ts, i s the sa me .
1 36 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFAC E A BOU T A P OIN T

When th e sec on d me mb er of e q uation 5

( )5 i s d ev el oped by
( III , 46 , we h av e

G v _F n E u_ a
bu 8v 8 1 av au 8 1
H bu x /m H av

H en ce th e for m ul a o f Bonn et ’le

F
M G
ad)
av Eu

4
2 F 23
94>
av E
u

a _a b
bu av

av bu

d
I n partic u lar , th e g eo esi c cu r vatu r e of th e par a etr ic c u r v es, m
wh en th e latter d o n ot for an o r t o on al syste
g , i m
s g iv en b
y h m
1 1 F 8

pg“ H u Vi dv

1 a F 9
«
pm ,
H v G
_
Eu
a

Th e g eo esi c d c u r v atu r e o f a c u r ve of th e fa m ily , d efi ne db y

th e d iffer ential e q u ati on
M da N dv 0,
h as th e valu e

( 5 8)

* Mémo i r e su r la théo i e géné al e

r r d es sur fa es, c Jou r nal de I
'
Ecole
'
c
P o lyte h nique,
Cahi er 32 p . 1 .
1 38 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A BO U T A P O IN T

Fr o m ( I , 3 7, 4 1 ) w e h av e

z
dy d z dz
P
“

?
d s as da

v p ds ds
z
d
EW 2
x
X = X l cos ( 0
p .

Mor eov er , fr o m w e obtai n th e i d en tity

dX dy d Y dre _
_ Z E — FD
de de d s ds H ( D )

” ’
F
( D GD )
C onsequ en tly q
e u ation 6 0
( ) si e qu i v al en t to

1 d5 1
61 C OS w
7 de T
w her e 1/T h as th e v alu e

H (E d u + 2 q 2
dv G dv
'
z
)
Wh en cos w i s d iffer en t fr o m z er o , t h tia s, w h en th e c u r ve is n ot

an asympto ti c li ne, e q u ati on 6

( )1 bec o m es

1 d o? 1
7
'

ds T

A s th e ex pr ession fo r T i n vo lv es o nly th e fu n d amen tal coeffi

c ien t s an d d v/
d u, we h ave th e followi ng t h eo r e m of B onn et

1 d2
the me for hi ch ha ve the same
0

The fu n cti on is sa a ll c u r ves w

7 3s
tang en t a t a co mmon poi n t .

A m o ng th ese c u r v es h
t er e is on e
g eo d esic , an d o nly o n e, fo r i t
w ill be sh o wn later 85) t h at o n e
g eo d esi c an d o nly o n e passes
th r ou
g h
g i v en po i n t an d h as a g iv en d i r ec ti on at th e
a poin t .

h
A t ev er y poi n t o f t is g eod es1c w i s e u al to 0 o r
°
an d c o u se q
qu en tly r T H en ce th e v al u e o f T for a g iven po i nt and d i rec
.

tion i s t h at o f th e r ad iu s o f tor sio n o f th e g eo d esic w i th th is d i r ec tion .

Th e fu n c ti on T is t h er efor e c alled th e r a d iu s o fg eod es c i tor si on of

 G EOD ESI C TOR SI ON 1 39

th e cu rv e Fr o m ( 6 3 ) i t i s seen th at T i s th e r ad i us o f to r si on of

k
.

an
y cu r v e w h ose osc u lati ng pl an e ma es a c on stan t an
g l e wi th th e
tan g en t pl ane
f

Wh en th e n u mer a to r of th e ri
g h t h
-
an d m embe r of e q u atio n 62
( )
is equ ated to z er o , w e h av e th e di ffer en ti al e q u ati o n of lin es of

c u r v atu r e . Hen c e
A n ecessa r y a n d su fii c ien t
‘
. con d i ti on tha t the g eod esic to r si o n f
o

a cu r ve be z er o at a
p oi n t is th a t the c u r ve be ta ng en t to a line f
o

cu r va tu r e a t th e p oi n t .

Th e g eod esi c tor sio n of th e par ametr ic li n es is g iv en by

1 FD — ED
'
1 GD
’—
FD
"

( 6 4> T, LH T, a s!

Wh en t h es e li n es for m an or t h o
g o n al s ste
y m T .
an d Tr di ffer o nl y

in sign . C onse q u en tly th e g eod esic to rsi on at th e po in t of m eeti ng

of tw o c ur v es c u ttin
g ort h o
g o n all
y i s th e sa me to wi t in th e sig n h .

T h us far in th e c o n si d er ati on o f e q u ati o n

(6 1 ) w e h a ve e x cl ud ed
th e c ase of asy m pt ti lio c n es . In co n sid er i ng t h e m now , w e assu me

t h at t h ey ar e p m
ar a t i e r c . Th e di r ec tio n -
c o si n es o f th e tan g en t an d

bin or m al to a cu r ve v con st . i n t is h c ase are

1 8x 1 5y 1 32
_ ,
.

V E Eu \/ 3
E a
y . eYr 1! = . eZ ,

w h er e e is + 1 or — 1 . C on se q u en tly th e d i rec ti o n -
c o si n es o f th e

p r in c i
pal n o r mal h av e th e v alu es

or a

an d si mil ar e x pressio n s for m an d n .

Wh i en n th e Fr en et for m ul as
d lt l du m
_
— l

ds ds r

w e substi tu te th e abo v e v alu es, an d r ed u c ti on ma k e

of 1
( )1 an d we g et
1
6
( )5 .

T h us far ex ce pti on must be mad e o f as y mptot ic li n es, b u t l at

er thi s r es rt icti on w ill
be re m o v ed .
1 40 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA CE A BOU T A P OIN T

I n li k e m an n er , th e to rsi on of th e as mptoti c
y lin es u c onst. is
fou nd to be V — K B u t fr o m (64) we find t h at th e g eo d esi c to rsi on
di
.

i n th e r ec ti on of th e asy m pt lin es i s qz v
o ti c K . H en c e equ ati on
63
( ) is tr u e for th e asympto ti c lin es as w ell as for h
all o t er c u r ves

on th e su r fac e .

In ciden t all y w e h ave establi sh ed ll ow i ng th eorem of Enneperth e fo

The squ ar e of the tor si on of a r ea l asymptoti c li ne at a poi nt i s equal to the a bso

lu te va lue of th e total cur vatur e of the surfac e at the poi nt ; th e r ad i i of tor si on of th e
asymptotic li nes th r ough a poi nt d ifier only i n sig n
'

Th e fo ll ow i ng th eorem o f Joach imsth al i s an i mmedi ate c onsequen c e of ( 63 )

Wh en tw o surfaces meet und er a c onstant a ng le the li ne of i nter secti on i s a li ne ,

of c u r vatur e of both or n ei th er ; a nd c onver sely w h en th e c u r ve of i nter sec ti on of tw o

,

su rfac es i s a li ne of c u r vatur e of both th ey meet und er c onsta nt ang le .

Fo r if 6 1 6 d en o te th e val ues of 6 for th e tw o sur fac es and TI T2 th e val ues

, , 2 , ,

o f T w e h ave b y su bt r a cti ng th e tw o equ ati ons o f th e for m

, ,
th at TI T2 ,

w hich p r oves th e fi rst p ar t o f th e th eorem C on versel y if 1 TI 1 /T 0 w e .

, 2 ,

h ave ( ml
5; 0 and c onsequ en tl y th e sur fa c es meet u nd er c onstan t angl e
,
.

EX AMPLES

1 . Sh ow th at th e ra diu s
geod esi c cu r vatu re of a p ar all el o n a su r face o f
of

r evo ul ti on i s th e same at all p o i n ts o f th e p ar a ll el an d d ete r mi ne i ts g eo met r ic a l

,

sig n i fi c an c e .

2 F i n d th e g eod esic c u r va tu r e of th e p ar amet r ic li nes on

. th e sur fa e c
a b uv
(u v v (u v
2 2 2

3 . i ven a famil y of lox od r omic cu r ves u pon a su r face of r evolu ti on w hich cu t

G
th e mer idi ans u n d er th e same angl e a ; sh o w th at th e geod esic c ur va tu r e of all th ese
c u r ves is th e same at th ei r p oi n ts of i n ter secti on w i th a p ar all el .

4 St r aight li nes on a sur fa ce are th e o nly asympto tic li nes w hich ar e g eod esic s
. .

5 Sh ow th at th e g eod esic to r si on of a c u r ve is gi ven b y

.

1 1
T 2

w h ere 0 d en otes th e angl e w hi ch th e di recti on of th e cur ve at a p oi n t mak es w ith

th e li ne of c u r va tu re v const th r ough th e p o i nt . .

6 Ever y geod esic l i ne o f c u r vatu re is a pl ane c u r ve

. .

7 Ever y pl ane geod esic li ne is a li ne o f c u r vatu re

. .

8 Wh en a su r fac e i s cu t b y a pl ane or a sph ere u nd er c on stan t angl e it is a li ne

.
,

of c u r vatu r e o n th e su rfa ce a nd c on versely ,

.

9 I f th e c u r ves of one famil y of an i so th er mal o r th ogo nal system h ave c onstan t

.

ge o d esic c u r vat u re th e c u r ves of,

th e o th er famil y h ave th e same p r op er ty .
 142 G EOMETR Y O F A SU RFA C E A B OU T A P OIN T

In c o n se q u en c e o f t h ese r el ati on s th e lin ear ele m en t 6 7 m

( ) y be
a

i v en th e for m
g

7 1 d
2
= K m D d u + 2 D du d v l—D "d v2
2 ’
E d
2
2q G
( ) a
( ) K ( u « -
dv

an d , by

7
( )2 K de 2
.

Fr om ( 7 0) w e h av e also

w h er e e is ziz l , ac c or d in
g as Ki s posi ti v e o r ne
g ati ve .

E q u ati o n s 6
( )9 ar e lin ear i n E, F, G . Solvi ng for th e latter ,
w e h av e

3 [ aD Z
z an y + ap '2
1 ,

1
__

In see k ing th e differ en ti al e q u ati on o f th e li n es o f cu r v atu r e

fr o m th e d efi n i ti o n t h at th e n or m als to th e su r fac e alon

g su c h a

cur ve fo r m a d ev elopable su r fac e, w e fo u n d h

5 1 ) t at for a d is
pl acem en t i n th e d ir ec ti o n of a li n e o f c u r vatu r e w e
w
hy a e

ax
du + — dv + r
av

an d si mil ar e q u ati o ns i n y an d z , w h er e r d en otes th e r ad iu s o f

:5 é
p rinci
pal c u r v atu r e for th e di r ec ti on . If t h ese e q u atio n s be mu lti

pl i ed r es
pecti v ely by Q} 9 1
—
Z
an d a d ded, a nd li kw
e ise by
Y
-
,
au ‘

hit on 81)
“

O
- — a
8
-
Z an d ad d ed , th e, r esul ti ng e q u ati on s may be w r i tten
av av
’
B da + B dv O,
’ ”
D du + D dv r
( $ d u + 5 d v) O .

m
Eli inatin g r, w e h av e as th e q
e u ation o f th e lin es of c u r v atu r e

5 ' 2 — "
D 6
’
dv
2
0
7 d + (0 5 d u du
( fi
’

( ) ( 3
D Dé ) a
) D .
 SP HERI CAL R EP RESEN TA TI ON 1 43

A gain , th e eli mi n a ti on of da an d d v g i v es th e q
e u ati on of

pr i n cipal r adi i in th e for m

7
( )6 ( es — s ae (M 4 5 1) 2 an y 0,

so h
t at (51 7 § D Qé D
‘ ’

P1 + P2 2

_
UD
H—
. D ’2

T h ese r esul ts en abl e u s to w r i te equ atio n s 7

( )4 t h us

— }
p1p2 é ,

61 . Rel ati ons bet w een a su r face an d i ts sph eri cal r epr esentati on .

Sin c e th e r ad iu s of n o r mal c u r v atu r e R is a fun c ti o n of th e d i r ec

tio n x cept w h en th e sur fac e

e is h
a sp er e, w e o bt i a n fr o m ( 7 2 ) th e
follo w in g th eor em :
A necessar y a nd su fi ci en t con d i ti on that the spher ic a l r epr esen ta ti on

of a f
s ur a c e be f mal
c on or i s tha t the f
su r a ce be min imal or a

As q
a c ons e u en ce o f h
t is t h eo r e m w e h av e th at e ver
y o r th o
g
o nal system o n a min i mal su r face is re
p r esen ted o n th e h
Sp e r e by
ort h o
g o n al syste m , Fr om ( 70) i t i s seen th at if a su r fac e is
n ot mi i m n al , th e param etr ic s
y ste ms on bo t h th e su r face an d th e
sph ere gan be or t h og on al onl y w h en D is
’
z er o, t h at is, w h en th e
lin es o f c u r v atu r e ar e p ar a metr i c . Hen ce w e h av e :
The lines of c u r va tu r e of a s urfa ce a r e r epr esen ted on the spher e
by an or thog on a l system ; th i s i s a cha r ac ter i sti c pr oper ty of lin es

f
o cu r va tu r e, u n less -
th e su r face be mi n ima l .

Th is t h eor e m f ll o o w s als o as a d ir ec t consequ en ce of th e th eor em

A n ecessar y a n d su ffici en t con di tion tha t the ta ng en ts to a c u r ve

u
p on a s ur f a ce a n d to i ts i mag e a t cor r es
p on d i n
gp i o n ts be pa r allel is
that the cu r ve be a li n e f
o c ur va tu r e .

In or der to pro ve t i s t h h eor em w e assu me t h at th e c ur v e is

par a m etr i c , u = c on st . T h en th e c ondi ti on of

p ar all elis m is

8X W 52 : 8y
25 . 0
22
an an an in 8a in
1 44 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E A BO U T A P O IN T

Fr o m ( 6 8) i t foll o ws t at i n t i s c ase (FD — h

ED ) mu st be z er o
’
h .

B u t th e latter i s th e c o nd iti on t at th e c u r ves v h

con st be li n es of .

c u r v atu r e Mor eo ver , f m

ro 3
( )2 i t foll o ws t h at th e posi ti ve
h al f tan g en ts to a li n e o f c u r vatu r e an d i ts h
Sp er i cal r epr esen ta

d d
-

ti on h av e th e sa m e or c o n tr ar
y sen se acco r in g as th e co r r espon

i ng r ad i u s o f n o r m al c u r vatu r e is ne
g ati ve o r po sitive .

In c on se u en ce q of 7
( ) th e e q u ati o n 4
( )0 of th e as m
y pt o tic

dir ec tions may be w r itten

dd + dd dd 0 .

An d so w e h ave th e t h eor em

The ta ng en ts to ymptoti c li n e a n d to i ts sph er i cal r epr esen ta

an a s

ti on a t c or r espon d ing poi n ts a r e perpendi cu lar to on e an other ; thi s

r o er t i s c ha r a c ter i sti c of a s m toti c li nes

p p y y p .

It is evid en t t h at th e d ir ection c osin es of th e n or m al to th e

Y
-

h
sp er e ar e q
e u al to X Z , to wi th in sign at most L et t h em

d db
.
, ,

be en ote y 26, l,
l t h en

ar 32 H
Z aY
)6
8a av au av

Wh en ex pr essi on s similar to 68
( ) ar e substitu ted for th e q u an ti ti es

i n th e par en t eses, th e latter h ex pr ession is r ed u ci bl e to K HX .

H enc e, in conse u en c e o f q w e h av e

: eZ ,
8
( )0 26 6X ,
9 eY,
5
w h er e e i l ac c or d i ng as th e c u r v atu r e o f th e su r face i s po sitive
or n e ati v e
g
d
.

Fr o m th e b it f ll w th t
a ov e o o s a acco r in g as a
po i n t of a su r face

is ellipti c or hyp b li th p iti

er o c e os ve si des of th e tan g en t plan es at

cor r espon d ing poi n ts o f th e sur face an d th e h

sp er e ar e the sa m e or
.

difi er en t . Su ppose, for th e m m o en t, h

t at th e l ines o f c u r v atu r e ar e

par a m etr i c . Fr o m o u r c on ven ti on a o u t b th e posi tiv e d i r ec tion o f

th e n or m al to a su rface, and th e b
a o ve h b h
r esu l ts, i t fo llo w s t at ot

th e tan gen ts to th e par ametr i c c ur ves th g h

r ou p i t M h t
ah o n av e e

sa me sense as th e c or r espo nd in g tan g t

en st th p
oh b th e s er e, o r o

h ave th e o
pposi te sense, w h en M is an llipti p i t ; b t th t
e c o n u a

on e tan g ent h as th e sa m e sens e as th e c or r espon d ing tang en t to

th e h
sp er e, an d th e o th er th e opposi te sen se, w h en th e poi nt is
1 46 G EOMETR Y OF A SU RFA CE A B OU T A P O I N T

62 . Heli coids . We apply th e pr ec ed in g r esu l ts in a stu

y of d
an i mpo r tan t cl ass o f s u r fac es c alled th e heli coi ds . A h eli co i d i s

en er ated by a c u r ve, p l an e or tw i sted, w h ic h is r o tated abo u t a

d
g
fix ed li n e as a x is , and at th e sa m e ti me tr anslate i n th e d ir ec tion
of th e a x is w i th a v eloc i ty w h ich is in c on stan t r ati o w i th th e

vel oci ty of r o tatio n . A sec ti o n of th e su r face by a plan e t r oug h h

th e a x is is c all ed a mer i di an A ll th e m er i di an s ar e e u al
q pl an e

d d
.

c u r ves, an d th e su r face c an be g ener ate by a er i i an m

m i g ov n

w i th th e sa me v el o ci ti es as th e g i v en c u r ve Th e par ti cular . m ti o on

d esc ribed i s c al led h el ic oid al motion , an d so w m y y th t

e
ya sa a an

h eli coid c an be g en er ated by a plan e c u r ve w i th h li i d l m ti

e co a o on

h li i d i p m t i
.

In o r d er to d eter m in e th e e u ati on s of a q e co n ar a e r c

fo r m , we ta k e th e a x is of r otati on
x is and let u enote for th e z a
-

, d
th e d istan ce o f a po i n t of th e su r face fr o m th e ax i s and v th e an le
g
d
,

m a by th e
e p l an e th r o u h th e
g p o i n t an d th e ax is w i th th e fez
plan e
-

in th e posi ti v e d i r ecti on o f r otati on . I f th e equation o f th e g en

cr ati ng c u r v e in any positi on o f i ts plan e is z th e equ ati ons
of th e su r fac e ar e

8
( )1 x i t cos v,
y u si n v, 4( )
) u av,

w h er e a den otes th e con stan t r ati o o f th e velociti es ; i t is calle d

th e par ameter of th e h elico i d al m o ti on . Wh en in par ti cu lar , a i s
,

z er o th ese equ ati on s d efi n e any sur fac e

, of r evolu tion Mor eov er , .

w h en qb(u) i s a con stan t th e c u r v es v = c onst , . ar e str ai

g h t lin es
e
p pr en d i c u l ar to th e ax i s an d so th e su r face , is a r ig ht c on oid .

I t is called th e r ig ht heli coi d .

By c alcu lati on w e obtai n fr om 8

( )1

F= G=
' 2 2
82
( ) a c , u + a

w h er e th e accent i n d ic ates d iffer en tiation w i th r espec t to u . Fr o m

th e m et h od o f g en er ati on i t follo w s t h at th e c u r v es v co nst . ar e

m er i d i an s, an d u co n st . ar e helices on th e h elic oid s, an d c ir cl es

o n su r faces o f r ev ol u tio n . Fr o m ( 8 2 ) i t i s seen t h at t h ese cur v es

for m an o r t h o
g on al system on ly o n su r faces of r ev olu ti on an d o n

th e ri
gh t h elic oi d . Mo r eover , fr om 5
( )7 i t i s fo u n d t h at th e g eo
d esic c u r v atu r e o f th e m er i d i an s is z er o only w h en a is z er o or

is a co n stan t In th e latter case th e m er id i an is a str aig ht li n e

d
.

per pen d icu lar to th e a x is or o bliq u e, accor i ng as < > f

'
is z ero or not .
 HEL I COI D S 1 47

Hen c e th e m er i d ian s of su rfac es o f r ev olu ti on an d o f th e r u l ed

h eli co i ds are g eo d esi cs .

Th e g o rt h o on al tr a j ec to r i es o f th e h elices u
pon a h eli c oi d ar e

d eter min ed by th e e q u ati o n ( cf . I II ,

31)
' 2 ?
ac
pd u ( u + a
)d v 0 .

Hence i f w e pu t
a ) d da v,
, 2
+
'

u a

th e c u r v es v
1
c o n st . ar e th e o rt h o
g on al tr a j ec to r i es, an d t h eir

e q u ati o n s in fi n i te for m ar e fo u n d by a uad r atu r e q . In ter m s of

th e par am ete rs u an d v
1
th e lin ear elemen t is

2 ?
d u + (u a
)d c

As an im m di t e a e cons e q u en ce o f h
t is r esu lt w e h av e t h at th e
h eli ces an d th i th e r or o
g o n al tr a j ecto r i es o n any h eli c o i d fo r m an

isot h er mal s
y t m
s e .

Fr o m ( 8 3 ) an d 46 ) w e h ave th e t h eo r e m of B our

Ever y helicoi d i s appli c able to so me su r fac e of r evolu ti on, an d

heli ces an the for mer c or r es

pon d to the pa r allels on the la tter .

We d eri v e als o th e foll o wi ng e x pr ession s

’ ’
a sin v ¢ (a u ) si n v
u c o s v, cos v d ) , u

D, _
D,
'
D _N
“ ’ 4 i
“
a?

?
a

Fr o m 8
( )4 i t fo ll o w s t h at a m er i di an is a n or mal sec ti on of a su r

fac e o f r ev o lu ti on at all i ts poi n ts , and c o n se u en tly is q a li n e of

c u r v atu r e ( Ex . 7, p . h
T is is ev id en t also fro m th e q
e u ati on

of th e li n es of c u r v atu r e of a h eli coi d , n amel

y
2 ?
8
( )6 a
[ 1 da [( u + a
) ¢ u
”
(1 cb
’l
) dud u
v = 0
2 2 2
a u + a
]d .

Mor eover th e meri dians ar e lin es of cur vatur e

, of t h ose h eli coi ds,

for w h i c h ( I) sati sfi es th e c o n d iti on

1 ¢
I2
+ w¢
l ll
=O .
148 GEOMETR Y OF A SU RFA C E ABOU T A P OIN T

By i n teg r ati on t i s g i ves h

it

Wh en th e su r fac e is th e ri
g h t h eli c oi d th e ex pr ession s for I)
an d D
”
v an i s h . H enc e th e mer i di an s an d h el i c es ar e th e as
y mp
toti c li n es . Mor eover , t h ese lin es for m an o r t h o
g o n al s
yste m , so

th at th e su r fac e is a m i ni m al su r fac e Si n ce th e tan

en t l an es to a su r fac e al on
g p g
an as m to ti c lin e ar e i ts o sc u
y p
l atin g plan es, i f th e su r face i s a
r u led m
i ni mal sur fac e, th e g en er
ator s ar e th e pri n cipal n or m als o f

all th e c u r ve d asymptotic lin es .

Bu t a c i r cu lar h eli x i s th e on ly

Ber tr an d c u r ve w h ose
pr i n c ipal
n or mals ar e th e ri n c i pal n or mal s
p
o f an i n fi n i ty of cu r v es

H en ce we h ave th e t h eor e m of

C atalan :
The r ig h t heli coi d i s the only
F 10 » 16 r ea l mi n imal r u led su r ace f .

In fig 1 6 . ar e r epresente d th e asymptoti c lin es an d lin es of

c u r vatu r e o f a ri
g h t h li i d e co

h li id th q
.

For an
y o ther e co e e u ati on o f th e asy m pt o ti c li n es i s
8
( )7 u ¢
”
du
2
2 a du d v u
2 ’
¢ dv
"
0.

A s th e coef c i en ts
fi in (8 6) an d ( 8 7) ar e fu n ctio n s o f i t alo n e, w e

h av e th e h
t eor em °

Wh en a heli coi d i s r efer r ed to i ts mer i di an s an d heli ces, th e asymp

toti c li n es an d the li n es of cu r vatu r e can be fou n d by qu a d r a tu r es .

EX AMPLES

1 .h ow th a t th e sph er ic al rep r esen tation of th e lines of cu rvature of a surfac e

S
o f revo l u ti on is i so th er ma l .

2 Th e osc u l ati ng pl anes of a li ne of c u r vatur e and of i ts sph er ic al r ep r esen ta

.

ti on at c or r espo ndi ng poi n ts ar e p ar all el .

3 Th e angl es b et w een th e asym ptotic di recti ons at a p o i n t o n a su r fac e and

.

b etw een th ei r sph er ic al r ep resen tati on are eq ual or suppl emen tary acc ordi n g as ,

th e su r fac e h as p ositi ve or neg ati ve c u r vature at th e p o i n t .

1 50 GEOMETR Y or A SU RFA C E A B OU T A P OIN T

8 . If P
p oi n t on a su r fac e P o th e c en ter of no r mal c u r vatu r e of th e li ne
is a ,

bise cti ng th e angl e b etw een th e li nes of c u r vatu re and P I P th e cen te rs o f nor mal , , 2

c u r vat u r e i n tw o di ecti ons equ all y i n cli ned to th e fi rs t th en th e four p oi nts

r
,

P P I P 0 P fo r m a h ar moni c r ang e
, , , 2 .

9 . d enote th e r ad n of n or mal cu r va tu re o f m sections of

I f R1 , R2 , R3 , R ,l,

a su r fac e w hich mak e eq u al angl es 2 /m w ith one anoth er and m 2 th en 1r

,

1
i
772 R1 R2

10 . pi n i ndic at r ix at a p oi n t P of a su r fac e i s an ellip se and th r ough

I f th e D u ,

e ith er one o f th e asympto tes of i ts foc al h yp er b o l a tw o pl anes b e d r aw n perpen

d i c u lar to o ne ano th er th ei r i n ter se cti ons w ith th e tan g en t pl ane are c on j ug ate
,

di r ecti ons on th e su r face .

1 1 A ll c u r ves t an g en t to an asympt o tic li ne at a p o i n t M and w h ose oscu l ati n g

.
,

pl anes ar e n ot tangen t to th e sur fac e at M h ave M for a p oi n t of i nflecti on , .

12 . l c u r vatur e of an o r thogonal t raj ector y of an asymptotic li ne is

Th e n or ma

e qu a l to th e m ean c u r va tu r e of th e su r fac e a t th e p oi n t of i nt erse cti on .

18 . Th e c
su r fa e o f r evo u l ti on w h ose equ ati ons ar e
x z u c os v, y z u si n v, z = a log (u + V u2 — ) a2

is gen er ated b y th e r otati on of a c atenar y ab ou t i ts ax is ; it i s c all ed th e catenoid .

Sh ow th at it i s th e on l y m i n i mal su r fa c e o f r evo l u ti on .

1 4 W h en th e oscu l ati ng pl ane of a li ne o f c u r vat ur e mak es a c onstan t angl e

.

w ith t h e t an g en t pl ane to th e su r fac e th e li ne o f c u r vatu r e i s pl ane ,

.

1 5 A pl ane li ne of c u r vatu r e is r ep rese n ted o n th e un it sph er e b y a ci r cl e

. .

1 6 Th e c yli nd er w h ose r ight se cti on i s th e c u r ve d efi ned b y th e i n tr i ns ic eq ua

.

ti on p a 3 2/b w her e a and b ar e p ositi ve c onstan ts h as th e ch arac ter i stic p r op

, ,

e r ty th at u p o n it lie c u r ves of c u r vat u r e w h ose g eod esic c u r vatu r e i s

Wh en
v
17 . a su r fa e c is d
th ogonal system of li nes and th e radii of
r efer r e to an or ,

geod esic c u r vatu r e of th e c u r ves c onst and u co nst a e p p r esp ecti vel y . . r
gu, yv ,

th e g eod esic c u r va tu re o f th e c u r ve w hich mak es an angl e 00 w ith th e li nes 0 c onst .

is gi ven by 1 do c os 00 si n 00 0

pg d8 Pgu p0 0

18 . Wh en c is refer r ed to an or thogonal system of li nes and p 3

a su r fa e , g,

d enote th e r adi us of geod esic cu r vature and th e ar e for o ne system of i sogonal

t r aj ector i es of th e p ar ametr ic li nes and p 3 th e si mil ar fun cti o ns for th e ,
’
g,
’

o r th og on al t r aj ect or i es o f th e for mer th en w h ate ver b e th e di recti on of th e fi rst

,
d l d l
i s c o nstan t at a p oi n t
c u r ves th e q u an ti ty .

d s P6
’
d3 p g

1 9 I f p an d p d en o te th e r ad ii o f fi r st c u r vatu re o f a l i ne o f c u r vatur e and i ts

’
.

sph er ic al r ep r esent ati o n and al so p an d p; th e r adi i o f geod esic c ur vat ure of th ese
, a

c u r ves th en , da d ds d o “

’
p p pg pg

w h e r e d s an d da ar e th e li near el emen ts o f th e c u r ves .

 G ENERAL EX A MP L ES 151

20 . W hen a sur fa e c is d
lin es of cur vature and 8 05 d eno te th e
refer r e to i ts , 0,

an gl es w hich a c u r ve o n th e sur face and i ts spher ica l re p rese n ta t i on m ake w i th

th e c ur ves 1: c o ns t th e rad ii o f ge od esic c u r vatu re of th ese c ur ves d eno ted b y

.
, ,

p an d p; respe cti vel y are in th e re l a ti o n

,, ,

ds
pg
21 . W h en th e c u r ve
1
a f
f (u Mu
-

is bj ected to a h elico id al mo ti o n of p aramete r a ab ou t th e z ax is the var i ous

su -

positi ons of this c ur ve are or th ogonal tr aj ector ies of th e helic es and also geo d esics ,

on th e su r fa ce .

22 . W hen cu r ve is su bj ected to a con ti nuous ro ta ti on abou t an ax is and at

a ,

th e sa me ti me to a h o mo th etic tr a nsfo r mati on w ith respe ct to a po i n t o f th e ax is ,

s uch th a t th e ta n gen t to th e l o c us d es c r ibed b y a po in t o f th e c u r ve mak es a c on

sta n t an gl e w ith th e ax i s th e l o c us o f th e resu lti ng c ur ves is ca ll ed a spi r al surfac e

,
.

Sh o w th a t if th e z ax is be ta k e n for th e ax i s o f ro ta ti on a nd th e o r igin fo r th e c enter

-

o f th e t r a n sfor ma ti o n th e e q u ati o ns of th e sur fa ce ar e of th e for m

,

x v) y ( u,
v) z ¢( )
u e“
, ,

w h ere h is a c ons tan t .

23 . pir a l sur fac e can be ge nerated i n th e foll ow i ng manner :L et C be a

A s

c u r ve 1 any li ne and P a po in t on th e l atte r ; if each po i n t M on C desc r ibes an

, ,

isogonal t raj ecto ry of th e generato rs on th e cir c u l ar co ne w ith ver tex P and ax is l

i n su ch a w ay th a t th e pe r pen dic u l ar u po n 1 fro m th e mov in g po i nt M revo l ves a bo u t !
, ,

w ith c ons tan t vel o city th e l o c us o f th ese c ur ves is a sp i r al sur fac e ( c f Ex

,
5 . .
,

24h ow tha t th e or th ogonal t r aj ecto r i es o f th e cur ves 11 c onst in Ex 22

. S .
,
.
,

c an be foun d b y q u ad ra tu re
s an d th at th e lin ear el emen t c an be pu t i n th e for m
,

e”
2
2
( 13 ( da

w here A iscti on o f I a l one

a fun ( .

2 5 Sh ow th a t th e li nes of cur va tu re mi ni mal li nes

.
, ,
an d asy mpto tic li nes u onp
a Spi ra l sur fa ce can be fou nd b y q uadr a tur e .
 CHAPTER V

FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS . THE MOVI NG TRIHEDRAL

63 Ch r i stoffel sy mb l o s h
In t i s h
pter w e d er i v e th e n ecessar y
c a

d
. .

an d su f c ien t equ ati o ns

fi of c on d i ti o n to be satisfi e by si x fun c
ti on s, E, F, G D, D ’
, D ’
h h
i n o r d er t at t ey may be th e fu n d am en tal

q u an ti ties for a su r face

k k
.

For th e sa e of br evi ty m
we a e u se o f tw o se ts o f s
ymb o ls,

su g
g ested by C h ri stofi el, *
whi h c r epr esen t cer tai n fu n c ti on s o f th e
coeffi ci en ts of a qu ad r ati c d i fi er en tial for m an d t h eir d er i vativ es o f

th e fi rst o r er d
I f th e difi er en tial for
. is m
a d ul
z —
l 2 a da l d a 2 a du g,
n

th e fi rst set of sy mb o ls is d efi n ed by

aam 8a
Eu ,
8 a,

w h er e eac h of th e su bscr ipts i , k , I h as o n e of th e valu es 1 and

Fr o m th i s dfi e n iti on i t follo w s t h at

Wh en h
t ese sy mb ols ar e u se d in c o nn ection w i th th e fi rst fu n
d amen t l q
a u ad r atic for m o f a su r fac e
2
d s = E du
2
2q dv G dv “

d
,

th ey are fou n to h av e th e follo w i n g si

g ni fi c an c e
l aE 8F
,
5 55 an

1 8 1? 1 80
,
5 78
BF 1 8G 1 5G
,
81) 2 8a

Cr elle, V ol LX X , pp 241—245
fi
. . .

hi
1 T s eq u a on e ti d nes th ese sy mb ol s for a qu a d r atic for m o f any nu mb er o f var i
l
ab es u l , nu . In thi c as
s e i, k, I tak e th e val ues 1 , n .

1 52
 FU N DA MEN TA L EQU A TI ON S

fo r m a c on si sten t set o f e q u ati on s lin ear i n a and th e

deter mi n an t i s eq u al to H . So lvi n g for

g
u
a’
i pr ,

si milar q
e u ation s h ol d for y an d z . Pr oc eedin g i n li k e mann er w it h
th e ot h er e q u ati on s
( I V , 1 0) and

we g et th e follo w i ng e u a ti on s o
q f G au ss

'
D X ,

H
D X .

For c on ven i en ce o f r efer en ce w e r ec all fr o m 4 8 th e e q u ati ons

3X FD
'
G D 31 : FD — ED 32
'
:
3u H 3u 11
2

’ ' "
3X F GD 3x FD ED 3x
31) 3u H 2
31)

Th e c o n d i ti o n s o f i n teg r ability o f th e G au ss e q u atio n s 7

( ) ar e

2
3a

By m ean s o f 7
( ) an d ( 8 t
) h q
ese e u ati on s ar e r e d u c i bl e to th e for m s

a + ,
c X = O, a - £+b O,
, 2 2
3u v 3u

w h er e d
l,
a
2, 7 e, ar e d eter mi n ate fu n c ti on s of E, F, G ; D , D , D ' ”

an d t h ei r d e r i vati ves . Sin c e e q u ati on s si milar to 9

( ) old for
y and h
2, w e m ust h a
ve
c‘

Q Q Ip "
Q Ip ‘
0 I9 Q I
I 0” Q:
h
I0
 Q
E U A TI ON S OF G A U SS A N D OF C O D A ZZ I 155

Wh en th e e x pr ession s for d
l , a
2,
bv an d 62 ar e c alc u late d , i t is
fou n d t h at th e fi rst fo u r e q u ati o ns ar e e q u i v alen t to th e foll o w i ng

[ D
/r _
_D 1

F
H
DD
n _D’
E

DD
" — D

H_ 2
DD 17
F

Wh en th e e x pr essi ons fo r th e C h r is to f
fel sy mb b
ols ar e su sti tu te d
i th
n q
ese e u ati on s th e l atter r ed u c e to th e q
sin gle e u ati on

DE — D
’2
”
1 1 3G
H 2
QH E 3u

T ish e q u atio n w as di sc o ver ed by G auss, an d is c all ed th e G au ss

u a ti on o f c on di ti on u po n th e fu n d am en tal fu n c ti on s Th e l eft
e
q .

h an d m ember of th e q
e u ati on is th e e x pressi on fo r th e to tal c u rv a

tu r e of th e sur fac e . H en ce w e h av e th e c el ebr ated th eor e m of

G au ss
The f or the tota l c u r va tu r e o
i
p ex r ess on f a surfa ce i s a fu n cti on
of the fu nda men ta l coe i i en ts o h h
fie f f
e fi r st or d er a nd o i d i
‘
t t e r er va

ti ves of the fi r st an d secon d or d er s .

t en th e e x pressions for c
,
an d «32 ar e c al cu l ated , w e fin d t h at

th e last t w o of e q u ati on s (1 0) ar e
D 01 7
3
or 3a
D : 0,
"

y;
0D 01 7
A A

D
"
:O
3u 3v

L . c .
, p . 20 .
1 56 FU N DA MEN TA L E UA TI ON S Q
T h ese ar e th e Cod azz i e u ati on s, so c alle
q db ecau se t h ey ar e e u i v a
q
len t to th e qe u ation s fo u nd by C o dazz i * ; h o w ev er it h o uld be
d
, s

men tio n e th t a Main ar d i w as r o u g t to b h si m il ar r esu lts so m e

w h at ear lier f I t i s som eti m es c o n v en i en t to h th

ave ese e q u ati ons

w r i tten i n th e for m

is y 11 p "

2 H 2
!
D
17

w h ic h re d u ce r ea d
ily to ( 1 3 ) by eans o f m
Wi th th e ai d o f equ ati on s 7
( ) w e fin d t h at th e con d i ti on s o f

integ r a ili ty b of equ ati ons 8

( ) an d si m il ar o nes in Y an d Z r edu ce

to
Fr o m th e pr ec e ing t eor e d
an d th e h m dfi e n i ti on o f ap
pl i c a l eb
sur fac es 4 3 ) follow s th e t eor e h m
Tw o pp li ca ble
a f
su r aces have the sa me total cu r va tu r e at cor r e

s on d i ng oin ts
p p .

As a c on se u en c e
q We h av e

Ever y f
su r ace a
ppli cable to a
plan e i s the tang en t f
su r ace o f a

tw i sted cu r ve .

For , w h en a su r fac e pp l i c a l
ise to aa
pl an e i ts li b
n ear el e en t is m
re d u ci bl e to
2 2 ”
d e = du + d o , an d c on se u en tly i ts to tal c u r vatu r e q
i s z er o at ever y po i n t by Fr o m (IV , 73 ) i t follo ws t h at

3 (u , v
)
H enc e X , YZ
, ar e fu n c ti on s o f a si n
g l e par a m eter , and t h er efor e

th e su r face is th e tang en t su r face o f a tw i sted c u r ve ( of

d
.

I nc i den tall y w e h ave p o ve

r th e t h eor e m
When Ki s z er o at a ll
p oi n ts o f a su r ace f the la tter i s d evel0pa 6le,

an d c on ver sel
y .

Sull e c oor di nate c u rv il inee d una supe fi ci e e d ell p i A nnali , Ser 3 , V ol II

’
r o s az o, . .

p 26 9
. .

I Gi orn ale d ell I sti tu to Lo mb r do V ol IX p 395

’
a , .
,
. .
1 58 FUN DA MEN TA L E UA TI ON S Q
I n th e fi r st pl ac e w e re m ar k th at all th e con di tion sof integ r a
bili ty of th e q
e u ati on s 1
( )6 ar e satis fi ed in c o n se q u en ce of

Hen ce t h ese e q u ati on s ad mi t sets o f par ti c u lar solu ti on s w h ose

v al u es fo r th e i n i tial v al u es of u an d v ar e ar bi tr ar
y . Fr o m th e
for m of e q u ati on s 1
( )6 i t fo ll o ws
( cf
§ 1 3) t ht a i f tw o su c h sets

Y
.
,

of pa r tic u lar sol u ti o n s be d en o ted by X 1 , X ,,

X an d Y1 , Y, , , t h en

X
2
1 +X
2
2 +X
2
: c on st .
,

Yf l Y f — Y 2 = c on st
-

l .
,

X 1
Y1 + X 2
Y2 + X Y = con st .

Fr o m th th e eor y o f d ifi er en tial e u atio n s w e q k no w th at t h er e e x ist

th p r ee ar tic u lar sets of sol u tion s X X ,,
X ; Y, , Y, , Y ; Z 1, Z, , Z
w hi h f c or th e i ni ti al v alu es o f u an d v h ave th e val u es 1 , O, O; O, 1 , 0
O, 0, 1 . In t i s h case e u ati on s q (1 8) becom e
X 2
X
2
X
2
: 1,
, 2
2
Yf+ 172 + Y = 1 , 2

X 1
Y1 + X ,
Y2 + X Y = 0,

w h ic h ar e tr u e for all v alu es o f u an d v . I n li k e m ann er we h av e

Z = 1,
2
2 3 Z;

X Z + X Z + X Z = o,
, , , ,

Yl Z , Y, Z , + YZ = 0 .

Fr om (1 6 ) i t follo w s t h at th e ex pr ession s i n th e ri
g h t h -
an d mem
b ers o f 1
( )7 ar e e x ac t d ifl er en tials, an d t h at th e su r face d efin ed by
th ese e q u ation s h as, fo r i ts lin ear elemen t and i ts secon dq u adr atic

fo rm , th e e x pr essi ons
2 g 2 ” 2
( 20) E du G do , D du D dv

r es
pec ti vely .

Su ppose, n ow , t h at we h ad a secon d s
y ste m of th r ee sets o f

sol u ti o n s of e q u ati o n s 1
( )6 sati sfyi ng th e c o n d i ti o n s

By a m otion in spac e w e c o u ld ma k e t h ese X

’
s, Y
’
s, and Z ’
s e q u al

to th e c or r espon d i ng o n es of th e fi rst syste m fo r th e i n i tial v al u es

of u an d v . Bu t t h en, b ec au se of th e r elati o n s si milar to h

t e
y
w ou ld be e q u al for all v al u es O f u an d v, as s h o wn in 13 . Hen ce ,

to w i th i n a m o tio n in spac e, a su r face is d eter min ed by tw o u ad q

r ati o for ms A s in 1 3, it c an h
be s o w n t at th e sol u ti o n o f h
q
e u ati o n s 1
( )6 re d u ces to th e in teg r ati on o f an e u ati on of q Ri oc ati .
 FU N D A MEN TAL THEOREM 1 59
.

L ater "
w e s all h fin d t h at th e di r ec tion -
c o si n es of an
y tw o per

pen d i c u lar li n es i n th e tan g ent plan e to a su r face, an d o f th e n or mal

to th e sur fac e, satisfy a system o f e u ati ons si milar i n for to q m
Mor eov er , t h q
ese e u ati o n s p o ssess th e pr oper ty t h at sets o f sol u

ti on s sati sf
y th e c o nd i tio n s ( 1 8) w h en th e par ametr i c li n es ar e an
y
w h atev er . Hen ce th e c h o ic e of li n es o f cu r v atu r e as par am etr i c
lin es si mpli fi es th e pr eced i ng e u atio ns, bu t th e resu lt is a g en er al q
on e q
C onse u en tly w e av e th e fo llow i ng fu n d a en tal t eor e
. h m h m:
When the coe
fii
‘
ci en ts o f tw o qu ad r a ti c for ms ,

2 " 2 ’ " ’
E du + 2 q dv d , D du + 2 D d u d v D dv ,

sa ti s y f q the e u a tion s o f Ga u ss ,
a nd Coda zz i, ther e ex ists a su rfa ce
u n i u e to w i thi n i ts osi ti on i n s a ce, for w hic h these for ms ar e
q p p
r es ecti vely the fi r st a n d second fu nd a men tal u a d r a ti c for ms ; a n d
p q
th e d eter mi n a ti on f the
o su r a ce r e u ir es
f q the i n tegr a ti on of a Ricca ti
e ua t on a n
q i d quadr atu r es .

Tr o m ( III ,
ll o w s th at if E F G ; D D D are th e fun d a
( 5 ) and it fo , , ,
’

,
”

men ta l fu ncti ons for a su rfac e of coor d ina tes (x y z ) th e sur face sym metr ic w ith , , ,

respe ct to th e or igi n th at is th e su r fac e w ith th e co or din a te s

, ,
a
s y h as , ,

th e fun d amen ta l fu n cti ons E F G ; D D D Mo reover in c onseq uen ce ’ ”

.
, , , , ,

o f th e a bo ve th eo rem t w o sur fac es w h ose fu nd amen ta l q ua n titi es be ar su ch are l a

,

tion can b e moved i n sp ac e so th at they w il l be symme t r ic wi th r espect to a po i n t .

Tw o sur fac es o f th i s ki n d w ill be treated as th e same sur face .

1 . Wh en th e li nes
cu r vat ure of a su r face for m an iso th er mal system th e
of ,

su r fac e is sa id to b e i soth erm ic Sh ow th a t su r fac es of re vol u ti o n are iso th er mic

. .

2 Sh ow th a t th e h ype r b o lic p ar abo l o id

.

b
y = — u — v
( ) , z
2 2
ther mi c
LS i so .

3 W h en a sur fac e is iso th er mic an d th e li near el emen t ex p ressed i n te r ms o f

.
, ,

p arame ters referr i ng to th e li nes o f cu r vature is dc? x 2 (d u th e eq ua ti ons ,

2

of C od azz i and G auss a re red u cibl e to

6 PI 1 EP2 P2 1 29 1
7 s

an P2 P1 ~

P2 6u Pi ps — P1 00

82 32 2

(
x
log x
av?
0
( w pi ns

4 . Fi
d th e for m o f equations
n ( 13 ) w hen th e su r fa e is c d efi ned in terms of
symmet r ic c oord i n ates (of .

Consu lt al so Sch efl ers pp i nchi pp 122 —

’
Cf . 69 .
, V ol II , . . 3 10 et seq . B a , V ol I , . . 12 4 .
1 60 FU N D AMEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
5 . th at K is equal to zer o for th e tangen t sur face of a tw isted curve
Sh ow ,

taki ng th e li near el emen t of th e l atter i n th e fo rm § 20 .

6 Sh ow th a t th e to tal c u r vatu r e of th e sur fac e of r evo l u ti on o f th e t ra ct rix

.

a bo u t i ts ax is i s n eg a ti ve and c onstan t .

7 Establ ish th e fo ll ow i ng for mu l as i n w hich th e di ffer en ti al p ar ameters ar e

.
,

formed w ith respec t to th e fo r m E du2 2q dv d 2 :

_
X 1 l Zl
— —+ L252 ,
2 2 pl P2
P1 P2

® (y, )= X
Z , ®( Y, Z) — _ -

P1 p
w h ere th e quanti ti es h ave th e same sign i fi c ance as i n § 65 .

8 . De d u ce th e id en tity
and h th erefr om th at th e cur ves i n w hich a mi ni mal su r fac e is cu t
s ow by a

fami ly of p ara ll el pl anes an d th e or th ogo nal t r aj ecto r i es of th ese c ur ves for m

an i so th er mal system .

66 . Fundamental equati ons in anoth er for m W h . e ave seen in

61 t h at if X Y, Zd en ote th e d i rec ti on c osin es o f th e n or m al to
d
-

a su r face, th e ir ection c osi nes -

of th e n or m al to th e h
sp er i cal r e
p
r esentati on o f th e sur face ar e eX , eY, eZ , w h er e e i s ziz 1 accor d in
g
as th e c u r v atu r e o f th e su r fac e
i s positi ve or n e ativ e
g If, t h en ,

df
.

th e seco n u nd a m en tal qu an ti ti es fo r th e sp er e h be d enoted by

A, b
”
, w e h ave

2
( )1 15 6 5 , (53, 25
so t h at for th e sp h er e e u atio n s
q (7) b ec o me

w h er e th e C hi r sto f
fel sy mb l
o s e for m e d wi h t r espec t to

th e linear l m
e e en t o f th e s ph er ical r epr esen tati on , n amely

d o : é du
“ 2 ”
’

2
( )3 2 (f
i du d v 5?d o .

Th e c on d i tions of i n teg r a ility b q

o f e u ation s 22
( ) ar e r ed u ci bl e

by m ean s o f th e latter to

9X
A + B,
9u 9v
16 2 FU N D A MEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
k no wn , th e c ar tesian c oo r d i nates o f th e su r face c an be fou nd by
q u ad r atu r es h o w ever , th e d eter mi nati on o f th e fo r m
er r e u ir es q
th e sol u ti o n o f a Ri c c ati e q u ati on .

I f th e q ti ons
e ua

:
92 6 X aaz 8X :
82 9X
9 a ou
l

2 au 81 : 9 0 ou

be di ffer en ti ated w ith p ct

r es e to u and v, th e r esu lti ng eq u a ti ons may b e re d u c ed
by means of ( 7) and ( 2 2 ) to th e fo r m fi ‘

?
if
2

$ 5 11
323 +

w z za sp
“
+ +
1
+ a

l
2

m 1

:
w e;
2

{2 1 + +

m
1 .

fi z z W
2 22
2 + + + +

5
2

m .

i ff s
2 2
+ +

67 Tangenti al coor di nates Mean evolute A su r fac e may be

k
. . .

loo ed u pon n ot only as th e locu s of a

po i nt w h ose posi ti on

d epen d s u pon t w o par a m eter s, bu t also as th e en v elope o f i ts

tan g en t plan es . h
T is family of p l an es d epen d s u pon o n e or tw o

par a m eter s acc or d i n g as th e su r fac e i s d evelo able or n ot

p We
d k
.

c on si d er e th e for mer c ase in § 2 7, an d n o w ta e up th e latter .

If W d en otes th e alg ebr ai c d istan c e fr o m th e or i

g n to th e tan
i

gen t plan e to a su r face S at th e poi n t M (cc y z) , , , t h en

2
( )9 W= x X + yY l -
zZ .

h
I f t is eq u atio n i s d iffer en ti ated w i th r es
pec t to u an d v, th e
r esu l tin
g e q u atio n s ar e r ed u ci bl e, in q
co n se u en c e o f I
( V, to

9X
x
9u

*
Cf B . i anchi , V o l I, . p . 15 7 .
 TA N G EN TI AL COORD IN A TES 1 63

Th e t h r ee q
e u ati o n s ( 30) ar e li n ear
se q u en ce of
( IV , 7 9 , 80) t h ei r d eter min an t
we h ave
"7 Y Z
6 9W 9Y 92
9a 9a 9u
9W 9Y 9Z
9v 9v 91)

a nd sim ilar e x pr essi ons fo r y an d z . Fr o m ( IV , 1 1) w e d edu c e th e

i den ti ti es
g
X X
2
fl

0y 6
6
fi

(
cu /
7 cu 9v

9X 9X
’
91 6
Z9 5 3
2) /
f 9u 9 1)

By mean s o f t h ese q
e u atio ns th e abo v e x pr ession
e fo r x is
r ed u c i bl e to

9W BX 9W 9X
z = WX + £
977 9X
f
/ 971 9u 9u 9v 9v 9 a

H en ce w e h av e

3
( )2 a : X ) , y : Y) z W ,
= Z+A
’
( W Z ), ,

th e d iffer en ti al par am eters bei ng for med w h it r es

pec t to
C o n v ersely, i f w e h av e fo u r fu n c ti o n s X YZW , , , of u an d v,

su c h th at th e first h
t r ee satisf
y th e i d en ti ty
2 1
3
( )3 X +Y +

eq u ati o n s 3
( )2 d e fi ne th e su r fac e for w hi h X
c , YZ , ar e th e d i r ec ti o n
cosin es o f th e tan g e n t plan e, an d W i s th e distan c e o f th e latter fr o m
th e or i
g i n . Fo r , fr o m w e h av e

3
2 1
on 927

in c on se u en c e o q f wh i h c an d fo r mu las 2
( )2 w e fin d fr o m 3
( )2 t h at

9x 9x
2 9u 2 X
9v

Mor eov er eq u ati on 2

( 9) also follo w s fr o m H ence a su r face
Y
,

is c o mple tely d efin ed by th e fu n c ti ons X , , Z W w hi c h are

, ,

c all ed th e ta ng en ti a l E
oor di n a tes o f th e su r face
"E
'

Cf . Wei ngar ten ,

c c c
Fests h rift d er Te h n i s h en Ho hs h ule c c zu B er li n ( 1 884) B ianchi ,

V ol I ,
. pp . 1 72—1 7 1 ; Ba r bo ux , V ol I , . pp 23 1 248
.
-
.
1 64 FU N DA MEN TA L EQU A TI ON S

Wh en equ ati ons 3

( )0 are d ff i er en tiate d, w e o bt i a n

3
2
W ex
2 2
3 W
2
’
2
1) x D
311 9u 9v
3
2
W
2
"
‘
p + 1
,

9v

By m ean s o f an d 3 0
( )t h ese e q u ati on s ar e r e d u cible to

9
2
W

Wh en t h ese e x pr essi ons for D, D, D ’ "

ar e su bsti tu te d in th e
ex pr ession ( IV 77) , for p1 + p2 , th e latter b m ec o es

9
2
W — 2W
5
a

By m ean s of 25
( ) t ish equ ati on c an be w r i tten i n th e for m
3
( )5 P. + P. ( A .
’
W+ 2 W) ,

w h er e th e differ en ti al par a m eter is for m e dw it h r espect to

lin ear ele m en t 23
( ) of th e sp er e h
d
.

Mor eover , if A22 0 en o tes th e follo w i ng e x pr ession ,

1
1
3
( )6 A 2, e
(gs — 3
2

i t follo ws fr o m 3
( )4 t h at

H 12
DD D
,
es 3
 FU N DA MEN TA L E UA TI ON S Q
EX A MPLES

1 . i ve th e equ ati ons of th e li nes o f c u r vat ur e and th e ex p r essi ons for th e

D er
p r i n cipal r adii i n ter ms of W w h en th e p ar amet r ic l i nes 0 11 th e sph er e ar e
,

( i ) mer idi ans and p ar all el s ;

( ii ) th e i magi n ar y g ener a tors .

Sh ow th at i n th e l atter c ase th e c u r ves c or r esp on di ng to th e gener ator s li e sym

metr ic all y w ith resp ect to th e li nes of c u r vatu re .

2 . L et W1 and W2 d enote
distan ces fr om th e o r igi n to th e pl anes th r ough
th e
th e n or mal to a su fa c e an d th e tang en ts to th e li n es of c u r vatu r e v
r const .
,

u c onst respecti vel y so th at w e h ave

.
,

W1 2 x X l l 2 2 1, W2 it 11 1
7

2 z zz .

S h ow th at '

W WI Wg
E
2 2
X X
(W
1 I g
, A1 ,
a ) ,

P12 P22 P1 P2

X 1 W1 X X 2 W X W
4
2 PI P2
p, 92

th e di ffer enti al p ar ameters b ei ng fo r me d w ith r es e p ct to E d u2 2 q dv d 2

‘

3 . If 2 q y
2 z
2
,
th en w e h ave

(
1 l
Al q z 2q— ‘
W2 7
A2 q =2 +W —
+ A1 ( q, W) :
pl p

4 . S h ow th at w h en th e li nes o f c u r vatu r e ar e p ar ametr ic

aW
l aq
P2 t o an

5 . Th e d eter mi nati on of sur fac es w h ose mean evo l u t e is a p oi nt is th e sa me

p r obl em as fi ndi ng i so th er mal systems o f li nes on th e sph er e .

68 . Th e m ovi ng tr i h edr al . Th e fu n d amen tal e q u ation s o f c on

d i tion m ay be g i ven an ot er for m, i n h w h ic h h

t ye ar e fr e qu en tly

u sed b
y Fr en c w r i ters I n d er i vin h
g t . h em w e r efer th e su r face to
a m o vi n g set o f r ec tang u lar a x es c alled th e tr i h ed r al T. I ts ver

tex III i s oi n t o f th e su r face, th e l an e i s tan en t to th e

a p yp
fe
g
-

su r face at M , and th e po si tive z a

-
x is c o i nc i d es w ith th e posi ti ve

dir ec tion of th e nor m al to th e su r fac e at M Th e posi ti on o f th e

an dy a x es by th e i s d eter min e d ang l e U w ic h h
th e tan g en t to
k
x -

th e c u r v e v c on st t r o u g M ma . h h es w i th th e x -
a x is ,
U being a

i v en fu n c ti on o f u an d v
g .

In C h a
pte r I w e c on si der ed an ot er h m ov ing tr i h edr al, c on sisti ng

of th e tang e n t, pr i n c ipal n o r mal, an d bi n or mal of a tw i ste d c u r ve .

L et u s assoc i ate s u c h a tr i h ed r al w i th th e c u r ve v co n st . t h r ou
g h
 THE MOV IN G TRI HED RAL 167

M an d call i t th e tri h edr al t“ . We h av e fo u n d 1 6) t h at th e var i a

’ ’ ’
tio n s of th e di r ectio n -
cosi n es a ,
b, c of a lin e L , fix ed in space,

w i th f
r e er en c e to t“ , as i ts v erte x m o v es al o n
g th e c u r ve w h ic h
w e c al l ar e i v en by
g
’ ’ ’ ’ ’ '
da
’
6 db a c dc b
i
E
,
-
,

d sH a ds u l Z ( Is
a
TI

w h er e p “,
7
,
d en o te th e r a dii o f fi rst an d sec o n d c u r vatu r e o f Cu ,
an d d s its lin ear
u
elem en t ; ev i d en tly t h e l atter may be re
plac ed

Th e d ir ec tio n -
c osin es o f L wi th r es
p ec t to th e tr i h ed r al T h ave

th e v al ues ' ’ ’
si n
a a c os U (6 si n w .
0 c os U,
' ' ’
4
( )3 b a sin U ( b si n w
.
c c os w .
) c os U,
’ ’
c 6 c os 6 ,
-

1 c sin

w h er e a) “ is th e an
g l e w hich th e pos i ti v e d ir ec ti on of th e z a x is
k
-

ma es w it h th
po sitiv e dir ec tion o f th e pr i n c ipal n or mal to C, at 111 ,
e

th e an g le be i n g meas ur ed to w ar d th e pos i ti ve d i r ec tio n o f th e bin or

m al o f C “
. q
Fr om e u ati o n s (4 2 ) an d (43 ) w e o bta i n th e foll o win g

i
9a
br — c
q ,

s — c
p
— ar , a
q
— bp,

w h ere p , q , r h av e th e follo wi n g si
g ni fi can ce

p E cc s U + sin U

— cos U

If, i n l i k e m ann er , w e con si der th e tri h d

e r al t, of th e c ur v e

u c o n st . th r o u g h 111, d en o ted by C , ,
w e o btai n th e q
e u ati o n s

6
)

9a 9c
br l 0
91 1
Q
)
£ 7
1 1
ar
v 7
“
a
gi
_ 61)
91) Qv ov

w h er e p ,, q ,,
r
1
c an be ob tai n ed fr om (4 5 ) by r eplac ing V E, U, a,”

p b y J ra V s ,
‘

p r As V d en otes th e an gle w h ic h th e
k
“, , , v,
.
, , ,

tan g en t to th e c ur v e C ,
at M ma es w it h th e z a -
x is , we h av e

46
( ) V U: a) .
 FU N DAMEN TA L EQUA TI ON S

If th e v er te x M mov es alo n
g a c u r ve o t h er t h an a para etr ic m
li n e, t h at is, alo n g a c u r ve d eter mi n ed by a v alu e of d v/
d u , th e
v ar i atio n s o f a , b, c ar e evi d en tly i v en by
g
9a da 9a d v 9b d u 9b d v 9c du 90 dv
,
_
_ .
’ ’
9u d s 9v d s 9u d a 9v d s 9u d e ds
‘

in w h ich th e d ifi er en ti al q u oti en ts h av e th e b
a o v e valu es .

69 Fu nda m ental eq uati ons of condi ti on Su ppose t h at w e asso

d
. .

c i ate w ith th e tr i h ed r al T a sec on d tri h e r al To w h ose v erte x 0 is

fix e d
i n Space, a ou t w i c i t r evolves i n su c h ab an n er t at its h h m h
edg es ar e al w ays par allel to th e c or r espon i n
g edg es o f T, as th e d
v er tex of th e latter m o v es o v er th e su r fac e i n a g i ven ann er m
d d
.

Th e posi tio n of TO i s completely eter i n e by th e n in e d i r ec tion m

cosi n es o f i ts ed g es w i t t r ee u tu ally perpen i c u lar li nes L , L 2 , h h m d
d
1

L , t r oug h 0 h . h
C all t ese i r ectio n c osin es a, , b, , cl ; a, , 62 , c2 as, -

68 , Th ese fu n cti ons m u st satisf

y th e equ ati on s

9b
$ 1
br c
q, op ar ,
90
a
q 6p,
9u 9u

9b
— = br
1
-
c
q1 ’ c
p1
— ar
1 ’
Q 3
a
ql
—b
p1 .

av
2
9 a
If w e eq u ate th e tw o v al u es of A

9v
a o bt ai n ed fr o m th e fi rst
tw o of t h ese equ ati o ns, an d i n th e re d u c ti on o f th e r esulti ng equ a

tion m a e u se of
k w e fin d
9r } 9
i
i —7
1 91 + 93 1
7 7
171 + pr 1
at
“

Sin c e t is h q
e u ati on m u st be tr u e w h en 6 an d c h ave th e valu es
b, , c
, ;
62 , 0
2 ; 63 , c
aa
th e e x pr essi on s in par en t h i m es s
2
u st be
2
equal

96 9
to z er o Pr oceedi n g i n th e sa m m e an n er w ith an d we

dm
.

9 9 a v 9u 9v
t l q

:
o btai n th e follow i n g fu n a en a e u ati on s
”2 1

3p 919
9 7 7
911
“

:
3
91) a

5a 89
777
92) 31 1 P

9r 9r 1
—
a, 3, 1 917
91 1 0

‘
1
h
T ese eq u a ti ons w e e fi st ob t ai ned b y Comb esc u e A nnales de I Ecole Nor mals
r r r ,
’
,

Ser . 1 , V o l IV . p 108 ; cf al s D ar boux V ol I p 48

. . o , .
,
. .
1 70 FU N D A MEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
b
a solu te d i splac e m en t o f P, w h i ch may also be mi ov ng r elati v e

to t h ese a x es , h av e th e v alu es
1“

d cc fd u § , dv ( q da d
q, )v z
( r da r
,
d v
)y,
5
( )1 8g dy 1; du nl d v (r da r
,
d v)x ( p d a

8e = de

w h er e we h av e p ut

77 = /Esi n U
N ,

c os

Th e c oo r d in ates of M ar e
(0 , O, so h
t at th e i n cr ements of i ts
d ispl ace m en ts ar e

( 5 3) 82: fd u + § 1 dv , By 7; du nl d v, Se 0 .

If y ,,
z
, ) d en o te th e co o r d i n ates of M w i th r es
pec t to th e
fix ed ax es fo r med by th e lin es L L L 3 pr evi ou sly d efi n ed , i t
follo ws th at
93 :
E
l
5
( )4 § a
1 + 776 ’
1
av i
a
i
'

l
'

776
1 1,

an d si milar ex pr essi on s for y, a n d z , , w er e h a a 62 , c ;

d
,, 2, ,

63 , c
3
ar e th e d i r ec ti on cosin es o f th e fi x e
-
a x es w i th r efer en ce

to th e m ov in g a x es . Si n ce th e latter
2
sati sfy e u ati on s q th e
9 x
c on di tio n s t h at th e tw o valu es o f
u
,

v
obtain ed fro m (5 4 ) b q e e u al,
2 2
9 yr 9 z
an d si mil ar ly for
9u 9v
an d
9u 9v
l
s ar e

35 98.
”7
“

1
9v 9u

9n 9n,
9v 9u
E
r
"

” 12 1 + 591 fl ? 0

Wh en w e h av e ten fu n c tio n s 6 E 17
, l, , p p 1
71 , , ,, q q , ,,
r, r
,,
satis

h
fyi ng t ese c o nditi ons an d th e a ,
,
o
s
c an be fun c tions
fo u n d by th e solu ti o n o f a Ri oc ati e u ati o n , an d 55 1 y, , z , by u ad q » q
r atu r es . q
H ence e u ation s (4 8) an d (5 5 ) ar e su ffi ci en t as w ell as
n ecessary, an d c o nsequ en tly ar e q
e u i valent to th e G au ss an d

Co d zz
a i q
e u ati on s .

“
1
C f D ar boux V ol I I , . p . 348 .
.
,
 L IN ES OF CU RV A TU RE 1 71

70 . Linear el e m ent . Lin es of cur v atu r e . Fro m (5 3 ) w e see t h at

th e li n ear ele m en t of th e sur fac e is

? g
5
( )6 (is
( 5 d a ( 1) da 17
,
d i
)
1
.

Hen ce a n ece ssar y an d su f c ien t

fi c on di ti o n t h at th e par a m etr i c

li n es be o rt h o
g on al is

( 5 7) £5. of). 0

For ph ere of ra di us c th e c oo rdina tes of th e cen ter are ( 0 0

a s c) it bei ng , , ,

assum ed th at th e posi ti ve no r mal i s d ire cted ou t w a rds A s this is a fix ed po i n t it .

fo ll ow s fro m eq ua ti ons ( 5 1) tha t w h a te ver be th e va l u e o f d v/d u w e mus t ha ve

fd a fi do (g d u q l d c)c 0,

nd u md v ( p du pl d v)c 0,
and conse quen tl y
5 fl fr 771

( 58 ) q P (1 1 P1

C o nversel y w h en th ese eq uati ons are sa tisfi ed th e po i n t ( 0 0

,
c) is fix ed in sp ace , , , ,

an d there fore th e su r face is a sphe re Mo re o ver suppose th a t w e ha ve a p ro po r

.
,

ti o n su ch as w h ere th e facto r of pm po r ti onali ty is no t ne cessa r il y consta n t .

For th e mo men t ca ll it t W h en th e val ues fro m ( 58 ) are su bs titu ted i n ( 55 ) and

.

red uc ti on is mad e in ac co r d an ce w i th ( 48 ) w e get

E
t Et Et
0, E
to 90 a
n

Hen ce t is consta n t u nl ess Em $ 1 , is ze ro w hi ch from ( 56 ) and 1 , , § 3 1 , is see n to

be possibl e o n l y in case th e su r fa ce is iso tr o pic d evel opa bl e .

By d efin i ti o n 5 1 ) a line o f c ur v atur e is a c u r v e al on

g c w hi h
th e n or mals to th e su r fac e for m a d evelo pable sur face .
V
I h en th e
v er te x is d ispl ac ed alo ng o n e o f t h ese lin es, a p o in t
( 0 , 0, p) m u st

mov e in su c h a w ay t h at 82 :
an d By ar e z er o . H en c e we mu st ha ve

f da + fi d v 071+
ad 0+

n du d — d
n, o
( p u + p, d v)p 0 .

m
Eli i natin g p and d v/du r es ec ti v el
p y , w e obtai n th e e q u ati o n o f

th e lin es o f c ur vatu r e,

( 5 9) ( E d a 4 »
f, d v)( p d a p, d v)
( 7 da
1
m d v)( q d a ql d v
) 0,

an d th e q
e u ati o n o f the pr in c ipal r ad i i ,

60
( )
2
P ( P91 91 1 )
7 P< q 7
_
7
9 77
r 1 (E
_ 71
1
0 1

Fro m ( 5 9) i t foll o ws t a t a n ec essar y an d su ffi ci en t h c o n d iti on

h
t at th e par ametr i c li n es he th e li n es o f c u r vatu r e i s

61
( ) S
P 77
9 0, + :
511 5 ” 1 91 0 °
 FU N D AMEN TAL E U A TI ON S Q
We may r eplace t h ese e qu ati on s by

P Q X E , pl : 0 7 1
1 1 gr 0 1 51 ,

th us i n tr o d u ci ng tw o au x iliary fu n c tio ns k an d 7a . Wh en th ese

v alu es ar e su b sti tu ted i n th e t i r d h of w e h av e

( A 7777
1)
0 °

If x and 7x , ar e equ al, th e b q

a o ve e u ati ons ar e o f th e fo r m
w h i ch w er e seen to be c h ar acter isti c o f th e h
sp er e an d th e i so
t r o pi c d ev elopa le b H en c e th e secon d facto r i s z er o so th at e u a
q
d
.
,

ti on s 6 1 m
( ) y be
a r eplace by

( 6 2) 661 + no. 0, 9
11 5 + qq, = 0,

“
01

(6 3)
Fr o m 5
( )2 i t fol lo w s t h at i n th e latter c ase th e x an d
y
-
ax es ar e

tan g en t to th e c u r v es v = c o n st . an d u = c o n st . We sh all co n sid er

h
t is c ase later .

Fr o m ( 60) an d (5 2 ) w e fin d t h at th e e x pr essi o n for th e total

c u r v atu r e o f th e s u r face is

—
V IEG amto
l

P1 P: 6 77
1
”

w h er e w d en o tes th e an
g l e be t w ee n t h e para m etr ic c u r ves H enc e
d
.

th e t ir h q
of e u ati on s 4
( )8 m a
y b e w r i tten
'

V E G Si n w H 97 ‘
9

a s. a s. av 32+

71 Conju gate di r ections and asy m pt ti o c di rections Sph er ical

d
. .

r epresent ati on . We h ave fo u n 5 4) th t a th e d ir ec ti on i n th e

tang en t plan e j
con u gate to a
g i ven d ir ec ti on is th e c h ar acter i sti c

of h
t is plan e as it en vel o
pes th e su r fac e i n th e g iven d ir ection
d
.

H ence from th e point o f v iew of th e mov i n

g t h
r i e r al, th e d i r ec

d
,

ti on con ug ate j to a isplace m en t, d eter mi n ed by a v alu e o f d v/du ,

is th e lin e i n th e x
yp la n
-
e w ic passes t h h h ro u
g h th e or ig i n , an d

w h ic h d o es n ot ex per i en ce an a solu te b d isplac emen t in th e

d ir ec ti on of the z a
-
x is . Fr om th e t i rd h of e u ati onsq 5
( )1 i t i s

seen th at th e q
e u ation o f th i s li n e i s

(10 da z ad (q d u d
a ore 0 +
 F U N D A MEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
72 . Fu nda m ental r el ati on s and for m u l as . Fr o m q e u ati ons

an d 69
( ) w e h ave, fo r th e poi n t M on th e su r fac e,

Bx By Be
99 9u 9u

Bx By Be
99 91) 9v

BY BZ
9u 9a

BY BZ
90 9U 90

C on se q u en tl
y th e follo w i n
g r elati o n s h old betw een th e fu n d amen tal
coef
fi c i en ts, th e r otatio n s, an d th e tr an slati o n s

E= F= 551 + m7l G=
2
5 51 + 123.
2
+ s

D = pn m pm
’
73
( ) 95 + D =p 95 B =w
”
l 91 61 +
9 = pp1 + 991+
2
9 + < § = pf 93
Wh en i n par tic ular , th e par am etr i c system on a su r face is or th og
,

o n al, an d th e x an d y ax es of th e tr i edr al ar e tan en t to th e c u r v es

g h
v c on st . an d u co n st . th r ou
g h th e v er te x , e q u ati o n s 5
( )2 ar e

(74) O,

an d e q u ati on s (5 5 ) r ed u ce to

1 NE 1 ax /5
f
v yE
a 0.

Mor eov er , e q u atio n s 4

( )5 an d th e si mi lar o n es for p,, q, , r
1
bec om e

_fi c os w u
,

c os w ,

P. p.

Th e fi r st tw o of e q u ati on s 7
( )5 l ead , by m ean s of to

sm to 1 E
9 \/ sm to 1
( 7 7)
,

P. P. x /EG an

w h i ch follo w al so fr o m 58
d
.

Th e t i r h of q
e u ati o n s 7
( )5 establis h es th e fac t, pr e vio u sly
re m ar kd e in § 5 9, t h at th e g eo desi c torsi on i n tw o ort h ogon al
d ir ec tion s difi er s onl
y i n sig n .
 FU N D A MEN TAL REL A T I ON S 1 75

Th e i ti ons of th e di r ection c osi nes X 1 Y Z , o f th e ta ngent to th e c u r ve

var a -

, 1,

v c onst are rep resen ted b y th e mo ti on of th e po i nt ( 1 0 0) of th e t r i hed ra l T0

.
, ,

w ith fix ed ver tex F rom (5 1) w e h ave

.

F th ese equations w e see th at as a po i n t desc r ibes a c ur ve 0 const namel y

r om .
,

C th e tangen t to this c u r ve u nder goes an i nfi nite si mal r o ta ti o n c o nsi sti ng o f tw o

“,

c omponen ts one i n amo u nt r d u ab ou t th e no rmal to th e su r fac e and th e o th er

, ,

g du ab ou t th e l i n e i n th e tangen t pl ane per p e ndic u l ar to th e ta ngen t to

,

C o nseq u en tl y by th ei r d efi n iti on th e geod esic and nor ma l cu r vat u re o f C are

, , .

r/ VE and E respe cti vel y Mo reo ver it is seen fr om ( 72 ) th at as a po i n t

.
,

d esc r ibes C th e nor mal to th e su r fac e u nd er goes a ro tati on consisti ng of t h e co m

.

ponen ts q d a ab ou t th e li ne i n th e ta ngen t pl ane per pe ndic u l a r to th e tangent and ,

p d u a b o u t th e tan gen t Hen c e if C w ere a geod esic th e to s i o n w o u ld be

.
, .
, ,
r

x f
p/ E to w ithi n th e sign a t l eas t T h us b y geo met r ic a l c o ns1d er a ti o ns w e h ave
.

o bta in ed th e fund amen ta l re la ti on s

We su ppo se n o w t h at th e par ametr ic syste m is an

y w h ate ver .

Fro m th e d efi n i ti on o f th e differ en ti al par ameters 3 7) i t foll o w s

th at E H a ,v
2
, G H A ,u .

C on se qu en tly if P , Q, R d en o te fu n c tions si m ilar to p, q, r , fo r a

e ner al c u r ve
g
43 01 1 v
) c o n st .
,

w h i ch passes th r o u gh M an d w h o se tang en t ma k es th e an l
g e
( 1)

w i th th e mov i ng x ax is w e h av e fro m
-
, ,

co s < b “ me w s “

— c os < b

— m
s w d d)
R = H l \/
Al ¢

w h er e
by ( III , 5 1 ) Hf : 1p an d
)
"
4
» c o n st . d efin es
h
any ot er family o f c u r ves .

q
Mor eov er , e u ati ons an alog ou s to (44) ar e
da bR — db cP — R
c Q a

da
1 76 FU N D A MEN TAL E U A TI ON S Q
da 9a d a 9a d v
I f no w 1n
ds 9u d e 9v d s

8a
w e r eplac e th e e

for d b/ds an d
x pr essions fo r
d c/d s w e o btai n
,
an d
gz fro m and si mil ar ly

P ds HI V A c) (p d u + p1 d v)
‘

, s E 1 V A 1 ¢ (q da ql d )
v ,

Rd s E 1 V A 1 ¢ (r d u r
1
dv) .

m th
Fr o ese e u ation s an d
q ( 7 9) w e d er i ve th e follo w in g fun d a

m tlf m
en a or u las :
de cos CD (p d a si n < 1> (q d a ql d v),

I (p du + Pi d v)_C OS ® < q du
008 6
ds 8 111 ( )
gl d )
v ,

2 t? ?
81 m a )
+ r + 7
.

By m ean s o f
‘

t h e last o f e u ati o ns
q ( 8 0) w e s all h e x pr ess th e

g eo d esi c c u r vatu r e of a c ur ve i n ter m s of th e fu n c ti ons E, F, G,

of hi t e r d er ivativ es, and o f th e an
g l e 9 w h ic h th e c u rv e mk a es

w ith th e cu r ve v = con st . If we tak e th e x ax is of

-
th e t ih d
r e ral

tangent to th e cu r v e v c onst .
, we o bt ia n fr o m th e last of

in conse
quen c e of

1 dd N/ E da
pg ds pm d,
s

Fr o m ( III , 1 5 , 1 6) w e o btain

9a) 1
9v H

Wh en h
t is valu e an d th e e x pr essions for p and p ( IV 5 7) are

d
g, ,

su b sti tu te i n th e b
a o v e e u ation , w eq h av e th e for m u la d esir ed

1 4 1 9
+
9F F ar :1 F 9E dv

pf dc 9a 2 a 9a 2 av 2 11 E 91:d e

EX AMPLES

1 . A fi
necessary and sufci ent c onditi on th at th e or igi n of th e tr ih ed ral T be th e
o n l y po i n t i n th e movi ng ay p lane w hich genera te s a sur face to w hich this plane is
-

tangent is th at th e sur face be nond evelopab le

,
.
1 78 FU N D A MEN TA L EQ UA TI ON S

w e m u st h av e 8z O, an d c on se u e n tly,q by e u atio n s q t m u st

be a co n stan t, wh i ch may h av e any v alu e w atever h . We h ave,

th er efo r e, th e t h eor em

If segmen ts of consta n t leng th be lai d the n or ma ls to

P
o
fi u
p on a su r

face , these seg men ts bei ng mea su r ed fr om th e su rfa ce, th e locu s of their
oth er en d
poi n ts i s a su r
f a ce w ith the sa me n or ma ls a s the g i ven f
su r a ce .

T h ese tw o su r faces ar e said to be pa r a llel . Ev i den tly t h er e is

an in fin ity of su r faces
par allel t o a g i v en su r fac e, an d all of thm e

h av e th e sam e S h
p er i c al r epr esen tati on .

C o n sid er th e su r fac e fo r w i c t h as th e v al ue h h a , an d c all it S .

Fr om (5 1 ) i t follo w s t h at th e p j i
r o ec t o n s o n th e a x es of T of a dis
place m en t o n S h av e th e v alu es

85 Ed u fl d v ( q du d
ql )v a,

83 —
7 nd u nl d v
(p d u
C o mpar in g t h ese r esu l ts w i th w e see t h at th e d i splac em en ts
on th e tw o su r faces co r r es o n d in
p g to th e sam e v al u e o f d o/du ar e

par allel o n l
y i n c ase e q u ati o n 5
( )9 i s sat isfi ed , th at i s, w h en th e

poi n t d esc r i bes a l in e o f c u r v atu r e o n S . B u t fr o m a c h ar ac ter i sti c

p ro rt
p y
e o f li n es o f c u r v atu re 5 1 ) i t follo w s t h at th e li n es of c u r v a

tu r e on th e tw o su r fac es c o r r es on d
p . Hen ce w e h av e th e t h eor e m

Th e ta ng en ts to cor r es
p on di ng li nes f
o cu r va tu r e o f tw o p a r allel

f
su r a ces a t c or r es
p on d i n
g poi n ts ar e
p ar allel .

Fr om 8
( )2 an d
( 73 ) we h ave th e follo w i ng e x pr essi on s for th e
fi rst fund amen tal qu an ti ti es o f S :
z
E E 2 d B a é,
ah}
’
F =F 2 aD + a

G= G ” z
2 g
'

aD + a ,

or , in q
c o nse u e n ce o f I
( V,

G=G
”
+ I) a
 P A RAL L EL SU RFA CES 1 79

Th e m ov in g tr i h ed r al fo r S c an be ta k en parallel to T for S,

an d t h us th e r ota ti o n s ar e th e same fo r bo t h t ih r ed ral s ; an d fr o m

82
( ) i t follo ws t h at th e tr an slati on s h av e th e v alu es

= — —
f f + 0 9a 0
P , nl z
nl a
pl '

On su bsti tu ti n g in th e q
e u atio n s fo r S an alog ou s to
w e obtai n th e fun damen tal q
e u ati o ns for S i n ter ms of th e fun c tion s

for S . A ls o fr om 73
( ) w e h av e th e foll o wi ng x pr essi ons
e for th e
sec o n d fu nd amen tal c o ef
fi c i en ts for S

D = D — Ma U
_ z DL w fi 1) = D — m£

Sin c e th e c en ters of i r nc i pal c ur vatu r e of a s u rfac e an d i ts

p
para llel at c o r r espo n d i n g poi n ts ar e th e sa me, i t follo ws t h at

= =
( 86 ) P1 P1 + a’
p2 P2 + a '

Su ppose t h at w e h a ve a s u r fac e w h ose to ta l c u r va tu r e is con stan t

an d e q u al to l /e
z
Ev i d en tly h
a Sp er e o f rad i u s c is of t ish k i n d,
III )
.

bu t later ( C h a
pte r V it w ill be s h o wn h h t at t er e is a lar g e g ro u p
o f s u r faces w h
i th t is pr o per ty . We ca ll th m ph e s er i c a l su r a ces f .

Fr om ( 8 6 ) w e h av e
a 5
)0 2 “
a
) = 0
2
,

so t h at if w e ta k e a = :
t c, w e obtai n

1 1 — 1
i ~

0
a P

H ence w e h av e th e t h eor e m of Bonn et :

With ever y su r a ce o f f con stan t tota l c ur vatu r e l/c ther e

2
a r e a sso

ci a ted tw o su r f a c es o f mea n cu r va tu r e ziz 1 /c ; they ar e

p a r a llel to the

for mer an d at the d ista nces 3F c fr om i t .

A nd c o n v ersely,

With e ve r
y f
su r a ce w hose mea n c u r va tu r e is c on sta n t a n d d ifl er en t
'

fr o m z er o ther e a r e assoc ia ted tw o pa r a llel su r fa ces , on e of w h i ch h a s

consta n t tota l c u r va tu r e a n d the ot her con sta n t mea n c u r va tu r e .

74 . Su r faces of cen ter . As po i nt M mov es o v er a su rface S

a

th e corr espo n d i n c en ter s o f r i n c i al c u r v atu r e M an d AI d esc r i be

g p p , ,

tw o su r fac es S, an d w h ic h ar e c alled th e f
su r a c es Qf cen ter of S .

L et C , an d 0 2 be th e li n es o f c u r vatu r e o f S t h r ou h
g M, an d D , an d
I) , th e d ev elopable su r fac es for med by th e n o r mals to S al o n
g C,
N o u velles a n n a les de m a th ema ti qu es Ser 1 V ol X II
‘

,
.
, . p .
1 80 FU N DAMEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
and C, r espectivel
y . Th e edge o f r e
g r essi on o f D
,,
d en ote db y
is a c u r v e on S, ( see fig . an d con se u en tl
y q S, is th e loc u s of

o ne set of evolu tes o f th e cu r v es 0, on S . Si m il ar l S

y 2 i s th e l o c u s

o f a set o f ev olu tes of the c u r ves 02 on S For t is h r eason S, an d

d
.

S, ar e sai to c on sti tu te th e evolu te of S, an d S is t h ei r i nvolu te

d
.

Evi en tly any su rfac e par all el to S i s also an inv ol u te o f S an d

,
S2 .

Th e lin e M, M2 , of D , , i s tang en t to I M,
‘
as a en er ator at
g , ,

an d , as a
g ener ator o f D , , i t i s tang en t to I
“

2
at M, . H ence i t is a

mm t
co on ang en t o f th e su r faces S, an d S, .

F m th i
ro s i t follow s t h at th e d ev elopa le b
su r fac e D , m eets S, alo n an d en v elopes
‘

g I ,

S2 al on g a c u r veI ts g en er ators ar e co n
se u en tly tan g en t to th e c u r ves c o n u ate
q g j
to I ; In par ticu l ar , th e gen er ator
‘

M, M2 i s tan g en t to F2 , an d t h er efor e th e
d ir ec ti ons of I
“
an d I; “
at M, ar e con u j g ate
d
.
2 ,

Si m il ar r esults follo w fr o m th e consi er a

ti on of D2 . H en ce
On the f
su r aces o f cen ter f
o a su r ace f S
the cu r ves cor r es
p on d n
g i to the li n es o
f cu r

va tu r e o f S for m a c on ug ate systemj .

Sin ce th e d ev elopable D, en v elopes S2 ,

th e tang en t pl an e to S2 at M2 i s th e tang ent
FI G 1 7.

h
plan e to D , at t is poi n t B u t th e tang en t .

plan e at 1112 is tang en t to D , all alo ng M, M2 an d c o n se u en tly q

d m
i t i s eter in ed by M,M2 and th e tang en t to C, H ence th e at M
k
.

n or m al to S at M2 i s par allel to th e tan g en t to 0 2 at M I n li e .

m ann er th e n or m al to S, at M, is par allel to th e tangent to C, at M

, .

T h h
u s, t r ou
g h eac h n or mal to S w e h ave tw o per pendi c ular plan es,
o f w hi h c one is tang ent to on e su r face o f c en ter an d th e o t er to h
th e secon d su r fac e . Bu t eac h of th ese pl an es is at th e same ti m e

tang ent to on e o f th e dev elopables, an d i s th e osc u latin g plan e of

i ts e d g e o f r e ressi on
g . H ence , at ev er y p oi n t o f on e oft h ese c u r ves,

th e l
osc u latin g
a n i s n d i u l r to th e tan en t l an e to th e
p e er
p p e c a g p
sh eet o f th e evo lu te u po n w ic h h
i t lies, an d so w e ave th e t eor e m h h
The edg es o f r eg r essi on o f the d evelopa ble su r a ces f for med by the
n or mals to a su r ace along the one fami ly ar e
f li nes f
o cu r va tu r e f
o
 FU N D AM EN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
n or mal sam e
po si ti ve or n eg ati ve . A n d th e to S, h as th e dir ec tion
as th e tan g en t to v c on st on S, an d th e c o n tr ar or sa me sen se
.
y
ac cor di ngly .

If t h en w e i n di cate w i th an ac cen t q u an ti ti es r efer r i n

g to th e
m o vi n
g tri h ed r al T, , w e h av e

, ’
23 z p y y,
e ex ,

'
h = cl) , ea ,

w h er e e i s zk i ac cor d in g as
( 1 p, p2 ) i s
posi ti ve or ne
g ativ e . Fr om
8
( )9 i t foll o w s th at

m/5 1 P
” F
v= a= o .

Wh en th e v alu es ( 91 ) ar e su bsti tu ted in q

e u ati o n s for T, si m ilar

: :
to q
e u ati o n s w e fin d

i
p r,
g e
q’ T 6
p 0,
9
( )3
7 1,
_ 0i
p l 9 1
5
91 p,
e .

Si n c e r
’
is z er o , i t follo w s fr om ( 76 ) t h at th e c u r v es v c onst . ar e

g eod esic s, as fou n d g eo metr i c ally .

Th e var i o u s fu n d amen tal e u atio n s fo r S, m ay n ow be o tai n ed q b

b h
by su stitu ti n g t ese v al u es i n th e co r r espon d ing equ ati on s o f th e

pr ec e in
g sd
e c ti o n s T u s, fr om
( 7 3 ) w e.av e h h
apl apl
E, 3 1
au 8 v

w h ic h foll o w l i kw e ise fr o m an d al so

G
:
0 0? 8a 6
p. 9p?
( 95 ) ” ’ D“ 0’
or; an
I
p. eu p

H en ce th e par ametr i c c u r v es on S, for m a co n u j g ate syste m

cf.
(
Th e e u ation o f
q th e lin es o f c u r vatu r e may be w r i tten
3p 8p 8p 8p
96 Ed
?
dv +
( ) T it
EE /
r
,

and th e e q u ati on o f th e asym pto ti c d ir ecti on s i s

:
E el 2 — 9 93 2
dv = 0
2

?W
-

e M
.

p
 SUR FA C ES OF C EN TER l 83

Th e ex pr ession for K , , th e to tal c u r v atu r e o f S, , i s

Fr o m (8 0) an d ( 93 ) i t foll o ws t h at th e g eo d esi c c u r v atu r e at AI , of

th e c u r v e on S, w hi c h ma k es th e an l
g e I , wi th
( ) th e c u r ve v co nst .

th r ou
g hM ,
i s g i ven by

1 d d) ,

pg d s1

H enc e th e r ad iu s o f
g eo d esi c c u r va tu r e o f a c u r v e
p, c o n st .
, th at

is , a c u r ve for w h ic h ( I) , is a r ig ht an
g le, h as , i n c o n se qu en c e o f

th e p, v al u e
p, . In ac c o r d an ce w ith 5 7 th e cen ter o f g eo

d esi c c ur vat ur e i s fo u n d by measur i ng off th e d ista nc e p, p, , i n th e

n eg ati ve d ir ec tio n , o n th e z ax i s o f th e tr i ed ral T C o nse u en tly

-
h . q
M, i s t ish cen ter o f c u r v atu r e . H en c e we h ave th e follo win g t h eo

re m of Beltr ami

Th e cen ter s o f g eod esic cu r va tu r e o f the c ur ves

p, = c on st . on S,
and o f p, co n st on S, ar e the cor r es on di ng poi nts on S, an d S,
.

p
r es
p ect velyi .

For th e s h e et S, of th e ev ol u te w e fin d th e follo wi n g r es ul ts

d s§ = E

th e e q u ation o f th e lin es o f c u r vat u r e is

aP 3
—
gj
‘

( 96 ) r du p.> du d v

q
th e e u atio n of th e asympto tic lin es is

E 2 G 8
f
0”
"

i8v f do _ 0 ;
2

pl P2

th e ex pr essi on fo r th e to tal c u rv atu r e is

apl
6v
l
(9 . al 392
a
v
1 84 FU N DA MEN TAL E U A TI ON S Q
In con se q uen ce of t h ese r esu l ts w e ar e led to th e follo w i ng
t h eor e m s of Ribau c ou r fi th e pr oof of w ic ‘
h h we leav e to th e r ea d er :
A ci en t c ond i ti on tha t the lin es
n ecessa r y an d su fii f c ur vatu r e upon
o

an d S, d i s tha t p = h =
S, p cor r es
,
on
p, c
( a )
con stan t ; t en K ,
K ,

a nd th e a s m toti c li n es u on S a nd S cor r es on d
y p p , , p .

A n ecessar y a nd sufiici en t con d i ti on tha t the a symptoti c li n es on S,

a nd S, cor r es on d
p i s that ther e ex i st a fu n ction al r ela ti on betw een p,
an d
p, .

76 . Su r faces co m pl e mentary t o a gi ven su r face . We h av e j u st

seen t h at th e n or mals to a su r face ar e tang en t to a fa m ily of

g eo

d e sics o n eac h su r fac e of c en ter s . Now we pr ove th e conv erse :

The tang en ts to family of g eodesi cs
a on a su r ace f S, ar e n or ma l
to an i nfini ty of pa r allel su rfa ces .

L et th e g eo d esic s an d t h eir or t o on al
g h tr a j ec tor i es be ta k en for
th e c u r v es v c on st . an d u c on st . r es
pec ti v ely, an d th e par a m
eter s c h osen so t h at th e li n ear el e m en t h as th e for m
2 2
d sf d u + G, d v .

We r efer th e su r face to th e tr i e
by th e tang ents to h d r al for m ed

th e par a m etr i c c u r ves an d th e n or mal, th e x ax is eing tang en t to -

b
th e c u r v e v co n st U pon th e latter w e lay ofi fr o th e poi nt 111,
. m
of th e su r face a len g t h X an d let P d en o te th e o th er e x tr em i ty
d
.
,

As M, m ov es ov er th e su r face th e pro j ec tion s o f th e c or r espon ing

d i splace m en ts of P h ave th e v alu es

9
( )9 d x + du , 7t (q d a d
g, )o .

In or d er t h at th e loc u s of P be n or m al to th e lin es M,P , we

m u st h av e dx da O, and c o n se u en tl
y q
K u c,

w h er e c d enotes th e c o n stan t o f i nteg r ation w h ose valu e d eter mi n es

a p ar ti cu lar on e o f th e fa m ily o f par allel su r fac es If th e d ir ec tion

d
.

c osi nes of M, P w i th r efer en c e to fix e a x es be X Y, , Z , , th e

d
,,

w hich
‘

c oor in ates of th e su r face S, for c = O, ar e g i v en by

m= — uX = — uY , z = z — u Z ,,
fc
, ,, y y, , ,

w h er e m, , y, , z, ar e th e c oor d in ates o f M, .

Comptes Ren dus , V ol L X X I V

. p . 1 399 .
1 86 FU N DA MEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
3 ter mi ne th e c o nj ugate syste ms u p on a su r fac e su ch th at th e co r r esp ondi ng
. De
c ur ves o n a p ar all el su r fac e fo r m a c onj ugate system .

4 . De ter mi ne th e ch ar acter o f a su r face S su ch th at i ts asymptotic li nes c o r re

spo nd to c o nj ug a te li nes u p o n a p a r all el su r fac e a nd fi nd th e l a tter su r fa ce , .

5 h ow th at w hen th e p ar ametr ic c u r ves ar e th e li nes of c u r vatu r e o f a su r fa ce

. S ,

th e ch ar a ct er i stics o f th e yz pl an e and see pl an e r esp ecti vel y o f th e mo vi ng tr i h e

- -

d r al w h ose x ax is is tangen t to th e c ur ve v c onst a t th e p oi n t are gi ven b y

-
.

(r d u rl d v)y q (z p1 )d u 0,

(r d u + r 1 d v)x — pl (z p2 )dv 0;

and s ow h
th at th ese equ ati ons gi ve th e di r ecti ons on th e su r fa es c SI an d S2 w hich
ar e c on j uga te to th e di r ecti on d et er m i ned b y d v/du .

6 . Sh ow
th at for a c anal su r fac e 2 9) one su r fac e of c en ters is th e c u r ve of
c en ter s of th e sph er es and th e o th er i s th e p ol ar d evel op abl e of thi s cu rve .

7 . Th e su r fa es of c cen ter of a h elicoid ar e h elic o id s of th e sa me ax is and

p arameter as th e gi ven su r fa e c .

GENERAL EX AMPLES

F
1 . I f t is

i magi nary fun cti on th en A

an i n teg r ati ng
2
fa

log v tto i s
ctor of VE d u
l
l to th e o a u r vatu r e of th e qu ad ratic
eq u a t t lc
E
d v, and to th e c o n j u g at e
,

for m E du 2 2 F d ud u G d v2 , all th e fu n cti o n s i n th e l atter b ei ng r eal .

2 . th at th e sph er e is th e onl y r eal su r fac e su ch th at i ts fi r st and sec ond

Sh ow
fu nd amen t al q u ad r a tic for ms can b e th e sec o nd and fi r st fo r ms r esp ecti vel y o f
an o th er su r fa c e .

3 Sh o w th at th er e ex i sts a su r fac e r efer r ed to i ts li nes o f c u r vatu r e w ith th e

.

li near el emen t ds2 e m( da2 d v2 ) w h er e a is a c onstan t and th at th e su r face is

‘
, ,

d evel op abl e .

4 W hen a m i ni mal su r fac e i s r efer r ed to i ts mi n i mal li n es

.

D M u ),
D = 0,
’
D
”
:
h en ce th e li nes of cu r vatu r e and asym ptotic li nes c an be found b y q u ad ratu r es .

5 . Est abli shll ow i ng id en titi es i n w hich

th e fo th e di ffer en ti al p ar ameters ar e

fo r med w ith r espe ct to th e li near el emen t

2 2
X X
( :X _3
1
A1 a, ) ,

PI P2
X Y1 X 2 Y2
. c u ,
Y)
pi pz

6 . Pr ove th at ( cf . Ex . 2, p . 160)

X 1 5 l

x /i 5 “ P1

a” P1 P2
 G EN ERAL EX A MP L ES 1 87

7 . Sh ow
th at x y
? z W 2 A1 W 2 2
,

th e d iffere n ti al p ara me te r be i ng for med w ith respe ct to

8 . A c
cien t c ondition th at all th e cu r ves of
n e essa r y and su f
fi an o r th ogonal
syste m o n a su r face be geo d esics is th a t th e su r fac e b e d e vel op abl e .

9 . geod esic cur vatu re of th e c u r ves of an o r thogonal system is c onstan t

If th e
d ifi fr om ze ro ) all o ver th e su r fac e th e l atte r is a su r fac e of c onsta n t n ega ti ve
( ere n t ,

cur vatu re .

1 0 Wh en th e linear el emen t of a su r fac e is i n th e for m

.

d s2 da 2 cos : dude dvfi 2

a
,

th e p arametr ic c ur ves are said to for m a n equ id i sta nti al system Sh ow tha t i n .

case th e co or di na tes of th e su rfac e ar e in te gral s of th e system

an 6211 62 2
cu be E
u év

by cz az éy Ez éz Ez é z Ez Ey 2r 2 g

cu bs au av 611 6 0 6 11 611 . cu t e av Eu

11 . I f th e cur ves v
c onst u co nst for m an equ idista n ti al system th e tan
.
,
.
,

gen ts to th e c ur ves 1) const are or th ogonal to th e l ines j o in ing th e c en te rs of geo

.

des ic cur vature of th e cur ves u c ons t and of th eir or th ogonal t raj ecto r i es . .

1 2 Of all th e displ ac emen ts of a t r ih ed ra l T c or respo n di n g to a small di spl a ce

.

men t of i ts ver tex M over th e su r face th ere ar e tw o w hich re du ce to r o ta ti ons ; th ey

o cc u r w h en M d esc r ibes e i th er o f th e li n es o f c ur va tu re thro u gh th e po i n t a nd th e ,

ax es o f ro ta ti o n are situa te d i n th e pl anes pe pe n dic u l ar to th e l ines o f c ur va tur e r

,

each ax is p assi ng thr ou gh one of th e ce n te rs o f p r i n cip al cur vatu re .

1 3 Wh en a sur fac e is re ferred to i ts li nes of c u r vature th e c u r ves d efi n ed b y

.
,

6m 8m 392 2 fps
2 — da3 i 3 q2 — d 1¢2d 1) 3 1912 — d ud v2 i — d v3 :0
q PI
" “ ‘ ‘

a“ 51) Eu 61)
possess th e p ro per ty th at th e nor mal secti ons in these di recti ons at a poin t are
st r ai ght lin es o r ar e superosc ul ate d b y th ei r c i r cl es o f c u r vatu re ( cf Ex
,
9 p 21 ; . .
,
.

Ex 6 p 1 7
.
,
Th ese cur ve
. s are ca ll ed th e superoscul ati ng li nes of th e su r fac e .

1 4 Sh ow th at th e supe r osculati ng lin es o n a sur fa ce and o n a p arall el sur fac e

.

c or r espo nd .

15 . S h ow th at th e G auss equ ati on ( 64 ) can be pu t i n th e fo l ow l i ng for m d ue to

Li ou vrlIe
'

V E G si n to a

w h ere p and pw d enote th e rad ii of geo d esic c ur vatur e of th e c ur ves v c onst and
a.
.

u co nst respectivel y. .

1 6 Wh en th e p ar ametr ic cur ves for m an o r th ogonal system th e equa ti on of

.
,

Ex 1 5 may b e w r itten
.

1 1 a

pi pe V6 “

17 ter mi ne th e sur fac es w hich are su ch tha t one of them an d a p ar allel

. De
di vide har moni ca ll y th e segmen t betw een th e cen ters of p r in cip al c ur vatu re .
1 88 FU N DA MEN TA L E U A TI ON S Q
18 . ter mi ne th e sur fac es w hich ar e su ch th at
De o ne of th em and a par al l el
ad mit o f an e qu i val en t r ep r esen ta ti on ( cf Ex 14 p . .
, . 1 13 ) w ith li nes of c u rvatu re
c or respondi ng .

1 9 D er i ve th e fol low i ng pr op er ti es of th e su rface

.

a2 b2 uv
’ z
ab n + o . b u + v u + v

( i ) th e p ar amet r ic li nes are pl an e li nes of cu r vature ;

( ii ) th e p r i n cip al radii of cur vature are p1 v, P2 u ;
( iii ) th e su r fac e is algeb r aic of th e four th or d er ;
( i v) th e su r fac es of c en ter ar e fo c al c on ics .

20 . G i ven cu r ve 0 u p on a su r fac e S and th e r uled sur face for med by th e tan

a

gents to S w hich are p er pendicu l ar to C at i ts p oi n ts M ; th e p oi nt of each generator

MN at w hich th e tangen t pl ane to th e r u l ed su r face is p er pendic u l ar to th e ta n
gen t pl ane at M to S is th e cen ter of geod esic c u r vatur e of C at M ; w h en th e r ul ed
su rfac e i s d evel op abl e this c en ter of geod esic cu r vatu re is th e p oi n t of c on ta ct of
,

MN w ith th e edge of reg ressi on .

2 1 I f tw o su r fac es h ave th e same sph er ic al rep r esen tati on of th ei r li nes of

.

cu rvatu r e th e lo cus of th e p oi n t di vidi ng th e j o i n of c or r esp ondi ng p oi n ts i n con

,

stan t r a ti o i s a su r face w ith th e same r ep resen ta ti on .

2 2 Th e lo c us o f th e c en ters of geod esic c u r vatu re of a li ne of cu rvatu re i s an

.

evo l u te o f th e l atter .

2 3 Sh ow th a t w h en E F G ; D D D of a su rfac e are fun cti ons o f a si ngl e

’ ”
.
, , , ,

p ar ameter th e su r face is a h elic oid or a su rface of revol u ti on

, , .
1 90 Y
S STEMS OF C U RV ES

th i t may be th e lin ear el emen t o f a su r fac e r efer r ed to i ts asymp

at

toti c li n es W en t ese c on ditio ns ar e satisfi ed th e fun c tion D is

h h ’

k
.

g i ven by ( 2 ) to w ith i H en ce i f w e ma e
n Si n
g .
, no disti nc tion be
tw een a su r fac e an d i ts symme t ri c w i th r espec t to a poi n t, fr om 65
follo w s th e t h eo r e m
A n ecessa r y a n d su fii ci en t con d i ti on tha t a
q u a d r a ti c for m (6) be
the li n ear ele men t of
f f
a su r a ce r e er r ed to i ts ymptoti c lin es i s that
as

i ts c oefi ci en ts sa ti sfy equ a ti on s (3 ) w hen they a r e sa ti sfied , the su rfa ce

is u n i qu e .

For pl e suppose th at
ex am ,
th e to tal cu r vatu r e of th e su r fa e c i s th e same at

e ver y po i n t thus ,

w h er e a is a c onstan t . In thi s c ase equ ati on s (3) ar e

GE aE
G F
é
g F—
60 on as

w hich ,
i c
s n e H2 0, q
ar e e ui va en l t to

8E
81)

H ence E i s a fu n cti on of u al one and G a fun cti on of al one By a u itabl e ch o ice

,
v . s

o f th e p a ame ter s th ese t w o fu n cti o ns may b e gi ven th e val u e a so th a t th e li n ear

r 2
,

el emen t o f th e su r fa c e c an b e w i tten r

( 7) d s2 a2 ( d u 2 2 c os (0 d u dv

w h er e d eno tes th e angl e b et w een th e asymptotic li nes Th us far th e C od az z i eq u a

0) .

ti ons are satisfi ed and o nl y th e G au ss equ ati on ( V 12 ) r emai ns to b e consid er ed ,

.

When th e ab ove val ues ar e su b stitu ted thi s b ec omes ,

62 0:
Si n (0 .

ou av

Hence
‘

to l ti on of thi s equ ati on th ere c or resp ond s a su rfac e of c onstant

ever y so u
1
c u r vatu r e —2 w h ose l i near el ement 18 g i ven b y
a

v
Th e eq u ati on of th e li nes o f c ur v atu r e i s d u2 0 so th at i f w e pu t
v
ct l ,

it 2 ul u 2 t n th e q u an titi es u l and vl ar e p ar ame ter s of th e li n es o f ou r

, ,

vatu r e and i n ter ms o f th ese th e eq u a ti o n of th e asympto tic li nes i s d u

2 2
, ,
d v, 0 .

Hen c e w h en eith er th e asympto tic li nes or th e li nes of c u r vatu r e ar e k now n u p on

,

a su r fac e of c onst an t c u r vatu r e th e o th er syste m can b e fou nd by q u ad r atu res

,
.

Wh en th e a sympto ti c li nes ar e p ar am etr i c , th e G au ss e q u ati o n s

( V 7 m
) y
a be w r itten 2
,
39 59 99
a
?
an ou av
9
8 6 80 89
2

+ a b
+ l — = O,
2 1
8v 8u av
 AS YM PT OTI C L IN ES

wh er e a, b, c
l,
b, ar e d ete r mi n ate fun c ti ons of u an d v, an d in
co ns e u eu ce of 5
q
ao ab,
1
( )0

C o n v er sely, i f tw o su c h q e u atio n s ad mi t t h r ee r eal li n ear ly i n d e

pen d ent i n te g r als fl ( u v f

) ( u f3 (u r
) th e q
e u ati o n s

z
, , 2 , , ,

=f =f
T
“
1 ( u’ v
) ’ y v
) , 3 ( u ’ T
)
d e fin e a su r fac e o n w h ic h th e par ametr ic c u r v es ar e th e as m
y ptoti c
lin es . Fo r , by th e eli m i natio n o f a b a
, , , , bl fr om th e si x e q u ati ons

o btai n ed by re
plac i n
g 9 i n 9
( ) by x , y , 2 w e
g e t

c a :8y 2
2
3
2 6
2
2 : Ey
g
2
2
2
?
81"
3 2
Eu
3
60
2x oy 61 : 3 1/
cu Eu Eu E
u tu

2x oy 82 E
y
av Ev Ev av

w hi hc q
ar e e u i v al en t to in c o nse q u en c e o f

As an ex am pl e c onsid er
,
th e e q u a tio ns
82 0 62 8

ca?
3
60

of w hich th e ge nera l i n tegr a l is m m bu on d w h ere a b c d ar e c o nstan ts , , , ,

.

B y ch oosi ng th e fi x ed ax es su i ta bl y th e mos t gen er a l fo r m o f th e eq ua ti o ns o f th e ,

su r fa ce may be pu t i n th e for m

x but cm 11 bu 6 13 a su v bsu eav z 2 ,

Fr o m th ese equ ati ons it is seen that all th e a ym pto tic li nes are straight li nes so s ,

th a t th e su face is a q u ad r ic Moreo ver by th e el i mi nati on o f u and o fro m these

r .
,

equ a ti o ns w e h ave an eq u ati on o f th e fo r m 2 as ? 2s y by? ca: d y Hen c e .

th e su r fac e is a p ar abo l o id .

78 . Sph er i cal r epr esentati on of asy m pt oti c li nes Fr o m (I V , 7 7)

.

w e h av e t h at th e to tal cu r v atu re o f a su r fac e, r efer r ed to i ts as m

y p
to tic li n es, m ay be ex p r esse d i n th e fo r m

1
( )1 '
a
D

w h er e /
; = f
55 — 5
2
, th e l i n ear el e m e nt of th e h
sp er i c al r epr esen

ta ti o n bein g do } : fdu z
i 2 § d ud v fi du z
'

B a r bo ux , h ul d b n tic d th at t h b
V ol I , . p . 1 38 es l t
. h w s th at th
It s o e o e e a o ve r u s o e

c n d i ti n th t q uati ns ( 9) ad mit thr ee i nd pend nt in t grals ca i es w i th it not nl y

o o a e o e e e rr o

( 10) b t ll o th c n di ti ns of i ntegrab ility

u a er o o .
 SY STEMS OF C U RV ES

Fr o m th i s r esult and 2
( ) i t follo w s t h at

!
D
12 P
/
>
f

H en ce th e fu n da m ental r elati o ns
( V , 74) r ed u ce to
I

l
( 3) E p é,
2
F p9 ,
2
G 2
p 5,
an d e
qu ati on s
( V , 26 ) may be wr itten

14
ar p 3X 81 : p 3X
an /f
> Bu av /
7
f ou

Mor eover , th e C o d zz a i q
e u ati on s
( V , 2 7) are r ed u ci bl e

I
8 log p a log p
1
( )5
bu av

C o n sid er n ow th e c onv erse pr o leb m

To d eter min e the c on di ti on to be sa ti s ed
p fi m etr i c s stem
by
y a ar a

f lin es on the
o s
ph er e i n or d er tha t they may ser ve as the spher i ca l

re
p r esentati on f the asymptoti c lin es
o on a su r ace f .

First of all, e q u ation s 1

( )5 m u st sati sfy th e cond i tion o f i n te
g r a

bili ty T h en p is obtai n able by a q d

u a r atu r e Th e cor respon d i n g

zf d
. .

v alu es of x y ou n fr o m equ ation s 1

( )4 an d fr o m si milar on es

d
, ,

ar e th e c oor i nates of a su r face u pon w h ic h th e asy mpt otic li nes

ar e par a m etr i c . Fo r , i t follo w s fr o m 1
( )4 t h at

3
3
_ 3Jf
_
__ :
82 8X
1
( )6
bu Bu av av

Fu r t h m er or e, p i s d eter ine m d
to w it i n a c o nstan t factor ; c o use h ~

q u en tly th e same i s tr u e of x , y, z ; t er efor e th e su r face i s u n i u e h q

to w ith in h om h
ot etic tr an sfor ati ons m
H ence w e av e th e follow i ng . h
th eor e m of D in i :
A n ecessar y a n d su fii ci en t con di ti on tha t a d ou ble fami ly of cu r ves
u
p th
on e s her e be the s her i ca l r e r esen ta ti on o
p p p f th e as m
y ptoti c li nes

u on a su rfa ce i s tha t (5, 3 , g sa ti s

f y the e u ati on
q
p

1
( )7
bu

the cor r es on di ng su r a ces a r e f homotheti c tr a nsfor ms of one an other ,

p
a n d thei r Ca r tesia n coor fou nd by qu ad r a tu r es
d in ates ar e .

Th e ch ice p
o D // f gi v es th e su fac e symmet r ic to th e one corr espo n d i ng to
’
r
;
as is see n fro m and h nce may b e negl ected
e .
1 94 SY STEMS OF CU RV ES

By m eans o f (V , 2 2 ) and 1 5 w e fi n d fr o
( ) m ( 2 0) th at th e common

1 bK/fi
r atio of t h ese e q n atio n s is
J\
r
C . C o nse q u en tly v
1,
v
2 , v
3
o

al e
\/P bu bv
solu ti on s o f th e e q u ati on
2
b9
bu bv

C on ver sely, w e h av e th e t h eor e m

G i ven thr ee pa r ti cu la r i n teg r a ls v1 , v
2,
v
, f
o an e u a ti on o
q f thefor m
2
3 9
bu bv

w h er e X is yf
an u n cti on w ha tever fu
o an d v ; th e su rfa ce, w hose co

or d i n ates ar e g i ven by the cor r espon d in

g qu a d r a tu r es ha s the

p ar a metr ic cu r ves for as

ymptoti c li nes, an d th e tota l cu r va tu r e of the

f
su r a ce i s measu r ed by

ma
1 1
K :
f W+ fi + fi f
For , fr o m i t is r ead il
y seen t h at v v v ar e r
p po o r ti on al to
d
1, 2, ,

th e i r ec tio n c osin es of th e n or mal to th e su rface A nd i f t h ese

d
-
.

i r ec ti on -
cosin es be g iv en by w e ar e r ou
g t to b h fr o m
w h ich w e see h
t at th e con di tion s ( 1 6 ) ar e satisfi ed .

62
Tak e, fo r ex a mpl e, th e si mp lest c ase
54
u av
0, an d th r ee sol u ti ons

(u) (i 1 , 2 , 3)

Th e c oordi nates of th e su rfac e ar e

a :¢ a¢ s rm f ( ¢ z¢ é da f orm ; rared v,

and s i mil ar ex p r essi ons for y and 2 . W h en ,

in p ar ticu l ar ,
we take
(u) a m
. b, , ia / (0 ) a m fi, ,

th e exp r essi ons for cc y z , ,

ar e of th e fo r m auv bu on d ,
an d c onsequen tly th e
su r fac e i s a p ar ab ol oid .

Fr o m q
e u ati o n s (V 22 3 4 ) i t foll o ws t h at w h en th e asympto ti c

Y
, ,

lin es ar e par ametr ic , th e tan g en tial co br din ates X , , Z, W ar e

solu ti on s of th e e u ation s q
 CON J U G A TE S STE Y M
S 1 95

EX AMPLES

1 . U po n a n on d evel opabl e sur fac e str aight li nes are th e o n y l pl ane as ym pto tic
li nes .

2 . Th eptotic li n es on a min i ma l sur face for m an or th ogonal iso th er mal

asym

syste m an d th ei r sph er ic a l i mages also fo r m su ch a syst em

,
.

3 Sh ow tha t of all th e su r fac es w i th th e lin ear el emen t d s2

. (i n? ( u 2 a ? dv"
) ,

o n e h as th e p ar ame t r ic c u r ves fo r asympto tic l in es an d an o th er for li n es of c u r va

t ur e D eter min e th ese tw o surfac es

. .

4 Th e no rma ls to a r u l ed su rface al o ng a g
. en er at or are p ara ll el to a pl an e .

P r ove c on verse l y b y mean s of th e for mu las of L e li eu vr e th a t i f th e n o r ma l s to a

, ,

s urfa c e a l o ng th e asympto tic li n es i n one syste m are p ar a ll el to a pl an e w hich

‘

d iffe s w ith th e c u r ve th e su rfac e is r u l ed

r
,
.

5 If w e ta k e 1
. u v v th e fo r m u l as o f L eli eu vre d efin e th e
,
i n),
,
v3

most gener al r ight c ono id .

6 I f th e asympto tic lin es i n o n e system o n a s ur fa c e be r ep resen ted o n th e

.

sph ere b y g reat cir cl es th e su r fac e i s r ul ed ,

.

80 . Conju gat e syste m s of par a m etr i c li n es . I nv er si ons . It i s ou r

u
p pr o se n o w to c o n si d er th e c ase w h er e th e par ametr i c li n es of a

su r fac e fo r m a co n u j g ate system . As t h us d efi n ed, th e c h arac ter

i sti c s o f th e tan g en t plan e, as i t en v el ops th e su r fac e al ong a c u r ve

v co n st , ar e th e tan g en ts to th e c ur v es u
. con st . at t h ei r po i n ts
of i n te r sec tio n wi th th e for mer curve ; an d si mil ar ly for a pl ane

en v elo pi n g alo n g a c u r v e u c o n st .

Th e an al
yti c al c o n di ti o n t h at th e par a m etr i c lin es for m a con u j
ate s stem is 5 4)
g y
2
( )5 y : 0 .

I t foll o w s i mm ed i ately fr om q
e u ati ons
( V , 7) t h at a , y, z are sol u

ti on s o f an e q u ati o n o f th e type
i
bb 89 bb
a b
bu bv bu bv

w her e a an d b ar e fu n c ti ons of u an d v, or constan ts . By a met h od

si milar to t h at o f 77 w e r ov e
p th e c o n v erse th eor em :
Iff1 (u , v
) f2 (
, u, v ) , f( 3
u, v b
) e thr ee lin ea r ly i n d epen d en t r eal solu

tion s f
o a n e u a ti on o
q f the type th e e u a ti on s
q
27
( ) £
1:
= f u v)
( l t , y =f
2 (
u’ v ), z =f
s (
u’ v
)
d efin e a su r fa ce u
p on w hi c h the par ametr ic cu r ves for m a con ug ate j
systemfi
‘

Cf Dar boux
.
, V ol I , . p . 122 .
1 96 Y
S STEMS OF C U RVES

We h ave seen h
t at th e lin es o f cu r vatu r e for m th e o nly or th o
g
on al c on ug ate syste j m . H en c e in , o r d er th at th e par a m etr i c l in es
on th e su r fac e 2
( )7 be lin es o f c u r vatu r e, w e m u st h ave

bx bx by by bz bz
F
bu bv bu bv bu bv

B u t t is i s h e q u iv alen t to th e c ond itio n th at x

+y +
2 2
z
2
also be a

sol u ti on of equ ati on as is seen by su bsti tu tion . H en c e w e

h av e th e t h eor e m of D ar bou x
2 2 2
If x , y , z, x +y + z ar e
p ar ti cu lar solu ti on s o
q f th
f ane e u ati on o

f m or the fir st thr ee ser ve for the r ectang u lar cobr di n a tes of a

f
su r a ce, u
p on w hi c h the pa r ametr i c lines ar e th e li n es of cu r va tu r e .

D ar bo u x r h as applied t is ’
h r esul t to th e pr o of of th e foll o w ing
h
t eor em

When a su r ace f i s tr an sfor med by an i nver si on i n to a second su r

face the lines of
, f the for mer become lines of cu r vatu r e
cu r va tu r e o

of the latter .

d
By efi ni tion an i nv ersi on , or a tr ansfor m atio n by r eci
p r oc al

r adii , i s i v en by
g
2
C a : C
2
y 0
2
z
28 x
1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x +y + z z +y + z x +y + z

w h er e c d en otes a con stan t . Fr o m th q

ese e u ati ons w e find t h at

+ 36 + zfl =
2 ” 2
2
( )9 ( 50
y 2
)( 93
1
2 2
0

an d by solvi ng for x , y, z,

2
23
1 91 +
2
z
If, no w , th e su b sti tu ti o n
9
0
“

”
x
. at z
be effec te d u pon equ ati on th e r esu lti n
g q
e u ation in a
'

w ill
ad m it i , n c o n se u enc e o f q 2
( 9) an d th e sol u tions x l, y ,,
z” c
‘
,

an d th er e fo r e is of th e for m
2
3 0 80 ba

V ol I, . p . 1 36 . i V ol I ,
. p . 207 .
1 98 Y
S STEMS OF CU RV ES

L i e h as o b ser ve d t h t th
a e su r fac e d efi n ed by ( 3 2) is th e loc u s of

th e mid poi n ts -
of th e ji o n s of poi n ts on th e c u r ves

z = 20 ,
, 3

2 Vl , = 2 V2 , : 2V
y2 an
3
.

h h
It may be t at t ese t w o sets of e u atio n s d e fin e th e same c u r ve q
in m
ter s of d iffer en t par ameter s I n t is c ase th e su r face i s th e . h
lo c u s of th e mi d po in ts of all
-
c h or d s o f th e c u r ve . Th ese r esu l ts

ar e o nly a par tic ular c ase of th e follo w ing t h eo r e m, wh ose pr oof i s

i mm edi ate

Th e locu s o f the poin t w hi ch d i vi d es i n j oi n s of

c on stan t r a ti o the

p oin ts on tw o cu r ves, or a ll the c h or d s o

f on e c ur ve i s a su rfa ce ,

of tr a n sla ti on ; i n the la tter ca se the c ur ve i s an a symptoti c li n e of

the f
su r a ce .

Wh en th e q
e u ati on s o f a su r fac e o f tr anslati o n ar e of th e for m

2 U, + V, ,

th e g ener ator s ar e plan e c u r ves w h o se

pl an es ar e
p p
e r en d ic u lar .

W e leav e i t to th e r ead er to S o w t h h h
at i n t i s c ase th e as m to ti c
y p
lin es can be fo u n d by q u ad r atu r es .

I soth er m al -

j
con u gate syste m s . Wh en th e asympto ti c lin es
u pon a su r face ar e p ar a metr i c , th e sec o n d q u ad r atic for m m ay be
w r i tten 7k d u dv . Wh en th e su r fac e is r eal, so also is h q
t is u ad r atic
for m . T h er efor e, ac c or d ing as th e c u r vatu r e o f th e su r fac e
i s po si
ti ve or n eg ativ e, th e par ameter s u an d v ar e c on j u ate i ma i n ar
g g
-

y
or r eal

d
.

We consi er th e fo r mer c ase an d pu t

u u
1
iv v u
,

w h en u
1
an d v
1
ar e r eal . I n ter ms of th ese par ameters th e seco nd

q u adr atic fo r m is Hen c e th e c u r ves u, co n st .

,

v
,
= c o n st . for m g y j
a c on u ate s stem, for w h ic h
D = O
" ’
3
( )3 D D , .

Bi anc i h h as c all ed a s
y ste m of t is h sor t i sother mal j
con ug a te Evi
d
-
.

d ently su c h a syste m be ar s to th e sec on d q u a r ati c for m an an a

lyti c al r elati on si m il ar to t h at o f an i so t h er mal or t og o n al system

-
h
V ol 1 ,
. p . 167 .
 —
I SOTHERBIAL C ON JU GA TE S Y STEMS 1 99

to th e fi rst q u adr atic fo r m . I n th e latter c ase it w as only n ec essar

y
h
t at E G — I ~
"

be pos i tive, an d th e an alogo u s r e u ir emen t,

2
q n am el
y
DD
"
—D O, i s satisfi ed by su r fac es o f po si tiv e c u r v atu r e . H en ce
all h
th e t eor ems for iso t h er mal -
or t h o
g o n al s
yste m s 4 0, 41 ) ar e
t r a nslated i n to t h eo re ms c o n cer n in
g i sot h er mal c o n u g ate s -
j y ste ms
by su bsti tu tin g D , D , D fo r E F G r espect i vely in th e for ul as
’ "
m
k
, , .

In par ti c ula r , w e r e mar t at i f th e c u r v es u = c on st , v co n st h . .

o n a su r fac e fo rm an i so t er mal co n u gate syste m, all o t er r eal h -

j h
iso t h er m al c on u
-
j g ate syste ms a r e
g i v en b
y v
,
con st .
,

th e q u an ti ti es u 1 an d v1 bei ng d efi n ed by

i v = t i v),
u
, + ,
< p( u z

w h er e d) is an y an alyt i c fu n c ti on .

W h en th e c u r v atu r e o f th e su r fac e is n e ati v e an d w e

g pu t

‘ '
l p
l

in th e secon d q u adr atic for m x d ud v, i t beco mes l ( d uf d r f) . In

h
t is c as e

p : 0
'
34
( ) .

Hen c e th e c u r v es 11
,
con st . an d r
,
c o nst . fo r m a co n u j gate s s
y
te m w hic hm a
y be c alled i sother mal g a te “ i th eac
-
con u
j .
’
h h c an
g e

of th e par am eter s u an d v o f th e asym to ti c lin es t er e i s

p h obt i a n ed

a n ew i so th er mal -
j
c on ugate sy stem . Hence if u an d v ar e
par a me
te r s of a
n i so t h er mal -

j
c on u
g ate s s te
y m u po n a su r face o f n eg ativ e

c ur v atu re , th e par am eters o f al l suc h s

ystem s ar e
g i v en b
y

95 ( u i l
‘

H N u 4:) ‘
‘ P ,

M “ It l
)
'

w h er e 4) an d
q r den o te ar bi trar f
y u n c tio ns .

I t is ev id en t t h at i f th e par a m eter s fo r a su r fac e ar e su c h th at

I) l
"
U : 0 3
D V
w h ere U an d fun c tio n s f an d v
pec ti v ely, h by
'

I ar e o u r es t en a

c h an
ge of
par am ete rs w h ic hd oes n o t c h g than e e par ametr i c c u r v es

w e c an r ed u ce 35
( ) to o n e of th e fo r m ( 33)
s or Hen ce e q ua

ti on s 35
( ) e
a r a n ecessar
y an d su fli c ien t c on d i ti on t h at th e par a
m etr ic c u r v es for m an i so t h er mal -
c on u j gate syste m . Refer r in g to
2 00 Y
S STEMS OF C U RV ES

7 7, w e see t h at th e li n es o f cu r v atu re u on a su r fac e o f c onstan t

p
to tal c u r v atu r e for m an i so t h er mal c o n u-

g j ate s
ystem .

Wh en eq u ati o n (35) is of th e fo r m ( 3 3 ) or w e say t h at th e

par a m eter s u an d v ar e i so t h er mal -

co n u j g ate .

83 . Sph er i cal r epr esent ati on of con u gate syste j ms . Wh en th e

p ar a m etr ic c u r v es ar e con u g ate, j e q u ati on s

( I V , 6 9) r ed u c e to

FD D ”
ED I/2

_ ’ g :
T H 2

Fr o m th ese e q u atio n s and

( III , 1 5 ) i t follo w s t h at th e an
g l e w
’

betw een th e par ametr i c c u r ves on th e Sp er e h i s g i ven by

F
c os w r
p co s co ,

w h er e th e u pper Sig n c or r espon ds to th e c ase of an ellipti c poin t

an d th e l o w er to a hyp er bol i c poi n t . H ence w e h av e th e t h eor e m
The an
g les betw een tw o con u j g e
a t d i r ecti ons at a
p oi n t on a su r

f ace, a nd betw een the cor r es

p on d i ng d i r ecti on s on the spher e, a r e e ual
q
or su lemen tar y, a ccor di ng as the poin t i s hyper boli c or elli
pti c
pp .

Wh en th e par a m etr i c c u r v es fo r m a j
c on u g ate syste m th e
d zz
,

r ed u c e
Co a i equ ation s ( V , 2 7) to

q
an d e u ati on s (V 26) b ec o m e

bx bX
bv bu

H en ce w h en a system of c u r ves u pon th e

,
h
sp er e i s g i ven , th e
r oblem f fi n di n g th e su r faces w i th th is r e r esen tation o f a
p
d
p o

j
c o n u g ate syste m re u ces to th e sol u ti on o f equ ation s 3
( )6 and

q d
u a r atu r es of th e for m after X , Y Zh
, av e been d eter mi ne d
by th e solu tion o f a Ri oc ati q
e u ati on . By th e el imin ation of D
or D
”
fr o m
equ ati ons ( 3 6 ) w e o bt ain a par tial d iffer en ti al e u ati on q
of th e secon d or d er .
2 02 S Y STEMS O F C U RV ES

Th e gener al i n tegr al of thi s eq u ati o n is

o: e
-

f
”o

w her e v0 d enotes a c onstan t val ue of v and U and V ar e ar bitr ar y fun cti ons of u ,

and v r esp e cti vel y Hen c e .

The d eter mi nati on of a ll th e surfac es w hose l in es of c ur vatu r e ar e r epr esented o n

th e sph er e by a fami ly of c ur ves of c onstant g eod cszc c ur vatur e an d th ei r o th ogonal r

tr aj ector i es r equi r es tw o quadr a tur es

, .

In or d er t h at a m on g all th e su r faces w i th th e sam e re r

p ese m
tatio n j
o f a c o n u g ate system t h er e may be a su r fac e for w h i h th
c e

s
ystem i s iso th mer al c on u
-
j g ate, a n d th e par am eter s be i so th m l
er a

j
c o n u g ate, it is n ecessar
y t h at e qu ati on s 3
( )6 be satis fi ed by
"
i acc or d i n th e to tal i s posi tiv e
D g as c u r v atu r e or n e
g ati v e .

In t i sh c ase e q u ati on s 3
( )6 ar e

b lo g D
bv

Th e c o n diti o n o f i n te ra bili ty i s
g

4
( )0

Wh en h
t is i s satis fi ed I) may be fo u n d by q
u ad r atu r es, an d th en

th e c oor d i n ates, by Hen ce w e h av e th e t h eo r e m

A n ecessa r y a n d su fii ci en t con di ti on tha t a f a mi l of cu r ves u
p on
y
the p h s
er e re
p r esen t an i sother ma l -

j
con ug a te s ste
y m on a f
su r a ce,

an d tha t u an d v be i sother ma l -
con ug a tej p ar a meter s, i s tha t (5, obi , g
sa ti s fy then th e f
su r a ce is q uni ue to w i thi n i ts h omotheti cs,

an d i ts i
c oor d n a tes ar e
g i ven by qu ad r a tu r es .

Th e follo w i ng t h eor e m co n cer n in

g th e i n v a r ian ce j
o f con u g ate

d ir ec tio n s an d as ym pt o ti c l in es i s d u e to B ar bo u x

Wh en a su r a cef is j
su b ec ted to a
p j
r o ect ve i tr a n sfor ma tion or a

tr ansfor ma ti on p by r ec i r oca l
p ola r s, con ug a te j d i r ecti on s a n d a sy mp
totic li n es r eser ved
ar e
p .

W e prove th is h
t eo r e m g eo m etr i c ally C on sid er a c u r ve C on a

D
.

su r face S an d th e d ev elopable c i r c u m sc r i bi ng th e su r fac e al on g 0 .

When a
p j
r o ec ti ve tr an sfor mati on i s effec ted U pon S w e ob tai n a

su r fac e S, , c orr espon d i n g p oin t w i th po i nt to S, an d 0 g oes i n to a

c u rv e C, u pon S, , an d ]?i n to a b
developa le D , c i r cu mscr i bi ng S1 al ong
 P ROJECTI V E T RAN SFORMA T I ON S 203

C, m or eo v er , th e tan g en ts to C an d C, co r r espo n d , as d o th e g en er
ator s o f D an d D, Sin c e th e g en er ators ar e in eac
. h c as e tang en t to
th e c u r v es con j u ate to C an d C r espec tiv ely, th e t
g ,
h eor em i s pr o v ed .

In th e case o f a pol ar r eci

p r o c al transfor m ati on
plane c or re a

spon ds to a poin t an d v i ce v er sa, h

in su c a w ay t at a plan e an d a h
po i n t o f i t g o i n to a po i nt an d a p l an e t r ouhg i t H en ce S g o es h
D
.

in to S, , 0 i n to D , , i n to C, , an d th e tan g en ts to C an d
g en er ato rs

of D
i n to th e g en er ators of D, an d tang en ts to C H en ce th e
h
t eor e m
i s pr o v ed .

1 . S h ow tha t th e par amet r ic c u r ves on th e su r fa e c

Us V3
U V
w hereth e U s are fu ncti ons of it al o ne and th e V s o f v a l one for m a c onj ugate syste m
’ ’

,
.

2 O n th e sur fa ce a: U V 1 31
. Un z z 7 I w h ere UI U a re fun cti ons of
, , 2 , , 2

i t al o ne a nd V I V 2 o f 1: a l o n e th e p arame tr ic c ur ves fo r m a c o n j u ga te system and

, ,

th e asympto tic lin es c an b e foun d b y q uad r a tu r es .

3 Th e gene ra to rs o f a su r fac e of tr ansl a ti on for m an eq u idis ta n ti al system

.

( cf Ex 1 0 p
. .
,
.

4 Sh o w th a t a p ara bo l o id is a surf ac e of t r ansl ati o n i n mo re th a n one w ay

. .

5 Th e l o c us of th e mid po in t s of th e ch o r d s o f a ci r c ul ar h e l ix is a r ight h eli c o id

.
-
.

6 D i sc uss th e su r fa c e o f t a ns l a ti on w hi ch is th e l o c us o f po in ts di vidi n g i n
. r

c onstant rati o th e ch ord s of a tw isted c u bic .

7 F ro m ( 2 8 ) it fo ll ow s th at
.

( ax
2
2 2 — d + d y2 L
“ a”2
d1 1 + d y1 + dz f
?
y
c onsequ en tl y th e transfo r mati on b y re cip r o ca l radii is c onfor mal .

8 D e te r m i ne th e c o nditi o n to b e sa tisfi ed b y th e fun cti o n

. at so th at a sur fac e
W i th th e h near el e men t
a2 co s? d u2
fi
ds
‘
sinz d vf ( w w
)
h ll h ave th e to ta l c ur vatu re 1/a Sh ow th at if th e p ar ametr ic c ur ves are th e
s a
‘

li nes of cu r va tur e th ey for m an iso th er mal c o nj ugate system

,
-
.

9 A necessar y an d sufii c ien t co nditi o n tha t th e li near el emen t of a su r fac e

.

re ferr ed to a c on j u ga te syste m c an b e w r itte n

( 13 2 z p2 ( c
’
é da 2 fi d ud v 2

is th a t th e p ar amet r ic c u r ves be th e ch a ra cte r istic lin es F i nd th e condition impo sed .

u po n t h e c u r ves on th e u n it sphere i n or d er th at th e
y may rep resen t th ese li n es .

1 0 C o n j u ga te syste ms and as ym pto tic li nes a re tr a nsfo r med in to c ur ves o f th e

.

sa me so r t w h en a su r fac e is t ransfor med b y th e gen er a l p r o j ecti ve t r a nsfor mati on

Z E s :E
1 s
g s

D D D
w here A ,
B, C ,
D are l inear fun cti ons of th e new c oord ina tes 311 , zl .
204 G EOD ESI C S

85 . Equati ons of geodesic lines . We h ave dfi e

gn ed a eodesi c to
be a cu r ve w h ose g eod esi c c u r vatu r e is z er o at ev er y po in t cou se

qu en tly i ts osc u l ati n

g p l an e at an y i
p nt
o i s per pen d ic u lar to th e
tang ent plan e to th e su r face .

Fr o m ( IV , 4 9 ) i t follo w s t h y g eod esic

at ever u po n a su rfac e is
an i n teg r al c u r v e of th e q
d iffer ential e u ati on
2 2
du d u da dv (1 11.
+ F
35 3? 27; a a ?

8 G du dv 1 3G
Eu d s d s 2 av

3B d a d v
fi g

da av d s d a

If th e fu n dm a en tal i den ti ty

w h ic h g i v es th e r elatio n -
b etw een u , v, 3 al on
g th e c u r v e, be di ffer
entiated wi th r espec t to s, w e h av e

z
du d u
2 E “
F
ds 018

h
If t i s equ ati on an d 41
( ) be solv e dw it h r espec t to

an d we o bt ain

d
z
u ( P—?) 1 8E EE du d v
E
W F fi
L
‘
fis 2 an Ev d a d a 81) 2
z z
d u d v 6G du d v 1 60
F ”
as a s
173
au d s 2 2 an
z
d u d v
If t h ese e u ati on sq be solved w i th r espec t to
013
2
$ 2
9 we h av e,

in c on sequ en ce o f (V ,
2 06 G EOD ESI C S

Th e fi rs t i n teg r al of th e se o n c d is
do
2
3p
ds

w h ere c is a c onstan t . Eli mi nati ng d s fr om thi s equ ati on and and i n teg r ati ng ,

w e h ave

( 49) i v cl ,

wh er e cl is a c o nstan t Th e mer idi ans 1: c onst c or r espond to th e c ase 0 0

. . .

Hen c e w e h ave th e th eor em

Th e g eod esics upo n a surfac e of r evoluti on r efer r ed to its mer i d i a ns and par a llels
ca n be fou nd by quadr atur es .

h ld b e r emark ed th at equ a ti o n ( 49) d efi nes th e geod esics u p on any su r face

It s ou

applic abl e to a su r fa c e o f r evo l u ti o n .

86 . Geodesi c par al lel s . Geodesic par a m eter s . Fr om (43 ) i t fol

lo w s t h at a n ec essar y an d su f
fi c i en t c o n d i ti on t h at th e cu r ves

v cons t . o n a su r face be g eo desics i s t

‘

h at

1 81 7 8E
50 2
E F
2 11 bu bu

If th e par ametr i c system be or t h o

g on al , t is h c o n d i tion m k
a es it
h
n ecessar y t at E be a fun c ti on of i t alon e, say E U 2
. By r eplac in g

a by u w e do n ot c h an
g e th e par ametr i c lin es, an d E b ecomes
q
e u al to u n i ty . A n d th e lin ear el e men t h as th e for m
2 2 2
5
( )1 de da + d ,

w h er e i n g ener al G
i s a fu nc ti on o f bo th u and v . Fr om t h i s i t
follow s th at th e l en g th o f th e seg me n t o f a c u r v e 1) con st . betw een
th e c u r v es u u 0 an d u u i s g i ven by
1

= ul

Sin c e t i s len g t h hi s i n d epen d e n t o f v, i t follo w s t h at th e se

g m en ts

o f all th e g eo d esi cs v c o n st . i n clu d ed b et w een an y tw o o r th o

g
o n al j t tr a ec o r i es ar e of e q u a
l l eng th . In c on se u en ce o fq th e fu n da
m t l th
en a eor em, w e h ave h
t at t h er e is a u ni q ue family o f g eo desics
wh i h th c ar e e or t h og o n al tr a j ector i es o f a g i v en c u rv e C . Th e abov e
r esul ts en able u s to state th e follow i n g t eor em h of G au ss

If g eod esi cs be d r aw n or thog ona l to a cu r ve C, a nd e u a l

q leng ths be
mea su r ed upon them fr o m C , the locu s o f thei r en d s is a n or thog on al

the 9 eod esi cs

'

tr aj ector 3
/o f .

p . 25 .
 GEOD ESI C P A RA L L EL S 2 07

h
T i s gi v es u s a means o f fi n d ing all th e o rt og o n al tra ec tor i es h j
o f a fam il
y o f g eo d esi c s w en o n e o f t e m is n o wn A n d i t su
, g h h k .

ests th e n ame g eod esic pa r a llels fo r th es e tr a j ec tor i es Referri ng

d
g .

to § 3 7, w e see t h at t h ese ar e th e cu r v es t h er e c all e par all els,

an d so th e t h eor em of § 3 7 may be state d th us

A h
n ec ssa r g a nd s u i c ien t con d itio n tha t the cu r ves
fl 4) con st . be

g eod esi c
p a r a ll els i s tha t
5
( )2 AI¢

her e the d ifier en tia l pa r a meter is for med w i th r espect to the linear
'

element o f the s u rfac e , a n d f d en o tes a ny fu n c tion I n or d er tha t cf

) .

be th e length o f the g eod esi c cu r ves measu r ed fr om the cu r ve

qt : 0,
it i s n ecessa r y an d su fi c ien t tha t

5
( )3 A 1 4) = 1 .

Mo reo ver , we h av e see n th at w h en a fun c tion satis fi es a

n ew fu n c tio n sat is fyin g (53) c an be fo un d by u adratur e W q h en

k
.

h
t i s fun c tio n i s ta en as u , th e li n ear ele e nt h as th e for mm
I n t is h c as e w e s h all c all u an d v g eod esi c par a meter s .

87 . Geod esi c pol ar b

co r di n at es . The foll o w i ng t h eo r e m d u e to
,

G au ss, ‘
sug
g ests an i mpo r tan t s
yste m of g eo d esi c para m eter s

If equa l length s be lai d ff

o m a
po i n
rot P on the g eod esi cs thr ou g h P ,

the locu s f the end

o
p oi nts is an or t o on a l
g h tr a j ector
y o f the g eod esic s .

h
In pr o vin g th e t eo r em w e ta e th e g eod es i cs for th e c u r v es k
v = c on st , an d let u d en o te dis ta n c es
. eas ur ed al o ng t ese g eo m h
d esic s fr om P Th e poin ts o f a c u r v e u
. co n st . ar e c o n se u en tly q
at th e sa me g eod esi c d i stan ce fr o m P , an d so w e c all t h mg
e eod esi c

c ir c les . I t is ou r pr oblem to s h ow th at th is par a m etr i c syste m is

o rt h g on al
o .

Fr o m th e c h o ic e o f u w e k no w t h at E=1 , an d h en c e fr o m ( 5 0)
i t follo ws t h at F i s i n d epen d en t o f it . A t P, t h at is fo r u O, th e
i
ij
3
i
0
d er i v ati ves — ,
7 ,
fl
ar e z er o . C o nse q u en tly F an d G ar e z er o
for u O, an d the fo r mer , bei n g i nd epen d en t of u , is al ways z er o .

H en ce th e t h eor e m is pr o v ed .

We c o n sid er su c h a s
y ste m an d tw o poi n ts O), M, ( u v, ) ,

on th e g eo d esic c ir c le o f r adi u s u . Th e len g t h of th e ar c MOM

,

L . c .
, p . 24 .
208 GEOD ESI C S
—
V G dv . As it appro ac h es z er o
‘

th e r ati o Ml Mo/
u

a
pp r oac h es th e an g le b et ween th e tang en ts at P to th e geod esi cs
v 0 an d v c
l
. If 0 d en otes t is h an le
g , we h av e

In or d er t h at v be 0 it i s n ecessary an d sufficient th at
,

T h ese par t ic u lar

g eo d esi c c oo r d in ates ar e si milar to polar c o or di

n ates i n th e plan e, and fo r t is h r eason ar e c all ed g eod esic olar

p
coor d i nates
' '

Th e a . b ov e r esu lts may no w be state d t h us

The n ecessa r y an d su ffi c ien t con d i ti ons tha t a s ste

y m of g eod esi c
coor d i n ates be polar
’’

ar e

h ld be noticed h ow ever th at i t may b e necessar y to l imit th e p art of th e

It s ou , ,

sur fac e u nd er c on sid er a ti o n i n o r d er th at th ere b e a one to one c or resp ond en c e - -

b et w een a p o i n t and a p ai r of c oor di nates For it may h appen th at tw o geod esic s .

,

st ar ti n g fr o m P mee t ag ai n i n w hich c ase th e se c o nd p o i n t of mee ti ng w ou ld b e

,

d efi ned by tw o se ts of coord inates " For ex ampl e th e h elic es ar e geod esics o n a .

E
,

cyli nd er and it is evid en t th at any nu mb er o f th em can b e mad e to p ass

th r ough tw o po i n ts at a fi nite di stan ce from one ano ther by var yi ng th e angle u nd er

w hich th ey c ut th e el ements of th e c yli nd er Henc e i n usi ng a system of geod esic .
,

pol ar coor di nates w ith p ol e at P w e c onsid er th e por ti on of th e surface i n cl osed

,

b y a geod esic ci r cl e o f r adi us r w h ere r is su ch th at no tw o geod esics th rough P

,

mee t w ithi n th e ci r c le 1 .

Wh en th e li near ele m ent i s i n th e for m th e e uati on of

q
G au ss (V , 1 2) re d u ces to
1 s
Z;
a s/
5
( )5

"

If K 0 d enotes th e total c u r v atu r e o f th e su r fac e at th e pole P ,

w h ic h by hyp th i o es s is no t a
pa b
r a oli c poi n t, fr o m 5
( )4 an d
5
( )5 i t f l l w th t o o s a

No ti c e that th e pol e is a singul ar poi nt for such a system because 11 2 ,

0 fo r u 0 .

t D ar b oux ( V ol II p 408) sh ow s th at such a fun cti on r ex i sts ; thi s

.
, . is su ggested
a sol by 94 .
21 0 G EOD ESI C S

of the m of he a ng les of su ch a tr i ang le on a su rfa ce of n eg a ti ve

sut

c u r va tu r e i s measu r ed b
, y the a r ea of th e pa r t of the spher e w h ic h
re
p r esen ts that tr i ang le .

h
In th e pr o of o f t is t eor e m G au ss m ad e h u se of th e e q
u atio n o f

eo d esi c lin es i n th e for m

g
F 315 1
__
F EE
5
( )6 d e do o,
2 13 316 2 av 2H E 80

w h er e 9 den ote s th e angl e w h ic h th e tang en t to a

g eo d esic at a

po i n t m ak es w i th th e cu r v e v c o n st . th r ou
g h th e po in t . h T is
q
e u ati o n is an i mm ed i ate q
c o n se u en c e o f fo r mu la (V , Wh en

th e par ametr i c s
yste mi s pol ar
g eo d esi c , t ish b eco mes

af a
5
( )7
du

L et A B C be a tr ian gl e w h o se si d es ar e
g eo d esi c s, an d let a, B , 7
den o te th e i n clu d ed an
g l es . Fr om ( IV , 73 )i t follo ws t h at th e i nclosed
ar ea on th e h
sp er e i s g iv en by

du d v

w h er e is :
l:
1 acc o r d in g as th e c u r vatu r e i s posi ti v e o r n eg ati v e,
k
e

a nd th e d ou ble i n teg r als ar e ta en o v er th e r espec tiv e ar eas .

L et A be th e pole of a polar g eo d esi c s

y ste m an d A B th e c u r ve

v 0 Fr o m ( 5 5 ) a nd ( 5 8 ) w e av e
. h
(1 : e. d vd u .

In c on se q u en ce o f 5 4
( )w e h av e, u
pon i n teg r atio n w i th r es
pec t to u,

w hich by ,
is q
e u i val en t to

do e dd .

Fo r B th e g eodesi c B C ma es th e an g le 7r
at k B w i th th e cu rve

k
,

v 0, an d at C i t m a es th e ang le 7 w i t th e h c u r ve v a . Hen ce
w e h av e — 7r
)
,

wh i h p c r ov es th e t h eor e m .
 A REA OF A G EOD ESI C TRI A N G L E 21 1

Bec au se of th e fo r m of th e sec o ri d par t o f ( 5 8) fl may be said .

to meas u r e th e to tal c u r vatur e o f th e

g eo d esi c t r i ang le, so t at th e h
abo v e th eo r e m may also be s ta ted t h us

Th e tota l cu r vatu r e o
f a
g eod esi c tr i ang le i s equ a l to the ex cess
over or d efi c it fr o m of the sum of th e a ng les q f the tr i
an
g le, ac cor d i ng a s the cu r va tu r e i s posi ti ve or ne
g a ti ve .

Th e x tens ion of th ese th eor ems to th e c ase o f g eo desic po lyg on s

e

is str ai g h tfo r war d .

I n th ep rec edi ng di sc u ss i on it h as been ta citl y assu med th at all th e po i n ts of th e

t r iangl e A B C can be un iq u el y d efi ned by po l ar cobrd i nates w ith po le at A We .

sh all sh ow th at this th eo r e m is t r u e even if this assumpti o n is

,

n o t ma d e .

If th e th eorem is n o t tr ue for A B C it c an no t be tr ue fo r ,

bo th of th e tr i an gl es A B D and A CD obta i ned by j oini n g A

and th e middl e po i n t o f B C w i th a g eod esi c A D ( fi g For ; .

b y addin g th e resu lts fo r th e tw o t r ia ngl es w e sh ou ld have th e ,

theo rem ho ldi ng for A B C Suppo se th at it is not tr u e fo r A BD

. .

D i vid e th e l a tter in to tw o t r i angl es a nd appl y th e sa me reaso n

i ng By c o n ti nui ng this p r o cess w e sho uld obta i n a t r i a ngl e as
. Fi g 18 ,

sm all as w e pl ease i nsid e o f w hi ch a po l ar geod esic system

,

w oul d n ot un iq uel y d e te r m i ne each po i n t B ut a d o mai n can be ch osen a bo u t a

.

po in t so th at a u ni que geod esic p asses thr ough th e gi ven po i n t and any o ther po i n t
o f th e d o mai n C o nse q uen tly th e ab ove theo re m is pe rfectl y ge ner a l
! .
0

By mean s of th e abo v e r esu lt w e

prov e th e t h eorem

Tw o g eod esi cs on a sur face of n eg a ti ve cu r vatu r e c a nn ot meet i n

tw o poi nts a nd i n c lose a si mply con n ected a r ea .

Su ppo se t h
g eo d esic s t r o ug a po i n t A pass t r ou g a
at tw o h h h h
sec on d
po in t B ; th e tw o g eod es ic s in closin g a si mply c o nn ec ted
po r ti on o f th e su r fac e ( fig Ta e any g eod esic c u tti n g t ese
. k h
tw o g men ts A B in po i n ts C an d D Si n c e
se .

th e four an gles A UD , AD C, B CD , B D C ar e
to g et h qu al to fo u r r ig t ang les, th e su m
er e h
o f th e an les o f th e tw o tr i an les A D C an d
g g

FIG 1 9
BB C e x c eed fo u r ri
g
g h
l es by th e sum
t an

h
.

of th e an l at A an d B T erefore , i n
g es .

c on se q u en ce of th e abo ve th eor em o f G au ss, th e to tal c u r va tu re

of th e su r fac e c an no t be i e a t all
ne
g at v
po in ts of th e ar ea AD B C .

O n th e y , i t c an be
c on tr a r s h o wn h
t at fo r a sur fac e o f po si ti v e

c u r v atu r e
g eo d esi c s t r o u
g h h a po in t m eet aga in i n g en er al . In
Bar bo u x , V o l II ,
. p . 408 ; cf. 94 .
21 2 GEODESI CS

fac t, th e x ception al poi nts i f th er e ar e any li e i n a fi n ite portion

e , ,

o f th e su r fac e w h ic h may co n sist o f o n e or m or e sim l c n n ec ted

, py o

p ar ts
l
.F o
ae
r ex am p l e th e
g eo d esi cs o n a sph er e,ar e great c ir cles ,

an d all of t h ese t h roug h a po i nt as

p s h
t r ou
g h th e d i ametr i cally
opposi te p oin t A gai n , th e h eli c es ar e
g eo d esi c s on a cylin d er

d
.

an d i t is evi en t t h at an
y nu mb er of thm e c an be mad e to
pass t h r ou
gh tw o p o i n ts at a fi n ite d istan c e f m ro on e an ot h er by
v ar yi n
g th e an
gl e u n d er w h ic h t h ey c u t th e l me e en ts of th e c yl

i n d er . H ence th e d omai n o f a syste m of polar g eodesi c coor d in ates

'

is r estr i c ted o n a su r fac e of positi v e c u r v atu r e .

89 . Li nes of sh ort est lengt h . Geodesi c cu r vatu r e . We ar e n ow

in a p o si ti on to pr o v e th e t h eor e m
If tw o poin ts on a su r a ce a r e su ch
f tha t on l on e g eod esi c passes
y
thr oug h th em, the seg men t f
o the g eod esi c mea su r es the shor test di s
tan ce on the su rface betw een the tw o poi n ts .

Ta k e on e o f th e po i n ts for th e pole of a pol ar

g eod esi c s ste
y m
an d th e g eod esi c for th e c u r ve v =0 Th e c o or d in ates of th e
d
.

sec on po i n t ar e
(u
l,
Th e par a etr ic equ ati on m o f any ot h er

cu rv e t h r ou
g h th e tw o po i n ts i s o f th e fo rm v an d th e
len g t h of i ts ar c is
“I

du .

Sin ce G O, th e valu e o ft i s in h
tegr al i s n ecessar i ly g r eater t h an

u an d th e t h eor e mipr o ved

s

d
.
l,

m
By eans of e u ation (5 7) w e er i ve q ano t h er d efi n i tio n o f g eo
d esi c c u r vatu r e C on sid er tw o poi n ts
. M an d M ’
u pon a cu rv e C,
an d th e u n i q ue
g eo d esic s g ,
’
g tang en t to C at t ese po i n ts (fig h
d
.

L et P en ote th e po i n t o f i n ter sec ti o n of

g an d g
’
an d r th e
M
d d
,

an
g l e un er w h ic h h
t ey c u t L iou ville 1 h as c alle 3x ?the ang le of
.

g eodesi c con ti ng en ce, b ecau se o f i ts an alo

gy to th e or din ar
y an
gl e

o f c o n ti n ence
g . Now w e s all h pr o v e th e t eor em h
The li mi t of the r ati o as M ’
a
pp r oac hes M, i s the g eod esi c
cu r va tu r e of C at M
p
Fo r a r o o f o f thi
s th e r ea er i s r efer r e d d to a memoi r b y H . v . Mang old t ,
i n Cr elle,
V ol X C I
. 23— 53 pp . .

TJou r nal d e Math ema ti qu es, V ol X V I . p . 13 2 .

 GEODE8 1 0 8

Th e g eo m t i l ig i fi
e r ca s n can ce o f th e c u r v es o f para m eter u
,
an d v
,

is seen w h th b
en q e a ov e e u ati on s ar e w r i tten
on u
. em a {o y
— v
)
.

Th e cu rv es u , c o n st . an d v
,
c on st . ar e r es ec tiv el
p y th e l oc i of

po in ts th e su m an d d iffer en c e of w h ose g eo d esi c d i stan ces fr o m C,

an d 02 , or fr o m F, an d F, , ar e constan t . I n th e latter c ase t h ese

c u r ves ar e an alog o u s to ellipses an d h yp b er olas i n th e plan e, th e

po i n ts F, an d F2 c or r espon d ing to th e fo ci . For h

t i s r eason t ey h
ar e c all ed g eod esi c ellipses a nd w h ic h n ames ar e g iv en
hyper bolas,
li kwe ise to th e c u r ves u , con st v
,
c on st w h.en t
,h e d i stan c es .
,

ar e m easu r ed fr om tw o c u r v es C, an d C, Fr om ( 6 0) follo ws at
,
.

o nce th e t h eor em of Wein gar ten

A syste m o
f g eod esi c elli
p ses a n d hyper bola s i s or th og on al .

m q
By ean s of (6 1 ) e uati on (6 0) c an be tr an sfor ed i n to t us m h
pr ov i n
g t h h
at w en th e li n ea r el emen t o f a su r fac e i s i n th e for m 6 O ,
( )
th e par a m ti
e r c c u r ves ar e g eo desi c elli ses an d
p h yp b er olas .

I f 9 d en otes th e angl e w h ic h th e tang ent to th e c u r ve v = c o nst

k
.
,

t h r ou g h ap i o nt m a es w i th th e c u r ve v c o n st .
, i t follo w s fr o m
( I II 23 ) th t a ( z)
,
cos 9 = c os , s m 0 = srn
5
H ence w e h ave th e th eor em
G iven ms of g eodesi c par allels upon a su rfa ce ; the
an
y tw o syste

cor r es on di ng g eod esi c ellipses an d

p hyp er bolas bi sect the ang les

i n clu d ed by the for mer .

91 . Su r faces of Li ouvi lle D i n i r in qu i r ed w et er t er e w er e

.
’
h h h
any su r fac es w i th an h
i so t er mal syste of
g eod esic ellipses an d m
hyp b er olas . A n ec essar y an d su f c i en t c on d iti on fi t h at su c h a su r

face e x ist is t h at th e co ef
fi c i en ts of 6
( )0 satisf
y a con d iti on of th e
fo r m 41 )
V, si n 2
2

2
w h er e U, an d V, d en o te fu n c tio n s of u
,
an d v
,
r espec ti vel
y. In
t ish c ase th e lin ear elem en t may be w r itten

6
( )2 V,

* U eb er d ie Ob er flach en fu r w el e e ner d er b e ch i i d en Hauptk ru mmungsh alb messer

e i ne F
un cti d
on d es an er en i st, C r elle, V o l LX II
—
. pp 160 173 .
-
.

T A n n a l i , Ser 2 ,
V ol
. II I . 26 9 293 pp . .
 SU RFA CES OF L I OU V I L L E 21 5

By th e c h an
ge of
par a meter s defi n ed by

h
t is l in ear ele m en t is tr an sfo r med in to

d a = U, + V2 )( d u 2 + d ug),
2 2
(6 3 )
w h er e U, an d V2 ar e fu n c tio ns of u and v
2
r es
pe c ti v el
y , su c h th at

U, (u ,) U2 (u 2 ), V, ( v, ) V2 (v )2
.

C o nv ersely, i f th e lin ear ele men t is i n th e fo r m i t m ay be

c han
g ed in to 6 2
( ) yb t h e tr an sfor mat io n o f c oord i n ates

Sur fac es w h ose lin ear ele m ent is r ed uc i bl e to th e for m (63 ) w er e

fi rst studied h
by L io u ville , and on t at ac co u n t ar e called su rfa ces of
L i ou vi llefi ‘
h
To t is class belo n g th e su r faces o f r ev o lu tio n an d th e
q u adr i c s 96, We m ay state th e abo v e r es u l ts i n th e fo r m

When the li n ea r ele men t of a su r fa ce i s i n the L i ou vi lle for m, the

p ar a metr i c c ur ves a r e
g llip ses a n d h
eo
ype r b
d esi c
ola s e these systems

the on l i sother mal or thog ona l fa mi li es o

fg d i con i cs
ar e s
1
'
o
y e e c .

92 . Integr ati on of th e eq u ati on of geod esi c li n es . Hav ing th us

d isc u ssed th e v ar i ous pr oper ties o f g eo d esic lin es, an d avin g seen h
th e ad van ta
g e o f kn o w i n
g t h q
ei r e u ati on s i n fin i te fo r m , w e r etu r n

to th e co n si der atio n of t h ei r d i ffer en tial e q u ati o n an d d er i ve cer tain

th eor e m s con c er n in
g i ts i n te g r ati o n

k
.

Suppo se, in th e fi rst place, t at w e h no

part ic ul ar fi rst i n te
w a

g ral o f th e gen er al e u atio n , q th t i a s, a family o f g eo d esics defin ed

by an equ ati on of th e for m
6
( )4 M d u + N dv = O .

Fr om ( I V , 5 8) i t follo w s t h at M an d N mu st sa tisfy th e q
e u ati o n

‘ Jo u r na l d e Ma th e ma ti q u es
’

,
V ol X 1
. p . 34 5 .

t Th ed er i s efe ed to D ar bo ux V ol II
r ea r rr , .
, p . 208 , for a di sc ussion of th e c ond itions
und er w h ich a su r face is of th e Li ouv ille type .
21 6 G EODESI C S

In con sequ enc e of t ish eq u ati on w e k no w t h at h

t er e e x ists a func
ti on ( pd efi n ed by

6
( )5 9 ?

Mor eover , we fin d t h at

66
( ) A,¢ 1 .

Fr om ( III ,
3 1 ) an d 6
( )5 i t follo w s t h at th e cu rv es 4 ) c onst . ar e

th e or t h og on al tr a j ector i es o f th e g i v en g eo desics, an d fr o m 6
( )6
i t is seen t h at 4)m easu r es d istan c e along th e g eod esi c s fr o m th e
c u r ve ( ) f 0 . Hen ce w e h ave th e t h eor e m of D arbo u x

When a on e -

p ar a meter fami ly of g eodesi cs i s d efin ed by a d ifier

en ti a l e u a ti on o
q f the fir st or d er , the fin i te e u ati on o
q f their hg
or t o on al
tr aj ec tor i es c an be obta i n ed by a qu adr a tu r e, w hi ch g i ves the g eod esi c

p ar a meter at the sa me time .

T h er efor e, w h en th e gen er al fi r st i n teg r al of th e equ ation of

g eod esi cs is k n o wn all th e
g eo esi c par all els c an be fou n
, by d d
u ad r atu r es
q
d
.

We c onsi er n o w th e c on v erse p r oble m of fi nd ing th e g eod esics

w h en th e g eo d esi c par allels ar e k no wn . Su ppo se t h at w e h av e a

sol u ti on o f e q u ation 66
( ) i n vo l v i n
g an ar b it r ar
y c on stan t a , w h ich
is n o t add i tiv e . If t is h q
e u ati on be di ffer enti ate dw it h r es
pect to
a, w e
g et

w h er e th e di ffer en ti al par a eter is for me w i t m d h r es ect

p to th e lin ear
ele men t . h
Bu t t i s is a n ec essar y an d su ffi ci en t c o n di tion 3 7) t h at

th e c u r v es 95 c on st . an d th e c u r v es

4)
2 : ’
6
( )8 c on st . a
a

for m an or t h og on al syste m . H en ce th e c u r v es d efi ne d by (6 8 )
ar e
g eod esi cs . I n g en er al, t i s e h q u ati on i nvolves tw o b
ar i tr ary

c on stan ts, a
’
an d a , w i c , as w ill h h now be s h o wn , en ter in su c h
a w a
y t h at t is h q
e u ation
g i v es th e g en er al i n te r al
g of th e difi er
q
en ti al e u ati o n of g eo d esi c li n es .

L econs, V ol II , . p . 430 ; cf a so
. l B i anchi , V ol I ,. p . 202 .
21 8 G EOD ESI C S

w h er e a is an ar b it r ar y c on stan t . A s t is h q
e u ati on is of th e fo r m
th e fu n c ti on I d efin ed by
( ),

du (F C x ic )d v

is a sol u ti on of e q u ati o n As 4) i n vol ves a i n th e m an n er

spec i fie d in th e pr ec ed i ng t h eor em, th e fi ni te e q u ati on of th e

eo d esrcs I S a
g
5;
.

93 Geodesi cs on su r faces of Li ou vi lle Th e su r faces o f L i ou v ille

d
. .

91 ) af
for an ex celle nt appli catio n of th e t h eor e m of Jac o i b .

We ta e k th e li n ear el e men t in th e fo r m *

7 1 ds
2
= U V )( d
2 2
V, dv
2
( ) ( u
)
,

w h ic h ev i d en tly is no m or e
g en eral t h an In t is h c ase e u a q
ti o n 6
( )6 b eco mes

3¢
7
3)

Wh en h
t is equ ati on is w r i tten i n th e for m

s
a
an

on e sees t h at i t belong s to t . h e cl ass o f p ar tial d iffer en tial

tions ad mi tti n
g an integ r al w h ich i s th e su m o f fu n cti ons o f u

and v alo ne
? In o r d er -

to obtain h
t is i n teg r al, w e pu t eac h sid e

equ al to a con stan t a and i n teg r ate . h

T i s g ives

7
( )2

H ence th e q
e u ati on o f g eod esics is

34> 1
dv _ a
r
.

9a 2 U— a

If 0 d en otes th e an
g le w h i ch a
g eo d esi c p th ro u
g h a o in t ma k es

w i th th e li n e v c on st . t h r ou
g h th e poi n t, i t follo w s fro m (III ,
2 4)
and 7
( )1 t h at
V, d v '

U, d a

C i D ar b o u x
.
, V ol 111 ,
. p . 0 .
TF or sy th , D iffer en ti a l Equ a ti o ns p . 3 10 .
 SU RFAC ES OF L I OU V I L L E 219

If th e v al u e of du fr o m
d v/ q
e u ati on (7 3 ) be su bs ti tu te d i n t is h
q
e u atio n , we o btain th e follo w in g fir st i n tegr al of
. th e G auss
q
e u ation 5
( )6
’
V c os d
e
7
( )4 U sin d a .

T ish e q u ati on i s d u e to L i ou ville fi ‘

EX AMPLES

I f On c constan t c u vatu re th e area o f a geod esi c t r i angl e is pr o

a su r fa e of r

po r ti o nal to th e differen ce b etw een th e su m o f th e angl es of th e t r i angl e and

tw o r ight angl es .

2 Sh ow th a t for a d evel op abl e su rfac e th e fi rst i n te gr a l o f eq ua ti o n ( 56 ) c an

.

b e fo u nd b y q uad r a tu res .

3 G i ven any c ur ve C u po n a su r fac e and th e d evel op abl e s ur fac e w hich is th e

.

e n vel o pe o f th e ta n gen t pl an es to th e su r fac e a l o ng C ; sh o w th a t t h e geod esic

cu r vatu re of C is eq ual to th e c ur vat ure o f th e pl ane c u r ve i nto w hich C is t rans

fo r med w h en th e d evel op abl e is d evel oped u po n a pl ane .

4 W h en th e pl ane is refer red to a syste m o f c o n fo c al e llip ses and h yper bo l as

'
.

w h ose foci are at th e di sta n ce 2 c ap ar t th e li nea r el e me n t c a n be w r i tte n ,

da2
d8 2 :(u ?
_c2
2

u2 c?
5 . A c
ne essa r y and sufii c i en t c onditi on th at be a so u l tio n o f A 4 1 ) 1 is th at
daz pe rfect sq uare
d o? b e a .

6 If . 01 a 02 w h er e 01 and 6, ar e fun cti o ns o f u a nd v i s a so l u ti o n o f

, ,

Al a 1 th e cu r ves 01 : c o nst a re li nes of l ength z er o and th e c u r ves 01 a

; , . 0 c onst , 2 .

a r e th e i r o r th ogo n al t r a j ecto r i es .

7 W h en th e li near el emen t o f a spi ra l su r fa c e is i n th e for m d s

. e (d u U d vfi) 2 2 '7 2 i’
,

th e eq u a ti o n AI ¢ 1 ad mits th e so l u ti o n cl w he UI is a fu n cti o n o f u w hich ,

re ,

sa tisfi es an eq u ati o n o f th e fi rst o r d er w h ose i n teg r a ti o n gi ves th us all th e geod es ic s

o n th e su r fac e .

8 Fo r a su r fac e w ith th e li nea r el ement

.

daz V [ d 142 V 1 )d
Q
(u ]
‘

w h er e V cti ons o f 1:
and V; al o ne th e eq u ati o n AI ¢
are fu n 1 ad mits th e so l u ti o n ,

(0 ( v) th e d eter mi na ti o n o f th e fu n cti o ns /
2 , q and l re q u i r i n g th e so l u t ilg

ti on f a di fferen ti al eq uati on o f th e fi rst or d er and q ua d ra tu res

o .

9 If d eno tes a so l u ti on of Am 1 i nvol vi ng a nonadditi ve c onstan t a th e

. . ; ,

li near el emen t of th e su r face can be w r itten

(9 o.
( ) r 3
5 1

( r —w
( i s? d¢ 2 a —

i
(5 )
f 5“
o 3 .

ca ca?

w h ere 14 ) i ndic ates th e mi x e d di ffer enti a l pa rameter ( III ,

L . o .
, p . 348 .
2 20 GEOD ESI CS

94 . Lines of sh or test length . Envel ope of geodesi cs . We can go

a step far t h er t h an th e fi r st t h eor em of 8 9 an d s o w t h h at w h th
e er

o n e or m or e g eo desic s pass th rou

g h t p wo o in ts M, an d M2 o n a su r

face, th e h
s o r test d istan ce ou th e s u r fac e betw een t h ese poi nts, i f i t
e x i sts , is m easu r ed alon g o n e o f th ese
g eo d es ics .

T h us, let v f (u ) an d v d efi ne tw o c u r v es C an d C, passing

h
t r ou
g h th e po in ts M, M , .
,,
th e par ametr ic v alu es of u at th e poi n ts

bi e ng u , an d u
,
. Th e ar e of C betw een t h ese oi n ts
p h as th e len gt h
' ’2
V E + 2 F v + Gv du ,

w h er e v
'
d en otes th e d er i v ati ve o f v w i th r es
pect to u . For c on

v en i en c e w e w r ite th e abo v e t h : us

’
7
( )6 u , v, v
)du .

Fu r t h er mor e, w e p t
u

f1 ( ) u =f
( )
u W W) ,

w h er e m (a ) i s a fu ncti on o f u v an i s hi n
g w h en u is q
e u al to u , an d

u an d e is a c o n stant w h ose absol u te v alu e may be ta k en so s mall

d
,,

t h at th e c u r ve C, w ill li e i n an y p r esc r i be n eig hb h or oo d of C .

H ence th e len gth of th e ar c _

MM , 2
of C is
,

( M u , v + e cv,

T h i
us 8 f ti ,
f d
s a u nc on o e, r e u cin
g for e 0 to 8 H en c e, i n o r d er .

th t th a C b th h t
e c u rv e e e s or e st o f all th e n ear by c u r ves w i c h h
d
-

p assth g h M d M
r oui t i ,
an
,,
s n ec essar y t at th e h
er ivati ve o f s,

w i th p tt b z
r es f ec o e e ero or e 0 . h
T is g iv es

896
a) —
’
du O .

av

O n th e assu m pti on t h at a) ad mi ts a c onti n u o u s fi r st d er i vati ve

i n th e i n ter v al ( u ,, an d qt c on ti n u ou s fi r st an d sec o n d d er i v a
ti v es, th e l eft -
h an d m mbe er of t is h e q u atio n may be i n teg r ated
by par ts w i th th e r esu lt
222 GEOD ESI CS

B ut for u u
,, f g an d f g ;
’
c o nse q uen tl th
y e last ter mi s z er o .

I n teg r ati ng th e fi r st memb er by par ts, an d n o ti n t h at

f
a
i s z er o for
g
Ea
u u 0 an d u u, w e h av e

ED
Ea

Sin ce C, i s a g eod esi c, th e ex pr essi on i n par en t h esi s is z er o , an d

h en c e D d oes n o t v ar y w i th M, . T is h s h o ws h
t at th e en vel ope o f

th e g eod esi c s t r o u g a
p oi n t bea h
r s to t em th e r elati on h h w h i ch
th e ev olu te of a c u r ve d o es to a fa ily o f n or mals to th e m cur ve .

Mor eo ver , th e cu r ve ( 5 is n ot a
g eod esi c , for at eac hpi o n t of i t t h er e

i s tang en t a g eo d esi c Hen ce th er e is an ar e con n ec ti n

g M an d M,
k
.
,

w h ic h is h
s or ter th an th e ar c o f ( g. In t is h w ay, by ta i ng d iffer en t

po i n ts M, on ( 5, w e obtai n an y n u mber o f ar cs co n n ecti n

g Mo
an d
M, w h ic h ar e s h o r ter h
t an th e ar c o f C, , eac h c on si sti n
g of an ar c

of a g eod esi c su c h as M, M, I t is th en
C, an d th e g eo d esi c di stan ce .

n ec essar ily tr u e th
at th e sh or te st d i stan ce fr o m MO to a po in t M o f

C, beyo n d M, i s n o t m easu r ed alon g C, How ev er w h en M li es .

,

w i th in th e ar c JII OM, a d omain c an be c h osen abou t C, so small

,

th at th e ar c MOM of C2 i s sh or ter th an th e ar c MOM o f any o th er

c ur ve w ith i n th e dm
o ai n an d p assi n
g t h r ou
g h th ese
p o in tsfi
"

th er hi sto r ic al p r obl em asso ci ated w ith thi s p r obl em i s th e foll ow i ng t

A no z

G iven an ar c C 0 j oi n i ng tw o po i nts A B o n a surfac e ; to fi nd th e c ur ve of sh or test ,

length j oi ni ng A and B a nd i nc losi ng w i th Co a g i ven a r ea

,
.

Th e gi ven by H d udv I t is evid en t th at tw o fun cti o ns M and

is N
ar ea
ff . c an

b e fou nd i n an in fi nity of w ays su ch th a t

EN EM
Eu Ev

By th e a pplic ati on of G r een s th eor em w e h ave ’

ff H dudv :
M il
l

h er e th e l ast i n tegr al is u r v near and is t ak en ar ound th e c on tou r o f th e ar ea

c ili
2
”
I M d a + N dv ,

w .

Si nc e Co i s fi x ed ou r p r obl em r ed u c es to th e d eter mi nati o n o f a c u r ve C al o ng

,
a
w hich th e i n teg r al M da N d v i s c onstan t and w h ose ar c A B th at is th e
f A
, , ,

For a c ompl ete d i sc us i n f thi s p b l em th e ead e i s r efe ed t D a b u

mo r e s o o ro r r rr o r o x ,

V ol III pp 86 —1 12 ; B ol z a ch p v
.
,
.
,
a . .

f I n fact it w as i n th sol u ti on f thi s p ob l m th t Mi nd i ng ( C lle V l V

,
e o r e a re ,
o .

p 297 ) d i c
. d th e fu ncti on to w hich B nnet (J n al d e l Ecole P olytech ni qu
s ov er e o ou r
’
e,

V ol X IX
. p 44) gave th e n ame g eodesi c c u va tu e
. r r .
 EN V EL OPE O F GEOD ESI C S 22 3

Fv ’
G v fl d u, is
’
a min i mum
calcu l us of var i ati ons . F ro m th e
w e k now tha t so far as th e di ffe re n ti al eq u a ti o ns o f th e so l u ti on is c on c er ned thi s
, ,

is th e same p robl em as fi n di ng th e c u r ve C al ong w hich th e i n te gra l

B
\/E 2 Fv (M N v )d u
’fl ’
Gv d u
'

f A
c

is a min i mu m, c be ing a co nstan t . Eu l er s eq u ati on

’
fo r this i n tegr al is

aE EF EG
f v — v”
’
+2
F + Gv
’
C av Ev
VE 2 F v Gv 2
’

Comp ar i ng this resu lt w ith th e for mul a of Bonne t ( IV w e see th at C h as con ,

stan t geod esic c u r va tu re l / o and c evid en tl y d epe nds u p o n t h e magni tu d e of th e

,

a rea be t w een th e c u r ves He nc e w e h ave th e th eorem o f Mi ndi ng :

.

I n or der tha t a cu r ve C j oi ni ng tw o po i nts sha ll be th e sh or test w h i c h tog eth er w i th ,

a g i ven cu r ve t hr oug h these po i nts i ncloses a por t i on of th e surfac e w i th a g i ven ar ea

, ,

it is necessar y that the g eodesi c cur vatur e of C be co nsta nt .

GENERAL EX AMP LES

1 . Wh en th e p aramet r ic c ur ves o n th e u n it sph ere sa ti sfy th e c onditi on

E
Eu 1 Eu 2 1 2

they rep resent th e asympto tic li nes on a sur fac e w h ose to ta l c u rvature is
1

:
(u ) w
2 . W henq tions o f th e sph ere h ave th e form ( 11 1
th e e u a ,
th e p ar ame t r ic
cu r ves are asympto tic and th e equa ti on (22 ) is ( 1 + u v)’
general i n te g ral 18 a 1: if 2 0, o f w h ich th e

mu m+ w uo _ —
¢ no r ot
1 + uv

w h ere ¢ d eno te ar bitrary fu n ctions

( u ) and (b ( 0 ) .

3 Th e se cti o ns o f a su r fac e by all th e pl an es th r ou gh a fix ed li ne L i n sp ac e

.
,

an d th e c u rves o f co n ta ct o f th e tang en t c ones to th e su r face w h ose ver tic es a re

o n L for m a c on j u ga te system
,
.

4 G i ven a su rfac e of t r ansl a ti on 2: u y

. . v z = f (u ) De ter mi ne th e , ,

fun cti o n s f and so th a t ( pl pg ) Z c onst w h ere Z d eno tes th e c os i ne of th e .

,

angl e w hich th e n ormal mak es w ith th e z ax is and d e te r m i ne th e l in es of c ur va -

t u re on th e su rface .

5 D ete rmi ne th e re l ati o ns betw een th e ex po nents m; an d n i n th e equ ati ons

.
.

z = Un v m y = U W Vs z s ra
soth at o n th e su r fac e so d efi ned th e p ar amet r ic c u r ves sh all for m a c on j u gate sys
tem an d sh ow th a t th e asym pto tic li nes c an be foun d b y q u ad r at u res
, .

L . o .
, p . 297 .
2 24 G EODESI C S

6 . Th e l
enve ope o f th e fam y il of pl anes
( U1 V 1 )33 ( U2 ( Us V s)z ( U4 + V4) 0,

w h er e th e U s are fun cti ons of i t al o ne and th e V s of v i s a

’ ’
,
su r fa e u c p on w hich
th e p ar amet r ic c ur ves are pl ane an d for m a c onj u ga te system ,
.

7 .conditi on th at
Th e th e p ar ametr ic cu rves form a c onj ugate sys e t m on th e
en vel ope of th e pl ane

s cos u
a ys in u z co t v =f ( u, v),

is th at f b e th e su m of a. fun ction of i t al one an d of v a one l ; in t hi s c ase th ese

c u r ves ar e pl ane l i nes o f c ur vat u r e .

8 . Fi n d geodesics on th e sur face of Ex 7 p 2 19

th e .
,
.
,
and d etermi ne th e ex p res
i
s ons for th e r adii of c u r vat u r e and to r si o n of a geod esic .

9 . p
A t ti on of tw o surfa ces u pon one anoth er is said to be confor mal
r e r esen a

conj ugate w hen it i s at th e same ti me c onfor mal and every c onj uga te system on ,

o ne sur fac e c orresp ond s to a c o nj u g a te system on th e o th er Sh ow th at th e li n es of .

cu r vatu r e c orr espond and th at th e ch ar acter i stic li nes also c orr esp ond .

10 . G i ven a su r fa e c of revolu ti on a: u cos v , y :u i

s n v, z an d th e
fu n cti on d efi ned by

1
I
¢

w here A and c ar e c onstan ts ; a confor mal c onj ugate rep r esen tation of th e su r face -

u p on a sec ond sur fa c e a ; u l cos u, y; u l si n vl 21 o (u l ) is d efi ned b y , ,

du
1) cvl , c l og u l 9
u
+F
/
2

w h er e F d eno tes th e fu n cti on of u found by solvi ng ( i ) for

’

11 . I f tw o fam ili es of geod esics ou t un d er c onstan t an gl e ,

th e c
su r fa e is
d evel o pabl e .

12 . If a su r fa e w c ith th e li near ele men t

d ez ( au2 0 )( d u2

w h er e a b c ar e c onstan ts is r ep resen te d on th e my pl ane

, , ,
-
z, u

geod esics c or r esp ond to th e L i ssaj ous fi gu res d efi ned by

x /bsin i x fd si n 1
%
-
1 -

w h ere A ,
B, C ar e c onstants .

13 . Wh en th er e pon a su rfac e more th an o ne famil y of geod esics w hich

is u ,

togeth er w ith th ei r or th ogonal t r aj ector i es form an i so thermal system th e c ur va , ,

tu r e of th e su r face is c onstan t .

14 . p rincip al nor mal s of a cur ve meet a fi x ed straight li ne th e cu rve is a

I f th e ,

g eod esi c on a surfac e of revol u ti on w h ose ax i s is thi s li ne Ex ami ne th e c ase w here .

th e pr i ncip al nor mal s meet th e li ne u nd er c o nstan t angl e .

 CHA PTER V II

QUADRI CS . RULED SURFACES . MINIMAL SURFACES

95 . Con focal qu adr i cs . Ellipti c coor di nates. Tw o q d

u a r ics ar e

f
con oca l w hen th e foc i , r eal or i m a
g i n ar ,
y of t ph eir r i n ci
pal sec

tio n s coin ci d e . Hen c e a family of c o n foc al q u ad r ics i s dfi d e ne by

th e e u ati on
q
2
y z
(1 ) u c u

w h er e u i s th e par am eter of th e family an d a , b, c ar e c o n stan ts,

su c h th at

2 2 “
2
( ) a b c .

For eac h v alu e of u , po si ti ve or n e

g ative, less t h an a
“
equation

dfi
,

1
( ) e n es a q u ad r i c wh ic h is

an elli
pso i d w h en 0
2
u 00 ,

an h yp er boloi d of o n e s h eet w h en b
2
u c
f
,

an hyp er bolo id of tw o h
s eets w h en a
2
u b “
.

As u appr o ac h es 0
2
th e smallest a x is of th e ellipsoid appr oac h es

z er o Hen ce th e su r face u c
2
i s th e por tio n of th e fe
ypl an e,

d
-
.

cou n ted tw i c e, b ou n ed by th e ellipse

z 0 .

A g ain , th e su r face u
2
b i s th e por tion of the fez plan e, c o un te d
d
-

tw i ce, bo u n d e by th e h yper bola

a
2
_b 2
6
2
0
2

w h ic h con tai ns th e c en ter of th e c u r ve . E qu ation s 4

( ) an d
(5 )
d efin e th e focal ellipse an d focal hyper bola of th e system .

22 6
 CON FOCAL Q U A DRI C S 22 7

T h r ou g h eac h pi o nt (x , ) i
pace t er e pass t
y, z n s h h ree q di u a r cs

of th e family ; th y e ar e d eter mi ned by th e v alu es o f u, whi h c ar e

r oots o f th e q
e u ati on

—
a
x e— u
ne — u
r i
ne we r e
)
_u 0 _u
2 e 2 2
)( b
2 2
y ( a
)( ) z
( a u u ) 0 .

M) M M)
? ? ?
Si n ce ( a 0, ( b) 0, ( e 0, oc
) 0,

th e r o o ts of e qu ati o n d en oted by u
,,
u
, , u
, , ar e c o n ta in ed in
th e follo w i n g i n ter v als :
7
2 —
( ) c > u
,
> cc .

Fr o m ( 3) i t i s seen t h at th e su r fac es c o rr espo n d i ng to u

,,
u
,,
u , ar e

r espec ti v el
y h yp er boloi ds o f tw o an d o n e s h eets an d a n elli
pso i d .

Fig 2 2p . re r esen ts t h r ee co n oc a f l qu adr i cs ; th e c u r ves on th e

ellipsoi d ar e lin es of ou r

v atu r e, an d on h yp th e er

bol o i d of o n e s h t th y
ee e ar e

asym pto ti c lin es .

Fr om th e d efin itio n of u , ,

u
,,
u
3
i t follo w s t h t M)i
a ( u s

q
e u al to (u , — u )(u , — u
).

Wh en cf) i n (6) is re
pl ac ed

h
by t is e x pr essio n an d u

i s g i v en su c c e ssi v ely th e
2 f
v alu es a , b , w e obtain

u u
, ) ( a
f 2 f
( a
) b )(a c

z_
( 6 _ u )(
2
b u )( 6 _
l
u )
s
2
s
z l fi
(b (b
‘

c
)
2 2
u )( 0 u h) (0 u ) '

l s
? 2
( 0
(
a ) c

T h ese for mu l as ex press th e C ar tesi an c oor d in ate s o f a poin t in

h q w h ich
‘

spac e in ter ms of th e par ameter s of th e t r ee u ad r i c s

pass th r ou g h th e poi n t . T h ese par amete r s ar e c all ed th e elli

p ti c

i
c oo r d n a tes o f th e po in t . It i s e v id en t t at to h eac h set of h
t ese

K i chh
r of
f, Mech an i k , p . 203 . Le ipsic , 1 877 .
228 QU A DRI CS

c oo r di n ates t h er e cor r espon d eig ht

po in ts i n spac e, on e in eac h
of th e ei
g h t m p co ar tments bo u n d ed by th e c oo r d in ate plan es .

If on e o f th e par a m eter s u , in ( 8 ) be made c o n stant, an d th e

ot h ers u w h er e i ¢ j k, be al lo w ed to v ary, th ese e q u ation s

dfi e ne
,,

i n par a etr i c for m m

th e su r fac e, also d efi n ed by e q u ation

in h h h
w ic u h as t is c onstan t v alu e u Th e par a etr ic ,
.
‘

m c u r v es

u = c onst .
, u, . c o n st . ar e th e cu r v es of i n ter sec tio n of th e g iven
,

q u ad r ic an d th e d ou ble s
yste m of q u ad r ic s cor r espon di ng to th e
ar ame ter s u an d u
p ,

If w e pu t

9 b 2 2
=
( ) a c c, u
J
u ,, ut v,

th e e q u atio n o f th e su r fac e b ec om es

1
( )0

and th e par a m q
etr i c e u ati ons 8
( ) re d uc e to

— —b
( c a
>< o
>

Moreover , th e qu ad r i cs w h ic h cu t 1
( )0 i n th e par a m etr i c c u r ves

h av e th e q
e u ati o n s

y
a —u b— u c — u

2 r
x
y
a 1) b v c v

In q
c o n se u en ce of 3
( ) an d 9
( ) we h av e th at equ ation s 1
( )0
or (1 1 ) dfi e ne

an elli psoi d wh en a u b v > c 0,

1
( )3 an hyp er b d
ol oi of one s eet h w h en a > u b O c v,

b d
.

an h yp er oloi of t w o s h eets w h en a 0 b u c v.
230 QU A D RI CS

H en c e
The ta ng en t planes to a cen tr al
qu a dr i c a long a cu r ve, at
points

f
o w hi ch the total cu r va tu r e of the su rface i s the same, ar e equ a lly

d i stant fr om the cen ter .

Fr om (1 8) w e see th at th e u m bili c al poin ts cor r es on

p d to th e
val u es o f th e par ameter s su c h th t a u = v. Th e c on d i tions 1
( )3
s h o w h
t at t i s c o h mm
o n v alu e of u an d v for an ellipsoi d i s b,
an d c fo r an hyp b l id er o o of tw o s h eets, w h er eas th er e ar e n o r eal

u mbili cal po in ts for th e hyp er bol o i d of o n e s h eet . Wh en h

t ese

v al u es ar e su bsti tu ted in w e h ave as th e c obr din ates of

th e se
p o in ts o n th e ellipsoi d

g ( b _ c
)
2
( )0 x z i Z =i

an d o n th e hyp er bolo id o f tw o s h eets

21 x i
zz
6 (b
b
c
) 9 z 0
( a
)
It s h o u ld be n o ti ce d t h at t h ese po i nts li e on th e fo c al hyp b er ola

an d foc al ellipse r espec ti v el

y .

97 Fu nda m ental qu antiti es for th e par aboloids Th e equ ati on

d
. .

of a
pa b
r a oloi

22
( ) 2 z ar
2
+ by
“

may be r eplac e d by

23
( ) x
é ( au
, +

H en ce th e par ab oloids ar e su r faces o f tr anslatio n 81 ) w h ose

g en er atin
g c u r ves ar e par abolas w h ic h lie i n per pen d icu lar plan es .

By dir ect calc u lati on w e fin d

a
D = 0, D :
’ ”

4 “
o f agu z
b v, + 1
,

so t h at th e e
qu atio n of th e lin es o f c u r vatu r e is

b
u 1
_
— l
( zv
.
a
@ l
b
v
,
i
( v
—
1 . _u
da , du , da ,
 FU ND AMEN TA L QU A N TI TI ES 23 1

Th e g en er al i n tegr al of t hi q s e u ati on is
b a b
e u
, + z
a b a

w h ere c is an ar ybitr ar constan t .

Wh en u and v i n ( 24 ) ar e
, , g i v en par ti c ular v alu es, equ ati on ( 2 4
)
d eter m i n es t w o v al u es o f c, c, an d c, , in g en er al d istin c t If t ese . h
latter v al u es be substi tu ted i n ( 24 ) su cc essi v ely, w e obtain in fin i te
for m th q e e u atio ns o f th e tw o li n es o f c u r v atu re t hr ou g h th e po i n t

(u , , If e, an d c
,
be re
placed by

spec ti v ely, w e h av e, in c o n se q u en c e o f th e t w o e q u ations

2
b a
buy + ( 1 + au )

g 2
bug ( 1 av 1
) v
( 1 av
)

Wh en t h ese e qu ati o n s ar e sol v ed fo r $

2
an d
y
f
, we find t h at e q ua

t io n 2 2 c an be lac ed b
( ) re
p y
a — b

f
ab

1 b a
1
( + au av
) ,
2 ab

and th e par ametr i c c u r ves are th e li n es o f c u r vatu r e .

No w we h av e
— b —b — b
a d ( a )u
0
2
4b u 1
( + au
)
b— ( — b — b
a d a
)v

4 b
2 ( u 1
)
1
v
( + av
)
— _
v, N/ b \fab
g l
\ a av )
,

— b u —b b]
[ (
a a
) )v -

( a -
b) ( u — v ) 1
4 b —b u — b v— b (1 + au
)
) ) ] u

D = O,
’

( — b — 1
a)( u v
)
-
b)u — b][ d ( a — b v— b
) ]
23 2 QU A D RI C S

Fr o m an d 2
( )9 w e obtai n

x s
/
2 a o — b u
[ ( )
— b v —b i
) ]
,

1 3 _l
g
b 8
[ ( b)u b] [ ( b)v b]
'

-
V a a a a a ,

P1
—l
3
b 3 — b u—b —b v
V a
[ ( a a
) ] [ (
a a
)
2

Fr o m th ese r esu l ts w e fin d t h at th e r ati o W/z is co n stan t alo n

g
th e c u r ves for w h ic h th e total c u r vatur e is c on stan t .

We su
ppose t h at b i s posi tive an d
g r eater t h an a . Fr o m th e
fi rst of 2
( 6 ) i t follo w s t h at u an d v at a r eal poin t d iffer in
si
gn, or one is e q u al to z er o . We c o n si der th e points at w ic h h
bo t h u an d v ar e e u al q to z er o . T h er e ar e tw o su c h poi nts,
an d t h eir c oor d in ates ar e

3
( )2 x 0,

Evi d ently th ese poi n ts ar e r eal o nl

y on th e elli ptic par a olo i b d .

Fr o m 3
( )1 i t fo
p,ll o w s t
p, h at an d ar e th en e q u al , and cou se

qu en tl
y t ese a h
r e th e u mbili c al
p o i n ts . Sin ce at poi n ts oth er

h
t an t ese u and vh u st d ifi er i n Si n ,
g m w e may assu m th e at u

is al ways posi ti ve an d v n e ati ve

g Mor eov er fr o m 2
( )6 i t i s

d
.
,

seen h
t at u an d v ar e u n r estr i cte e x cept i n th e case of th e
ellipti c pa b
r a oloi d , w h en v m u st be g r eater t h an —1 /a .

98 . L ines of cu r vatu r e and asy mpt ti o c li nes on qu adr i cs . Fr o m

an d 91 we h av e th e th m
eor e

The li n es f
o cu r va tu r e o f a
q u adr i c su r ace f for m an i sother ma l
s ste
y m of the L i ou vi lle type .

Bonn et "e
h as s h o wn t h at h
t i s pr oper ty i s h
c ar ac ter isti c o f th e

q u ad r ics T h er e ar e, h o w ev er m an
y s u r fac es wh ose lin es o f c ur va

d
.
,

tu r e for m an i so th m er al s stem
y . T h ey ar e calle i sother mi c su r

faces . Th e c ompl ete d eter min ati on o f all su c h su r fac es h as n ev er

b een acc o m pli h s ed (cf Ex . . 3,

f Mé moi r e sur la théo i e d es su

r c
r fa es a pplic ab l s sur une sur fac e donn ée Jou r nal de
e ,

l E
’
cole P olytech ni qu e , V ol X X V
. pp 1 2 1—1 32
. .
234 Q UA D RI C S

A s i n th e pr eced ing c ase, w e see t at th e su r face i s dou bly h

and th e par ameter s i n ( 3 6 r efer to th e asymptoti c system o f str ai
) g t h
lin es H en c e
.

The a sy mptoti c li n es on an
yq u ad r i c a r e str aig ht li nes .

EX AMPLES

1 . c al con ic s of a famil y of c on fo c al qu ad r ics meet th e l atter

Th e fo i n th e
u mbilic al p o i n ts .

2 F i nd th e ch ar acter i stic li nes o n th e q u ad r i c s o f p ositi ve c u r vatu r e

. .

3 . Th e l secti on of an ellip soid at a po i n t in th e di r ection of th e cur ve

no r ma

al on g w hich th e t o ta l c u r vat u r e is c onst an t i s an ellip se W i th o n e of i ts ver tic es

at th e p o i n t .

4 F i n d th e eq u ati o n of th e for m a
.

on s
Mo ( cf § 79) w h en th e c or r esp ondi ng
v
.

su rfa e c is a h yper b o l oid of one s ee h t; w h en a h yper b olic p ar ab o l oid .

5 . Fi n d th e l t
e vo u e of th e h yp erb ol o id o f on e s h eet an d d er i ve th e fo ll ow i ng
pr Oper ti es :

( a) th e c
lgeb r aic of th e tw el fth ord er ;
su r fa e is a

b
( ) th e se cti o n b y a p r i n ci pa l pl an e o f th e h yp er b o l o id c onsi st s of a c on ic and

th e e vol u te o f a c on ic

(c ) th ese se cti ons ar e edges on th e su r fac e ;

(d) th e c u r ve of i n terse cti on of th e tw o sh eets of th e su r fac e i s cu t b y each of
th e p r i n cip al pl anes i n fou r o r di n ary p oi n ts fou r d ou bl e p o i n ts an d fou r c usps , , ,

and c onse q uen tl y is of th e t w en ty fou r th or d er -

.

6 . ter mi ne for th e evol u te of a h yper b olic p arab ol oid th e p r op er ti es anal ogous

De
to th ose for th e su rface of Ex 5 . .

7 . d u c e th e equ ati ons of th e su r fac es p ar all el to a c en t r al q uad r ic ; d etermi ne

De
th ei r or d er and th e ch ar a cter of th e se cti ons o f th e su r fac e by th e p r i ncip al pl anes
o f th e q u ad r ic fi nd th e n or mal c u r vatu r e o f th e c u r ves c or resp o ndi ng to th e asymp
to tic li nes o n th e q uad r ic .

99 . Geodesics on q u adr ics . Si n ce th e q u ad r i cs ar e i so t h mi

er c

su r fac es o f th e L i ou v ille type, th e fi n i te e q u ation o f th e

g eo d esics

c an be fou nd by qu adr atu r es Fr o m (V I , 1

( )4 an d

Mor eo ver ,
d c
dou bly r u led su rfaces For consi d er such a su r
th e qu a r i s a r e th e on ly .

fac e and d eno te by a b 0 thr ee o f th e gene ator s i n o ne syst em

, , , A pl ane a th o ugh a
r . r

meet s b and c i n u ni qu e po i nts B and C an d th e li ne B C meets a i n a po i nt A Th e li ne

,
.

A B C i s a g e ner a to r o f t h e seco n d syst em an d th e on l y o ne o f thi s system i n th e pl an e a

, .

Th e o th er li nes o f thi s system meet a i n th e li n e a O n thi s acc o un t t h e pl ane 6! c u ts th e .

su r fac e i n tw o li nes a and AB C th at i s in a d egener ate c onic

, , Hence th e sur face i s of
,
.

th e second d egr ee .
 G EODESI C S ON Q U A D RI CS 23 5

it follows th at th e fir st i n tegr al of th e d i fi er en ti al q
e u ati o n of

g eo d esi cs o n an y on e o f th e q u ad r ic s is

( 3 7) u si n
2
9 v 005 2
0 a,

w h er e a is a c o nstan t o f in tegr ation an d 0 m easur es th e an

g l e

w h ic h a ge o d esic , dete r min ed by a v al u e o f a , a es w i t th e li n es mk h

o f c u r v atu r e v co ns t W e recall t at in e u ation s ( 1 1 ) an d ( 2 6 )
. h q
th e para m eter a i s g r eater t h an v, e x c ept at th e u mbili c al poin ts,
w h er e t h ey ar e q
e u al lve s . h all d iscu ss th e g en er al c ase fir st .

C o nsid er a par t i c u lar

po i nt A c c o rdi n g as a is gi v en
th e v al u e u3
( )7 d’
efi n es th e
or v , g
’
eod es ieq
c tan
gu atio n
e n t at
M to th e lin e of c u r v atu r e u = u o r v = v respec ti v ely I t is
’ ’ ’
.

r ead il
y s ee h
n t at th e o t er v alu es o f a , d eterm i n in
g o t e r
g eoh h
d es ics th r ou g h M ’
, li e i n th e i n ter v al betw een u
'
an d v
'
. Mor e
o v er , to eac h l va ue of a h
in t is do mai n t
p o h er e co rr es ond tw
th h h
M w os e tangents ar e symm etr ically placed
’
g eo desi cs ro u
g
wi th r espe c t to th e d ir ec tio n s o f th e li n es o f c u r v atur e Fr om .

h
t is r esul t i t foll o w s also th at th e w h o le s
y ste m of
g eod e sics is
defi n ed by w en a i s g i ve n th e li mi ti ng h v alu es of u an d v
an d all th e i n ter m ed iate v alu es .

We w ri te e q u ati o n 3
( )7 i n th e fo r m
3
( )8 ( u a
)si n g e (v a
) co s
"
'
0 O,

an d consid er th e g eo d esics on a ce n tral q

ua d r ic
defi n ed by t is h
e q uati o n w h en a h as a par tic u lar v al u e a
’
. Su ppo se, fi rst, t at a ’
h
i s i n th e d o ma in of th e valu es of u . T h en at eac po in t h
o f t ese h
g eo d esi c s v a
’
an d c o nse q y f
u en tlr om 3
( )8 u a
’
. We h av e seen

th at th ese g eo d esi cs ar e tang en t to th e lin e o f c u r v atu r e u = a

’
o

Fr o m ( 1 1 ) i t follo ws t at t h h e h
y l ie w i t in th e z o ne o f th e su rfac e
bo un ded by th e t w o b r an c h es o f th e c u r v e a a
’
W en , n ow , . h
'
a is i n th e d o main of th e v al u es of v, u a
'
is po si ti v e, an d co n
se q u en tly fr om 3
( )8 v < a
’
Hen ce th e g eo d esi c s tan g en t to th e

v
.

c u r ve a
'
li e o u tsid e th e z o ne bo u n d ed by th e tw o bran c es o f h
th e l in e o f c u r v atu r e v a
’
. Si m i lar resu lts ar e tr u e for th e par abo
l o ids, wi th th e d ifferen ce, as seen fro m t h at th e g eod esi cs
tangen t to n = a
’
li e ou tsid e th e re
gi o n bo u n d ed by t is c u r v e, h
w h er eas th e c u r ves ta ng en t to v a li e inside th e r e io n bo u n d ed
’

by v a
'
.
g
236 Q U A D RI CS

1 00 Geodesi cs th r ou gh th e u mbi l i cal poi nts T h er e r e m ai n s fo r

k
. .

c o n sid er ation th e c ase w h er e a ta es th e u ni q u e v al ue w h ic h u

an d 1) h ave a t th e u mbilic al po in ts . L et i t be d en o ted by a

o,
so

t h at th e c ur ves d efi n ed by
2 2
3
( )9 ( u a
o ) si n 6 (v a
o)c os 9 0

ar e th e u mbi li cal g eod esi cs . We h av e , at on c e, th e t h eo r e m

Thr oug h h poi n t on a qu ad r i c w i th r ea l u mbi li ca l poin ts ther e
ea c

as
s tw o u mbi li cal g eod esic s w hi ch ar e e u a lly i n cli ned to the li n es
p q
f
o cu r va tu r e thr oug h the poin t .

H ence tw o d i am etr ic ally opposi te u mb ilical poi n ts of an ellipsoi d

ar e j o in ed by an in fi ni ty o f g eod esic s and n o t w o geod esi cs th r o u h
g ,

th e same u mb ilic al poin t m ee t ag ai n ex cept at th e d i ametr i c ally

o osi
pp te po i nt . T h ese p ro
pe r ti es ar e
p o ssessed also by a family of

g r eat c ir cle s
on a s
p h er e th ro u h t
g w o o
ppo si te po in ts O n th e
.

elliptic par abo l o i d a nd on eac h h t s ee o f th e h

yper bolo i d o f tw o
sh ee ts t h er e ar e t w o fa mili
mbi li c al g eod esic s, bu t n o tw o
es o f u

o f th e same fam il
y m eet ex c ept at th e u m i li c al poi n t co mon to b m -

all c u r v es o f th e family .

For th e ell ipso id 1 1

( ) oa = b an d e u ati o n s
q ( V I , 7 2 , 73 ) beco m e

34> 1
q:
86 4 u — b

Si m il ar r esu lts h old for th e hyp b er o loi d of tw o s h eets an d th e

ellipti c par b
a ol oi d . H en ce th e d i stan c es of a po i n t P fr o mt wo

u mbili c al poi n ts ( no t di a m etr i c ally o posi te

p ) ar e of th e f m
or

H en ce we h av e

The li n es of cu r va tu r e on the u ad r i c s w i th r ea l u mbi li ca l p oin ts

q
ar e g eod esi c elli
p ses an d hyper bola s w i th the u mbi li ca l p oi n ts for foci .

1 01 . Ell ipsoid r efer r ed to a pol ar geodesic syste m . A fam ily o f

um bili cal
g eod esic s an d t h ei r or t h og on al tr a j ec tor i es con sti tu te

an e x cellent syste m
for pol ar g eo esic c oor in ates, bec au se th e d d
dmi o a n is u nr estr icte d
8 7) ex c ept in th e case of th e ellipsoi d,
238 Q U AD RI C S

T ish x pr ession
e sati s fi es th e fi rst o f co n d i ti on s V
( ,I Th e
sec on d is
1
44
( ) li m (u b)

If w e m ak e u se o f th e fo r mu l as ( I II 1 1 ) an d
, we fin d

— — —b — — b —
bu
2 ( a n )( u c ) u
,
do
2 ( a o
)( u c
) v

84> u — v 8d) 1) u — v

so th at e q u atio n (4 4 ) r ed u ces to

By mean s of
(4 3 ) w e pass fr
om t i s to h
1
b — si u m
)( c
)
H en ce th e li n ear el e m en t h as th e follow i n g for m d u e to Rober ts

2 2
da d qb

Th e sec o n d o f e u atio n s q 40
( ) m a
y now be pu t i n th e for m
du 1 dc
2 — — u —b 2 — — b
( a u
)( u c
) ( a
)(
v v c
) v -

1og tan 9 + C
)( b -
c
) 2

w h er e C d eno tes th e co n stan t o f i n teg r ation . In o r d er to ev al u ate

th i s c o n stan t, w e c o n si d er th e g eo d esi c t h r ou
gh th e po i n t (0, b,
h
A t t is poi nt th e par ameter s h av e th e v al u es u a, v c, an d th e
a n g le a) h as a d efin ite val u e 6 . H enc e th e abo ve e q u ati on may be
re
p ac ed by
l

da 1
— — u — b 2 — —c — b
( a u
)( u c
) c
)( v
) v

* J ou r n al d e Ma th ema ti q u es
’

, V o l X III
. pp . 1 11
-
.
 P ROP ERT IES OF Q U A D RI C S 2 39

I n li k e m ann er , for th e u mbili c al g eo d es ics th r ou

gh on e o f th e
ot h er po in ts ( n ot d iam etr i c ally oppos i te ) w e h a ve

du
+ 1
— — c u — b 2 —c v— b
( a u
)( u ) c
)( v
)

It fo llo ws at o n ce fr o m t h ese fo r m u las t h at if M is an y po i n t o n

a lin e o f c u r v atu re u c onst . or v c o n st .

, w e h a ve r espec ti v ely

, I
0
2
11 0
3
31 1
c ons t .
, tan co nst .

1 02 Pr operti es of q uadr i cs Fr o m ( 1 8 ) i t follo w s t h at for th e

k
. .

c en tral q u adr i cs Eu ler

’
s e q u ati on ( IV , 3 4 ) ta es th e for m

1 2 a bc
( v 0 08 9 u si n
’
d)
3 ’
u v

By mean s of 1
( )9 an d ( 3 7 t is
) h r ed u ces to

1
R

In li k e m ann er , w e h av e fo r th e par abo loid s

3
IV
( 4 8) 2
3 [ b d a
(b
Hen ce we h av e

A long a
g eode si c or line f
o cu r v atu r e on a cen tr a l the

RW is i3
RW / a ”
r od u c t con sta n t, a nd on a ar a boloid the r at io z
p p .

C o n sider an
y po in t P on a cen tr al q u ad r i c an d a d i r ecti on
t hr ou
g h P L et a, B7 be th e di r ecti o n c o sin es o f th e latter
d
-
.
, .

Th e se mi -
ia m eter o f th e ellipso id ( 1 0) par all el to t i s dir ec ti on is h
g i ven by
?
o r
r
1 a
49 s
I
+ + - o

p a b c

By dfi e ni ti on a = M aI sin d am
E di t «E co
24 0 Q U A D RI C S

an d si mil ar ly for B an d 7 . Wh en th e v al u es o f x , y, z E G
, , fr om
1
( )1 an d ( 1 4 ) ar e b
su sti tu ted , e u ati on q 49
( ) r edu ces to
2
1 ( 30 8 9 sin
2
9
2
p

By m ean s o f 1
( )9 an d 3
( )7 t is may be h r e u ced d to

pW =
2 2
50 abc
( ) a .

Fro m th i s follows th e t h eor em of Joac h i msth al

A long a od esi c or a li n e f
o cu r vatur e on a cen tr a l u a dr i c the
g e
q
p r od u ct o f the se mi diam
-
eter f
o the q p ar allel to the tang en t
u ad r i c

to the cu r ve a t a
p oin t P an d th e d i sta nce fr om the cen ter to the
tang en t plan e at P is con stan t.

Fr o m 4
( )7 and 5 0) w
( e o btai n th e q
e u ati on

R W.
2
P
for all poi n ts on th e q u ad ri c . Sinc e W i s th e sa m e for all d ir ec
tio n s at a poin t, th e m a x imu m an d mi n i mu m v alu es o f p an d R
c o r r espon d . H en c e w e h ave th e t h eor e m
I n the cen tr a l sec ti on o f a uadr ic ar a llel to the tang ent lan e a t
q p p
a
p oi nt P the pr in c ipa l ax es ar e
par allel to the d i r ecti ons f the lines
o

“
f cu r vatu r e
o at P3

1 . Onhyper b olic p ar ab oloid o f w hich th e p r i n cip al p ar ab ol as ar e equ al th e

a , ,

lo cus of a p o i n t th e su m o r di ffer enc e o f w h ose d istan ces fr o m th e gener ators

,

th r ough th e ver tex of th e p ar ab ol oid is constant is a li ne of cur vatu re ,

.

2 F i nd th e r ad n of c ur vatu r e and torsi o n at th e ex t remity of th e mean di am

.
,

e te r of an ellip so id of an u mbil ic al geod esic th rou gh th e p o i n t

, .

8 F i nd th e sur fac es nor mal to th e t angen ts to a famil y o f umbilic al g eod esics

.

o n an ellip so id and d e ter mi ne th e c ompl emen tary su r fa c e ( c f

,
.

4 Th e geod esic di stan c e o f tw o di ametr ic all y o pp osi te u mbilic al p o i n ts o n an

.

e llip soid is e u a to o ne h al f th e length of th e p r i n cip al se cti on th r ough th e

q l ‘

u m bilic a l p o i nts .

5 F i nd th e fo rm of th e li near el emen t of th e h yp er b ol oid o f tw o sh ee ts or th e

.

e lliptic p arab olo id w h en th e p aramet r ic system i s p o l ar geod esi c w ith an u mbilic al

,

p oi nt for po l e .

6 If M1 and M2 ar e tw o p o i nts of i n te r secti on of a geod esic th r ou gh th e u mbilic al

.

p oi nt 0 w i th a li ne of c u rvature v c onst th en .
,

M1 0 ’
0 111 2 0 0
const .

For a mor e co mpl ete d i sc ussi on of th e geod sics on quad ri cs

e ,
th e r ea der i s referr ed
to a memoi r by v Br aunmii hl i n Math
.
, . A nnalen , V o l X X . pp . 556 586
-
.
24 2 RU L ED SU RFA CES

Sin ce th e g en er ator s ar e g eo d esics, h

t ei r or t h o
g on al tr a j ector ies

c an be fo u n d by ua q d r at ur es We ar r i v e at t is h r esu lt

d ir ec tly by re k
mar in g t h at th e
. equ ati on of h
t ese tra j ec tor i es is

( II I , 26 ) du c os dodo 0,

an d th at 90 i s a fun c tion o f v alon e .

1 04 L i ne of str i cti on Devel opabl e su r faces We sh all n ow con

d
. . .

si er th e q u an ti ti es w h ic h d eter mi ne th e r elati ve posi ti on s o f th e

en er ator s o f a r ul ed sur face
g .

L et g and g b e tw
’
o
g en er ato r s d eter i n ed by par a etr i c v alu es m m
v an d v 8v, an d let 7x , u, v d en o te th e di r ec ti on c osi n es o f t eir -
h ‘

co mm per pen dic u lar

on If th e d ir ec ti on co sin es o f g an d g .
-
'
be
d enoted by l, m, n ; l Bl, m 8m, n Sn r espec ti vely, w e h ave

lk mg . nu O,
5
( )5

an d c o n se u en tl
q y
5
( )6 7t a : v
(mSn a ) ( n bl l8n) ( lbm mbl) .

Fr o m 5
( )4 i t follo w s t h at

m nm (lm
’ ’2 ’ ’ 2 ’
( ( nl ln )
n
)
and by Taylor
’
s t h eor e m ,
N
l
l + Sl _ l + 1 8v +
2
5
( )7 -
I
8c
lg
H en ce q
e u ati ons 5
( )6 m ay be re
pl ac ed by

7x = l (mn '

1
=
u
—
a
(n l

v = 1 (lm ’
e
s,
a

w h er e cl d en ote x pr ession s of th e fi r st an d h ig h er
e or d er s i n 8v
M(
6 6 .
, 2, ,

If x , y )
, E and M (5 ’
+ 85 , y 837, 2 4 82 ) ar e th e
po i n 7
t s o f -

m eetin
g of t ish co mm on er en d ic u l ar w i t
p p g an d g
’
r espe c t i v ely h
fi
( g . th e len g th MM ’
, den o ted by A , i s gi ven by

5
( )9
8” 83/
— 3 3
.
7x a v
or

60
( ) A x 85 My v 85 . .
 L IN E OF STRI C TI ON 24 3

Fr o m after th e m an n er of w e o bt i an

Bf: (1 3+ ul )Bv
'
m —
ll a,

w h ere 0 i n v olv es th e sec o n d an d h ig h er

po w ers Bv . Wh en
'

t ish
an d si mil ar v al u es fo r By an d BEar e s u bs ti tu ted w e h av e

A
Bv

1 3 34
93 2
3
l m n
El ’
m’
n
'
,

an d 6 in v olv es first an d h ig h er po w ers of Bv . In q

c on se u en c e o f

(5 2 ) an d (5 4 ) w e h av e

6
( )3

A s Bv a
pp r oac h es z er o , th e po in t pp M a r oac h es a limi tin g po si
tio n 0 , wh ic h is c alled th e cen tr a l
poin t o f t h e
g en er ato r L et a .

d en o te th e v al u e of u h
for t is po i n t In o r d er to fin d i ts v alu e we

k
.

re mar h
t at i t follo w s fro m th e e u atio n s (5 5 ) an d ( 5 9) t at q h
BE Bl ByBm BEB
n

Bv Bv Bv Bv 5 5

If th e b
a o ve ex pressi o n s for t h ese q u an ti ties be su bsti tu ted in
q
e u ati on , w e h ave in th e lim i t, as Bv appr oac h es z er o ,

2
64
( ) (1 1
7. b 0.

C on se q u ently

65
( ) a

Th e locu s of th e c en tr al po i n ts is c all ed th e li n e of str i c ti on . Its

par a metr ic q
e u ati on is Evid en tly b 0 is a n ecessar y an d

su f c i en t co n d itio n
fi th at th e lin e o f str i c tion be th e dire ctr i x .

Fr o m 6
( )1 an d 6
( )3 i t i s seen th at th e d istance bet w een n ear -
by

g en er ato r s is of th e s econ d o r d er w h en
b = 0
2
(66 ) a sin
2
90 2
.

Wi th o u t loss of
g en er ali t
y w e may ta k e th e lin e o f str i c ti on

fo r d i r ec tr ix , in w hi hc c ase w e may h av e si n 00 : 0, t h at is, th e

24 4 RU L ED SU RFA CES

g ener ator s ar e tan g en t to th e ir ec tr i x A n o t er possibil ity i s d . h

afl or d ed b
y a = 0 F r om 5
( )4 i t i.s see n t at t h e o nl
y r eal su r h
faces satisf i
y gn t i s h c o nd itio n ar e cylind ers . H en ce (c f § 4 ) .

A n ecessar y a n d su fii ci en t c on d i ti on tha t a r u led su r a c e, other f than

a c
ylin d er , be d evelopable i s that the di stan ce betw een n ear by g en er a
-

tor s be of the secon d or hig her or d er s i n thi s ca se the edg e of r eg r es

si on i s the li ne str i cti on
o f .

1 05 Centr al plane Par ameter of di str ibu ti on Th e tang ent

d M
. . .

plan e to a r u le su r fac e at a po i nt n ecessar il

y c ontai n s th e

g en er ator t h r ou
g h M . I t h as been fo u nd 25) t h at for a d ev el

o pable su r face h
t is plan e i s tang en t at all po in ts of th e g en er ator
k
.

We sh all see h
t at i n th e case o f s ew
su r faces th e tangen t pl an e v ar i es as M
m ov es al o n
g th e
g en er ator . We d eter
mi ne th e c h ar acter of h t is var i ation by
fi nd i ng th e an
gl e whi h c th e tan g en t

pl an e at Mmk a es w i th th e tang en t
la n e at th e c en tr al oi n t C of th e g en
p p
c r ato r t h r ou
g h M Th e tan g en t plan e
d
. .

Fm 2 5
at C is c alle th e cen tr a l
plane

MM
.

L et g an d g 1 be tw o g en erators, an d t ei r c o mmo n per ’

h
p en d i cu lar fi
( g T r oug th e poi nt h h
o f g d r aw th e plan e M
M
.

n or mal to g ; i t eets g
1
i ,
m
n M , an d th e line t r ou
g par allel h h
to g 1 i n M2
Th e l i mi ting posi tio ns o f th e plan es an d M MM
M M
.
I
’
h
M M , as g 1 appr oac es g , ar e th e tang en t plan es at an d at C,

th e li mi ting posi tion of M Th e an g le betw een t ese planes, de h

n oted by q
i s e u al to MMl , an d th e an gle betw een g and g
d en o ted by a, is q
e u al to MMM By c on str u c tion MM2 MI an d

MMM
.
2

2
ar e r i
g h t angles . H ence
MM MM tan 0 '

MM
,

MI M2 ’

I n th e li m it M i s th e centr al
po i n t C, an d so w e h ave

(u— a )do
tan ¢> h m tan (1
)
p d v

for w e h av e d o : lim ( 81 + Bm + Bn
g 2 2 ’
) a v
g
.
2 46 RU L ED SU RFA CES

To t i s h end we ta k e a par ti cu l a r
g en er ator g for th e z a-
x is .

T h en for g we h av e

x 0 = y0 = 0, i = m = 0, n = o
’
.

L et also th e cen tr al pl an e be ta en for th e x z plan e k -

and th e c en tr al

po i nt for th e or ig in Fr om ( 6 8) i t follow s t at
. h 0 . Sin c e th e
ori
g i n i s th e cen tr al po i n t, 6 O an d c o n se u en tly q l =0'
. H enc e
q
th e e u ati on of th e tang en t plan e at a p oi n t o f g h as th e si mpl e for m
7 1 m u g’
’
31; O,
'

( ) $

f and 17 bei ng c u r r en t c oor d i n ates . If th e coor d in ate a x es h av e

th e u su al o r ie ntati o n , an d th e an
g le 4 )i s m easu r ed posi ti vely in
th e dir ecti on fr o m th e posi ti v e x -
ax i s to th e posi ti ve
y ax is,
-

fr o m q e u ati on 7
( )1 we h av e

7
( )2

C o mpar i ng t is h wi th q ti e ua on we fi nd for B th e v al u e x g/m

’
.

In o r d er to ob t i th m
a n e sa e v al u e fr o m (70) f th or ese parti c ular
valu es, we m t t k th
us a e e ne
g ati v e si
g n . H ence we h
av e, i n

en er al,
g
y{, 2
3
7
( )3 l m n

l ’
m ’
n
'

It i s seen fr o m ( 72
poin t
) t h
ov es along a g en er ator in
at, as a m
th e d
i r ec ti on o f u i n cr easing , th e mo ti o n o f th e tan gen t plane i s
h
t at of a r ig t an e h h
o r l eft
-
dd
an ed sc r ew, acc or in g as ~
h d d B
n e ati v e or osi ti ve
g p .

EX AMPLES

1 . Sh ow th at for th e ru e l d sur fa e c d efi ned by

§f (1 -
r )v .

gfn + WM ,

f u ¢ du ¢ v,

where and SPare any fun cti ons of u th e di rectr ix and th e gener ators are mi ni mal
,
.

Deter mi ne u nd er w h at c onditi on th e c u r vatu r e of th e su r fac e is c onstan t .

2 . Deter mi ne th e c onditi on th at th e di r ect r i x of a r u e l d surface be a geod esic .

 PA RA METER O F D I STRI BU TI ON 24 7

3 . b y means
Pr ove, _ of tha t th e li nes o f c u r vatur e of a sur face F (x , y, z ) 0
are d fi
e ne d
by dz , dy d ,

E BF C F
62:
7 By 62

as as as
:
, ,

82 fig 2

4 . ight h eli co id is th e on l y r u l ed su rfac e w h ose generato rs are th e p r i ncip al

Th e r

no r ma ls o f th ei r o r th o g onal t r a j e cto r i es F i nd th e paramete r of distr ibu tion

. .

5 Pr o ve fo r th e h yper b ol o id o f revol u ti o n o f o ne sh ee t th at
.

( a ) t h e m i n i m u m ci r cl e is th e li ne o f st r icti on and a geod esic ;

b
( ) t h e p ar a me te r o f dist r ib u ti on is c onstan t .

6 With ever y po i n t P o n a r u l ed su r fac e th ere is asso ci a te d ano th er po i n t P

’
.

o n th e same gen er a to r su ch th a t th e tan gen t pl an es at th ese po i n ts a re per pe ndi c u l ar

,
.

P r ove tha t th e p rod u ct OP OP w h ere 0 d eno tes th e ce n t ra l po i n t h as th e same

’

, ,

val ue for all po i n ts P o n th e sa me gener ato r .

7 Th e no r ma ls to a r u l ed su r fac e al ong a gen er a to r for m a h yper bo lic p ara bo l o id

. .

8 Th e c r oss ra ti o of fou r ta ngen t pl a nes to a rul ed su r fac e at po i n ts of a gen

.
-

c rato r is eq ual to th e cross r a tio o f th e po i nts .

9 If tw o r u l ed su r fa ces a r e symmetr ic w i th r espe ct o a pl ane th e val ues o f

.

t ,

th e p ar ame ter o f di st r ib u ti on fo r h omol o go us g en er a to rs differ o n l y i n si gn .

1 06 . Par ti cul ar for m of th e li near el em ent . A nu mb er of r

p po

er ties o f r u led su r faces ar e r eadil

y obtai n ed w en th e lin ear h elemen t

i s g i ven a par ti c u lar fo r m, w h h i c w e wi ll n ow d e u ce d .

h
L et an o r t og o n al tr a ec to r y j of th e g en er ato rs be tak en for the
d ir ec tr ix . In t is h c ase

( 74) 90
g , a

If w e m a k e th e c h an
ge o f parameters,

( 75 ) u u,

th e lin ear ele m en t

(5 3 ) is r ed u c ible to

7 d3 = d a +
2 2 2
( )6 [( u a
) + B ]d vf
2
.

Th e an
g le 0 w h ich a c u r ve v
1 f (u) ma k es w i th g en er ato r s is

g i v en b
y

(77)
Also th e ex pr essi on for th e to tal c u rv atu r e is
2
B
2
[( u 6
0 +
248 RU L ED SU RFA CES

H enc e a r eal r u l ed su r fac e h as n o elliptic poi n ts . A ll th e poi nts

ar e hyp er boli c e g h
x c ept
t e
g en er ators for w
alon h hBic : 0, an d
at th e i n fi n i tely distant poin ts on eac g en er ator h C onsequ en tly
.

th e lin ear el emen t o f a dev elopable su r face may be pu t i n th e for m

2 2 2 2
7
( )9 ds du ( u a
) d v .

A lso , i n th e re
g i on of th e i n fi ni tely d i stan t poin ts o f a r ule d su r

face th e latter h as h
th e c ar ac ter o f a d evelopa le sur face b . As
an ot h er q
c on se u en c e of 7
( )8 w e h ave t h for th e points of a
at,

g en er ator th e i s gr eatest i n a
c u r vatu r e b
sol u te val u e at th e c en

tr al po i n t, h
an d t at at poin ts e u ally d istan t fr o q m th e latter i t
h as th e same v alu e .

W h en th e li n ear el e men t i s i n th e for m th e G au ss equ ation

of
g eod esi cs
( V I , 5 6 ) h as th e fo r m

A n im m d
e i ate c o n sequ en c e i s th e t h eor e m of B onn et

If a cu r ve u h as tw o of the follow i ng
on a r u led su r ac e f r o er ti es,
p p p
i t ha s the thi r d a lso, n amely that i t cu t the g en er a tor s u n der constan t

an
g le, tha t i t be a g eod esi c an d that i t be the li n e of str i cti on .

A su r face of t ish d
k i n d is for m e by th e fam ily o f str aig h t li n es
wh ic h cut a tw isted c u r v e u n d er con stan t an le an d ar e
g er en
p p
m
d ic u lar to i ts pr in cipal n or als A par ti cu lar cas e is th e su r fac e
d
.

for med of th e bin or mals of a c u r ve I t i s r ea ily s o w n fr o ( 73 ) h m

d
.

th at th e par am eter
‘

of istr i b u ti on of t ish su r face is q

e u al to th e
ra d iu s of tor sio n of th e cu r v e .

1 07 . Asy m pt ti
Or th ogonal par a etr ic syste s Th e g en
o c lines . m m .

er ator s ar e n ecessar ily as m toti c li nes on a r u l ed su r face

y p W e .

c onsid er n o w th e o t er fa il
y of t ese l inhes F r o m (5 1
)man d ( 68) h .

we find
m n g u
’ ’ ' ”
l n + l u l x + z
8
( )0 D = O, D '
m D "
m "
m fl i l m u '
I n
M a ' ‘

’’ ’
93
5 y; z
; n u n n u

H ence th e d iffer en tial e u ati on

q of th e o t er h fa m ily of asy mp
to ti c li nes i s of th e fo r m
O,
25 0 MINI MAL SU RFA CES

2 . th at th e d evel op abl e su r faces ar e th e onl y r u l ed su r fac es w ith r eal

P r ove
gener ators w hose to ta l cu r vat ure is c o nstan t .

3 Sh ow th a t th e p er p en dic u l ar u p o n th e z ax i s fr om an y p oi n t o f th e c ubic
.
-

a: u y W z u li es i n th e oscu l ati ng pl ane a t th e p oi nt and fi nd th e asymp

3
, , ,

to ti c li nes on th e r u l ed su r fac e gener a ted b y thi s p er p endic u l ar .

4 D eter mi ne th e fun cti o n

. i n th e eq u a ti ons

x z uv y z u" ,

so th at th e osc u l ating pl ane at an y p oi n t M of thi s cu r ve sh all p ass th r o ugh th e

p r oj ecti on P o f M on th e y ax i s -
. F i nd th e asymptotic li nes on th e su rfac e gener
at ed by th e li ne MP .

5 Sh ow th at th e eq u ati ons
.

m= u sin 0 cos ¢ , y =u si n 0 8 in ¢ , z =v +u c os o,

w h er e 0 and l ar e fun cti ons of v d efi ne th e most general r u l ed su rface w ith a r ec

il ,

t ili near di r ect r i x an d p r o ve th at th e e q u a ti on of asympt o tic li n es c an b e i n t eg ra te d

,

b y tw o q u ad r atu res D i sc uss th e c ase w h ere 0 is c onstan t

. .

6 C on c er n i n g th e c u r ved asympto tic li n es o n a r u l ed su r fac e th e foll ow i ng are

.

to b e p r oved

( a) if one of th em is an or th ogonal t r aj ect or y of th e g ener ator s th e d ete rm i na ,

tion of th e r est red u ces to qu ad r atu res ;

( b) i f tw o o f th em ar e o r th ogona l t r aj ect or i es th ey ar e c u r ves of B er t r and ; ,

c
( ) i f a l l o f th em ar e o r th og onal t r aj e ct or i es th e sur fa c e i s a r ight h elic oid , .

7 D e te r mi ne th e c onditi on th at th e li n e o f st r icti on b e an asympto tic li ne and

.
,

sh ow th a t i n thi s c ase th e o th er c u r ved asympt o tic li nes c an b e fou nd by q u ad r atu re s .

8 F i nd a r u l ed su rfac e of th e fou r th d eg re e w hich is g en er a t ed b y a li ne p ass

.

i ng th r o ugh th e tw o li n es a: 0 y z 0 ; z 0 a: y ,
z 1 Sh ow th a t these li nes ,
z .

and th e li n e a: O a ; y z 1 ar e d oubl e li nes F i nd th e li ne of st r icti on

,
. .

9 Th e r ight h elic oid is th e o n l y r u l ed su r fac e ea ch of w h o se l i nes o f c u r va tu re

.

c u ts th e gener ato rs u nd er c onstan t angl e ; h ow ever o n any o th er r u l ed sur fac e ,

th ere ar e i n general fou r li nes of c u r vatu r e w hich h ave thi s p r op er ty .

1 08 . Mi ni m al su r faces I n 1 7 6 0 L ag r ang e ex ten ded to d o u ble

.

i n teg r als th e Eu ler h

t eor e ms abo u t si mple i n tegr als i n th e c alc ul u s

o fv ar i ati on s, an d as an e x am ple h e pr opo sed th e follo w in g pr o blem *

Gi ven a closed c u r ve C an d a conn ected su r fa ce S bou n d ed by the

c u r ve ; to d eter mi n e S so tha t the i n closed a r ea s a ll h be a mi nimu m .

If th e su r fac e be d efi n ed by th e e q u ati on

2 f (x , a),
th e pr o le b m q r e u i res th e d eter mi n ati o n of f (x , y) so t h at th e i n te

g r al
( cf . Ex . 1 , p 7 7) .

G u vr es d e L ag r a ng e, V ol I , . pp . 354 35 7 -
. Pa r i s, 1 86 7 .
 MINIMA L SU RFA CES 25 1

e x tended o v er th e po r tion of th e su r fac e b o u n d ed by C s a ll be h a

mi n i mu m . As sh o wn by L ag ran g e, th e c o n di ti on for t is ish

or , in ot h er for m ,

84
( )
L agr an g e left th e sol u ti on of th e pro bl em h
in t is for m , an d

Meusni er ,
‘
si x teen year s later ,
p r ove d t h at t ish e q u ati on is
q
e u iv alen t to th e h
van i s i ng o f th e m ean c u r v atu re h
t us
s h o w in
g t h at th e su r fac es fu r ni s i n g th e h sol u ti on of L agr an g e
’
s

p r oble m are c h ar ac ter i ed z by th e g eo metri c al pro perty w i c n ow h h

is u su ally ta k en as th e d efin iti on o f min imal su rfa ces; o w ev er , th e h
na m e i n d ic ates th e c o nn ec ti on wi th th e d e fi ni ti on of L ag r an g e ?
In w hat follo w s w e ur o se
p p g i vin
g a di sc ussi on of mi n i mal su r

fac es fr o m th e sta nd po in t of t h eir d efini ti on as th e sur fac es w h ose

m ean c u r v atu r e is z er o at all th e po in ts . At eac h po in t o f su c h a

sur fac e th e pr i n c i pal r ad i i differ onl y in sign , an d so ever y o i n t

p
is a hyp b li er o c po i nt an d
i ts D u pin in di c atr i x i s an e u ilate r al q
hyp er o a bl C
o nseq u en tl
y m. i ni al su r fac es are c ar ac ter iz ed b
y m h
h
th e pr oper ty t at t eir asympto ti c li n es fo r h
an o r t og o n al sys m h
tem Mor eov er , th e tang en ts to th e tw o asy pto tic lin es at a
. m
po i n t bi sec t th e an
gles betw een th e lin es of cu r v atu r e at th e point,
a n d v i ce v ersa .

We rec all th e for m ul as

g i v in
g th e l
r e atio n s betw ee n th e fun da
men tal q u an ti ti es of a s u rfac e an d i ts s
ph eri cal re
pr esen ta ti o n
IV
( ,
8
( )5 (s: K mD K E, 3 : m y HP , 5 : K mD
”
K G .

Fro m h
t ese w e h av e at o n ce th e t h eor e m
The n ecessa r y a n d su ffi ci en t con d i ti on tha t the s h er i ca l r e r esen
p p
tation fa
o f
su r a ce be confor mal is th at the su rfa ce be mi n i ma l .

Memo i re
'

su r la . co u r b ure d es c
s ur fa e s, Memo i r es
‘

cles Savants ét r a nger s, V ol . X

p . 477 .

t Fo r a hi sto r ica l sk etc h of th e d ev el opmen t of th e th eo r y o f m i n i mal sur fac es an d a

co mpl ete d iscu ssi on o f th em t h e read er is re fer r ed to th e Lego ne of B a r boux (V ol I pp -
.
,
.

267 et seq ) . c lc l
Th e q u esti ons i n th e a u us of var a i on s n v o v e i n th e i t i l d t dy of mini
s u
mal sur fa es c a re t
r ea e b y R eman n , Ges a mme lte Wer k e,
td i 28 7 ( Le z , p . ip ig a nd by
Sc h w ar z , Gesa mme lte A bha ndl u ngen , V ol I , . pp . 223 , 2 70 (B er l n , i
25 2 MINI MAL SU RFA C ES

Hen c e i soth er mal or t hg o o n al syste ms on th e su rface ar e r e t e

p
sen ted m
by si i lar systems on th e sp er e, and c o n v er sely All th e h
k
.

h h
i so t er mal or t og o n al systems o n th e sp er e ar e n ow n 3 5, h
h h
Su ppose t at on e o f t ese systems i s par a etr ic an d t at th e linear m h
ele m en t is
( 10
2
: l ( du + d u ) 2 e
.

Fr o m th e
g en er al c on d i
ti o n for min i mal su r faces I
( ,V n amely

"
2 § D = 0, '
’
( 86) éD + § D
it follo ws t h at i n t h i s c as e
D D "
: O .

In q
conse u en ce of t hi s th e C od azz i q
e u ati on s
( V , 2 7) ar e r ed u ci le to b
’
8D 8D
'
2
8 ED
av Eu E
u 81)

By eli mi n ati n
g D or D ’
we fin d t h t b th D
a o an d D ’
ar e integr als
o f th e q
e u ati on
3 0
2 2
39
2 2
8u 8v

H en c e th e m ost
g en er al for m of D is
’

8 8 D =
'
+ i v)+ — iv
( ) ¢( u x r
l( u
),

w h er e <1) an d
4» ar e ar bi tr ar
y fu nc ti on s . T h en fr o m 8
( )7 w e h av e

D = — i (¢
”
8
( )9 I) -

w h er e c i s th e c on stan t o f i n teg r ati on . To eac h pi a r of fun c ti on s

f i
( ), « n t h er e c or r espon d s a m i im n al su r face w h ose C ar tesian c oor di

n ates ar e
g i v en by th e qu ad r atu r es (V , na m ely

1 8X
— +D
32 : 1 3X
9
( 0) 81) a;
and si m il ar e x pr ession s i n y an d z . Evi d en tly th e su r face is r eal

on ly w h en ( ) an d « t
I i ar e con u j g ate fun ctio n s
d d
.

In obtai n in
g th e pr ece i n
g r esults w e h av etaci tly assu m e th at
h
n ei t er D ’
n or D i s z er o e n otice t at
. W h ei th er may be z er o and

th en th e ot h er is a co n stan t, w h ic h is z er o o nly for th e plane .

Th ese r esu l ts may be stated h

t us

Ever y i sother mal system on the spher e i s the pr e r esentati on of the

as mptoti c
li n es f cu r vatu r e of a u ni qu e minimal
o su r acef f
an d o the
y
lin es f an other mi nimal su rface
o .
2 54 MINI MAL SU RFA C ES

I n li k e mann er w e may ta k e, fo r th e so l u tio n o f e q u ati on s

= D = 0,
"
D =1
’
( 9 2) D .

A g ai n w e fin d
1 1

P1 Pz P1

so t h at w e h ave a r es u l t simi lar to th e abo v e

The par a meter s of the a symptoti c li n es of a mi n i mal su rfa ce may

be so chosen tha t th e li n ea r elemen ts of the su rfa ce an d of i ts spher i cal
r epr esen ta ti on have the r es
p ecti ve for ms
ds
2
p( d
2
a + dv
2
), do
” l (d u z
+
f)
w h er e p i s the a bsolu te va lu e o f each pr in cipa l r a d iu s .

Fr o m th e symm etr i c for m of e q u ati on s

( 87 ) i t follo ws t h at if
88
( ) an d 8 9 r epr esen t
( ) o n e set o f so l u ti ons, an o t h er set is g iven by

D i = i (¢ — \f l)
T h ese v al u es ar e su c h th at

" ’ '
D D1 2 D D 1 = 0,

w h i ch i s th e co n d i tion th at as
y mptotic lin es o n ei t h er su r face cor

r espo n d to a j
co n ug ate syste m on th e ot h er Wh en h
t is
c on d i tio n is satisfi ed by t w o mi n i mal su r faces, an d th e tang en t

p l an es at c o r r es o n d in
p g p o i n ts are
p a r allel, th e tw o su r faces ar e

said to be th e a dj oi nts o f o n e an o t er H en ce a pai r of fu n ction sh .

( I) , « t d eter m i n es a pai r o f a dj oi n t mi n i ma l su rfa ces

i W en , i n par . h
ti c u lar , th e asympto ti c lin es on on e su r fac e ar e ar ametr i c , th e
p
fu n c tio ns h av e th e v al u es a nd on th e ot h er th e v al u es

I t follo w s, t h en , fr om th at be tw een th e C ar tesi an co or d i n ates

of a m i n i mal su r fac e an d i ts j
ad o i n t th e follo w ing r elati on s h ol d:
93 _Q
_ :
( ) Ev
,

av 8a
,

an d si milar e x pr essi on s i n th e y s an d z s, w en th e par a

’ ’
h m etri c

c u r v es ar e as
ympto ti c o n t h e lo c u s o f x ,
( y )
, z .

1 10 . Mini m al cu r ves on a mi i mn al su r face . T h e lin es of l eng th

z er o u pon a mi ni mal su r fac e ar e of fu n d amen tal i mpor tan c e Wh en
k
.

t h ey ar e ta en for par a etr ic m c u r ves, th e e q u ati ons o f th e su rface

ta k e a si mple m
for , w i c w e h h s h all n o w obtain .
 MINI MAL CU RV ES 2 55

Si n ce th e li n es of l en g t h z er o , or min i mal li n es, ar e par ametr i c,

w e h av e

we E=G=a

h
Fr o m ( 85 ) i t follow s t at th e par ametr ic li n es o n th e sp er e also ar e h
h
mi n i mal lin es, t at is, th e i mag i nar y r ec tili n e ar gen erato rs A n d .

fr om ( 86) w e fin d t h at
’
D is z er o . C o nv ersely, wh en th e latter i s
z er o , an d th e par ametr i c l in es ar e mi n imal c u r v es, i t fol lo w s fro m
( IV , 3 3 ) t h at K m is q
e u al to z er o . H en ce :

A n ecessar y an d su flici en t con d i tion tha t a su rfac e be min i mal is

tha t the li n es f leng th z er o for m a conj ug a te system
*
o .

In conse u en ce q of 9
( )4 an d ( V I , 2 6 ) th e point q
e u ati on of a

min i m al sur fac e, r efer r ed to i ts min i mal lin es, is

H en ce th e fi n ite e qu ati o n s o f th e su r face ar e o f th e for m

9 5 =U + V, = U + V , =U + V ,
( ) x
l I y 2 2
z
3 a

w h ere U1 , U2 , U1! ar e fu n c tio n s of u al o n e, an d VI , V2 ,

fu n c tio ns o f v al o n e, satis f i
y gn th e c on d iti o n s

U3 V1 + V§ + V ?
'2 2
9
( )6 0,

Fr om ( 9 5 ) i t is seen t h at m ini mal su r fac es a r e su r fac es o f tran s

lati on an d fr o m ( 96 ) t h at th e g e n er a to rs ar e min imal
c u r ves In c o n se q u en ce o f th e sec o n d t h eo r em o f § 81 w e

may state t is h r esu l t th us

A mi ni ma l f
su r a c e i s the locu s of the mid poin ts of the j oi ns o
-

f
p oi n ts on tw o mi n i mal cu r ves .

In 22 w e fo u n d h
t at th e C ar t esian c oo r d in ates o f any mi i m n al

c u r v e ar e e x pressible i n th e fo r m

“
97
( ) (1 u
”
F
) (u )d a , 1 u F
) (u )d u , 2 u F ( u )da .

1"
T hi s fo ll ow s a so l fr o m th e fa ct th t a a n eq u il at l hyp bo l a is th e
e ra er o nl y co nic f r o

w hich th e d i cti re ons w ith an g l u a r c oe fli c i ents i i ar e c nj u g te

o a .
25 6 MINI MAL SU RFA CES

H ence by th e ab o ve th eor em the follo w ing equ ati ons d u e to

d
,

Enneper d efi n e a mi ni m al sur fac e r e ferr e to its m ini mal lin es :

2 ”
( 1 u F
) ( )
u d u v I
) ( v)d( )
v ,

” 2
(1 u )F (u )du ( 1 v
) (v)dv
( I)
,

E (u )d u v < I>
(v)dv ,

w h er e F an d ( I) ar e an
y an al tic
y func tion s w h atever Mor eover
dfi db
.
,

any mi nimal su r fac e can be e ne

y t is for q
e u ati on s of h m .

Fo r, th e o nly appar en t lack of g ener ality i s d u e to th e fact t ht a

d
.

th e al
g ebr aic si g ns of th e ex pr ession s (98) ar e not deter mi ne

by equ ation s
.

an d q
c onse u en tly th e sig n s d
pr ec e ing th e
ter m s i n th e ri
gh t h
-
an d m mbe ers of equ ati o n s 98
( ) c o ul be d
posi ti v e or n eg ativ e . Bu t i t c an be h
s o wn t h at by a su ita le b
ch an
g te of
h e par a eters m an d of th e fu nc ti ons F and ( I) all of
th ese c ases r e u ce to d T h u s, for e x ample w e c on si d er th e
db d
,

su r fac e d efi n e y th e e u ati on s
q w h i ch r esu l t w h en th e secon

ter ms of th e ri
g h t
-
h an d m mb e ers of 98
( ) ar e r eplaced by

( 1 v
1
2
. ) d vl ’ ( 1 d vl ’

In or d er th at th e su r fac e t h us dfi d
e ne can be b r ou
g h t i nto c o in

c i den c e, by a tr anslatio n , w ith th e su r fac e w e m u st h av e

2 2
( 1 v
f) < I>
1
d v
1 ( 1 v )( 1) d v, ( 1 ”
v1
) < I>
1
d v
1 ( 1 v < I>
) dv,

v < I>
1 1
d v
1
v4) dv .

d
D i vi i ng t h ese eq u ati ons, m mbe er by m mb e er ,

1 v f
2
1 v

fr o m w hi h c it
1
v

Su b tits u tin g t ish v al u e i n th e last of .

th e abo v e e uati on s, w e q fin d
‘
(D u cI)
1 ( i)
v
(” l s

Z ei tsch r ifl fd r Math ema ti k u nd P h ysi lc, V ol IX . p . 107

25 8 MINI MAL SU RFACES

is seen fr om ( 1 01 ) and 1 3, an d th e fu nc ti o n s F an d ( ) I m u st be
co n u
g j ate i m a
g i n ar
y . Hen c e i f R0 d en o tes th e r eal
par t of a

fu nc tio n 0, all r eal m in i mal su r faces ar e d efi n ed by

x (1 u
2
)F ( u du ,
) i (1 u
2
F u du ,
) ( )

z =R 2 uF u
( )d u,

w h er e F (u ) i s an
y fu h
n c t io n w atever o f a co m lex var i able u
p
k
.

I n li e m ann er q
th e e u ation s o f th e lin es of c u r v atu r e may be
w r i tten i n th e fo r m

( 1 05 ) R V F (u )d u con st .
, R i v F (u )d u c on st .

1 11 . Double m i im l n a su r faces. It is n atu r al to i n q u i r e w h eth er

th e same mi i m l n f a su r ace c an be d efi n ed i n mor e t h an on e w a
y by
e q u ati on s o f th f m e or Ve
\ assu m th e at h
t i s i s possi le, b an d

i n d ic ate by u l , v1 and F1 (u 1 ), ( D1 ( v1 ) th e cor r espon ing par am eters d

an d fu n c ti ons m
A s th e par a eter s u , , v1 re fer to th e lin es o f l eng t
. h
z er o on th e su r fac e, eac hi s a fu n c tion of eit h er u or v . In o r d er to
d eter m in e th e fo r ms of th e latter w e m a ke u se o f th e fac t t h at th e

po si ti v e di r ec tion s of th e n or mal to th e su r fac e in th e tw o fo r ms of

p ar a m etr i c r epr esen tation m ay h av e th e sa m e or opposite sen ses .

t en t h yh
e av e th e sa m e sen se, th e e x pr ession s (1 01 ) an d m ilar
si

o n es in u
l
an d v
1
m u st be q
e u al r espe cti vel
y . I n t is h c ase

( 1 06 ) u, v v.

If th e sen ses ar e o pposi te, th e r espec ti ve ex

p r ession s

w i th in alg ebr ai c sig ns . Fr o m th e r esu l tin

g q
e u atio n s

1)
1
u

Wh en w e c ompar e e u atio n s q 98
( ) wi th an alogou s e u ati on s q in
u
1
an d v, , w e fin d t h at for th e c ase ( 1 06 ) w e m u st h ave

171 01 1 )= F (u )a (D T
A A)
an d for th e c ase ( 1 07)
F1 (u 1) M)
RI v
/

,
( 13
1 05)
 DOU BL E MINI MA L SU RFA CES 259

H ence w e h av e th e t h eo r e m
ci en t con d i ti on th a t tw o mi n i ma l su rfa ces, d eter
A n ecessa r y an d su fii
min ed by the pa i r s of fu n cti ons F, ( I) an d F1 , ( Du be con
g r u en t i s tha t

1 0
( 8)

to the poi n t (u , f ac e cor r espon ds the oin t

v
) on on e su r
p
v

the h
ot er , an d the n or ma ls at these po in ts ar e
p a r a llel but o f d ifier en t
sen se .

In g en er al, th e fu n c ti o n s F an d F1 as g iv en by (1 08) ar e n o t th e
same h
I f t ey ar e, so also ar e ( I) an d ( D1 In t i s c ase th e r i g t an d
. . h h h -

m embers of e q u ati o ns ( 9 8) ar e u n al te r e d w hen u an d v ar e r e pl ac ed

—l Hen ce th e C artesian
by -
l/
v an d / n r es ec tiv el
p y . c o or d in ates

o f th e po in ts ( u, v
) tan ts . A nd

so th e re
g io ns of th e su r fac e abo u t t h ese po in ts ei t h er c o in c i d e o r

c an be br oug t in to h co in ci d en c e by a tr anslati o n In th e latter . c ase

th e is pe r io d ic
s u r fac e q
an d c o n se u en tly tr an scen d en tal .

h
Su ppose t at i t is n o t peri o d ic , and con sider a po i nt g( u o, v0 ) . As
it v ar i es c o n tin u o u sly fr om u 0 to l/v ,
o
v v ar i es fr o m v
0
to — l /u o,

an d th e po in t d esc r i bes a c losed c u r v e o n th e su r face by r etu r n i ng

to 1 3 . Bu t n ow h th e posi ti v e n o r m al is on th e ot er si d e o f th e su r

face H .th f h th p p ty th t p i t p
en c e ese su r aces ave e ro er a a o n c an ass

ti
c on ly f m
nu ou sid t th th w ith t g i g th
ro
g h th
on e s e o e o er ou o n r ou e

f
su r ace O th i t th y
. nll d d bl mi i m l f
s ac c o u n e w er e c a e ou e n a su r a ces

by L i h th fi t t
e,
‘
t dy th m
w o w as e rs o s u e .

F m th thi d th
ro m f 1 1 0 i t f ll
e th t d
r bl mi i m l
eo r e o o ow s a ou e n a

f h t iz d by th p p ty th t th m i i m l
su r ac es ar e c ar ac e r e e ro er a e n a c u r v es

i b th y t m
n o
g t sTh q
s e ti f h
s ar e c o nf r u en . e e ua on s o su c a su r ac e

may be w r i tte n
z =

Th e su r fac e is co n se q u en tly th e l oc u s of th e mi d poin ts-

of th e
c h o r ds of th e c u r ve

77 C
w h i ch li es u po n th e su r face an d i s th e e n v el o
pe o f th e par a m etri c

c u r ves .

Mat h . A nnal en , V o l X IV . pp . 345 350 -

.
 MINI MA L SU RFA CES

EX AMP LES

1 . c al sh eets of a mi ni mal su rfac e are applic abl e to one anoth er and to

Th e fo
th e su r fac e of r evo l u ti o n o f th e evo l u te o f th e c ate nar y ab ou t th e ax i s of th e l atter .

2 Sh o w th at th ere ar e no mi n i mal sur fac es w ith th e mi n i mal li nes i n o ne

.

fam il y str aight .

8 I f t w o m i n i mal su r fac es c or respond w ith par al le li sm o f tangen t pl anes th e

.
,

m i n i mal c u r ves on th e tw o su r fac es c orr esp ond .

4 I f tw o m i n i mal su r fac es c o r r espo nd w ith p ar all elism of tangen t pl anes and

.
,

th e j o i ns o f c or r espo ndi n g p o i n ts b e di vid ed i n th e same r ati o th e l o c us of th e ,

po i n ts of di vi si on is a mi n i mal sur face .

5 Sh ow th at th e r ight h elic o id is d efi ned b y F ( u)

. i m 2 u2 w h er e m is a real ,

c onstan t and th at it is a d ou bl e su rfac e

,
.

6 . Th e su r fa e c for w hich F is c all ed th e surfa c e of Scher k . Fi n d i ts

equa ti on i n th e Monge
z f(x y) Sh ow th at it is d oubl y p er i odic and th at
for m ,
.

i t i s a su r fac e of t r ansl ati on w ith r eal gener ator s w hich are in per pendic ul ar pl anes .

7 . d efi niti on a mer id i an curve on a su rface is o ne w h ose spher ic al rep r esen ta

By
ti on is a gr eat ci r cl e on th e u n it sphere Show th at th e sur fac e o f Sch erk possesses
.

tw o famili es of pl ane mer idi an c u r ves .

1 12 Algebr ai c m i i m al
n sur faces Weierstrass “
’
re m ar kd e ht t a

d
. .

for mu las ( 98) c an be pu t in a for mf r ee o f all

q u a r atu r es. Th i s

d
is on e by r eplac in g F (u ) an d by and wh er e

th e accen ts i ndic ate d ff

i er en tiatio n , an d h
t en i nteg r ating by

p ar ts . h
T is gi ves
— 2
L ff i u ) ‘
i
’
f ai f c
a
'
u
) — 1 ”
( ) v
no ,
l 2

—f
2
l 1
g 2
‘ ”
we f in
' ’
a i - — iuf ( ) u if a) ( ) v

z We M) ”

It is cl ear t h at th e su r fac e so d efi n ed is r eal w h en f and 4> ar e

j
c o n u g ate i mag in ar y fu n c tion s . In t i s h c ase th e a ov e b for m u las

may be w r i tten
x R 2 f (u )
u
’
2f ( 1 01 ,

’
y Bi 2 uf (u )
z R [ 2 uf 2f ’
iu )l
Monatsber i ch te d er B er li n er A k a demi e p . 6 19 .
262 MINI MAL SU RFA CES

a an ,
h
d 8 , pr o vided t at th e d evelopmen t r emai n s c on ver g ent . Th e
c o nd iti o n for th e l atter i s t at th e m o d u li of a and B be eac h ,
h o ne

h alf th e mod ulu s of 5 + i n T is . h c on d i ti on is satis fi ed if w e tak e

5 in
7
2
Now we h ave
1 1
N
“ a, B) 5 ( a
o
i bo) -

2
( I)
(f i n),

so t h at
F [ \If (a s a, 18 ]
"

i
"

5 + 1 77] Os

w h ic h pr oves th e le a mm .

In applying t is l emm a to h r eal mi n i mal su r faces w e n ote fr o m

( 1 01 ) t h at

c on se u en tl q y th e l eft an d m e mber s o f t ese -

h h q
e u atio n s are e u al q
to a
1
an d v1 r espec ti v ely, w er e u u + iv
1 1
h . Wh en th e su r face is
alg ebr ai c t h er e e x i sts an al
g ebr aic r el atio n betw een th e fu ncti on s
X ’
Y an d eac h of th e C ar tesian c oor d in atesfl
‘
Sin ce, t h en ,
1—Z l —Z
th er e is an al
g b
e r ai c r el ati on be tw een u
,,
v
,,
an d h eac of th e
c o or d in ates g i v en by i t follow s fr om th e le mm th a at eac h
of th e h
t r ee ex pr essi on s

2 u f (u )
= ’
if(u)
¢2 ( ) i (1
u 2 i uf ( ) u 2 ,

2 “ f
ar e alg ebr ai c fu n c ti on s o f u , an d so also i s f (u ) for ,

=
i i
2
f( ) u - -

(u

H ence w e h ave dm e o nstr ated th e t h eor e m of Weierstr ass

The necessar y an d suf fi ci en t con di tion tha t equ ati on (1 1 0) d efin e an

alg ebr ai c su rfa ce i s tha t f ( u be a lg ebr ai c

) .

Fo r , i f th e sur fa e c is d efi ned y z) 0 th e d i r ecti on cosi nes of th e norma l

, ,
-

X Y
ar e fun cti ons of x y, z Eli mi nati n g tw o o f th e l atter betw een — T é
and - -

i z I
, . , '

F (x , y, z ) 0, w e h ave a r el ati o n o f th e k i n d d esc r i b ed .

 A SSOC I A TE SU RFA CES 263

1 13 . Associate su r faces . Wh en t he eq uati o n s of a mi n i mal

sur fac e S ar e w r i tten i n th e abbr evi ate d for m th e li n ear

ele men t 15
a :
s
d efer} d egd

h
T is is th e lin ear ele men t also o f a su r face d efi n ed by
"

( 1 1 1 ) x ,
V, , e V2 , 2,

w h ere a is any c o nstan t . T h ere ar e an in fin ity o f su c h su r fac es,

c all ed associ a te mi n i ma l su r f a ces . I t is r eadil f

y o un d t h at th e di r ec
ti o n -
cosi n es o f th e n or mal to y o n e av e th e v alu es
an h Hen ce
an
y t w o assoc i ate mi i m
n al su r face s d efi n ed by ( 1 1 1 ) h av e t h ei r tan
n t l n at c o r r es o n di n o i n ts
par all el, an d ar e appl icable
g e p a es p g p .

Of par t ic ul ar in te rest is th e su r fac e S, for w i c h h a 7r /2 . I ts

e q u ati on s ar e
0

(1 (1

—
5

( u
)d a i v< I>
( v)dv .

In or d er to s h o w t h at S1 is th e j
ad o i n t 1 09) o f S, w e h av e onl
y
to pro v e t h at th e as ympto ti c lin es on ei t h er su r fac e c o rr espo n d to
th e lin es o f c u r vatur e on th e ot h er . Fo r S, th e q
e u atio n s o f th e
l in es o f c u r vatu re and asy m pt o ti c li n es are

i F (u ) d u + i CI> ( v)d o : 0,
2 g

i F ( u)d u
g
i d) v ( 13 : 0,
( )1
respecti vely . C o mpar i n g t h ese w i th ( 1 03 ) an d w e see h
t at

th e d esi red c o n d i tio n is satis fied .

Fro m 98
( ) an d
( 1 1 2 ) w e o btai n th e id en ti ti es

— 2
df l dy + de : d r f+ dyf+ dz
f
_
d r dx , + d y dy, + d z dz
,
0 .

Th e latte r h as th efoll o w in g i n ter pr eta ti o n

On tw o j
a d oi nt mi n i ma l f
su r a c es a t
p o in ts cor r es
po n d i ng w i th par
alleli s m of ta ng en t pla ne s the ta n en ts to
g co r r es
p o n d i ng cu r ves a r e

en d icu la r
p p er .
2 64 MINI MA L SU RFA CES

Fr o m ( 1 05 ) i t foll o w s t h at if we pu t

n + iv

th e c u r v es u c on st . an d v c on st . on th e su r face ar e i ts lin es of

c u r vatu r e . Mor eov er , for an assoc i ate su r face th e lin es of c u rv a

tu r e ar e i v en b
g y
1“

R [e 2
(7
1. i v)] c onst .
, R [ ie (a i i )] const .
,

a
u cos con st .
, u sm v co s c onst .

Fr o m th i s r esu l t follo ws th e t h eor e m

The lines o f cu r va tu r e on a mi ni ma l f
su r a ce a ssoci a te to a su r ace f
S cor r espon d to the c u r ves on S w hi ch cu t i ts lin es of cu r va tu r e u n der

the c onstan t ang le a /2 .

Si n ce q
e u ati o n s
( 1 1 1 ) m a
y be w r itten
a“ v c os a
. rs si n a ,
,

y c os a
y, sin a ,

z z c os a + z sin a ,

d d
,

th e plan e d eter mi by th e o r ig in o f coo r in ates, a poi n t P

ne on a

mi n i mal su r fac e an d th e c or r espon din

g p o i nt o n i ts ad oi n t, j con

tains th e poi nt B ,
c o r r espon d ing to P on ever y asso ci ate min i ml a

su r fac e . Mor eov er , th e loc u s of h

poi n ts I ; i s an ellipse
t ese w i th i t s

c en ter at th e o r ig in . Co m h
bi n i ng t is r esult and th e fi rst o ne o f

h
t is sec tion , w e h av e

A mi ni ma l su rface a dmi ts of a con ti n u ou s d efor ma ti on i n to a ser i es

f minimal
o su r faces , an d ea ch
poi n t o f the f
su r a ce d escr ibes a n elli
p se

w hose plan e pa sses thr oug h a fix ed

p oin t w hi ch i s the cen ter f the
o

elli se
p .

1 14 . For m ul as of Sch w ar z . Since th e tang en t planes to a m i imn al

su r face an d i ts ad j oi n t at cor res o n d i n

p g poi n ts ar e par allel , w e h ave

0 .

Fr om t is h and th e sec on d o f ( 1 1 3 ) w e o bt ia n th e pr oportion

dx ,

Z dy -
d X dz — Z d a :d —X d
y
26 6 MI N I MAL SU RFA CES
If a“ , g z“ d en ote th e v al u es o f x g z wh en t is r eplaced by a
d
“, , ,

c o m pl e x var i able u , an d x v, g v,
z ,
th e v al u es w h en t is r eplac e

by v, th e q
e u ati o n s

— d
55 = U1 + V1 (n )
,

y =
m+ n i r e — 2 m»

z= m+ n i nn —x m)
dfie ne a m i n i mal su r face w h ich as
p ses th r ou
g h 0 an d a dm i ts at

eac h i
p nt
o fo r tan g en t plan e th e plan e t r ou g th e poin t it h h w h
d ir ec ti o n c osin es X ,
-
, Y
Z For , w en u an d v ar e r eplace by t, . h d
h
t ese equ ati o ns d efi n e 0 A nd th e co n di ti on s ( 96) and.

2 mm
1 1
0,
2 m 2a : 0

ar e satis fi ed . Fu r th er mor e, th e su r face d efi n e d by ( 1 1 8 ) afford s

th e u ni q u e sol u ti o n , as is see n fr om ( 1 1 6 ) an d

Wh en i n par ti c u lar , 0 an d t ar e r eal , th e e u ation s o f th e r eal

, q
mi n i m al su r fac e, satisfyi n g th e cond i ti on s o f th e pr oblem, ma
y be

p ut i n th e for m
m= R 33 + (n — d )

g
=R H
3 i nn—2 m)
“

=R —
z z + ( d n )

As pplic ati on of th ese for mu l as w e c onsid er mi ni mal sur fac es c ontai ni ng a

an a ,

st r aight li ne I f w e tak e th e l atter fo r th e z ax i s an d let

. d eno te th e angl e w hich -

th e nor mal to th e su r face at a p oi n t of th e li ne mak es w ith th e x ax i s w e h ave -

x = y = 0, z = t, X = COS ¢ ,
Y = Sin ¢ , Z =0 .

H ence th e equ ati ons of th e sur face ar e

u u
-
Ri
ft
s m ¢ d t, 7
g = Ri
f t
cos ¢ d t,

H ere is l ytic functi on of t w h ose form d eter mi nes th e ch ar acter of th e

an ana ,

su r fac e Fo r tw o po i n ts co r r esp ondi ng to c onj u gate val ues of u th e E c oordi nates

‘

-
.
,

ar e equ al and th e i and y c oor di n a tes di ffer i n sig n Hen ce

“
-
.
,

Ever y str aig ht li ne upon a mi ni mal surfac e i s an ax is o f symmetr y .

 FORMU L A S OF SC HWA RZ 26 7

1 . ta ngents to cor respo ndi ng cur ves on tw o asso c i a te mi ni mal sur fac es mee t
Th e
und er c onstan t angl e .

2 If cor r espo nding di r e cti ons on tw o app l ic abl e su r faces mee t u nd er c o nsta n t
.

angl e th e l atter are asso cia te mini mal su r fac es

,
.

3 Sh ow th a t th e ca te no id and th e r ight h eli co id are adj oin t sur face s an d d e ter

.

mi ne th e fu n cti on F ( u) w hich d efin es th e for mer .

4 Le t C be a geod esic on a mini mal sur face S Sh ow th at

. .

( a) th e equa ti ons o f th e sur face may be pu t in th e fo rm

y =R
[ n+ i
f fl z =R I + i
f r d8 ,

w here f f are th e coordi nates of a po i n t on C and 7k n th e d irec uon c osines

, , , ,
r
'

o f i ts b ino r mal

( b) if C d eno te s th e c ur ve on th e adj o i n t 8 , c or r espond i ng to C th e r ad ii of fir st

’
,

and se c ond c u r vatu r e o f C a re th e radii o f se c o nd an d fi rs t c u r v a ture of C ;

’

(c) if C is a pl ane c u r ve th e sur fac e is symmet r ic w ith respe ct to i ts p lane

,
.

5 . c for w hi ch F ( u) 1
Th e sur fa e
4

a d oubl e algeb r ai c sur fa ce of th e fi fteen th ord er an d fi fth cl ass

5
is ca ll ed th e surface of H enneber g ; it is

1 . Th e ed ge g i
d evel o pabl e sur face ci r c umsc r ibed to tw o co n
o f re r ess on of th e
foc al quadr ics h as fo r p r oj ecti ons o n th e th ree p r in cipal pl anes th e evo l u tes o f th e
foc a l co nics .

2 By d efini ti o n a tetr ahed r al su rface is one w h ose eq ua ti ons are o f th e fo r m

.

2 A (u y E(u 2 C (u

w here A B C m n are any co ns tan ts Show tha t the par ametr i c c ur ves ar e con
, , , ,
.

j ugate and th at th e asympto tic li nes can be found by quadr atu r es ; also tha t w hen
,

m n th e eq ua ti on of th e su r fac e is
,

1 1

(I )
z a

a )+ ( a — b b
)( -
c )(
a — c) .

3 . ter mi ne th e te t rah ed ral su r faces defined as i n Ex 2 u po n w hi ch th e

De ,
.
,

par ametr ic cu r ves are th e li nes of cu r vatu re .

4 fi n d th e sur face s no r ma l to th e tan gents to a family of um bilica l geod esi cs

.

o n an elliptic para bo l o id and fi nd th e c ompl emen ta r y sur face

, .

5 A t ever y po in t of a geod es ic ci r cl e w ith cen ter at an u mbili c a l po in t on th e

.

ellipso id
( 10) abc aw s a c rs p ( )
,

w h ere r di us vecto r of th e po i n t ( cf
is th e ra .

6 Th e tangen t pl an e to th e di r ecto r c o n e of a r u l ed sur fac e alo ng a genera to r

.
-

is p ar all el to th e tangent plan e to th e sur fac e at th e infi n ite l y distan t po in t on th e

cor respondi ng generator .
26 8 I
M N IM A L SU RFA CES

7 p on th e h yper b ol o id o f one sheet and likew i se u p on th e h yp er b olic p ar ab

. U ,

o lo i d th e tw o li nes o f st r icti o n c o i n cid e

,
.

8 Th e li ne of st r icti o n o f a r u l ed su r fac e i s an or th ogo n al t r aj ecto r y o f th e

.

gener ator s o nl y i n c ase th e l atter ar e th e b i nor m als of a cu r ve or th e sur fac e is a

r ight c on oid .

9 D e ter mi ne fo r a geod esic o n a d evel o p abl e su r fac e th e r el ati on ex isti ng

.

b etw een th e cu r vatu r e to r si on and angl e of i ncli nati on of th e geod esic w ith th e
, ,

genera to rs .

1 0 I f h d en o tes th e sh or test di stan c e and a th e angl e b et w een tw o li nes ll and

.

lz an d th e l a tt er revo l ves ab ou t th e for mer w ith a h elic oid al mo ti on o f p arameter a

,

( of . th e l o c u s o f 1 i s a d evel op abl e su r fac e i f a

“
2 h c ot a If a h tan a th e .
,

su r fa c e i s th e l o c u s of th e bi n o rm al e of a ci r c u l ar h eli x .

1 1 If th e li n es of c u r vat u re i n o ne famil y u p o n a r u l ed su r fa ce are su ch th at

.

th e segmen ts o f th e g en er at o r s b e t w een tw o c u r ves of th e famil y are o f th e same

l ength th e p ar ameter o f di str ib u ti on is c onstan t and th e li ne of str iction is a li ne
,

o f c u rvat u r e .

1 2 I f tw o r u l ed su rfa c es meet one a no th er i n a gener ator they are tangent to

.
,

o n e an o th er at tw o p o i n ts o f th e g ener a t or o r a t every p o i n t ; i n th e l a tter c as e th e

c en tr al p o i n t fo r th e c ommon gener a to r is th e same and th e p ar ame ter of d istr ibu ,

ti on h as th e same val u e .

1 3 I f ta n gen ts b e d r aw n to a r ul ed su r fa c e at p o i n ts o f th e li ne o f st ricti on
.

a nd i n di re cti o ns p er p en dic u l ar to th e gener a t or s th ese t an gen ts for m th e conj u ,

g ate r u l ed su r fac e I t h as th e same li ne of st r icti on as th e gi ven su r fac e Mor e

. .

o ver a g ene a t o r o f th e gi ven su r fac e th e n or mal to th e su r fac e at th e c en t r al

,
r
,

p oi n t C of this gener ator and th e gener ator of th e c onj ugate sur face th rough C
,

ar e p ar all el to th e t ang en t p r i n cip al nor mal and bi nor mal of a tw isted c ur ve

, ,
.

14 . L et C
c ur ve o n a su r fac e S and E th e r ul ed su r face for med by th e
be a ,

n or m al s to S al ong C D er i ve th e fo ll ow i ng r esu l ts
.

) h e di stan c e b et w een n ear b y g ener at or s o f Z is of th e fi rst or d er u nless C is

( a t -

a li ne of c u r vatu re ;

( b) i f r d eno tes th e dist anc e fr om th e c en t r al p oi n t of a genera t or to th e p oi nt of

i ntersecti on W ith S dx 2 Z ( 1d
,
( )
c h t g en t to C at a p o i n t M is c onj ug a te to th e t angen t to th e su r fac e at M
( ) t e an

p ar all el to th e li ne of sh or test di stanc e

( d ) th e max i mum and mi n i mu m val ues of r ar e th e p r i n cip al r adii of 8 p1 and , ,

p2, a n d h
t e a b o ve e q u ati o n may b e w r itten r pl si n2
¢ pg c os2 w h ere is th e
angl e w hich th e c or r esp on di n g li ne of sh or test di stan ce mak es w ith th e tangen t to

th e li ne of c u r vatu r e co rr esp ondi ng to pg .

15 . If C and C ’
are t w o or t o on ah g l c ur ves on a su r fa e, c th en at th e po ni t of

i n te rSeCtiOD ( Cf EX . . 1 4)
1 1 l l
m 71? ? z;
5

16 . If C and C
’
are tw o conj ugate cu r ves on a su r fa e, c th en at th e poi n t of

in tersecti on ( of Ex 1 4)
1 R
1 1 1
. .

r p p
 CHAPTER V III

SURFACES OF CONSTANT TOTA L CURV ATURE . W -

SURFACES .

SURFACES WITH PLANE OR SPHERICAL LINES OF CURVATURE

115 . Sph er i cal sur faces of r ev olu ti on . Sur fac es w h ose total cu r

v atu r e Ki s th e same at all po i n ts ar e called su r a ces o f f con stan t

cu r va tu r e Wh en h
t is c o n stan t v al u e is z er o th e su r face i s d evel
k d
.
,

opabl e Th e n o n d e vel o pa bl e su r fac es o f h

t is i nd ar e c alle

pher i cal
s
p or
p h er i ca l, ac co r d i n
seu d os
g as Ki s po si ti v e or n egati ve

k
.

We con si der t ese tw o h

in ds an d beg i n our stu dy of t h em w i th
th e d eter mi n ati o n of su r faces of r ev ol u ti on o f co n stant c u r v atu r e.

Wh en u pon a su r face o f r ev oluti o n th e c u r ves e = cou st . ar e

th e mer idi ans an d u c o n st . th e par allels, th e lin ear ele m en t is

r ed u c ible to th e for m
2 2 z
1
( ) ds du G dv ,

w h er e G is a fu n c ti on of u alo n e I n t is h c ase th e e x pr es
si o n for th e total c u r vatu r e (V , 1 2 ) i s

1 i
f
/E
s
;
/E 816
2
x

h
For sp er ical su r faces w e h av e K =1/a
2
, w h er e a i s a r eal c onstan t .

Su bsti tu tin g t is v al u e i n e h q u ati o n 2

( ) an d i n teg r ati ng, w e h ave

Va = c co

b an d c ar e c on stan ts of i n teg r ati on . Fr om ( 1 ) it i s seen

c h an
ge in b m eans si mpl
y a d iffer en t c h o ic e o f th e parall el
If w e ta k e I
) O, th e li n ear el emen t is

3
? 2 2 2 “
4
( ) (is du 0 00 8 dv .

Fr o m ( III , 9 9, 1 00) i t follow s t h at th e q

e u ation s of th e m er id ian

c u r ve ar e

(5 )
 SP HERI CAL SURFA CES OF REV OL U TI ON 2 71

and t h at 1) m eas u r es th e an l
g e b et w een th e mer i di an plan es .

T h er e ar e th r ee c ases to be c o n si d ered , ac c or din g as c is e q u al

to , g r eater th an , or less t h an , a .

CA SE I . c = d . No w

q
an d c onse u en tlyth e su r fac e is a sp ere h .

C A SE I I . c a . Fr om th e ex pr ession

for z i t follo w s t h at si n
2 2 1 an d c on
a

q
se u en tly r 0 H en ce th e su r face is
d
.

m ad e u p o f z ones bo un d e by mi n i mu m

par allels w h ose r adi i are eq u al to th e

FI G 2 6

mi n i mu m v al u e o f c os if , an d th e g r eatest par allel o f eac h z one is

a

o f r ad i us c ; as i n fig 26 ,. w h er e th e c u r v es r epr es en t
g eo d esi cs .

C A SE II I . c a . No w r v ar ies fr om O to c, th e form er c or r espon d

i ng to th e v alu e u ma r /2 w h er e m
, is
y an od d in te g er . At t h ese

po in ts o n th e a x is th e m er i d ian s meet th e lat ter u n der th e an gle

c
srn
“

a
Hen c e th e su r fac e 18 m ad e up of a seri es o f spi n dl es

(fig . Fo r th e c ases II an d III th e e x pr ession fo r 2 c an be

i n teg rate d i n ter m s o f ell iptic fu n c ti o n s .
*

I t is r e adi l
y fou n d t h at h t t ese w o s u r fac es ar e

ppli c able to th e sp er e
a h w i th th e mer i di ans an d

par all els o f eac i n c o r r espo n h d en ce . T h u s, if w e

w r i te th e lin ear ele men t o f th e sp h er e i n th e fo r m

dc : d e w a
'

cos
? 3 as“ ,
d

i t foll o ws fr om (4) t hat th e q

e u ati o n s

u u, v
0

a
v
Frc . 27
d eter mi n e th e c orr espo nd en ce d esi r ed .

I t is ev id ent t h at for v al u es of 6 ot h er t h an z er o w e s h o uld be

b rou
gh t to th e sa me resu l ts . H ow ev er for , th e sa k e of fu tu r e

i“
Cf B. i anchi , V ol I ,. p . 233 .
2 72 SU RFA CES OF CON STA N T C U RVA TU RE

r efer en c e w e w r ite d o w n th e ex pr essions for th e lin ear el e m en t

w hen I) -
7r /2 an d — 7r / 4 tog eth er w i th t ush :
( i) ds
2
du
2
0
2
co s
2 ud v“ ,
a

6
ds
2
du
2 2
si n
2 1 d v’,
( )
11 0

2 2 2 ?
( i i i ) d s du 0 cos

L e t S be a su r face w i th th e l in ear el e m en t ( 6 , i), an d c onsi d er

th e z on e betw een th e par allels u 0 c on st and u c on st A po i nt

d v
. .
l

o f th e z o n e i s d eter m i ne by v alu es of u an d su c h th at

u
l z u z u o, 0 .

Th e par ametr ic v alu es o f th e c or r espon d in g

po i n t on th e h
sp er e

ar e su c h th at
2 7T 0
-
u0, >
v> _O
-
.

H enc e w h en c a, th e g i v en z on e on S do es n o t c o ver th e z o ne
on th e h
sp er e be tw een th e par allels u 0 c on st . an d

bu t w hen c a i t n o t onl
y cov er s i t, bu t t er e is h an o ver la
ppin g .

1 16 . Pseu dosph er ical su r faces of r ev ol u ti on . In o r d er to fin d th e

pseu d o sp e h
r ic al su r faces o f r e vol u tio n w e r e lac e
p Ki n 2
( ) by l/
a
2

an d
‘

i nteg r ate . h
T is g ives
u u
VG c co s h c srnh —a
l ,
a a

w h er e c
1
an d c
2
ar e c on stan ts of i n tegr ati o n . We c on si d er fi r st
th e par tic ular fo r m s of th e lin ear el e men t ar i sin
g w h en h
ei t er o f

th ese c on stan ts is z er o or b th
o ar e e u al q . T h ey may be wr i tten

3 h
2 2 2 2 ”
i
() 618 clu c c os dc ,

i h
3
2 2 z 2 “
( ) 11 ds du + c s n d c ,

2 : 1

2 2 ’
i
( )ii d du c “
dv
'
s .

A ny c ase ot er h t h an t h ese may be bt i

o a ne d by ta ing for k ei t h er

of th e v al u es 0 w h ere b is a constant.
2 74 SU RFA CES OF CON STA N T C U RVA TU RE

to h ou r -

g l asses
p . Fig 29 .
; o ne of
re r esen ts o n e h lf
a o f su c h a part

m
th e c u r ves is an asy pto tic l in e an d th e o er s ar e par allel g eod esic s th .

su r face i s c alled a seu d os h er i ca l su rfa ce o

f the elli ti c t
p p p ype .

C A SE I II . I n th e pr ecedin g cases th e
q
e u ati on s of th e m er i dian c u r ve c an

be ex pr esse d w i th ou t th e q u adr atu r e

sign by m ean s o f ellipti c fu n c tions *

d
.

In h
t i s c ase th e same c an be on e by
m ean s o f tr i
g on o m etr ic fu n cti ons . For ,
i f w e pu t

e q u atio n s (iii) of ( 8) becom e

Fro 2 9 . 9
( ) r = a si n t
g, z = a (log tan
g —
Fw y » .

We find t h at d ) i s th e an
g le w hi h c th e tang en t to a mer idi an at a

po i nt ma k es w i th th e ax is
. H en c e th e a x is is an as
ympto te to th e
c u r ve . Sin ce th e leng t h of th e seg men t of a b
tang en t etw een th e

po i nt o f c on tac t an d th e i ntersec ti o n w i th th e a xis is r cosec d)

or a, th e len g t h of th e seg men t 1 8 i nd e
pen den t of th e po in t of

con tac t T h er efo r e th e mer id i an c u r ve is a tr a c tr ix Th e su r fac e

d
. .

o f r evol u ti o n o f a ympto te i s
tr ac tr i x abo u t i ts as c alle th e pseu d o
s
p her e, o r th e pseu d ospher i ca l su rfa ce of the

pa r a boli c t
ype . Th e su r face is s h o wn in
fig 3 0, w i c
. h h al so pi c tu r es a family of
par allel g eo d esi cs an d an asy pto ti c li n e m .

If th e i n teg ral (3 ) be w r itten i n th e fo r m

u u
\ /
G= c eos
l
c s
z
m —fl
a a

th e i ( ii), i i i of (6 )
c ases () , ( ) ar e seen to
c or r espon d to th e si m il ar c ases of We
sh all fin d ot h mer ar k s o f si milar i ty betw een
th ese c ases, bu t n ow we d esi r e to c all at

d ff
Fm 30.

te n ti on to i er en c es.

Eac h of th e t h for m 7
( ) d ter min es par tic u lar k i nd of

d
r ee s e

p h
seu d osp er i c al su r face o f r evo l u tio n, an d c r estr i c te in val u e

* Cf B . i anchi ,
V ol I , . pp . 226 228
-
.
 AP PL I CA B I L I T Y 2 75

o nly for th e seco n d c ase . O n th e c on tr ary eac h of th e t h r ee for ms

6
( ) ser v es to d efin e an
y of th e t hr ee type s h
o f sp er i c al sur faces o f

r evo l u ti on acco r din

g to t h e mag n itu de of c

d
.

Fr om (IV , 5 1 ) we fin d t h at t h e g eo esic c u r v atu r e of th e par

allels o n th e su r faces w i th th e li n ear ele m en ts 7
( ) i s m easu r ed by
th e e x pr ession s
1
a

Sin c e no tw o of th es e x pr ession s
e c an be tr an sfor m ed i n to th e
ot h er if u be
pl ac ed b
y u p l
reus a n
y c o n sta n t, i t follo w s t at tw o h
pse u os p d
eri cal su h
r fac es o f r ev ol u ti o n o f d iffer en t t
yp e s a r e n ot

ap lic abl e to o n e an ot er wi t
p m er i d i h p h
an s i n c o rr es o n d en c e .

117 . Geodesi c par a m etr i c syste m s . Appli cabili ty . No w w e s all h

s h o w t h at in c o rr espon din
g c ases of 6
( ) 7
( ) an d
th e par am etr i c

g e o d esi c s
yste m s ar e o f th e same k h
in d , an d t en w e s al l pr ove h
t h at w h en su c h a
g eo d esi c s
y ste m is c h ose n fo r
y su r face
an

of con stan t c u r vatu r e , not n ecessar i l on e of re v ol u ti on , th e

y
lin ear elemen t c an be br ou g t to th e h c or r espon di ng for m of 6
( )
or

In th e fir st plac e w e r ec all t at h w h en on an
y su r face th e c u rv es

0 c on st ar e g eo desic s, and u c o n st t h ei r o r t h o
g on al tr a j ec to ri es,

G
. .

th e lin ear el em en t is r ed u c ible to th e fo rm w h er e i s, i n

g en er al , a fu n ctio n of bo t h u an d v ; an d th e g eo d esic cur v atur e

of th e c u r v es u = con st. i s g i v en by I
( V, na m ely

1 1 w e

P. Wm M

Wh en , in par ti c u lar , th e c u r v atu r e o f th e su r face is c o ns tan t, \/ C

is g i ven by e q u ati on 2
( ) in w h ic h K may byp l aced by re zlz l
/a
2

H en ce, for sp h er i c al su r faces, th e g en er al for m o f { a i s

1
( 1) a

an d for pse u dosp h er i cal su r fac es

I
«r

w h er e ct an d «(r ar e at most , , fu n ctio n s of v . We co ns id er n ow

th r ee c ases o f (6 ) an d
2 76 SU RFA CES OF CON STA N T C U RV A TU RE

C A SE I . Fro m th e for m s i
() of 6
( ) and an d fr o m it
follo w s t h at th e c u r ve u = 0 is a
g eo d esi c an d th at i ts ar c is
m easu r ed by cv . Mor eover , a n ec essar
y and su f
fi ci ent con d i ti on

th at th e =0 any su r fac e wit h th e lin ear ele m 1

c ur ve u on ent
( )
satisf
yt h ese cond iti ons is

r ave

«c an

A pplyi ng t h ese c onditions to ( 1 1 ) an d w e ar e b r ou

g h t t o th e
for m s i
() o f 6
( ) an d 7
( ) r espec ti vely .

CA SE II . Th e for ms ( ) 11 of 6
( ) an d 7
( ) satisfy th e c on di tions

w h ic h ar e n ecessary an d suf c i en t fi t h at th e par a m etr i c s ste

y mb e

g eo d esrc pol ar, in w h ic h cv m easu r es an

gl es
( cf
. V I, Wh en

th ese con d i ti o ns ar e appli ed to 1

( )1 and we o bt i an i
( )i o f 6)
(
an d of 7 ) r es ectiv el
( p y .

CA SE I II For (iii) of (6 ) th e cu r ve u 0 h as con stant geo esic

. d
cu r vatu r e 1 / an d for ii i f 7 ll f h r v es u = con st
a
( ) , o
( ) a o t e c u .

h av e th e sam e g eodesic cu r vatu r e l /a C onv er sely w e find fro m .

,

1
( )1 an d ( ) th at w h en th is c ondi tion i s sati sfi ed o n any sur
1 2
face o f con stan t c u r v atur e th e lin ear elemen t is re d u ci bl e to
on e of th e for m s i
( )ii . We g h
at er t h ese r esu lts tog et h er i nto
th e t h eor e m
The li n ear ele
y f men t of
qf con sta n t cu r vatu r e i s r ed u ci ble
an su r a ce

to the for ms (i) (i i) ( iii) of (6 ) or ( 7) accor di ng as the par a metr i c

, ,

g eod esi cs ar e or t og on a l h to a g eodesi c, p ass thr oug h a p oin t, or ar e

or tho on a l
g to a cu r ve o f con stan t
g eod esi c cu r va tu r e.

Wh en th e lin ear elem en t o f a su r fac e of co nstant c u r vatur e is

in o n e of th e for ms i ii
( ) ( ),
, i
( )i i of 6
( ) an d i t is sai d to be of

th e hyper bolic, elli

pti c, or ar aboli c type accor d i n l
g y
p
d
.

Th e a ov e tb h eor e m may be state as follo ws :

A ny spher i ca l su rfa ce of cu r vatu r e 1 / cable to a s her e

2
a is a li
pp p
of r adiu s a i n su ch a w a th a t to a fami ly of g r ea t ci r cles w i th
y
the same d i ameter ther e c or r es on d
p the g eod esi cs h
or t og on al to a
2 78 SU RFA CES OF CON STAN T C U RV ATU RE

1 18 . Tr ansfor m ati on of Hazz i dak i s . L et h

a sp er i c al su r face o f

c u r v atu r e l /a
2
be d efi ned i n ter m s of i sot h er mal con ug ate
-
j p ar ame

ter s . T h en *
If
D D 1
1
( )3
E
’
"

H 71
an d th e C o dza z i e u ati on s
q V
( , r ed u ce to

as as
2 f
c
Bu bu av

as 8G BF
2
av av cu

Fr om t h q
ese e u ati on s follo w s th e t h eor e m
Th e li nes of cu r va tu r e o f a s
ph er i cal f
su r a ce f m
or an i sother ma l
j
con u ate s
g yste m.

For , a solu tio n of h

t q
ese e u ation s is
E G const .
, F:0 .

Wh en h
t is con stan t is z er o th e su r fac e is a sp er e h b ecau se o f

Ex clu ding t is h c ase, w e r epl ac e th e b

a o ve by

1
( )5 E 2
a cosh w ,
g
F 0, G 2
a sin h 2
a .

N ow
1
( )6 D D ”
a si n h co cos h co.

Wh en th ese valu es ar e su b sti tu te d i n th e G au ss e q u atio n (V ,

na m ely

1 1 as F F 1 so
“
or a as
_ _ __
2 11 bu H av HE bu H E av H Eu
i t i s fo u n d t h at co mu st satisf
y th e e q u ati on

2 2

1
( )8 Q +
aw
+ si n h m co sh a = a
cu
2
$ 2

C on ver sely, for eac h solu ti on o f t is h q

e u ati o n th e q u an ti ti es 1
( )5
a nd 1
( )6 d eter min e a s
p e h
r i cal su r face .

If e q u ati on s 1
( )4 be d iffer en ti ated w i th r espec t to u an d v r eSpec

ti vely, an d th e r esu l ti n
g q
e u ati o n s be a d ded , we h av e

2
3 6? 8 6?
Q 2
BE
2
8E
2 " 2 “
‘
Zu av Bu av

Th e biguity f sign may b e negl cted

am o e ,
as a ch ange of s ign gi ves a c
su r fa e synr

met ic al w ith e p ct t t h e igi n

r r s e o or .
 TRA N SFORMA TI ON O F HA Z Z I DA K I S 2 79

In q
co nse u enc e o f 1
( )4 e q u ati o n 1
( )7 i s r e d u c ible to

an 8 0

2
8 6; 1
+ "

55 2
a

E qu atio n s 1
( )4 ar e u n altered if E an d G be i n ter c h an
g ed an d th e
si
g n of F be c h an
g ed . Th e sa m e i s tr u e of 1
( )7 bec au se of 1
( )9
and Hen ce w e h ave

If the li n ear ele men t of a spher i ca l su rfa ce r efer r ed to an i sother ma l

j
con u a te s
g yste m of pa r ameter s be

ds
2
= E du 2 + 2 q dv + d
2
°

ther e cr i sts a seco n d s h er i ca l su rfa ce o

f the sa me cu r va tu r e r efer r ed
p
to a si mila r a r a metr i c s stem w i th th e li nea r elemen t
p y
d s
,
2
G du
g
2q dv E dv , ’

a nd w i th the sa me secon d qu ad r ati c for m as the g i ven su r a ce f

mor eover , the li nes o
f c u r va tu r e corr es
p on d on the tw o f
su r a ces .

Th e latter fac t i s e vi d e n t fr o m th e q
e u ati on o f th e li n es o f c ur v a

tu re (IV , w h i ch r ed uces to q
2
+( G — E )d u d v — d 2
= 0 .

Fr o m ( IV , 6 9) i t is seen t h at th e l in ear el e m en ts of th e h
sp er i c al

repr esen ta tio n o f th e r es ec ti v e su r faces are

p
I

In par ti cu lar w e h av e th e t h eo r e m
Ea c h solu ti on a) o f q e ua tio n 1
( )8 d eter min es tw o s h er i ca l
p su r fac es
1/ elemen ts of the s urfa ces ar e
z
f the li nea r
'

o cu r va tu r e a ;

ds
2
( di da
2
cos h 2
to sin h
i’
w
2 ’
d sf a (sin h m d u
z
c os h 2
(o

an d o f thei r s
ph er i ca l re
p r esen ta t on s i

do -2
sin h 2
co du cos h 2
‘

m dv , ’

2 g f fl 2
da l c osh w du sin h m dv

mor eover , th ei r p r i n ci
p al r ad i i ar e r es ecti vel
p y
p1 a c o th a) ,
p2 a tan h co,

p; a tan h a),
p; a ( 30 th or .
2 80 SU RFA C ES O F C ON STA N T CU RV A TU RE

Bi an c i h *
h as g i ven th e n am e Hazzid aki s tr an sfor ma ti on to th e

r elati on betw een t h ese tw o s ur faces . It i s e v id en t t h at th e for mer

t h eo r e md e fi n es th i t s r an sfor mation i n a m o re
g en er al w a
y .

1 19 . Tr ansfor m tia on of
Bi anch i e c o n sid er . W now pseu do
a

h
sp er i c al su r face o f c u r vatu r e — l/
2
a , d efi n ed i n ter m s o f i so t er m al h
j
c o n u g ate par a m eters . We h av e

D
H
an d th e C o d azz i q
e u ati on s r ed u c e to

EE 30 313 8G
bu bu av av

T h ese e q u atio n s ar e satis fi ed by th e v alu es

2
( )2 E a
2
co s w
2
,
F : O, G a
2
si n% ,

w h er e a) is a fu n c ti o n w h ich , becau se o f th e G au ss e q u ation V

( ,
m u st satisfy th e eq u ati on

2 2
8 a) 6 a)
sin a) c os w .
? 2
an av

C on v er sely, ev er y solu ti on o f t ish e q u ation d etermi nes a pseu d o

h
sp er ic al su r face w h ose fu n d am en tal q u an ti ties ar e
g i v en b y
22
( ) an d by
2
( )4 a si n (0 c o s co .

Mor eov er , th e lin ear ele men t of th e s

ph er i c al r epr esen tati on is

2
( )5 do 2
si n a)
2
du
2 2
c os w v .

T h er e is n ot a tr an sfo r mati o n fo r pseu d osp h i er c al su r fac es si m

i lar to th e Haz z id ak is tr an sfor m ati on f ph i
o s er cal su r faces, bu t
th er e ar e tr an sfor mati on s of o th er k in d whi h
s c ar e o f g r eat im

por tan c e . One of th ese i s in v ol ved i n th e follo w in g t h eor em o f

Ribau c o ur
If i n the tang en t plan es to p a
p h seu d os f
er i ca l su rfa ce o cu r vatu r e

— 1 be d escr i bed w i th cen ter s a t the poi n ts of

/a
2
i l
c r c es o f r a d iu s a

con ta ct, these ci r cles a r e the or thog on a l tr aj ector i es of an i nfini ty of

faces of cu r va tu r e 1 /a
2
su r .

V ol I I p 437
.
,
. .

1 Thi s ch oice o f si g n i s m ad e so th at t h e fo ow nll i g fo r mu l as may h ave th e custom

ar y for m .
2 82 SU RFA CES O F C ON STA N T C U RV A T U RE

m
By eans o f ( 2 8) th e abo v e ex pr essio n s fo r th e pr o j ec tion s o f a

d m
isplac e en t o f M1 c an be pu t i n th e for m

a c os 9 (c o s co co s 9 da sin a) si n 9 d v),

a si n 9 (cos w c os 9 da si n w si n 9 d v),

a co s w si n
( 9 dv s i n a) c o s 9 da ) .

Fr o m th ese i t fo llo ws t h at th e lin ear elemen t o f SI is

2 2 2 2
d sf a
( c os 9 du si n 9 dv ) z
.

In or d er to pr o ve t h at SI i s a pseu d o s h er i c al su r face r efer r e

p d to
i ts li nes of c u r v atu r e, it re mains for us to s h o w h
t at
ph
th e i l s er ca

re
pr esen tati on of t h ese cu r v es for ms an o r t h og o n a l y t m W
s s e . e

o b t i thi
a n s r epr esen tation w i th th e a id o f a tr i h ed r a l wh t xose ver e

is fix ed , an d w h ic h r otates so t h at i ts a x es ar e al w ays par allel to

th e c or r espon d in g a x es of th e tr i h ed r al fo r S Th e po in t w ose h
d
.

c oor i n ates w i th r efer en ce to th e n ew tr i h ed r al ar e

g i v en b 2
y ( ) 6
ser ves h
for th e sp er i c al r epr esen tatio n of S1 Th e . j
pr o ec ti on s u pon
th ese ax es of a d isplace m
en t o f t is poin t ar e r ed u c i le, b
y h b m ean s

Of to
c os 9 (c os (0 sin 9 da sin n) c o s 9 d v),

sin 9 ( cos (0 si n 9 da si n a) cos 9 d v),

si n co si n 9 da cos (0 cos 9 d v,

fr o m w hi h it f ll
c o o ws th at th e l in ear el em en t is
2 2 2 2
2
1
si n 9 du c os 9 dv .

Si nce 9 is a solu ti on o f th e s u r face SI i s pseu d o sp h i er c al, o f

c u r vatu r e — 1 a2 ,
/ and th e li nes o f c u r vatu r e ar e para m ti e r c . To
eac h sol u tion 9 of e q u ati on s 2
( 8) t h er e co r r espo nd s a su r face SI
d
.

B ar bou x h as c alle h
t is pr o cess of fi nd i n g S1 th e tr a n sfor mation

f B i a nchi A s the c o mplete i nteg r al of e q u ations 2

( )8 i n v olv es an

k
o .

ar bitr ar y constant, th er e ar e an in fi n i ty o f su r faces S,, as r e m ar ed

by Ribau cou r . Mor eover , if w e pu t

( 2 9)

th ese e q u ati on s ar e of th e Ri oc ati type in H en ce ,

by 1 4,

When on e tr an sfor m f
o B i a n c hi o f a
p ph er i ca l su rfa ce i s
seu d os

kn ow n , the deter mi n a ti on f
o the ot h er s r e u i r es on ly
q q u ad r a tu r es .

V ol 1 1 1 ,
. p . 422 .
 TRA N SFORMA TI ON O F B IA N C HI 2 83

Fro m ( III , 24 ) i t follow s t h at th e differ enti al

c u r v es to wh i c h th e li n es j oin i ng c or r espo n d i ng

SI ar e tang en t is

3 0 c o s w sin 9 du si n a) c o s 9 d v 0
( ) .

Hen ce , alo n
g su c h a c u r v e, e qu ati o n 2
( )7 r ed u ces to

ov on

Bu t fr om ( V I, 5 6 ) i t is see n h t at t hi s is th e G au ss q
e u ati on of

g eod esics u po n a su r fac e wh o se fi r st fu n da m en tal c o efii c i en ts

h av e the v al u es Hen ce
The c u r ves on S to w hi ch th e lines j oi ni ng co rr es
p on d in
g poi n ts on

S an d SI ar e tang en t ar e g eo d esi cs .

Th e or thogonal t raj ecto r i es of th e cur ves (30) are defi ned b y

( 3 1)
In c o nsequen ce of ( 2 8) th e l eft—h and membe r o f thi s equa tion is an ex act differen ti al .

If w e pu t
ag z

th e q uan tity e i n te gr ati ng facto r o f th e l eft hand

is an -
memb er of C onse
q uentl y w e may defi ne a fun cti o n ; thus : 1

dn —
ae tf/ i du si n to c os ad v
(cos (0 0 )
a
sn .

In ter ms of f and 1; th e lin ear el emen t of S is ex p ress ibl e i n th e p ar abolic for m

(3 2 ) ds2 d z? e’ fl " dnf .

Eq ua ti on ( 3 1) d efi nes also th ogonal t ra j ecto r i es o f th e cu r ves o n

th e o r SI to
w hi ch th e li nes M24 1 a re tangent an d th e eq uation of th e l atte r c ur ves is
,

si n to co s od u co m » sin Od v
. O.

Th e q uan tit ye
f/a
is an i nte gr a ti ng fac to r of th is equati on ,
a nd if w e pu t a cc o rdi ngl y
d; aefl “
( si n w cos Od u cos to si n ad v),

th e li near el emen t of SI may b e ex p ressed in th e p ara bo lic for m

—
( as) ( 13 3 as ? e nf/a d r z
.

A s th e ex p ressi ons ( 32 ) and (33 )are o f th e for m of th e li near el emen t o f a sur face of
r e vo l u ti o n th e fi n it e e q ua ti o ns o f th e geod esics c an be foun d b
, y q uad r atu res Henc e .

Wh en a B ia nch i t an sfor mati on i s k no w n for a su rfac e the fi nite equa tio n of i ts

r ,

geod esics ca n be fou nd by q ua d r atur es .

T hi s fo ll ow s also from th e p re ce d ing th eo rem and th e asl t o ne o f 1 17 .

2 84 SU RFA C ES OF C ON STAN T CU RV A TU RE

1 20 . Tr ansfor m ati on of Back lund . Th e tr an sfor mation o fBian c hi

i s o n ly a par ti cu lar c ase of a tr ansfo r m
d isc o ver ed byBac k l u nd ,
ati o n
'

”e

by eans m of w h ic h fr o m h
o n e pseu d osp er i c al su r face S an o t er S ,
,
h
o f th e sa m e c u r v atu r e, c an be fo u n d Mo r eover , o n t ese t w o su r
. h
fac es th e lin es o f c u r vatu r e c o r r espo n d , th e j oi n o f c or r es
p on d i n
g
po i n ts i s tangen t at t h ese p o in ts to th e su r faces an d is o f co nstan t

leng t h , an d th e tan g en t plan es at c or r espon d ing po in ts m eet u n der

co nstan t angle .

We r efer S to th e same mo vi n g tr i h ed r al as i n th e pr ecedi ng

c ase, an d let X an d 9 den o te th e len gt h o f MM and th e an l e
g
k
1

w h ic h th e latter ma es w i th th e x -
a x is . The co or d i n ates of M1 ar e
.

X cos 9, 7s sin 9, O,. an d th e pro j ec tion s of a d i splacemen t of M ar e

1

S
m
—X si n 9 d9 + a c os w du -
>t sin 9 du + — d
u

X c os 9 d 9 + a si n w d v + >t cos 9 da —l— g d v

gu

7t (c o s a) sin 9 dv si n to c os 9 da ).

If 0
"

d enotes th e c o n stan t angle betw een th e tang en t planes to

S an d Si at JV
! an d Ml r es ec ti v el , si n c e t ese
p y plan es ar e to i n ter h
sec t in MM, , th e di r ec ti on -
co sin es o f th e n or mal to SI ar e

si n a si n 9, si n 0
'

c os 9, c os 0 .

Hen ce 9 mu st sati sfy th e c on d iti on

X si n c d9 a si n a
( cos a) sin 9 da sin (0 cos 9 d v )
7t sin 0 da 28 d
9a

X c os a (sin (0 cos 9 da c o s 0) si n 9 d v) 0 .

Sin c e t i s h c o ndi tion m u st be sati sfied fo r ever

y d i s lac emen t,
p
e q
u i valen t to

k si n a a sin o c os w sin
-
9 — 7t c os o si n w c os 9,

X si n a

i“
O m yto r med k o ns an t t n egati v k rii k ni ng L u n ds Uni vers tet A k r ift V ol X IX
,
i s r ss ,
.

A n En s r a ns a gli h t l ti on o f thi s m moi h b een mad b y Mi s Emil y Codd i ngt on

e r as e s

of N ew Yor k , and p i v at el y p i nt ed
r r .
2 86 SU RFA C ES OF CON STA N T C U RV A T U RE

121 . Th eor e m of per m u tabi l i ty . L et SI be a tr ansfor m of

S by
means of th e fu n c tio n s 9
( 1, Si n ce co n v er sel
y S i s a tr ansfor m
of S1 , an d th e e
qu ati o n s for th e latter si milar to ( 8 5 ) ar e r ed u c ible

to th e Riocati type , all th e tr ansfor ms of SI be fo u n d by u ad

c an q
r atu r es . Bu t even t h ese q u ad r atu r es c an be d ispen sed w i th ecause b
of th e follo w i n g theor em f per mu ta bili ty d u e
o to Bi an ch i i'
e
:
If SI an d S2 ar e tr a nsfor ms o f S by mean s of the r especti ve pa i r s

f fu n cti ons ( 91
o , an d 9
( 2, a fu n c ti on ( ) can be fou n d w i thou t
I
q u ad r a tu r es w hi ch is su ch by mean s tha t f the pa ir s (cf
o ) 0 ) an d
2 ,

the sur faces SI an d S2 r espectively for mable i n to a

ar e tr a ns
’
p seu d os
pher i ca l su r a ce f S .

By h yp th o esis ai s a sol u tio n o f th e q

e u ati o n s

89
m <1 m
; s ) c os 9 cos 0 c os < ) s 1 9
"

87
1 2

94
) 99
2
5 55
an d also o f th e q
e u ati on s

£
8
1
5 s m 95 cos 92 c os 0
,
c os ) e 4 m 9

395
— m 6 m cb c os 92
5
+ COS ¢ S2 +
c os a
l
s .

Th e pr o j ec ti o n s o f th e lin e MI M ’
on th e tang en ts to th e lin es of

c u r v atu r e o f SI an d o n i ts n or m al, w h er e M1 an d M ’
ar e co r r es
p on d
’
i ng po i n ts on SI and S, ar e

a si n 0 a sin 0 si n ( ) , O
3
( )8 2
cos c t , 2 I .

Th e d ir ecti o n -
cosin es o f th e tang en ts to th e li n es o f c u r v atu r e

of SI w i th r es
pec t to th e li n e MMI , th e lin e M Q, er en d ic u lar
p p to
th e latter and i n th e tan gen t plane at M , an d th e n o r mal to S ar e

c os w , c os a
,
si n to , sin a sin
,

c os ” c os a) , sin 0 cos (0 .
1 1

Fr o m th ese an d ( 38 ) i t foll o w s t h at th e c oo r d in ates of M w i th

’

r espec t to MMI M Q, , , an d th e n or mal to S ar e

si n a , sin 0 si n 0 c os a , si n ( cf
a
[ 2
c os
(qS [ a
2
;

a si n a si n a si n ( 4
[ , ,
)

V ol 1 1 ,
. p 418. .
 TH EOREM OF P ERMU TA BIL I T Y 2 87

Henc e th e c oo rd in ates of M wi th to th e of th e mov i ng

’
r espec t ax es
tr i h d
e r al fo r S ar e

c os 9 l sin 0
1
cos 91 si n 0 2
c os (4 ) m)

si n 91 si n 0 3 c os a
, 1
si n (4 ) w
) ,

si n 91 si n a
,
si n 9 1 si n 0
2
cos w
)
c os 91 sin 0
2
c os si n
(95 to
)
,

sin ‘7 sin a , sin

1
co
) .

If S2 be tran sfo r m ed by means of a , an d th e same fun cti on

th e c oor di n ates x
”
, y
”
, z
”
of th e r esu lti n g su r face c an be obtai n e d
fr om ( 3 9 ) by in ter c h an i
g gn t h e pb
s u sc r i ts 1 an d 2 . Ev iden tly z ’

an d z ”
ar e e u al q . A n ec essar
y an d su f c i en t con di ti on
fi h
t at x
’
, y
’

” ”
be equ al to a , g r es ec ti v el
p y is

c os 91 (:
c
’
x
”
) sin 9 1 (y ’
y
”
) 0,
” ’ ”
c os x
) si n 92 (y y ) 0 .

I f th e abo v e v al u es be su bs ti tu te d in t h es e e q uati o ns, w e obtain

[ sin 0
1
cos 9
( 2 91 ) sin 0 2] (t
cos c co
)
sin a
I
cos a 2
si n 9
( 2 9 1 )sin (cl) co
) sin 0 2
c os 9
( 2
[ sin 0 ,
c os 9
( 2 91 ) si n 0
1] (4 c os ) ) w

si n0 2 cos a , sin (9 2
91 )sin (4) w
) si n 0
1
cos 9
( 2
Sol vi ng t h ese e q u ati o ns w i th r espec t to —w
) an d cos ( (p — w
)
,

w e et
g
( cos 0 cos si n ( 92
si n
2
w
) sin a , si n 0 9 91 ) 1
2
c os ( 2 c os 0 1
c o s or
2

sin a
,
si n a cos 9
( , 91 ) c os c os a , 1

T h ese tw o e x pr ess io ns sati sf

y th e c on di ti on t h at th e su m o f h
t eir

s q u ar es be u n i ty, an d th e fu n c tion t
c sati s fi es q
e u ati on s 36
( ) an d
H ence ou r hyp th o eses i
a e consisten t an d th e t h eore m of

per mu tabili ty is d emonstr ated .

We may r eplac e th e abov e e q uati on s by

2 88 SU RFA C ES OF CON STA N T C U RV A T U RE

Th e pr ec ed in g r esu l t may be ex pr esse d i n th e follo w ing for m

Wh en the tr an sfor ms o f a g i ven
pseu d ospher i c a l su rfa ce ar e kn ow n,
a ll the tr a n sfor ma ti on s o f the for mer c an be efi ected by a lg ebr a i c

p r ocesses an d d ifier enti ati on .

T h u s, su ppose t h at th e c o mplete i n teg r al q

o f e u ati o n s ( 3 5 ) is
4
( )1 9 = f (u , v, a , c
) ,

an d t h at a par tic ular i nteg r al i s

91 f( u , v, 0
1,
c
l )
,

corr espon d
ing to par ti c u lar v alu es o f th e c on stan ts, an d let SI
d en o te th e tr ansfo r m
of S by m eans o f 9 an d ‘7 A ll th e tr an s

db
1 1

for m atio ns o f SI ar e d eter mi n e y th e fu nc ti on s 4) an d w h er e

Ex ception al c ases ar ise w h en a h as th e v alu e “ 1 ° For all v alu es

of c ot h er t h an c
1
for mu la 2
( ) g ives <1)
4 co + m7r , w h er e m is an

odd i n teg er . Wh h
en t is i s su bsti tu ted i n e qu atio ns 3
( )6 t h e
y re

d u ce to In t i s h c ase S
’
co in cid es w i th S
d
.

We c o n si er n o w th e re mainin g c ase w h er e c h as th e v alu e cl ,

w h er eu pon th e ri
ght h
-
an d m ember of 4
( )2 i s i n d eter mi n ate . In
o r d er to h an dl e th i s c ase w e c on si d er c i n (41 ) to be a fun ction of

a , re
'

d u c in
g to c
1
for o If w e apply th e or d inary m et h o ds to

th e fu n c tion tan w h ic h bec omes in d eter min ate

for 0
'

a difi er en tiating nu m er ator an d d en omin ator w i th r espect

to a, we h ave

w h er e c
’
is an ar bit r ar
y co nstan t It i s n ec essary to v er ify t h at h
t is
d
.

v al u e o f ) satis 4 fi es th e q
e u ati o n s whi ch is easily on e .
*

Cf B . i anch i ,
V o l II ,
. p . 418 .
2 90 SU RFA CES OF CON STA N T C U RV A TU RE

In par ti c u lar , for a tr an sfo r mati on of Bian c i h w e h av e

—w
) ,

Su ppose t h at we h av e a pai r of fu n cti on s 9 an d w satisfyin

g
t h ese e q u ati on s, an d th at w e efi ect u pon th em th e L i e tr an sforma
ti on fo r w h ic h m h as th e v al u e ( 1 cos a
) sin h
T is gi ves

1 c os 0
'

1 c os a
a) a,
ma
1 C I

s Si n 0

1+ c os a
-
1— c os a
a
8 111 0

As t h ese fu n ction s satisfy y d eter mi n e a tr an sfor

t hatie
o n m
Ba Bu t 9, may be
. obtai n ed fr om a) , by efi ec tin g u pon th e latter
l
an i n ver se L i e tr an sfor m ati o n , d en oted by L g , u pon t is r esult a h
h
Bi an c i tr ansfo r m ati on , BM , an d t en a d i r ect L ie tr ansfor ati on , h m
La . H en ce we may w r i te sy mb ol i c ally

w h ich may be ex pr essed t h us

A B a cklu n d tr an sfor ma ti on B ,
i s th e tr an sfor m of a B i an chi
tr an sfor mati on by mean s of a L i e tr an sfor mati on L

EX A MPLES

1 . Th e asym ptotic li nes on a pseud osph er ic al c

su r fa e ar e cu rves of c on stan t
torsi on .

2 . Ever y sur fac e w h ose asympto tic l i nes ar e of th e same l ength as thei r S ph er ic al
i mages is a pseu d osph er ic al su rfac e of c u r vatu r e 1 .

3 Sho w th at o n th e p seu d osph er e d efi ned b y

.
,
th e c u rves
b cos ¢ d ¢ si n 2 ¢ b2 dv 0,

w h er e b is a c onst an t are geod esics and find th e r adi us of cu r vatu re of these cu r ves
, ,
.

4 W h en th e li near el emen t of a p seu d osph er ic al su r fac e is i n th e p ar ab olic

.

for m ( iii ) of th e su r fa c e d efi ned b y

a : a
at
y
’
y a
by
’ z a
az
eu eu an

is pseud osph er ic al ( cf § 76) it is a B i anchi t r ansform of th e gi ven su r face

. .

Sphe ical su fac es a d mit f t an sfor mati n s si mil ar to th ose o f L i e and B ck l und
r r o r o a .

Th l atte a e i magi n a y b u t su ch combi n ati ons o f th em c an b e mad e th t th e r esul ti ng

e r r r , a

su fac e i s r eal
r F a c mpl et e d i sc u ssi on of th ese th e r ead er i s r efer r ed to ch ap v of
. or o . .

th e L ezi on i of Bi anchi .
 W —SU RFA CES 2 91

y z u si n v, —1 du + hv,

w h er e a , h, k ar e c onstants ,
are s ph er ic al su r fa es c .

6 . h elic oid w h ose mer idi an c u r ve is th e t ra ct r ix i s c all ed the surfac e of Di ni

Th e .

F i nd i ts equations w hen sin d enotes th e helicoid al parameter and cos u th e con

c

stan t l ength of th e se gm en t of th e tang en t b et w een th e c u r ve and i ts ax is Sh ow .

th at th e su r fac e is p seu d osph er ic al .

7 Th e cu rves t angen t to th e j o i ns of c orr espo ndi ng p o i n ts on a p seu d osph er ic al

.

su r fac e and on a B ac k l u nd t ransfor m are geod esics on l y w h en /2 a 7r .

8 . L et S b e a p seud osph er ic al su r fa e a ndc SI a B i an chi t ransfor m by means of

a fu n cti on 0 Sh ow th at

X i X SlII OX sin mX
CO S w ( COS 9 1 g ) ,

X § si n w si n ) cos mX
( C OS 9 X 1 l g ,
'

sin
’
X z OX l cos OX g,

w h ere X 1 X X are d i recti on c osi nes w ith r espect to th e x ax i s

, 2,
-
,
-

,
of th e tangen ts
to th e li n es o f c u r vat u e o n S and o f th e n or mal to S an d X i X 5
3, X th e
’
r
, ,
ar e

si mil ar fun cti ons for SI .

1 23 . W su r faces
-
. Fu nda m enta l quanti ti es . Min i m al su r fac es

an d su r faces o f c o n stan t c u r v atu r e possess , in co mm o n w i th a

g r eat m y an ot h er su r fac es, th e pr o per ty t h at e ac h f th o e p rin

c ipal r ad i i i s a fu n ctio n of th e oth er . Su r fac es o f th i k i d

s n w er e
fi r st stu di e d i n d etail by l V ei n g ar ten ,
*
an d , in q
c o n se u en ce, ar e

c alled Weing a r t en su r f a ces, o r si mply W su rfaces

-
. Sin c e th e pr i n
cipal r ad ii of su r fac es o f r evol u ti o n an d o f th e g en er al eli c o ids h
fu n c ti on s o f a sin gl e par ameter
ar e 4 6, t ese ar e W su r fac es h
k
-
.

We s all fin d ot er su r faces of t is i n d, bu t n o w w e c o nsider

h h h
th e pr oper ti es wh i h c ar e co mmo n to W su r faces
-
.

Wh en a su r face S is r efer r ed to i ts lin es of c u r v atu r e, th e

C odazz i e q u ation s m ay be gi v en th e for m

9 lo n 1 9 lo n
‘

9p, 1 9p,
av P
_ P2 1
av an a a a“

If a r el ati o n e x ists betw een p, an d p2 , as

4
( )6 f (Pp P2 ) 0,

th e i n tegr ati on of e q u ati on s (4 5 ) is r ed u ci ble to q u ad r atu r es, th us

G’ s
Ve fT
Pl

VE= Ue W ,
V3 : f
-
T
a

”5
C r ell e, V ol LX I I . pp . 1 60 173
-
.
292 W —SU RFA CES

w h er e U and V ar e fu ncti on s of u an d v r es ec tivel

p y . With ou t
ch an g in g th e par ametr i c li n es th e par a m e ter s c an be so c h osen

th at th e abo ve e x pr essio n s re d uce to

d Pi s

( 7)
4 V5
"

: a s — Pi
, Q : g
f Pi
— Pz

T h u s (5 and g ar e e x pr essi ble as fun c ti on s of p, or P 2,

an d c on se

q u en tly h
t ey ar e fu n cti o n s o f o ne an o t h er T ish r elati on b ec o m es

d
.

m or e c l ear w h en w e i ntr od u c e an add i ti on al para m eter x d efi n e by

f
d Pi

By th e e li m in ati on of p2 fr o m th i s equ atio

p and 4
( )6 w e h ave a

r el ati on of th e form

Wh en h
t is val u e is su bsti tu te d in (48) w e obtai n

a <> l( ) x
W W) ,

w h er e th e ac c en t i n di c ates d iffer en tiation w ith r espec t to re. Fr o m

( 4 7) i t follow s t h at

Wh en t h ese valu es ar e su b tit t d

s u e G au ss e q u atio n

th e h
sp er e V
( , th e latter b m eco es

1
g
_
’
Bv x c
b
T ish e q u ati o n pl ac es a r estr ic ti on u on th e for ms o f x
p an d

bu t i t is th e o nly r estr i c ti on , for th e C o d azz i e u ati o ns ( 45 ) q ar e

sati s fi ed . H en c e we h av e th e t h eo r e m of Wei ngar ten z i'

e

When on e has an h g
or t o on a l s
y stem on the unit s
pher e for w hi ch

th e li n ea r ele men t i s r ed u cible to the for m

+ T ‘
’

<> I (K )
a W su rface w hose
-
li n es of cu r vatu r e a r e r epr esen ted

an d w h ose
p r i n ci
p a l r a d i i a r e ea
p r essed by

P1
:
W) e , a Wo) e

L . c .
, p . 1 63 .
2 94 W —S
U RFACES

1 24 . Evbl u te of a W sur face

-
. Th e evol ute o f a W su r fac e
-

pos
sesses sev er al pr o
per ti es w h ic h ar e c h ar ac ter isti c . Refer r ing to th e
r es u lts o f 75 , w e see t h
by m ean s of (5 2) th e
at lin ear eleme nts of
th e s h eets of th e ev olu te o f a W su r fac e ar e r ed u c i ble to th e for m
-

f
f
or, i n ter ms of K ,
w 2 2 2
d s,g ( f d /c x dv ,
2 112 2 a
d sf K
¢ dK + du

Fr o m th ese r esu l ts an d th e re mar k s of

§ 46 w e obtain at o n ce

th e follow mg t h eor e m of Weingar ten :

Ea ch f
su r a ce o f cen ter o f a W—su rface i s appli ca ble to a su rfa ce o f
r evolu ti on w hose mer i d i an cu r ve i s d eter mi ned by the r ela ti on betw een
th e r a di i f the g i ven
o su r face .

We h av e also th e con ver se th eor em , li kw

e ise d u e to Weingar ten
If a su r a cef S, be a
ppli ca ble to a f
su r a ce o f r evolu ti on, the tan

g en ts to th e g eod esi cs on S, cor r es

p on d i n
g to th e mer i d i an s of th e
su r f a ce o f r evolu ti on a r e n or ma l to a f mialy fp
o a r a llel W—su rfaces
f
i , S be d efor med
i n an
y m a nn er w ha tever ,
the r ela ti on betw een th e
r a d ii of these W—
su rfa c es i s u n a lter ed
'

I n pr o v i ng t is t eo r e h h m w e apply th e r esu l ts o f § 76 . If th e
lin ear el emen t o f S, be
2 2 z g
d s, du + U d v ,

th e pr i n c ipal r ad n o f S ar e
g i v en by

5
( )6

Sin ce bo t h ar e fu n c ti on s o f a si n
gl e par ameter , a r elati on ex ists

betw een th e m w ic h h d epen ds u pon U alo n e, an d c onse u en tly is q

u n al ter ed i n th e d efor m ati on of S, .

Fr om (V , 9 9) th e pr o j ec tio ns u on
p th e m o vi n g tr i h edr al for S,
of a d isplace m en t o f a
poi nt on th e co mplemen tar y su r face S2 ar e

U
—
0, (q d a d
q, )v
U
 EV OL U TE OF A IV SU RFA C E -
2 95

In q
co n se u en c e of fo r mu las ( V 4 8 75 ) th e ex pr ession U (9 d a
, , g, d v)
is an ex ac t d iffer en tial, w h i ch w ill be d en o ted by dw . Hen c e th e
lin ear elemen t of S2 i s
2 2
5
( )7 d s
,
U

fr o m w h ich i t follo ws t h at S2 also is appl i c a bl e to a su r fac e o f

r ev olu ti o n
"6
.

Th e last t h eor e m of 75 m ay be stated t h us

A n ecessar y a n d su fii ci en t c on d i ti on tha t the ymptoti c li n es on

as

the su rfa ces of c en ter S, , S2 of face

a su r S corr espon d i s tha t S be
a Ii
i-
su r fa ce ; i n thi s c ase to ever y conj ug a te s ste
y m on S, or S, ther e
,

cor r es
pon ds a j
con ug a te s
y ste m on the ot her .

Fr o m (V , 98, i t follo w s t h at w h en S is a W—su r fac e , an d

o nl
y i n t is h case, w e h av e

(5 8 ) — 4
( pi P2 )

Hen ce a t c o r r es o n d in
p g i
p nts
o th e c u r v atu r e is of th e same k i nd .

An e x cepti on al for m o f equ ati on (4 6 ) is afi o r d ed by th e c ase w h er e

o n e or bo t h of th e pr i n c i pal r adii is con stan t . Fo r th e plan e bo t h
r ad i i ar e in fi n i te for a c ir c u lar c li n der on e
y is in fi n i te an d th e ot h er

h as a fin i te Th e sp er e is th e only su r fac e w i t bo t
c o n stan t v al u e . h h h
r ad ii fi n i te an d co n stan t Fo r , i f p, an d p, ar e d i ffer en t co ns tan ts,
.

fr o m (45 ) i t foll ow s th at (5 an d g ar e fu n c tio n s o f u an d v r espec

ti v ely, w h i ch i s tr u e o nly of d ev elopable su r faces Wh en on e o f th e .

r ad i i is i n fi n ite th e su r fac e i s d evelopable Th er e r emain s th e c ase

, .

w h er e on e h as a fi n i te c o n stan t v al u e ; t h en S is a c an al su r fac e

In con si der i n
g th e l ast c ase w e ta k e

a
P2
th en , fr om w e h av e
a,
P1 K

an d th e li n ear el e me n t of th e h
Sp er e is

d
_
2
K

C onver sely, w h en th e lin ear elem en t of th e h

sp er e is r ed u c ible to
h
t is for m, th e c u r v es on th e h
sp er e r epr esen t th e li nes of c u r vatur e

o n an i n fi ni ty of par all el c an al su r faces .

C f D ar bo ux
.
, V ol III ,
. p . 3 29 .
296 W —SU RFA CES

1 25 . Su r faces of constant m ean cu r vatu r e. For su r fac es o f c on

stan t t otal c u r v atu r e th e r elation 46

( ) m ay be wr i tten
0

P1

w h er e c d en otes a c onstan t . Wh en th is valu e is su bstitute d i n ( 4 8)

w e h ave, by i n teg r ati on ,
0

m
5
( )9 ,

Vi
so t h at th e lin ear ele m en t o f th e s
p h er e is

C on v ersely, w h en we h ave an or t hg o on al syste m on h

th e sp er e for
w h ic h th e lin ear elemen t is r ed u c i bl e to th e for m i t ser ves fo r
th e pr esen tati o n o f th e lin es o f c u r vatu r e of a su r face of c onstant
re

c u r vatu r e, an d of an i nfi ni ty of par all el su r faces .

Wh en is posi ti ve, tw o of t
c h p ll l
ese ar a e su r faces h av e c o nstan t

m ean c u r vatu r e, as follow s fr o m th th m e eor e of Bon net In

fac t, th e r ad ii o f th ese su r faces ar e

( 61 ) P1 W 2
+ c i fi z

I f w e pu t

6
( )2 x a csc h w ,

an d r epl ace u by an, th e l i n ear el e m en t 60

( ) b eco m es

2
si n h 2
(1 ) du
2
c osh w
g
dv
2
.

I n li k e m an n er , i f w e r eplac e u by i au , v by i v, an d tak e

6
( )3 c a
2
,
1c a i sec h a) ,

th e lin ear ele men t of th e sp er e h is

2 z
sint
g
f cosh w du dv .

For th e valu es 6 2
( )we h ave, fr o m
64
( ) P1 P2 : it ’
si n h w
,

cosh w

and th e linear ele m en ts o f th e c or r espon d in g su r faces ar e

de =
2 2 g 2
65
( )
2
( du dv )
* “
a e .
298 W —SU RFA C ES

B u t th e latter cu t th e li nes o f c u r vatur e u c on st v co nst on

d
.
.
,

S, un er th e an gl e a Mor eover th e cor r espo n d in

g pr in ci al rad i i
p
d
.
,

of S an d S, q
ar e e u al a t cor r es on
p ing po i n ts . Hen ce w e ave th e h
follo w i ng t h eo r e m of B o nn et :
A f f con stan t mean cu r vatu r e admi ts an i nfini ty of oppli
su r a ce o

c a ble su rfaces o f the sa me k in d w i th pr eser va tion of the pr i n cipal

r a d i i a t cor r es on di ng oi n ts an d the li n es of c ur va tu r e on on e
p p ,

su rfa ce cor r espon d to li nes on the other w hi ch cu t the li n es of

cu r vatu r e u n d er con stan t ang le .

Weing ar ten h as c on sid er ed th e W—su r fac es w h ose li n es of

c u r vatu r e ar e re
pr esen ted o n th e Sp er e by g eod esi c elli pses h
an d hyp er bol as . h
I n t is c ase th e lin ear ele en t o f th e sp er e m h
is r ed u ci ble to th e for m 9 0)

z
du

C ompar ing t is h w i th w e h av e

fr o m w hich i t follo w s t h at

I
< >

01 — si

and th e r el ati o n betw een th e ra dii i s fou n d , by th e el i m i n ation

o f a) , to be

7
( )2 2 ( P1 — pel
'

Mémoi r e su r théo i e d es su fac s applicabl su u n su face d onnee Jour n al d e

la r r e es r e r
’

I Ecol P olytec Cahi 42 I n thi mem oi B nnet s l ves m

’
e h n i q u e, pp 72 et er q se s r o o co

pl etely t h e p obl em of fi nd i ng applic ab l

. .

r u fac s w ith c e p ond i ng p r i ncipal ad ii eq u l

es r e orr s r a

When a su fac e po sess s an i n fi nity f applic ab l e sur fac e f thi k i nd i ts li n s o f c v

.

r s e o so s ,
e ar

at u e for m an i
r th m l system
so er a .

TD a b ux ( V l III p 3 73) p o ves th at th ese u f c s m y b g ne at d s foll w s

r o o .
, . r s r a e a e e r e a o

L et C an d 0 1 b e tw o c u ves o f c n t an t to si on d i ffe i n g nl y i n sig n Th l c

r o s r o f th e
,
r o . e o us

mi d p oi nts M of th e j oi n of any p oi nt s P an d P 1 o f th es c u r ves i s a s fac of t n l ati n

-
e ur e ra s o .

If a li ne be d r aw n th r o ugh M pa all el to th e i n te secti on o f th e o cul ati ng pl an es f C an d

r r s o

C; at P and P 1 thi s li n e i s nor mal to a W—

, sur fac e of th e ab ove t ype for al l po siti ons of M .
 RU L ED W SU RFA CES
— 29 9

1 26 . Ruled W su rfaces
-
. We c on clu d e th e pr esen t stu dy of

W—su r fac es wi th th e solu ti on o f th e pr o le b m

To d eter min e the W su rfaces w hi ch
-
a r e r u led .

h
T i s pro le w as pr oposed b m
an d sol v e si u lta n eou sl
y by d m
B el tra mi "
and D ini sf We follo w th e et od o f th e latter m h .

In 1 06 , 1 07 w e foun d t h at w h en th e lin ear el e m en t of a

r u led su r fac e is in th e for m

d s = du + [ (u Bfldv
z 2 2 fi
a
) + ,

th e e x pr ession s for th e total an d m ean c ur vatu r es ar e

B “

3
9
w h er e r is a fun c ti on o f v at most , an d

“
r ( u a
) s .

In o rd er t h at a r elatio n ex ist betw een th e pr i n c ipal

n ecessar
y an d suf
fi c i en t t h at th e q
e u ati o n

a
_ fiK h i s w)
av
”

cu cv Bu

be sa tis fied i de n ti c ally . I f th e abo v e valu es be su b ti t

s u te d , th e

r es ul tin
g eq u atio n r ed u c es to
’
2 (u a ) a
) Ba
3

A s t is is h an i dentic al e q u ati on , i t is tr u e w h en u a, in w h ic h
c as e it r ed u c es to 0 . Hence B is a c o n stan t an d th e abo v e

e qu ati o n bec o m es
’ "
: 0
r
(
u Ba .

Sin c e t is h e q u ati o n mu st be tr u e in d epen d e n tly o f th e v al u e o f u ,

bo t h r
’
an d a
”
ar e z er o . T h er efore w e h av e

(7 3) a cv d, B
w h er e c, d, e, k ar e co nstan ts .

Th e li n ear ele m en t is

ds
z
= du + 2
d) +
i 2 2
[( u cv 8
] dv .

*
A n n a li , V ol V II . pp . 1 39 1 50 -
.
t A n nal i , V ol V II . pp . 205 21 0
-
.
3 00 SU RFA C ES WI TH PL A N E L IN ES OF C U RV A T U RE

In o r d er to i n ter pr et t is h r e su l t w e calc u late th e e x pr ession

fo r th e tang en t of th e an
g le w hi ch th e g ener ator s v = c o nst

k
.

m a e w i th th e lin e o f s tr i c ti o n

u
Fr o m ( III , 24) w e h ave

tan 9

con se u en tly th e an
q gle i s co n stan t . C on v ersely, i f 9 an d th e par am
eter o f d istr i bu tio n B be c on stan t, a h as th e for m Hen c e we

h av e th e t h eor e m

A y n ecessar an d su fii c i en t con d i ti on that a r u led f

su r ac e be a

W su rfac e i s that the par ameter

-

f
o d i str ibu ti on be c on stan t an d tha t

the g en er a tor s be i n c li ned a t a con stan t an

g le to th e li n e f
o str i c

ti on , w hi ch c on se u en tl
q y i s a g eod esi c .

EX A MPLES

1 . S h o w th at th e h elic oid s ar e W su r fac es -

.

2 . Fi n d q u ati o n
th e fo r m w h en th e su r fac e is mi ni mal an d sh ow th at
of e ,

each c onfo r m al rep r ese n t ati on o f th e sph er e u p o n th e pl ane d eter m i nes a mi ni mal

su r fac e .

3 Sh ow th at th e t angen ts to th e c u r ves v
. c o nst on a Sph er ic al su r face w ith .

th e li near el emen t ( 1) of ( 6) ar e no r mal to a W— su r fa c e for w hich

P2 P1 C Ot

4 . Th e h elic oid s ar e th e onl y W—su r fac es w hich ar e su ch th at th e c u r ves

c onst meet th e lines of cu r vatu re u nd er c onstan t angl e ( of Ex
. . . 23, p.

5 . Th epto tic li nes o n th e su r fac es of c en ter of a su r face for w hich

asym

p, p c onst c or r esp ond to th e mi ni mal li nes o n th e S pher ic al r ep re en tati on

z . s

of th e su r fac e ; and w h en pl p c onst to a r ectan gu l ar system on th e sph ere

, g .
,
.

12 7 . Sph er i cal r epr esentati on of su r faces w i th plane l in es of

cu r vatur e i n both syste m s . Su r fac es w h ose lin es of c u r v atu r e in

on e or b th
o s
y ste ms ar e p l an e c u r ves av e h b j
een an ob ec t of stu dy

by m any g eo meters . Si n ce th e tang en ts to a lin e o f c u r vatu r e an d

h
to i ts sp er ic al r epr esen tation at c o rr espon d in g poi n ts ar e
par allel,

a p l an e l i n e o f cu r v atu r e i s re
pr esen ted o n th e h
sp er e by a
plane

h
c u r v e, t at is, a c i r c le ; an d con v ersely, a lin e of cu r v atu r e i s plane
w h en i ts s
ph eri c al r epr esen tati on is a c ir cle .
3 02 SU RFA C ES WI TH P L A N E L IN ES OF C U RV A TU RE

si milar to bu t th e ex pr ess on s i for X , Y , Z will be fou nd

to be of a m or e su i table for m i f th e equ ation s of th e fa mili es

of l an es be w r i tten
p

( z

P r oc eedi ng as i n C ase I , we fi nd
2
a sin u

c osh v a cos u

co s h v a cos u

c os i t a c os h v

c os h v a cos u

an d th e li n ear el emen t is
? z 2
z ( 1 a )(d u )dv
( 78) da
(cosh v a
2
c os u
)
Fr om th e pr ec ed i n g d iscu ssion w e ave taci tly ex clu d ed th e sys h
tem of mer i d ian s an d par allels A s befor e, th e plan es o f th e tw o .

famili es o f c i r cl es fo r m pe n c il s, bu t n ow th e a x is o f on e pen cil

passes th r ou
g h th e c en ter o f th e h
sp er e an d th e ot h er is at i n fi ni ty .

Hen c e th i s c ase c or r espon d s to th e v al u e z er o for a i n C ase II . In

fac t, if w e pu t a O in th e r esu lti ng e u atio n s defi n e q h
a Sp er e

r eferr e to a systed m
o f m er i di an s an d par allel s, n amel
y
sin u si n h v

c os h v c os h v

Sin ce th e plan es of th e lin es o f cu r vatu r e o n a su r face ar e

par allel
h
to th e plan es of t eir sp er i c al i ag es, th e c u r ves v h m . c on st . on a

su r face wi th th e re
p r esentati on 7
( )9 l i e i n par al lel plan es, an d th e

pl an es o f th e c u r v es u con st en v el op a c yli n d er
. T ese su r faces . h
ar e c alled th e mold ing f
su r a cesfi '
e
We sh all c on si d er th m l
e ater .

1 28 . Su r faces w ith pl ane l ines of cur vatu r e i n both syste m s .

By a su i ta bl e c h o ic e of c obr d i n ate a x es an d par ameter s th e

ex pr essi ons for th e d ir ection -

cosi n es of th e n or mal to a su r fac e

w ith plan e l in es o f c u r vatu r e i n bo t h syste ms c an be g iv en on e

it
h
T ese su r fa es w er e c fi rs t stud i ed b y Monge ,
Appli cation d e L A nal yse it l a Geome
’

tr i e, 17 . Par is ,
1849 .
 IN BOTH S Y STEM S 3 03

of th e for m s ( 75 ) or For th e co mplete d ete r min ati on o f all

sur faces o f h
t is k in d i t re m ain s t h en fo r us to fin d th e e x pres
h
’

si o n fo r th e o th er tan g en tial c oor di n ate i s, th e di stan c e

’

Il , t at

fr o m th e or i
g i n to th e ta ng en t p lan e . Th e li n ear ele men t of

th e h
sp ere in bo t h cases is of th e for m
2 ’
du + dv
3
2
l
w h er e X is su c h th at

8
( )0

Fr om ( V I 3 9) w, e see h
t at th e q
e u atio n satis fie d by W is
Elog X 69 Blog X 89
2

29
+ +
i n 80 iv Eu 811 9c

In q
c ons e u en ce of if we c h an
g e k
th e u n n o wn fun c t ion i n

ac c o r d an ce wi th 9 , = X 9, th e q
e u ati o n in 9, is of th e for m
H en ce th e most g en eral v al u e for W is

w h er e U and V ar e ar bi trar
y fun c ti o n s o f u an d v re spec tiv ely .

Hence an y su r face w i th plan e lines of c u r v atur e i n bo t syste h m s

i s th e en v elope o f a fa mily of plan es w h ose q

e u a t io n is of th e f mor

81
( )
or

8 2 Vl — z
sin u r —V l
( )
'

Th e e x pr essi ons fo r t h e C ar tesian coo rd in ates o f th ese s u r fac es

c an be fo u n d w it h out q u ad ratur e by th e m et h ods o f § 67 T h us,

z
.

fo r th e su r fac e en v elo pe o f 8
( )1 w e h av e to sol v e for y
r, , e q
ua

tion ( 8 1 ) an d i ts deri vati v es wi th r es e c t

p to u an d v . Th e latter are

8
( )3 ‘

9 :u z U
’
, y v2 V
’
,

w h er e th e ac cen ts i nd i c ate di ffer en tiation W e sh all n o t c ar r

y ou t

k
.

h
t is solu tio n , bu t re m ar t h at as eac h of t h ese e qu ati ons c o n tai n s

a sin
g le pa ra mete r t h e
y d efin e th e plan es of th e li nes o f c u r v atu r e .
3 04 SU RFA CES WI TH PL A N E L IN ES OF C U RV A T U RE

Fr o m th e for m of 8
( )3 i t i s seen p l h
an es i n eac
t sat
ys t h ese h
tem en v elo p a y l i n d er ,
c h
an d t at th e ax es o f t ese tw o c lin
y h
d er s ar e er en d ic ular
p p h
T is fact w as r emar k e by D ar bo ux , d
d dfi d
.

w ho also o bser v e h
t at e u ati o n
q 8
( )1 e nes th e ra ical plan e
of th e tw h
o sp er es

3 2 2 2
1 + y+ z +2 ux ( + u
%) z 2 U,
2 2 z — 2
x +y + z 2 vy (v %)z 2V .

Th ese ar e th e e q u ation s of tw o
p on e -
ar ameter famili es h
of sp er es,

wh ose c en ter s li e on th e focal par abolas

n, yl o, 2
1
as
_i
)
1 2

f
$

i
,

( 85 )
1 1

_
hw
,
o y2
v’ '

an d w h ose ra d ii ar e d eter min ed by th e ar bi tr ar

y fu n c ti on s U and V .

The c h ar ac ter i stics of eac h family ar e d efi n ed by i ts e u ati on and q

th e c or r espon d in g e u ati o n q o f th e
pair C o nse u en tl
y th e or ig q
i n al su r face is th e loc u s of th e po in t of i nter sec tio n of th e plan es
of ht h
ese c ar acter i sti cs an d th e r adi c al
plan es of th e h
sp er es .

Si m il ar r esu l ts follo w for th e equ atio n w h ic h defi n es th e

r ad ic al
p lan es of tw o fa ili es m o f sp er es h w h ose c en ter s ar e on th e
focal ellipse and yper bola h
— 2
si n u , = 0, z1
a
y,
x
,
= 0, y2 =
% V1 — a
z
si n h v, z 2

Wh en i n partic u lar a 0, t h ese c u r v es o f c en ter ar e a c i r cle an d

i ts a x is .

Fro m th e for eg oing r esu l ts i t follo w s t h at th ese su r fac es may be

g en er ated by th e follo w in g g eo metr ic al m et h od d u e to D ar bo u x

Ever y su r ace w i th
f p l f
a n e li n es o c u r va tu r e i n tw o systems ca n be

obtai n ed fr om tw o sing ly i nfin i te fami li es of s h er es w hose cen ter s lie

p
on f oca l con i cs a n d w hose r a dii var a ccor d i n to an a r bi tr ar
y law
y g .

The su rfa ce i s the en velope of the r a d i ca l plan e of tw o spher es S and 2 ,

belongi ng to tw o d ifier en t fa mi li es If on e associ ate w i th S and 2 tw o .

i nfi ni tely n ear
p h er es S an d
s th ’
f
e r a d i ca l cen ter o th ese fou r
’
s
ph er es d escr i bes the su rfa ce an d the r a d i cal plan es of S and S an d
’
f 2 and 2 ar e the plan es
o o f the li n es f cu r vatu r e
o .

V ol 1 ,
. p . 132 .
 3 06 SU RFA C ES WI TH P LA N E L IN ES OF CU RV A T U RE

w h er e 7 d en otes th e ra d iu s of tor si on of C . If w e c h an
g e th e

par am eter of C in ac co r d an ce w i th th e e q u ation

( 7)
8

th e above e u ati on s q b ec ome

do
C o,
d v,

Th e g en er al i n teg r al o f th ese e u ation s q is

88 U, U, si n v :
C U, si n v
( ) 17 cos v,
,, , + U, cos v

w h er e U, an d U, ar e fu n c ti on s of th e par am eter u of
poin ts of F .

Wh en v 0 w e h av e v, = 0, an d so th e c u r ve I‘
i n th e plan e t r ou
g h h
th e poi n t v 0 of C h as t h e
’
e q u ati o n s 1
) U, , :
C U, . Hen c e th e
c h ar a c ter of th e fu n ction s U, an d U, is d eter m i n e d by th e for m of

th e c u r ve ; an d c o n v er sel
y,th e fu n c tion s U, an d U, d eter mi n e th e
c h ar acter o f th e c u r ve .

By d efi n i tio n 8
( )7 th e fu n c ti on v
,
measu r es th e an
g le sw ept
o u t i n th e plan e n or mal to C by th e bi n or mal of th e latter , as h
t is

pl an e m o ves fr o m v 0 to an
y o t er po i n t H en ce e h . q u ation s
( 88)
d efi n e th e same c u r ve, i n t is m ov i n g plan e, for eac h h v alu e o f v
,,

bu t i t i s d efi n ed w i th r es
pec t to a x es w h i c h h av e r o tated t h r ou
g h
th e an l
g e v
,
. Hen ce we h ave th e t h eo r e m
A ny f
su r a ce w hose li n es of cu r va tu r e in on e s
y ste g m
eod esi c s
ar e

can be g en er a ted by a plan e cu r ve w h ose plan e r olls, w i thou t sli

pp i ng ,

over a d evelo a ble su rfa ce

p .

T h ese su r fac es ar e c alled th e f

su r a c es o f Mong e by w h o m th ey ,

w er e fi r st stu d ied He pr o po sed th e .

pr o blem o f fi n d in
g a s u r face

w ith on e sh eet o f th e evolu te a d ev elopable . It is ev i d en t t h at th e

above su r faces satisfy h

t is co n d i ti on . Mor eover , t h ey fur n is h th e
o n ly sol u tion . For , th e tang en ts to a d evelo pable alon
g an ele

m en tli e i n th e plan e tan gen t alon g t is elemen t, h an d i f t h ese

m
tan g en ts ar e n or als to a su r fac e, th e latter is c u t n or mally by

h
t is pl an e, an d con se u en tl q y th e c u r v e of i n ter sec tion i s a lin e o f
d
,

c u r vatu r e . I n par ti cu lar , a mol ing sur fac e 1 2 7) is a su r face

of Mong e w i th a cylin dr ical d ir ec tor developable -

.

Si nc e e ver y cu r v e i n th e mo vi n g plan e o f th e l i n es o f c u rv a
tu r e g en er ates a su r face o f Mon e, a str aig t li n e i n t is plan e
g h h
 MOL D IN G SU RFA C ES 3 07

g en er ates a d ev elopable su r fac e of Mong e . Fo r , all th e n or mal s

to th e su r face alon
g a
g e n er a to r li e i n a
plan e Hen c e
tha t
‘
A n ecessar y a n d su
filci en t
‘
con d i tion a cu r ve I in a
plane

n or mal to a cu r ve C at a
p oi n t Q g en er a te a s ur face of Mang e as

the p lan e moves, re ma i ni ng n or ma l to the cu r ve, i s tha t the li ne

j oi n i ng f I d evelopable
‘
a oin t o to Q g en er ate a
p .

1 30 . Molding su r faces . W h en th e or t h o
g o n al tr a j ec tor y C is a

d c u l ar
‘

plan e c u r v e, th e plan es of th e c u r ves I ar e er

p p e n i to th e
'

pl an e of C, an d c on se q u en tl
y th e d i r ec tor d ev el opable i s -
a c l
y n d er
i
w h ose ri
g h t sec tion i s th e plan e ev olute o f C Th e . su r fac e i s a

moldi ng su r face an d all th e li n es o f c u rv atu r e of th e sec

on d s
y ste m ar e
plan e c u r ves, — in v ol u tes of th e r ig ht sec ti on of

th e c
yl i n der . Hen ce a mo ld i ng s ur fac e m ay be g ener ated by a
plan e c u r ve w h ose plan e r o lls w h
i t o u t slippin g o v e r a c yl in d er .

We s h all appl
y th e
pr ece d in
g fo r m u las to t is
par ti c u lar h c ase .

Si n ce is e q u al to z er o i t foll o w s fr o m ( 88 ) t h at 77 an d C ar e

k
,

fu n c tions o f i t alon e . If u be ta en as a measu r e of th e ar e o f th e

c ur v e F, w e h av e, in all
g en er al i t ,
y

n = U, -
U d a,

w h ere th e fu n c tion U d ete r mi n es th e for m of F If we ta k e th e

z
.

plan e o f th e c u r v e C fo r 0, an d x
y0 d
0,
e n o te th e cobr d in ates

of a poin t o f C, th e e u ati o n s of th e q su rfac e m a

y be w r i tten

x = + U cos v, = y0 + U si n —U " d u
s
ro
y v, ,

w h er e v den otes th e an gle w h i c h th e pr in c ipal n o r m al to C ma k es w i th

th e :
r ax i s
-
Sin c e d o;
.

0
cos v,
d s0 0

if V d en o te th e ra di us o f c u r v atu re o f C, t h en ( i s) : V d v, an d th e
q
e u atio ns o f th e su r fac e c an be pu t i n th e follo w in g fo rm , g i v en by
D ar bo u x
x U c os v V si u v d v,

: U si n I d v,
'

v
y c os v

V ol I,
. p . 1 05 .
3 08 SU RFA C ES WI TH P L AN E L IN ES OF C U RV A TU RE

Th e q
e u ation s o f th e ri
gh t sec ti o n o f th e c
yli n der ar e

’
V cos v d v,

= y0 + V sin v V ’
s in v dv
y .

k
In passin g , w e r emar t at su r faces of r ev ol u ti on ar e h
old i ng su r m
h
faces, w ose d ir ec tor c ylind er is a lin e ; t is c or r espon s to th e
-
h d
c ase V = 0 .

EX A MPLES

1 . Wh en pher ic al r ep r esen tati on o f th e li nes of cu r vatu r e of a su r face is

th e s
i soth er mal and th e c u r ves i n on e famil y on th e sph er e ar e ci r cl es th e cu r ves i n th e ,

o th er famil y al so ar e ci r cl es .

2 I f th e li nes o f c u r va tu r e i n on e system o n a mi n i mal su r fac e ar e pl ane th ose

.
,

i n th e o th er system al so are pl ane .

3 Sh ow th a t th e su r fac e
.

a: au si n u cosh v y v a cos u si nh v
, z v 1 a c c s u cosh v ,
2
,

is mi n i mal and th at i ts li n es of c u r vatu re ar e pl an e F i n d th e sph er ic a l r ep r esen ta

.

ti on o f these cu r ves and d eter mi ne th e for m of th e c ur ves .

4 Sh ow th at th e su r fa c e o f Ex 3 and th e Enneper su r fac e ( Ex

. . 18 p 2 09) a r e .
,
.

th e on l y mi n i mal su r fac es w ith pl an e li nes o f c u r vature .

5 W h en th e li n es of c u r vatu r e i n o ne system li e i n p ar all el pl anes th e su rfac e

.
,

i s of th e moldi ng typ e .

6 A nec essary and suffi ci en t c onditi on th at th e li nes of cu r vatu r e i n o n e system

.

o n a su r fa c e b e r ep resen t ed o n th e u n it sph er e b y g r eat ci r cl es is th at i t b e a su r

face of Monge .

7 D er i ve th e ex p ressi o ns for th e p o i n t c oor di n at es of a moldi ng sur fa c e b y th e

.

meth od o f 6 7 .

1 31 . Su r faces of Joach i m sth al . A n ot h er i n ter esting c lass of

su r fac es w i th pl an e li nes o f c u r vatu r e i n o n e s s tem ar e t ose fo r

y h
w h i ch all th e pl an es
p ass t r o u
g a sh tr ai g t h
li n e L et o n e o f t ehse h
d
.

li n es by I , an d o n e o f th e o t er system
o f c u r v atu r e be en o ted
‘
h
by C Th e d evelopable en velo pi ng th e su r face alon g th e latter h as
.

for i ts el emen ts th e tangen ts to th e c u r ves I at t eir po in ts o f

‘
h
in tersecti on w ith C . Si n c e t h ese ele m en ts lie in th e plan es o f th e
c u r ves F, th e d evelopable is a co n e w ith i ts v er tex o n th e li n e D ,
’

th r ou
g h w h i h pl ances p all
ass Tt i h
s co n
ese e i s tan
g en t to th e . h
su r fac e al ong C, an d i ts elem en ts ar e o r t o on al to th e latter
g C on h .

q
se u en tl
y C i s th e i n ter sec ti on o f th e su r fac e and a s
p er e w i t h h
31 0 SU RFA C ES WI TH PLA N E L IN ES OF C U RV ATU RE

Wh en V is co nstan t 9 is a fu n c tion of u al on e, an d th e su r fac e

is o n e of r ev ol u tion . For ot h er for m s of V th e g eo metr i c al g en er a

ti on of th e s u r faces i s g i ven by th e t h e or e m:

Gi ven the or thog on al tr aj ector i es f

o a fami ly of ci r cles w hose ce m
ter s li e on a r i ht lin e B ; if they be r ota ted a bou t 1) thr oug h d if
g
fer ent an gles, a ccor d in
g to a g i ven law , th e locu s f
o the cu r ves is a

f
su r a ce o f Joachi msthal .

1 32 . Su r faces w i th ci r cu lar l i nes of cu rv atu r e . We c onsi d er

ne xt su r faces w h ose lin es o f c u r v atu r e in o ne s ste

y m ar e c ir c les .

L et 0
'

d en ote th e g le betw een th e

con stan t an
pl an e o f th e c i r cle

C an d th e tan gen t plan es to th e su r face alon g C ( c f p th e .

r ad i u s o f n or mal c u r v at u r e i n th e d i r ec ti o n o f C, an d r th e r ad i u s

of th e latter . Now e q u ati on

( IV , 1 7) ma
y be w r i tten
91
( ) r
p sin a .

As an i mmed iate conse u en c e w e q h av e th e t h eor em

A n ecessa r y a n d su fii ci en t con d i tion tha t a

p lan e li ne f cu r va tu r e
o

be a ci r cle i s tha t the n or ma l c u r va tu r e o f th e su rfac e i n i ts di r ecti on

be the sa me a t a ll o f i ts poi n ts .

Sin c e th e n or m als to th e su r fac e al on

g C ar e i n cli ned to i ts plan e
un d er c o n stan t an g l e, t h e
y for m a ri
g h t c ir cu lar co n e w h ose ver tex
is on th e a x is of C . Mor eover , th e c o n e c u ts th e s ur face at r ig ht
ang les, an d c o n se u en tly q th e h
Sp er e o f r ad i u s p and cen ter at th e
v er te x of th e c on e i s tang en t to th e su r face alo n g C . H enc e th e
su r fac e i s th e en v el ope o f a fam ily o f sp h er es o f v ar iable o r co n

stan t r a d iu s, w h ose cen ter s li e o n a c u r v e.

C o n v er sely, w e h ave see n in § 29 t h at th e c h ar ac ter i sti cs of

th e fami ly o f sp er es h
2 2 2
= Rfl
( X x
> (
+ Y y> + ( Z z
>
w h er e x y , ,
z ar e th e coo r d i n ates o f a c u r ve e x pr essed i n ter ms of i ts
ar c , an d R i s a fu n c ti on of th e sa me par am eter , ar e c i r cles o f r ad i us

y
e
92
( ) r R (1 R ,

w h ose ax es ar e tang en t to th e c u r v e o f cen ter s an d w h ose cen ter s

h av e th e c oor d in ates

9
( )3 a: a RR ’
, y, y BRR
’
, z t '
,
 C I RC U L A R L IN ES O F C U RV A TU RE 31 1

w her e a, B , 7 ar e th e dir ec ti o n -
c o si n es o f th e a x is , an d th e accen t

i n d ic ates differ en tiation . Th e n o r m als to th e en v elo

pe alo n
g a

c h ar ac te r isti c for m a co n e, and c on se u en tly q t h ese c ir cles ar e lin es

o f c u r vatur e u po n it. Hen ce

A necessa r y a n d su filci ent con d i t on i tha t the l in es o f c ur va tu r e in

fami ly be ci r c les i s
e tha t the su r a ce f be the en velo
p e o f a si ng le

i nfin i ty of spher es the , loc us of w hose center s is a cu r ve, the r ad i i

being d eter min ed by an a r bitr a r

y law .

Fr o m q e u ati on s 9
( )1 9
( )2 i t foll ows t h at R ’
cos H en c e th e
c i r cl es are g eo d esi cs o n l
y w h en R is c onstan t, th at is , fo r can al

sur fac es I n t is h c as e, as is seen fr o m all th e c ir cles

are e u al q
kw
.

Th e c ir cl es ar e li e is e of e q u al r ad i us a w h en
s“
R = 2
( s c
)
2
+ a ,

w h er e s is th e ar c o f th e c u r v e o f cen te rs an d c is a c on stan t o f

i n tegr ati o n . Now q

e u ation s 9
( )3 be c o me

= 2 : y1 = y

w hi c h ar e th e q
e u ati o n s also o f an in v olu te of th e c u r v e o f c en ters

T is h r esu l t may be stated t ush "

If a str i ng be u n w ou n d fr om a c ur ve in su ch a w ay tha t i ts movi ng

ex tr emi ty M g en er a tes an i n volu te of the cu r ve, a n d if at M a c ir c le

be c onstr u c te d w hose cen ter is M an d w hose

p la n e i s n or ma l to the

str i ng , then as the str i ng is u n w ou n d this cir cle g en er a tes a s urfa ce

w i th a fami ly of e
q ua l c ir c les fo r lin es f
o cu r va tu r e .

Th e lo c u s of th e c en te rs o f th e h
Sp er es en v elo ped by a su r fac e i s
e v id en tl
y on e s h eet o f th e evol u te of th e sur fac e, an d th e r adi u s

of th e sp er e h i s th e r adi us o f n or m al c ur v atu r e i n th e d ir ec tion

o f th e c i r c le . C onse q u en tl y h
t is r ad i u s is a fu n c tio n of th e

par a meter o f th e sp er es C on v ersely, fr o h . m § 75 , w e h av e th at

h
w en S, i s a cur ve H, = 0, an d conse u ently q
(PI P2 )

1 Cf B . ianchi ,
V o l 11 ,
. p . 272
31 2 SU RFA C ES WI TH PL A N E L IN ES OF C U RV A T U RE

Ex clu d ing th e c ase of th e h

Sp er e, w e h ave h
t at p, i s a fu n c tion of

u alon e . Fr om th e for mu las of Rod r ig ues (I V ,

P2
9X p,
2
9 be
av av av av

w e h ave , by i n teg r ati on ,

:=
c
y
=—
s + U2 ’ _P Z + U 2 s
'

H ence th e poi n ts of th e su r fac e lie on th e sp er esh

Ua) = Pfs
2 2
(x U2 ) + (Z -

an d th e h
sp er es ar e tang en t to th e su r face .

Sin ce th e n or m als to a su r fac e alon

g a ci r c u lar lin e o f c u r vatu r e

for m a c one o f r evolu tio n , th e sec on d s h eet o f th e ev olu te i s th e

e n velo
pe of a fa m ily o f su c h c o n es . Th e c h ar ac ter isti c s o f su c h a

family ar e con i cs . H en c e w e h av e th e t h eor e m

A n ecessa r y an d su fiici en t con d i ti on tha t on e sh eet o f the evolu te o f
f
a su r a ce be a cu r ve i s tha t the su rface be the en velope of a sing le infin i ty

f spher es ;
o the secon d foc a l sheet i s the loc u s o
f f
a am i ly f
o c on i c s .

133 Cyclides of Du pi n Fr om th e pr ecedi ng t eor em i t r esults

. . h
h h
t at i f also th e sec on d s eet o f th e evo lu te o f a su r fac e be a cu r ve,
i t is a con i c, an d t h en th e fi r st sh eet also i s a c onic Mor eover t h ese

d d
.
,

c o n i c s ar e so l
p ace t at th e co ne for h m e by j o in i n
g any poi n t on

o n e con i c to all th e poi nts o f th e o t h er is a co n e o f r evol u tion .

A pair of foc al con i c s is c h ar ac ter i ed z h

by t is pr oper ty . A nd so

we h av e th e t h eor e m
A n ecessa r y an d su fli ci en t con di ti on tha t the lin es f
o cu r va tu r e in
both fa mi li es be i
c r c es l i s tha t the sheets o f the evolu te be a
p ai r o f
f oc a l con i csfi
‘

T h ese su r fac es ar e c alled th e c

y li d es
c of D upin . T h y e ar e th e
en v el opes o f tw o on e -

par a meter m
fa ilies o f sp er es, h an d all su c h
en velopes ar e cyclid es o f D u pin . A h
Sp er e o f o n e fa m ily t ou ch es

eac h ph s er e o f t h e o t h er family . C o n se q u en tly th e sp h er es o f w hi h c

th e c
y c li d e i s th e en velope ar e tang ent to t h r ee Sp er es. h
We sh all pro ve th e con v er se th eor e m of D u pin ] L

The en velo
p e o f a f mi ly of spher es
a ta ng en t to thr ee fix ed s
ph er es

is a c
ycli d e .

C f Ex
. . 19, p . 188 .

TAppli ca ti on s d e g eometr i c et d e m é ch a n i q u e, pp . 200 210 -

. Par is,
1 8 22 .
3 14 SU RFA C ES WI TH P L A N E L IN ES OF C U RV A TU RE

Hen ce i f P be a
po i n t on th e c i r cl e an d 9 d en o te th e an
g le w h ic h
th e r ad i u s to P ma k es w i th th e po si ti v e d ir ec ti on of th e n or mal to
th e par abola th e c oor d in ates o f P ar e

:
“
p
c = cos 9, si u 9, z
y p

T is h su r fac e is al
g eb r ai c an d o f th e t ir d h or d er .

Ifth e evolu te c u r ves ar e th e foc al ellipse an d h yp er bola we h av e

cos n + 1e
) , R, =
é
— cosh
(
~
v — x
),

wh er e it is an arbi tr ar y con stan t w h ose v ar iation g i ves par allel su r faces .

h
T is c ycli de of D u pi n i s o f th e fo u r t hd eg r ee . Wh en i n par ti c u l ar
th e co n stan t a is z er o, th e su r face i s th e or d in ar y tor e, o r h
an c o r r i n
g
*
.

1 34 . Su r faces w ith sph er i cal l i n es of cu r vatu r e in one syste m .

Sur faces w i th c ir c u lar li n es of c u r vatu r e in o n e syste m bel o n g evi

d en tly to th e g en er al cl ass of s u r fac es w i th h

Sp er i c al li n es o f c u r va
tu r e i n on e syste m We c o n si d er n o w su r faces of th e l atter k in d
d
. .

L et S be su c h a su r face r efer r e to i ts lin es o f c u r vatu r e , an d

i n par tic u lar let th e li n es v con st . be Sp h er i c al . Th e c oor din ates

o f th e c en ter s o f th e sp er es h as w ell as th i e r r ad ii ar e fu n c tio n s of

v alo n e
'

. T h ey w ill be d en o ted by ( V, , V, , an d R By Joach i ms

.

th al
’
s t h eore m 5 9) eac sp er e c u ts th e h h su r fac e u n d er th e same

an gle a t all i ts poi n ts H en c e for th e family o f sp er es th e

. h ex p r es

si on for th e ang le i s a fu n cti o n o f v alo n e ; w e c all i t V .

Sin ce th e d ir ec tio n -
c o si n es o f th e tan g en t to a c u r ve u = c o n st ar e.

1 9X 1 9Y 1 EZ
V ? dv V? bv V3 do

w h en th e lin ear el emen t o f th e s

ph er ic al r epr esen tatio n is w r i tten
d 0 = 5 du + 5 d v th e for m
2
ar e o f
2 2
, th e c o br d in ates o f S

x =V
R sin V 9X
V? 811
+X R co s V,

c os V,

z =V + + ZR c os V .
3

For o th g e m t ic l c nst cti on f th e y lid

er o e r a o ru s o c c es o f D u pi n t h e r ea d er is r efer r e d
to t h e ar ticl e i n th En yk lopii d i e d er Math Wi ss n ch
e c . e s a ften , V o l I II, 3 ,
. p 290
. .
 SP HERI CAL L IN ES OF C U RV A T U RE 315

By ypo th h esis X ,
YZ , ar e th e di r ec ti on—
c osin es of th e n or m al to S ;

con se q u en tly w e m u st h a ve

If th e v al u es o f th e d er i v ati v es o b ta in ed fr om ( 97) be r ed u ced by

means of V
( , an d th e r esu lts su bsti tu ted i n th e abo v e e u a q
ti on s, th e fi rst v anis h es id en ti cally an d th e sec o n d r ed u c es to

’
R R sin
’
9
( )8 X V,
’
Y V,
’
Z V, ( cos V) 0,

w h er e th e pr imes i n d i c ate differ en tia ti o n w it h respec t to v . C on

v ers ely, w h en this c o ndi tio n is sati s fied , e q u ati ons 9
( )7 d e fine a

sur fac e o n w hi c h th e c ur ves v c ons t ar e . s ph e r i cal . Hen c e

A n ecessa r y a n d su fii ci en t c on d iti on tha t the c ur ves v con st o .
f an
h
or t o o na l s ste
g y m on the uni t s
ph er e
pre r esent s
ph er i ca l li n es f c ur
o

_
'

is tha t of v, n a mel
va l u r e u
p on a su r ace f fi ve fu n cti ons y , V V, , V,, ,

R, V, ca n be fou n d w hi ch sa ti s fy the cor r es

p on d i ng e u a ti o n
q

We n o te th at V, , V, , V, , an d R cos V ar ed eter mi n ed by ( 98 )
o nly to wi th i n ad di ti ve c onstan ts A c h .
g h
an e o f t ese co ns ta n ts

for th e fi rst th r ee g i ves a tr anslati on of th e s u r fac e . If R c os V be

in c r eased by a c o n stan t, w e h av e a n ew sur fac e p a r all el to th e
ot h er o ne . H en c e "

If the li n es f
o cu r va tu r e
y m upon a su rfa ce be sph er i cal,
in one s ste

th e same i s tr u e f the co r r es on d in s stem on ea ch ll l u f

o
p g y pa r a e s r a ce .

Sin c e q
e u ati o n 9
( )8 i s h o mog en eo u s i n th e q u an ti ti e s

(R c os R si n V th e latter ar e d e term in ed onl y to w i th in a fac to r

,

w h ic h may be a fu n c tio n o f v Th is functi o n may be c h osen so .

th at all th e s
php er es ass th ro u
g h a po i n t . Fr om t h ese resu lts w e

h av e th e h
t eo r e m o f D obr i n er -

j
Wi th ea c h
fa ce w i th spher i cal lin es qf cu r vatur e in on e system
su r

ther e is a ssociated a n i nfi n i t f on a r a llel su r a ces of the same

y o n
p f
kind w i th the sa me s h er i ca l r e r esen ta ti on o these li n es of c u r va tu r e
p p f .

A mong these su rfa ces ther e i s a t lea st on e

fo r w hi c h a ll th e s her es
p
pass thr oug h a poin t . At co r r es
p on d ing
p f oi nts o the loci o
f the cen

ter s of spher es of tw o su r fa ces of the fa mi l the tang en ts ar e pa r allel

y .

Cf B . ianchi , V o l 11 ,
. p . 303 .
t C relle, v oi x c i .
v
pp . 1 18,
316 SU RFA C ES WI T H P L A N E L IN ES OF C U RV A TU RE

If th e v al u es of c, :y z , fr o m ( 9 7) be su bsti tu te d i n th e for m u las

of Rodr ig u es ( IV ,

99
32:
cu

an d si mi la ly f r or
y an d z , we o bt ain by mean s of V
( ,

=R cos
p1
-

'
(R si n V ) 1
pz — R c os V+ +
3 2
C on ver sely, w h en for a su r face r efer r e d to i ts lin es o f cu r vatu r e

th e pr i ncipal ra d iu s p1 i s of the for m

—
avg
P1
: ¢2 ( ) U
1
w h er e (I) , and I
( )
,
ar e an
y fu nc ti ons w hatev er o f v, th e c u r v es

v c o nst . ar e sp er i cal h . For , by (V ,

a 1 1 ax /
s Ear
cu J; c g av an
‘

C on sequ ently, fr o m th e fi r st of in w h ic h p1 i s
g i ven th e abo v e

v alu e, w e o bt ai n by i ntegr ati o n

1 8X
av

w h er e VI i s a fu n c ti on o f v alo n e. Si milar r esu l ts follo w fo r y an d 2 .

As t h ese e x pr ession s ar e of th e for m we h av e th e t eor em :

h
A n ecessa r y an d sufii ci en t con di ti on tha t the lin es o f cu r va tur e

v = con st be spher i ca l i s that pl be of the for m

.

EX AMPLES

1 . If th e li nes of cu rvatu re in t
o n e sys e m ar e pl ane and one is a ci r cl e , all

are ci r cl es .

2 W h en th e li nes o f c u r va tur e i n one fam il y on a su rfac e are ci r cl es th ei r

.
,

sph er ic al i mages ar e ci r cl es w h ose sph er ic al c en ters c onstitu te th e sph er ic al i ndi

c a tr ix o f th e t angen ts to th e c u r ve o f c en ter s o f th e sph er es w hich are en vel op ed

b y th e gi ven su r fa c e Sh ow al so th at ea ch one p ar ameter system o f ci r cl es o n th e

.
-

u n it sph ere r ep r ese n ts th e ci r c u l ar li nes of c u r vat u r e o n an i nfi n ity o f su rfac es ,

fo r o n e o f w hich th e ci r c les are e qual .

31 8 W—SU RFA CES
3 . Wh en
li near el emen ts of a d evel op abl e sur fac e
th e ,
a s ph er ic al su rfa e, and c
a p se ud osph er ic al su r fac e a r e i n th e r esp ecti ve fo r m s

d s2 duz u 2 d v2 , (18 2 z a2 ( d a2 si nz u d vfi) ,

d s2 a2 ( d u 2 si i i h Q u d v2),

th e fi n i te eq u ati ons o f th e geod esic s ar e r especti vel y

Au cos v + B u si n v + 0 : 0 , A tan u c os v + B tan u si n v
A tanh u cos v + B tanh u si n v + 0 : 0,

w h ere A C ar e c onstan ts ; if th e c oeffi ci en ts of A and B are in any c ase equ ated

,
B,
to re an d y th e r esu lti ng eq u ati on s d efi ne a c o r resp on d en c e b et w een th e su r fac e and
,

th e pl an e su ch th a t geod esic s on th e fo r mer c o r r esp o nd to st r aight li nes o n th e l a tt er .

F i nd th e ex pr essi on for each li near el emen t i n ter ms of a:an d y as p ar ameters .

4 Each sur fac e o f c en ter o f a p seu d osph er ic al su r fac e is applic abl e to th e c atenoid
. .

5 Th e asympto tic li nes on th e su r fac es o f c en ter o f a su rfa ce of c on st an t mean

.

c u r va tu r e c or resp ond to th e mi n i mal li nes on th e l atter .

6 Su r fac es o f c onst an t m ean cu r va tu r e are ch ar acter i z ed b y th e p r op er ty th a t

if u c onst 1) c onst ar e th e mi ni mal c u r ves then D is a functi on of i t al one
.
,
.
,

an d D o f v al one
”
.

7 Equ ati on ( 2 3) ad m its th e so l u ti on

. 0 i n w hich c ase th e su r fa c e d egen to
,

c r ates i n to a c u r ve Sh ow th at th e general i nteg r al o f th e c or r espondi ng eq uatio ns

.

11 v c os a

( 3 5) is tan Ce 8 m" tak e fo r S th e li ne a: 0 y 0 z ,

z
, an and d er i ve
th e equ a tions
t r ansfor ms of S ;
of th e su r fac es sh o w th at th e l a tter ar e of D i ni

o r a p seu d osph ere

( Ex 6 .
,
.

8 Sh o w th at th e B ack l u n d t r ansfo r ms o f th e su r fa c es o f D i n i and o f th e p seud o

.

sph ere c an b e fo u n d w ith ou t i n teg r ati on an d th a t if th e p seu d osph er e b e t r ans ,

fo r med b y th e t r ansfor mati on of B i an chi th e r esu lti ng su r fa c e may b e d efi n ed b y ,

2 a c osh u 2 a c osh u

cosh 2 u v2 cosh 2 u v2

S h o w th at th e li nes o f c u r vatu r e v c onst lie i n pl anes th r ough th e z ax is .

-
.

9 T h e t ange n ts to a fam il y o f geo d esic s o f th e elliptic o r h yp er b olic typ e o n a

.

p se u d osph er ic al su r face ar e nor mal to a W sur face th e r el ati ons b et w een th e r adii -

a r e r esp e cti vel y p c

p, 0 l
P1 P2 a t an h P1 P2 a c o th
a a

w h ere a and c are c on stan ts (of .

1 0 Sh ow th at th e l i near el emen ts o f th e sec ond su r fa c es of c en ter

. of th e

IV—su r fac es of Ex 9 are r ed u cibl e to th e r especti ve for ms

.

it u u u
( 13
2
ta h
n 4 d u l sech 2 d v2 ( 13
2
c o th 4 d
‘
u2 c sch 2 d v 2
2 2
5 a ,
6 a ,

an d th at c onse qu en tl y th ese su r fac es ar e applic abl e to su r fa c es of r evo u l ti on

w h o se mer idi ans ar e d efi ned b y

a
_ —
‘

x fabt z i ‘
-
l

(
0.
z a log tan -
cos
2

w h er e x d eno tes a c onstant .

 GENERAL EX A MP L ES 319

11 .
te r mi ne th e par ticu l ar
De fo r m of li ne ar el emen t
th e a nd th e na ure t
o f th e c u r ves u pon th e su r fa ce to w hi ch th e asympto tic li n es on th e s ee s o f h t
th e evo l u te co r r espo nd w h en ,

P1 1 1
( )
a const ( b) co ns t
m
.

p, p,

12 . When a W su r fa ce is of th e type
- th e su r fa es of c cen ter are a pplicabl e
to one th er and to an i maginar y par abo l o id of re vo lu tion
an o .

1 3 W h en a W sur fac e is o f th e type ( 72 ) and th e li near el eme n t o f th e sph ere

.
-

h as th e for m ( V I th e cur ve
,
s u v co ns t and u v co nst on th e spher ica l . .

re p rese n ta ti o n are geod esic pa r a ll el s w h ose o r th ogon a l tr a j ecto r i es co r respo nd to

th e asympto tic l i n es o n th e su r fac es of ce n ter ; h en ce on ea c h sh ee t there is a fami ly

o f geod esics su ch tha t th e ta nge n ts at th eir po in ts of mee ti n g w i th an asympto tic

li ne are parallel to a pl an e w hich var i es in general w ith th e asympto tic li ne

,
.

1 4 Show th at th e equ ati ons

.

a
s : a U cos z +
a s in 3 d
a
m y z aU s m —
f V c os Pdv
-

a
,

w here a d eno tes an ar bi tra r y co nstan t d efi ne a famil y o fappli cabl e moldin g sur faces
,
.

1 5 Wh en th e li ne
. s o f c ur va tur e i n o ne sys te m o n a su r fac e are pl ane and th e ,

li nes of th e seco nd sys tem lie on spheres w hich cu t th e su r fa ce o r th ogo nall y th e ,

l atte r is a sur face o f Joachi msth al .

1 6 Th e spher ica l li nes o f c ur va ture o n a s urfa ce o f Joa ch i msth a l ha ve c o nsta n t

.

geod esic c ur vatur e th e radi us of geod esi c c ur vature be ing th e radi us o f th e sphere
,

o n w hi ch a c ur ve li es .

1 7 W h en th e li n es of c u r va tur e i n o ne syste m o n a su r fa c e li e o n co n ce ntr ic

.

sph eres it is a sur face o f Mo nge w h ose di re cto r d evel opabl e i s a co ne w ith i ts
, ,
-

ve r tex a t th e ce n ter of th e sph ere s ; an d co n ver se l y .

1 8 Th e sh ee ts o f th e evo l u te o f a sur fac e o f Monge are th e di re cto r d eve l o p abl e

.
-

and a sec o n d su r fac e of Mo nge w hich h as th e sa me di re cto r d eve l o p abl e a nd w h ose

,
-

genera ting cur ve is th e evo l u te o f th e genera ting cu r ve o f th e gi ven su fa ce r .

1 9 If th e li nes of c u r va ture i n o ne syste m o n a s ur fa ce are pl ane an d tw o i n

.
,

th e se c ond system are pl an e th en a ll in th e l a tte r syste m a re pl an e

,
.

2 0 A su r face w ith pl an e li n es o f c u r vat ure i n bo th systems i n o ne o f w hi ch

.
,

th ey are ci r cl es is ,

( a) A su r fa ce of Joach i msth al .

( b) Th e l oc us of th e or th ogonal t raj ect or i es o f a fam il y o f sph ere s w ith ce n te rs ,

o n a st ra ight li n e w hich pass thr o ugh a c i r cl e o n o n e o f t h e sph eres

, .

( c) Th e envel ope of a famil y o f sph eres w h ose c en ters lie o n a pl ane c ur ve C ,

and w h ose r ad i i are pm por ti o na l to th e dis ta n c es of th ese c en te rs fro m a str aight

li ne fix ed in th e pl an e of C .

2 1 I f an ar bit r ar y c u r ve C be dr aw n i n a pl ane and th e pl ane be mad e to move

.
,

in su ch a w ay th at a fi x ed li ne of it e nvel o p an ar bi tr ar y spa c e c u r ve I and at th e '

same ti me th e pl an e be a l w ays nor ma l to th e p r in cip al no r ma l to I th e c u r ve C

‘

d esc r ibes a su r face of Monge .

3 20 W —SU RFA
CES

22 . I f all th e B i an chi t r ansfor ms of a p seud ospher ic al sur fac e S are sur fac es of
En neper ( of Ex . . 5 ,
S is a sur fac e o f revo l u ti o n .

23 . W h en to h as th e val ue i n Ex 5 § 13 4 th e su r fac es w i th th e sph er ic al

.
, ,

re p r esen tati on and w ith th e li n ear el emen t

Ui 2
2
ds2 UI 0 0 8 10 d u2 UI srn2 w d v’,

w h er e UI is an ar bitrary fun cti on of u ,

c
are su r fa es o f Jo ac h i msth al .

24 . li nes of cu r vatur e i n b o th systems b e pl ane for a su rfac e S w ith th e

I f th e
same sph er ic al rep resen ta ti on of i ts li nes o f c u r vatu re as for a pseu d osph er ic al

su r face S i s a moldi ng su r face

,
.

2 5 I f 8 i s a pseu d osph er ic al su r fac e w ith th e sph er ic a l rep resen ta ti on ( 2 5 ) of

.

i ts li nes of cu r vatu re and th e cu r ves v, c onst are pl ane th e fun cti on 0 gi ven by .
, ,

d etermi nes a transfor mati on of B i an chi of S i n to a su r face 8 1 for w hich th e li nes

of c u r vatu re v c ons t are pl ane . .

2 6 A nec essar y and suffi ci en t conditi on th at th e li nes of c u r vatu re v

. c onst .

on a p seud osph er i ca l su r fac e w ith th e r ep resen ta ti on ( 2 5 ) of i ts li nes of c ur va t u re

b e sph er ic al i s th a t V
cot = V 1 2 u
1
,

mw
,

s 6 19

w h er e V and VI are fun cti ons of v al one . S h ow th at w h en w is a so u l ti on of ( 2 3)

and O f
1 at . a 1
sinfi w au ou i
s n u

l 82

)
a aw 1
cu S i m2 m bu an?’

si n w

th e c urves v c onst are . pl ane or sph er ic al ,

and th at i n th e l atter c ase V and VI
c an b e foun d di r ectl y .

2 7 Sh ow th at w h en w
. is a so u l ti on o f (2 3 ) and of

81» 6 301 62 0:62 10

‘

80 ou av2 av? bu av

and —
ai 0, th e l i nes of c u r vatur e u const . are s ph er ic al on th e pseud o
sph er ic al surfac e w ith th e spher ic al r ep resen tati o n and th at w h en w is su ch
a fun cti on upo n th e sur fac es w ith th e li nea r el emen t
,

()
2
92 3 2 d” 2

)
6 aw
ds2 =V 9 13 d uz V 1 V —
’

as av

a
d8 2 = iu m + V —
Z
Z) da 2 V +V
’
cos u

w h er e V isction of v al one th e cu rves 1;

a fu n ,
c ons t . are s ph er ical ; i n th e fo r mer
c ase th e sph eres cu t th e surfac e o r th ogonall y .
3 22 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

Refer ri ng to th e r esu l ts o f
§ 3 9, w e see t h at in t ish
facto r ttl mu st equ al u n i ty . C o n se q u en tl
y w e mu st find a

0 su c h th at th e left -
h an d me mb er s o f th e q
e u ati ons

F iH
d d (c : iy),
x /i

F—
fi du -
i— s v = d x
( -
iy)

ar e e x act d i fi er en ti als, i n w h ic h case t h q

ese e u ati on s
g i v e :and y
c

by q u ad r atu r es . Hen ce we m u st h av e

3 8 8
JR/R __ __
bv
( ) ao bu

w hi ch ar e e q u i valen t to

ac l sF F as 1 as
’
cu H su 2 EH 8u 2 H av

80 1 8G F aE
bv 2 H bu 2 RH bv

Fr o m ( V 1 2 ) i t is seen t h at t h ese equ ati on s ar e con si sten t w h en

d
,

K O. In t i s h c ase 9, an d con se q u en tl
y :
a and
y, c an be fo u n by
q u ad r atu r es .

Th e addi ti ve co n stan ts of i n teg r ation ar e o f su c h a c h ar ac ter

th at if x 0, y0 ar e a par tic u lar set o f solu ti o n s, th e most g en er al ar e

x = x
o
c os a -

yo si n a + a,

w h er e a , a, b ar e ar b i trar
y co n stan ts .

In th e abov e m an n er w e c an effec t th e iso me tr i c re

p r esen tati on

o f an y developable su r face u pon th e plan e, an d c o nse u en tl q y p u on

i tself o r an y o t h er d evelo pable . T h ese r esu l ts may be sta ted t u s : h

A d evelopable su rfa ce i s appli cable to i tself, or to a ny other d evelop

p f
able, i n a tr i le i nfi n i ty o w a
ys, a nd th e c omp lete d eter mi n f
a ti on o

the li c a bi li ty r equ i r es u a d r a tu r es on ly
a
pp q .

I n c iden tally w e h ave th e tw o t h eor ems

The g eod esi cs upon a d evelopa ble su rfa ce ca n befou nd by qu a dr atu r es .

If the tota l cu r va tu r e of a qua d r a tic for m be z er o, the qu adr ati c

f or m is r ed u cible by qu ad r a tu r es to da d B .
 SU RFA C ES OF C ON STAN T C U RV ATU RE 3 23

Su ppo se n ow h
t at th e to tal c u r v atu r e o f tw o su r fac es S, SI i s
l/
z
w h er e is r eal c on sta n t L et P and R be poin ts S
'

a , a a . on

an d SI r es
p ec ti v el
y C an d C 1 g eod esic s t h rou
g h h
t ese r espec ti v e

k
,

po i n ts, an d ta e P an d
R for th e
po les an d C an d C for th e
I

c u r ves v = O of a p ol ar
g eo d esi c syste m on t h ese su rfaces . Th e
li n ear ele men ts ar e acco r di n l
g y( V III , 6 )
u “
u
2 —1
da
z
du srn do ,
d el i
d uf+ Si n dv
a a

H ence th e e q u ati o n s
“
1
: u, ,,
l
i v

deter m in e an i so metr ic re
p r esen ta t o n i of on e su r fac e u pon th e
h
o t er , in w h ic h P an d C co r r espo n d to P an d C, r es
pec ti v ely .

A c c o r din g as th e u pper or lo w er sig n in th e sec o n d e q u atio n

is u se d , cor r espo nd in g fi gu r es ar e e q u al or s
ymme t r ic . Si milar
r esu l ts o btai n fo r pse u d osp h er i c al su r faces . H en ce w e h av e

fa ces of con stan t ur e difi er en t fr om

'

A ny tw o su r cu r va t , z er o , ar e in
tw o w ays a li ca ble so tha t
g i ven poi nt an d g eod esi c thr ou g h i t on on e
a
pp
surfa ce cor r es on d to a g iven oi n t a n d
g eod esi c th r ou g h i t on the other
p p .

I n par tic u lar , a su r fac e of c o nstan t c u rv atu re c an be applied to

h
i tself so t at a gi v en po i n t s all g o in to any o t er poin t an d a h h
g eod esic t r o u g th h h
e for m er i n to o n e t r o u g t h e latte r Go bi n h h . m
in g t h ese r esu l ts wi th th e l as t t h eo r e m of 1 1 7, w e h av e

A f
n on d evelo a c e of c on stan t c u r va tu r e ca n be a
a ble su r
p ppli ed to
i tself or to an y su rfa ce of the sa me c ur va tu r e i n a tr iple i nfi nity of
, ,

w ays an d the com lete r ea li z a ti on of the a li ca bi li t r ui r es the

, p pp y e
q
solu ti on o f a Ri oca ti equ a ti on .

1 36 . Solu ti on of YV e pr o c eed to th e
th e probl e m of Min di ng .

d eter mi n atio n of a n ecess ar y an d su fii cien t co n d iti o n t at tw o su r h

’
fac es S, S o f v ar i able c u r v atu r e be appli c able L et t eir li n ear . h
elem en ts be
ds g = E du 2 + 2 q dv + d fl ds
By d efin i ti on S an d S
’
ar e a
ppli c able if t h er e ex is t tw o i nd epen d
en t e u ati on sq
(1 ) c
a n. v
) W ea) , W u, v
) Mn
« u

establi s hi n
g a one -
to -
o n e c o rr espon d en ce betw een th e sur faces o f
su c h a n atu r e th by m ean s o f ( 1 ) ei t er
at h of th e abo ve
q u adr ati c

for m s can be m
tr ansfor e in to th e o t er d h .
3 24 D EFO RMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

It is evi d en t th at i f th e tw o su r faces ar e applicable, th e d ifi er en

tial par ameter s for m ed w i th r es
pec t to th e t w o lin ear el emen ts are

e q u al . H en ce a n ec essar
y c o n d i tio n is

2
( ) A l fb A W A M
d
, ,

w h er e th e pr i mes i n i c ate fun c tio n s per tai n i ng to S T ese c o n '

h
k
.

d itio n s ar e li ew i se su ffi c i en t t at th e tr an sfor mati o n (1 ) c ang e h h

ei t h er of th e abo v e q u adr ati c for ms i n to th e oth er For , if th e
k
.

’
c u r ves c) l c o n st .
, j
i r con st .
; f
cr con st .
, V
« c on st . be ta en for
th e par a metr i c c ur ves on S an d S
’
r es
pec t v ely, i th e r es
pective

li near ele m en ts may be w r i tten ( cf .

§ 3 7)

A sh A nlf ‘

i ) f

W)
H en ce w h en eq uations ( 1 ) and ( 2) h old th e su r faces ar e appli cable , .

Th e n ex t step i s th e d eter mi n ati on o f equ ati on s of th e fo r m

Sinc e th e cu r vatu r e of tw o appli cable su r faces at cor r espond in g points
h q
i s th e same, on e su c e u ati o n i s affo r d e by th e n ecessar y c ond i ti on d
3
( ) E (u , v
)
Th e fi r st of equ ati on s 2
( ) i s

4 A1K = AQ
E '
( ) .

Bot hm ember s of h
t is equ ation c ann ot v an is h id enti cally . For , i n
t ish c ase th e c u r ves K c o n st . and K ’
con st . w ou ld be m
i n i mal
and q
c on se u en tly i m a
g i n ary If t h ese tw o e q u ati on s ar e

d
.

in epen d en t of on e an ot h er , t h at i s,
A1K

hy
t e establi s h a cor r espon d en ce, an d th e co n d i ti o n t h at i t b e iso
m ti e r c i s, as seen fr o m
A , (K , A l K ) A , A, K

If, h o wever ,

’
5
( ) AiK

w e may ta k e for th e seco nd o f

(1 )
6
( ) A2 K
u nl ess

( 7) A2 K = W K ) , AQ
K '=
< MW )
3 26 DEFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

Fu r t h er mor e, w e n o tice fr o m ( 8) t h at i n th e t i r d h c ase th e su r

face S is appli c abl e to a su r face o f r ev ol u ti on , th e par allels of th e

latter cor r espo n d in g to th e c u r v es K con st o f th e for m er
. . C on
v er sely, th e li n ear elemen t of ev er su r face ap
y pli cable to a su r face

of r ev olu tion can be pu t in th e fo r m For , a n ec essar an d

su f
fi c ien t con d h
i ti on t at a su r face be ppli c able to a
a
y
su r fac e of

r evolu ti on is t h at i ts li n ear elemen t be r ed u cible to

2 2 2 2
de da + U d v ,

w h er e U is a fu n c ti on o f u al o n e No w

U ll

A1 u = 1 a
U

Fr o m th e secon d i t follo w s t h at an d

Wh en th ese v al u es ar e su bsti tu ted

U
e q u ati o n s, w e h ave, in q
con se u en ce o f Ex . 5 , p 91 , .

9
( ) A2 K =

H en ce we h av e th e t h eor e m
Equ ati on s ( 9) con sti tu te a n ecessar
y a n d su
fi i
c en t con di ti on tha t a

f
su r a ce be appli ca ble to a su r face of r evolu ti on .

Th e equ ati on s
K K, t :
t t
’
61

d efi n e an isom etr i c pr esentati on o f

re a su r face w ith th e li n ear ele

m en t 8
( ) u pon . h
i tself T er efor e w e h av e :
Ever y su r f a ce
pp ali ca ble to a su rfa ce f
o r evolu ti on ad mi ts f
o a

i
con t nu ou s d efor ma ti on i n to i tself i n su ch a w ay that each cu r ve
K= con st . sli d es over i tself .

C o nver sely, ev er y su r fac e ap li c able

p to i tself i n an i n fi ni ty of
w ays b
i s appli ca le to a su r fac e o f r evolu tion . For , i f th e cu r vatu r e
is c o nstan t, th e su r face i s appli cable to a su r fac e of r evol u tio n

an d th e o n ly c ase in w h ich tw o su r faces o f v ar i a bl e c u r va

tu r e ar e applic able in an i n fi n i ty o f w ays is th at for w hi hc co n d i

ti o n s ( 5 ) an d 7
( ) ar e satis fie d .
 D EFO RMA TI ON O F MI N I MA L SU RFA C E S 3 27

13 7 . Defor m ti a on of m i im n al su r faces . T h ese r esu l ts su g

g est a
means of de t mi i
er n n
g th e m in i mal f
su r ac es a
p l
p c able to a
i su r face

o f r ev o lu ti on p.l ac e w e i n u i r e
In th e fi r st q h
u n d er w at con i ti o n s d
t w o mi ni mal s ur faces ar e appl ic able Th e l atter pr oble . m r ed u c e
s

to th e d eter mi n ati o n of tw o pai rs o f para m eter s, u , v an d u

,,
v
,,
an d

tw o pair s of fu n c ti o n s, F ( u), an d F1 (u 1 ), w hi c h sati sfy

th e c on di tio n

2
( 1 0) ( 1 uv
) F ( u )( D( v)d u d v ( 1 u v

Fr om th e natur e o f t is h q
e u atio n i t follo w s t h at th e e q
u ation s w hi c h
ser v e to establis h th e co rr espon d en c e be tw een th e tw o su r fac es ar e

ei t h er o f th e for m

1
( )1
or

1
( )2 W) t

If e it h er set o f v alu es fo r u an d v be su bs ti tu te d in an d if
k
1 1

after r emo v in g th e co mm o n fac tor d a d c w e ta e th e l og ar i t hm i c

deri v ativ e w it h respec t to u an d v, w e obta in

< W f
'
1
1
( + u v ) 1
( + uv
)
h
A s t is may be w r i tte n

d u l d v1 d udv
1
( 3) l l
( u v
l l) ( nu
)
th e h
sp er ic al i mag es o f c o rr espo n d in
g parts o n th e tw o su r fac es are

e q u al or s
ym me tri c ac c o r d i n
g as ( 1 1 ) o r ( 1 9) obtain s Th e
latter c ase r ed u c es to th e h
fo r mer w en th e se n se o f th e n o r m al to
h
ei t er su r fac e is c h a ng ed . ‘V h th i en s h as been d o n e, c or respo n din
g
S
ph er ic al i mag es ar e e q u al and c an be made to c o i n c id e by a r o ta
ti o n of th e h
u n i t sp er e abo u t a d iamete r . Hen ce one su rfac e can be

so d i splac ed i n spac e t h at co r r es o n di n p g n or mals bec o m e par al lel,

in wh ic h c as e th e tw o s u r fac es h av e th e sa me r e r es en ta ti o n , t at
p h
u, v
1
v. No w e q u ati on 1 0
( ) is
F t“ )( 1) (v)
w h ic h is e q u i v al en t to

m
1
F .< u > c
) s o)
1
;
, .
3 28 D EFORMA TI ON O F SU R ACES F

w h er e c d en otes a c on stan t . If th e su r fac es ar e r eal , 0 m u st be of

th e fo r m e
i“
. H en ce , in q
c o n se u en c e o f 1 1 3, w e h av e th e t h eo r em

A min i ma l su r ace a d
f mi ts of a con ti nu ou s d efor ma ti on i n to an

i nfin i ty f mi n i mal
o f
su r a ces, w hi ch a r e ei th er associ ate to it or can

be ma de su ch by a su i table d i spla cemen t .

We pass to th e deter m in ation o f a mi n i mal su rface w h ic h admits

o f a c on tin u o u s d efor matio n i n to i tself, and c o n se u en tl
y q is a
ppl i
c able to a su r fac e of r evo l u ti on In c o n se u en ce o f th e i n ter pr e
.
q
tati on of e u atio n q 1
( )3 i t follo w s h
t at if a mi n imal su r fac e be
d efo r m e d c o n ti n u o u sly i n to i tself, po i n t p o n th e sp er e ten d s to
a h
m ove i n th e d ir ec tion of th e s m all c i r cle t r o u
g p , w h
ose ax i s i s h h
th e m o m en tar y ax i s o f r o tati o n , an d con se q u en tly eac h of t h ese

s m all c i r cles mov es o v er i tsel f Fr om § 4 7 i t fo llo w s th at i f th e

k
.

ax i s of r otation be ta en for th e z —a x is , t h ese sm all c ir cles ar e th e

c u r v es u v = c on st . In th e d efor mati on eac h po i n t o f th e su r face

m oves along th e c u r ve K c on st . t h r ou
g h it . Hen ce Ki s a fu n c
ti on of u v . Fr om ( V II 1 0 0, 1 02 ) w e
, h av e

( 1 I( )
( ) v

q
con se u en tly F (u ) m u st be a fu n c ti on o f u v, an d h en ce

’
uF (u )
F (u )

Th e co mm on v alu e o f h
t ese tw o ter m s is a con stan t I f i t be
db
.

d en ote y 1c, we h av e

F (u) (F v
( )
w h er e c an d c ar e c o n stan ts
l
. Hen ce fr om (V II 9 8) w e , h ave

A ny mi n i ma l f
su r a ce a li ca ble to a su r a ce o f f r evolu ti on ca n be
pp
d efin ed by e u a ti on s o
q f the for m

é—c
? 2
( 1 u
)
u
‘
du ( 1 v
)
v
‘
d v,

( 1 u
2
)
u
‘
du ( 1 v
2
) dv
“
v ,

z = c
+1
du + c
l
v
" “
d v,

w her e 0 , cl , an d 1c ar e a r bi tr a r y con stan ts .

 D EFO RMA TI ON O F SU RFA CES

to a su r face o f r evol u tio n , an d eac h m in im al su r fac e a

pp l i c able to

a s u r face o f r ev o l u ti o n w i th th e z a
-
xis fo r th e ax is o f r evol u tio n

of th e h
sp er e i s d efi n ed by B ut o n ly w h en 1c 2 w ill th e
su b sti tu ti on of ve
gi ve
*

a set of e q u ati on s su c h as

H en ce we h av e

Th e heli coi d a l mi n i mal su r fa ces ar e d efined by the Wei er str a ss

for mu las w hen E (u ) = c u /
2
.

A nd we may state th e ot h er r esu l ts h

t us

If an
y n on heli coi d a l mi ni ma l su r a ce, f w hi ch i s pp li
a ca ble to a

f
su r a c e o f r evolu tion , be r ota ted thr oug h an
y a ng le a bou t the ax i s o
f
the u nit s
ph er e w hose s mall ci r cles r e
p r esen t the cu r ves K: con st .

on the f
s u r a ce, an d
p a cor r es on d en ce w i th
p a r a lleli s m f
o ta ng en t

la n es be esta bli shed betw een the su r faces they ar e a ssoc i a te ; con
p ,

se u en tly
q th e associ a tes o f su c h a min i ma l su r fa ce a r e su
p per osa ble .

EX A MPLES

1 . Fi n d u nd er w h at conditi ons th e su r fac es ,

w h ose equ ati ons ar e
x z r cos v y z r si n v,

x 1 y1 r si n v, zl F (r) a v,

c an be b r ought i n to a one to one c o rresp ond en ce so th at th e to tal c u r vatu r e at

- -
,

c or resp ondi ng p oi nts is th e same D eter mi ne u nd er w h at c onditi on th e su r fac es

.

ar e applic abl e .

2 If th e tangen t pl an es to tw o applic a bl e sur fac es at c or resp on di n g p o i n ts ar e

.

p ar a l lel th e sur fac es ar e asso ci at e m i ni mal su r fac es

,
.

3 Sh o w th a t th e e q u ati ons
.

3: c n z z 2 b 2
a a " “
31 e v , ae u c v , ,

w h ere a i s a r eal p ar amet er a nd a a nd b a r e c onstan ts d efi ne a fa m il y o f p ar ab

, ,

o lo id s w hich h ave th e same t o t al c u r vat u r e a t p o i n ts w ith th e same c u r vili near

c oor di nates A r e these su r fac es applic abl e to one ano th er ?

.

4 F i nd th e geod esic s on a su r fac e w ith th e li near el emen t

.

d u2 4 v d ud v 4 u d v2
ds2 =
4 (u v9 )
Sh ow th at th e su r fa ec
pplic abl e to a su r fac e of r evol u ti on
is a ,
and d e ter mi ne th e
for m of a mer idi an of th e l a tter .

5 D e ter mi ne th e val ues of th e c on stan ts a an d b i n

.

d a2 d a2 [( u ac 2) M]M ,

so th at a sur face w ith this li near el ement sh all b e applic abl e to

(a) th e r ight h elic oid .

(b) th e ellipsoid of r evol u ti on .

 SECON D G EN ERA L P RO BL EM 3 31

6 . c A fi cien t condition that as u r face be applicabl e to a surf ace

ne essa r y a nd su f

o f revol u ti o n is t h at each c ur ve o f a fam il y o f g eod esic p ar a ll els h a ve c onstan t

geod esic c u r vat ur e .

7 Show tha t th e h elic o id al m i n i mal sur fa ces are app lic abl e to th e ca te no id and
.

to th e r ight h elico id .

1 38 . Second gener al pr obl e m fd o efor m ati on . We h av e seen th at

it c an al w a s be d eter m i n ed w
y h the er o r n o t tw o
g i v en su r fac es

applic able to o n e an o t h er . Th e sol u ti o n of h

t i s pr o blem w as

i mpo r tan t co n tri bu ti on to th e t h eo r

y of d efor m ation . An e q u ally

i mpor tan t pr obl em, bu t a m or e d i ffi c ul t o n e, i s th e follow i ng

To d eter mi ne a ll the f
su r a ces a
ppli c a ble to a
g i ven one .

h
T i s pr oblem w as pro po sed by th e Fre n c A c ad e my in 1 8 5 9 , an d h
h as been stu di ed by th e m o st d istingu is ed g eo meters ever sin ce h .

A lt h ou
g h i t h as n o t been sol ved i n th e g en er al c as e, i ts pr o fo u n d stu dy
h as led to m an y i nter esting r esu l ts, so me of w hi c h w e s h all d eri v e .

If th e lin ear el e men t of th e g i v en sur face be

ds = E d u + 2 q d v + G d lfl
3

ev ery su r face appli cable to i t i s d eter mi n ed by t is fo r m h by a

an d

sec ond , na m ely

2
D du + 2 D d u d v ’
U dv ,
’ ’
w h ose c oef
fi c i en ts satisfy
th e G auss and C o dazz i e q u ati on s C o n v ersely, e v er
y set o f
solu tio ns D
’
, D ”
of t h ese e q u ati o ns d efi n es a su r fac e a
ppli ca le b
to th e giv en o n e, an d th e d eter mi n ati on of th e C ar tes ian c o or d inates

o f th e c o rr espo n di ng su r face r e qi
u r es th e so l u tion o f a Rioc ati e q ua

ti on B ut n ei t er h th e C od az z i e q u ati on s, n o r a Ri oc ati eq u ation 0

k
.
,

be i n tegr ated in th e g en er al c as e wi th ou r p r esen t no w ledg e of

d ifi er en ti al e u ati ons L ate r q . w e s h all m ak e us e o f h m th

t is e od in
th e stu dy o f par ti c u l ar c ases, bu t for th e pr esen t w e proc eed to
th e e x po sitio n o f an o t h er k
means of atta c in g th e g en er al pr oble m .

Wh en th e v al u es of D, D
'
, D
”
o bta in ed fro m th e G au ss e q u ati on s

( V , 7) are su bsti tu te d in th e q
e u ation H 2
K = DD
”
th e res u l t

ing e q u ati on is r edu ci bl e, in q

co nse u en c e o f th e i d enti ty A l a : =1— X ’

( c f Ex
. . 6, p . to

( 1 6)
2
K II ( 1 A 11 ) “
332 DEFORMATI ON OF SU RFA CES

T is h q
e u ati on , w h i ch is sati s e fi d also by y an d z , i nv ol ves o nly

E, F, G an d t h ei r d er i v atives, an d con se q u en tl
y i ts i n te
g r ati on

w ill g i v e th e c o mpl ete sol u ti o n of th e pr oble m .I t i s li n ear i n

8
2
x 8
2
1 : 2
ar 8
2
x

Bu
“
ou
"
,

8“ av
— 9

8 11
2
an (1 th er efor e i s of th e for m
stu d i e d by A mper e . Hen c e w e h ave th e t h eor em

The d eter min a tion of a ll surfaces appli ca ble to a g i ven on e r equ i r es

the i n teg r a ti on of a pa r ti al d ifier en ti a l equa ti on of the secon d or der

of the A mper e type .

In q
c on se u en c e of (1 6 ) an d ( V , 3 6 ) w e h av e t h at th e c oor di n ates

o f a su r fac e w i th th e lin ear ele m en t

1 d8 2
= E du 2 + 2 q dv d
2
( 7)
ar e i n teg r als o f

(1 8) A -
A 1 0)K ,

th e d iffer en tial par ameter s bei ng for m e dw i th r es

pec t to We
sh all fin d t h at w h en on e o f h
t ese c o o r di n ates is k no wn th e h
o t er

tw o c an be fo u n d by q d t
ua r a u r es.

O ur g en er al pr oble m m yb a e stated th us

G i ven thr ee f u n c ti on s E, F, G f
o u an d v; to fin d a ll fu ncti on s
33,
y, z of u and v w hi ch sa ti s fy the e u ati on
q

dsv + dy + dz = E du + 2 q
2 2 2 2 2
dv d ,

w her e du an d d v ma y be c hosen ar bi tr a r i ly .

B ar b ou x obser ve d t h at as th e e q u ati on m ay be w r i tten

1 9 dx
2
+ dy = 22
E du + 2 q dv + d
2 z
da ,
( )
w h ose l eft h an d m mb
e er is th e lin ear el e m en t o f th e plan e, or o f a

d ev elopable su r fac e, th e to tal c u r v atu r e o f th e q ua d r atic for m

z
2
( 0) E du + 2 F du d o + G

m u st be z er o
In or d er to fi nd th e con d iti on for t is, h we assu m e h
t at z is
kno wn , and tak e for para m etr i c lin es th e c u r ves z c on st an d . th eir

V ol 111,
. p . 253 .
3 34 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

Sin c e th e geo d esi c c u r vatu r e o f G is u n alter ed i n th e d efor m ati on

i t follo w s fr o m th e q
e u atio n ( I V , 47) fo r th e n ew su r face,

n am el
y
21
( ) p pg si n (0 ,

t h at th e d efo r mation i s i mpossible, i f th e c u rv atur e o f I‘

at any

h
po i nt i s less t an th e g eo desic c u r vatu r e o f C at th e cor r espo n d i ng
po i n t h
Si n ce bo t p an d pg ar e n o w n , e u ati on ( 2 1 ) d eter mi n es
. k q
a) , an d c on se u en tl
y th e d i q
r ec ti o n o f th e n o r mal to th e n e w su r fac e

alon
g
‘
I is fix ed . h
T is being th e c ase, th e d ir ec ti on of th e tan g en ts
to th e c u r ves u c o n st . on th e n ew su r face at p o in ts o f P c an be
ba
r 1 bja 1 1 az
fo u n d , an d so w e h av e th e v alu es of _ _ fo r v =0
\/G bv \/G bv VG bv
as w ell as _
b
,
ef
l /
Tz
3
i or v 0, th e latter bei ng th e d i r ec ti on -
c o sin es
bu bu on

of th e tang en t to F . If t h ese e x pr essions be d i ffer en ti ated w i th

z
b% s
f z z
'

by b rc by bz
r es
pec t to u , w e ob tai n th e v al u es of — , ,
2 Q
bu bu bu bu bv bu bv bu 00

fo r v 0 . Sin c e F : 0 an d E = 1 for v 0, th e Gau ss q

e u ati on s

( V , 7) for v 0 ar e

+ DX ,

z
bw 1 bE bx 1 bG bx
bu bv 2 bv bu 2G
( x bu bv

1 3G bx 1 80 be ”
+D X .

2 bu bu 2 G bv bv

A ll th e ter m s of th e fi r st tw o e q u atio n s h ave been d eter mi ned

e x cept D an d D ;
’
h en ce th e latter g i v en by t ese e u ati on s
ar e h q .

Si n ce th e to tal c u r vatu r e Ki s u n al ter ed by th e d efo r matio n , i t i s

k no wn at all p o i n ts of F; co n se q u en tly D ”
is g i ven by H 2
K

DD ”
D
’2
u n less D is z er o , in w h ic h c ase F rs an asy mpto tic l ine
a_
x
an d p
=
p . Wh en D ”
rs fo u nd w e c an o btain th e v al u e of _
2
fr om
'

bv
th e last of e q u ati o n s Fr om th e m et h o d o f d er i vation o f e u a q
ti on 1
( )6 i t follo ws t h t th a e abo v e p r ocess is e q u iv alen t to fi nd ing
2

th e v alu e o f fr o m q ti e ua on w h ich i s possible u nless D 0 .

k
v

Ex clu d ing h
t is e x cepti onal c ase, w e r e mar t h at if e q
u ation s 2
( )2
 P A RTI C U L A R D EFORMA TI ON S 3 35

be d iffer entiated w ith r espec t to u, w e o bt ia n th e v alu es o f all th e

A 3

der i vati ves of x o f th e h

t i rd o r d er fo r v 0 ex cept if
av
— Th e latter

may be obtain ed fr o m th e q e u ati o n w h ic h r esu lts fro m th e differ

entiation q
o f e u atio n 1
( )6 w i t h r es e c t
p to By c o n ti n ui n g t i s
v . h
p r o c ess w e obtai n th e v al ues fo r v 0 o f th e d er i vat iv es o f se o f all
or d ers, an d li kw e ise of
y an d 2 . If w e i nd ic ate by su bsc r i pt n ull

th e v al u es o f fu n c tions, w h en u n o, v 0, th e ex pansi on s

an d si mil ar e x pansio ns fo r y an d z ar e con v er en t i n g en er al , as

, g
h
C au c y h as s o w n , h *
an d s r,
y,
2 t h us defi n ed ar e th e sol u ti o ns of

q
e u atio n ( 1 6 ) w ic fo r h h v 0 satisfy th e g i v en c o n di ti o ns . Hen ce
A su r a cef S c an be d efor med i n su c h a ma nner that a c u r ve C u
p
mes i n to coi n ci w i th a g i ven I ‘
it co den ce cu r ve , pr o vid ed tha t the

f a t ea ch oi n t is g r ea ter tha n the g eod esic

‘
cu r va tu r e o I p cu r va tu r e

fC
o at the cor r es
p ond i n
g poi n t .

T h er e re mai n s th e e x ceptio nal p pg c ase . If th e desi r ed d e f

m ati o n is po ssi ble, I i s an asympto ti c l i n e th e d e fo r m ,
‘
or on and

y q
co n se u en tl , b
y E n ne er s t
p
’
h eor em i ts r ad i us of to r si o n
m u st sat i sfy th e c o n di ti o n 7
2
= —1/K . H en ce w h en 0 i s g i v en , I‘

is de ter mi n ed , if i t is to be an as
ym pto ti c lin e .

If I
‘
satis fi es t h ese c on d i ti on s, th e v al u e of I)
”
fo r v 0 is ar bi

tr ar y, as w e h av e seen Bu t w h en i t h as b e en c h o se n , th e fu r t h er

z
.

d ete r mi n ati on of th e v alu es o f th e d er i v ati v es o f r, :y , o f hi g h er

o r d er fo r v = 0 is un i q u e, i t bei ng th e sa me as t h at
p u r s u ed in
th e g en er al c ase . Hen ce q
e u ati o n (1 6 ) ad m i ts as so lu tio n a fam ily
of th ese su r fac es, d epen din g u po n an ar bitrar
y f u n c tio n . For all

of th ese su r faces th e d i r ec tio n s of th e tang en t plan es at eac h

po i nt of I‘
ar e th e sa m e. H en c e w e h a ve th e t h eo r em

Gi ven a cu r ve
p 0 u on a su r a c e f S; ther e i sts i n spa ce a u n i q ue
ex

cu r ve F w i th w hi c h C ca n be br oug ht i n to
’
. co in ci d en ce b
y a defor ma
ti on f
o S in an i nfin i ty of w ays ; mor eover , al l the n ew su r fa ces ar e

ta ng en t to on e a n other a long F .

.
’
C f G o u rsa t , Le co ns su r l i nteg r at ion des eq ua tio ns a ux dé fi vées pa r tiell es da c d
se o n
or d r e, ch p ii
a . Par s , 1 896 i .
 DEFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

If C is an as
y mpt o ti c li ne on S, i t may be ta k en for F; h en c e

A f
su r a ce may be sub ectedj to a c on ti n u ou s d efor ma ti on d u r i ng
w hi c h a g i ven asym totic li n e i s u n a lter ed in for m a n d con tin ues to
p
be an a s m
y ptoti c li ne on ea ch d efor m .

T ish r esult sug

g ests th e pr obl em

Can a su r a ce f be j
su b ected to a con ti n u ou s d efor ma ti on i n w hi ch a

cu r ve oth er tha n an as
ymptoti c lin e i s u na lter ed ?

By hyp th o esis th e c u r v atu r e is not c h an

g ed an d th e g eo desi c
c u r v atu r e is n ec essar ily i n var i an t ; h en c e fr o m ( 2 1 ) w e h av e t h at

srn w mus t h av e th e sa me v alu e for all th e su r faces . If as i s th e

sa me for all su r fac es, th e tan gent plan e is th e sa m e, and conse u en tly q
th e x pansions ( 2 3) ar e th e sam e H en c e all th e sur faces coin ci de
e .

i n th is c ase H o w ev er th er e ar e al w ays tw o v alu es o f as for w h i ch

.
,

simw h as th e sam e v alu e u nless 6 i s a r i gh t angle H en ce i t is

, .

po ssi bl e to h av e tw o appli c a bl e su r faces passi n g t h r ou

g h a c u r ve

w h o se po i n ts ar e self corr es on
p
-
d en t, bu t n o t an i n fi n ity o f su c h
su r fac es . T h er efor e :
An asymptoti c lin e i s the on ly cu r ve on a sur face w hi ch can remain
u n a lter ed in a con t nu ou s i d efor mati on .

1 40 Lines of cu r vatu r e in cor r espondence We i n q uir e w h eth er

d
. .

a su r fac e S c an be efor m ed in su c h m a an n er t h at a
g i v en c u r ve

0 u po n b
i t m ay ecome a lin e of c u r v atu r e on th e n ew su r face .

Suppose i t i s possible, an d let F d en o te t is li n e of c u r vatu r e h .

Th e r ad rr o f c u r v atu r e and tor si on o f I mu st sati sfy ( 21 ) and

‘

dcJ/ds 0 ( cf w h er e i th ame for I as for C

‘
If
‘

.
pg s e s .

we c h oose for 6 y fu n c ti on w
an h atev er , th e fu n c ti on s p an d r ar e

th us d eter m in ed , and F i s uni u e q . Sin ce a fix es th e dir ec tion o f th e

tang en t plan e to th e n ew su r face alon g I , t

‘
h er e is o nly on e d efo r m
o f S o f th e k i n d
d esi r e for eac c o i c e o f 6 d h h ( cf. Hen ce
A f
su r a ce can be d efor med i n an i nfin i ty of w ays so tha t a g i ven

cu r ve u
p on i t becomes a lin e o f cu r va tu r e on the d efor m .

T ish r esu l t su
gg ests th e follo w in g pr oble m of Bonn et * '

To d eter mi ne the su rfa ces w hi ch ca n be d efor med w i th p r eser va ti on

of their li nes of cu r vatu r e .

Mémo i re su r la théo i e d s surfac es applicables sur une sur fac e donnée Jou r nal de
r e ,

l Ecole P olytech ni q ue C ahi er 42 p 58

’
, . .
338 DEFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA C ES

Mor eo ver ; th e fu n d amen tal e q u ation s 24

( ) r ed u c e to

1 bfi
’

v5 bv bu a}; bu
2 2

gi g
g ; -
k — si nh w c o sh w .

C ompar in g t h ese r esu l ts w i th § 1 1 8, w e see th at th e h

sp er i c al

r e r esen tati o n o f li n es o f c u r v atu r e o f

’
p th e su r faces S and S r espec

ti v ely i s th e sa me as o f th e l in es o f c u r vatu r e o f a sp er i c al su r fac e h

an d o f i ts Haz z idak is tr an sform C on v er sely, w e h av e ht
t a ever y

k
.

su r face o f h
t is ind ad mi ts of an applic abl e su r face w i th li n es o f

cu r v atu r e in co r r espon d en c e

d
.

Th e pr ec ed in g i n v estig atio n r este o n th e ypot esis t h h h at n ei t h er

q
th e fi r st n or sec on d o f e u ati o ns ( 2 4) v an i s es i den tic ally h . Su ppose
th at th e seco n d v an i s h es ; t h en
q i s a fu n c ti o n o f u alon e, sa
y
Sin c e th e pr od u ct pl q d iffer s fr o m
th e to tal c u r vatur e only by a

factor (c f p1 c.ann ot be h
z er o ; t er efor e r 0 an d q = '

E q u ati on 2
( )5 i s n ow of th e for m If pi be cli mi

mate d fr o m th i q s e u ati o n an d th e fi r st of i t is fou n d t h at

p1
also is a fu n c tion o f u alo n e . Hence th e c u r ves v con st . on th e
h
Sp er e ar e g r eat c i r c l es w i th a c o m mo n d ia m eter , an d t h er efo r e S
is mold ing su rfa ce
a Th e par a eter u may be c m h o sen so

h
t at w e may ta e q = 1 k an d
p, = U ; t en fr om 2
( )7 an d h ( 25 ) w e
fin d pi (1 +
2
a,
q
'
U U +
2
a, w h ere a is an ar bit r ar
y c on stan t .

H en c e w e h av e th e t h eor e m
A n ecessar
y a n d su
fii ci en t
‘
con d i t on i tha t a f
su r a ce ad mi t o f an

li ca ble su rfa ce w i th lin es o

f cu r va tu r e i n cor r es on d en ce i s that
a
pp p
the su rfa ce ha ve the same spher i ca l r epr esenta ti on of i ts lin es of cu r

va tu r e a s a s h er i c a l su rface 2 , or be a mold ing su rfa ce i n the fi r st

p
ca se ther e i s one appli ca ble su rfa ce, a n d the spher i ca l r epr esen ta tion

f i ts
o li n es o f c u r va tu r e i s the sa me as o f the Hazzida kis for m
tr a n s

fE
o i n the secon d ca se ther e i s an i nfini ty o f appli cable
14 1 Conju gate syste s in correspondence W en tw o su r faces
. m . h
are h h
appli cabl e to o n e an o t er , t e r e i s a system o f c o r r espo n d ing

lin es w h ich is j
c o n u g ate fo r bo th su r fac es
( cf . Th e r esu lts

of
§ 140 s h o w th at for a g i v e n j
c on ug ate syste m on a su r face S

C f Ex . . 14 , p . 3 19 .
 C ON JU G ATE S STE M S
Y IN CORRESPON DEN C E 339

th er e is n ot i n g en er al a su r fac e SI a
pp l i c abl e to S wi th th e c or r e

spo n di n g syste g m c on u
j ate . W
Ve in q u i r e u n d er w h at c on d i tio n s a

g i v e j
n c on u gate sys tem o f S possesses t is pr oper ty h .

L et S be r efer r ed to th e g i ven c on u g ate syste m I f th e j . co r r e

spon din g syste m o n an appli c able su r fac e SI is co n u j g ate , w e h av e

p
f
0, D 1D 1
”
= DD” ;

for th e to tal c u r vatu r e o f th e tw o sur faces is th e sa me . We r eplace

h
t is q
e u atio n by th e tw o

D 1 = tanh 0 D ,
'
- -
D

th us d efi n i n g a fu n c tio n 9 . Th e C o d azz i e q u ati o n s for S ar e

or)
p
"
: 0, D : 0
”
.

bv bu

Sin c e t h ese e q u ati o n s m u st be sati s fi ed by D 1 an d Di,

’
w e h av e

b9
1
I
1
tan h0 , f ‘
1 co t h9 .

do

Th e c o n d i tio n o f i n te bi li ty of
g ra 3 0
( ) is r ed u c ible to

b
c os h ?
6
bv

A s th e tw o r o o ts o f t ish e q u ati o n differ o nly i n si

gn , an d h
t u s lead
to sy mmetr i c s u r faces, w e n eed c o n si d er o n l
y o ne . I f i t be s u bs t i

tu ted i n w e obtai n tw o co n d i t io n s u po n E, F, G ; D , D "

, w h ic h
ar e n ec essar
y i n o r d er th at S ad mi t o f an appl ic able su r fac e o f th e
k i nd sou
g h t Hen c e i n g en eral t h ere is n o sol u tion o f th e
pro ble m
k
. .

H ow ev er , i f th e tw o ex p ressi o n s i n th e br ac ets of 3
( )1 v an i s h
id en tic ally, th e c o n d i ti o n s of i n teg r abili ty of e q uati on s 3
( )0 ar e

c o mpletely sati sfied , an d S ad mi ts o f an i n fi n i ty o f appli c able su r

faces u pon w h ic h th e c o br d i n ate c u r v es fo r m a c on u gate syste j m .

C o n se q u en tl
y we h av e th e t h eo r e m

If a
g j
con u a te s
y ste
pm on aj su r a cef S cor r es on d s to a con ug a te

s stem on mo r e tha n on e su rfa ce a li ca ble to S, i t c or r es on d s to

y pp p a

conj u a te s stem on an i nfin i t

g y y f
o su rfa ces a
pp li ca ble to S .
3 40 DEFORMA TI ON or S URFA CES

We s h all
g i v e t i s h r esu l t an o t h er i n ter pr etation by con sid er i ng
th e h
sp er i c al r e
p r esen tati on o f S. Fr o m ( V I, 3 8) w e ave h
”
D

w h er e th e sy mbl o s ar e fo r m ed w i th r es
pec t to th e lin ear ele

m en t of th e ph i
s er c al r epr esen tati o n o f S . If w e su bsti tu te t h ese

val u es in we g et

89 80
tan h 0, c ot h0 ,
bu bv

an d th e c on d iti o n th at h
t ese e q u ati o n s h av e an i n teg r al i n v ol vin g
a
par am eter bec o mes

3
( )3

Th e fi r st of t h ese e q u ati o n s i s th e co n di ti on th at th e c u r v es

u
pon th e h
Sp er e r e r esen t
p th e asy mpt o ti c li n es u pon a c ert ai n su r

fac e 2 (cf . Mor eo ver , if K d en otes th e total c u r v atu r e of

E, an d w e
p t
u K= 1/ p we
-
2
, h av e

8 lo g e
bu

No w e q u ati o n s 3
( )3 ar e e q u i v alen t to an d .

e
b log p b l o g p b lo g p _
+ O
bu bv bu bv
2

ib
)
w h i ch r ed u ces to — 0 . A s th e g en er al i nteg r al o ft is e h q u ation
bt v

is p (
f(u ) w h er e <1) an d «if ar e ar bi tr ary fun ction s o f u an d
v r es
pec ti v ely, w e h ave th e follow ing theor em d ue to Bian ch i *

A n ec essa r y and su fii ci en t con di ti on tha t a su r face S ad mi t a con

ti n u ou s d efor ma ti on j in w hi ch j a con ug ate system r emai n s c on ug a te

i s that the spher i ca l r epr esen ta ti on of thi s system be tha t of the asymp
toti c li n es of a su rfa ce w hose total cu r vatu r e ex pr essed i n ter ms of ,

a r ameter s r e
f er r i ng to these li n es i s o
f th e for m
p ,

1
( 5)
3
li d ) “

A n na li , Ser 2 , V o l X
. . V III p . 3 20 ; l
a so L ez i o ni , V ol I I ,
. p . 83 .
34 2 DEFO RMA TI ON OF SU RFACES

9 . I f th e q ti ons of a su r fac e are of th e for m

e ua

Q? UI V 1 ; ”
2 U2 V l r z =V 2 r

q ti ons
th e e u a

2
U, h 1

w h ere h d eno tes a c onstan t d efi ne a famil y of applic abl e sur fac es up on w hich
,
th e
paramet r ic l i nes fo rm a conjugate system
‘

1 0 Sh ow th at th e eq u ati o ns of th e qu ad r ics can b e pu t i n th e form o f Ex

. . 9,
and appl y th e r esu l ts to thi s c ase .

1 42 . Asy mpt ti o c l ines i n cor r espondence . Defor m ati on of a r u l ed

su r face . W h e ave seen 1 3 9) t ht a a su r fac e c an be j

sub ec ted to ,

a co n ti n u ou s d efo r m ati on in whi h c an asymptoti c lin e re m ain s

as
ympto ti c . We ask w h eth er tw o su r fac es ar e appl ic a bl e w i th
th e as mpto tic
y lin es i n o ne s
yste m cor r espo n d i n
g to as m to ti c
y p
l in es of th e h
o t er We assu me th at h
t er e ar e tw o su c h su r faces, S,
k d
.

S,, an d w e ta e th e c or r espo n i ng asymptoti c li n es for th e c u r v es

v c o n st . an d t h eir or t h g o o n al
tr a ector i es for u j c o n st. In co n

se q u en ce of h
t is c h oi ce an d th e fact t at th e total h c u r vatur e o f th e
tw o su r fac es is th e sa m e, w e h ave

36
( ) F : 0,

Th e C o dazz i equ ati on s V

( , for S re d u ce to
’
b l og G D
— _ L —
bu V izé 2 G bv V E G

b
55 « E6 av « To an J E T;

Bec au se of 3
( )6 th e C o dazz i q
e u ati on for S, an al o
g ou s to th e fi r st
of 3
( )7 w ill di fi er fr om th e latter o nl
y i n th e last ter m H ence w e .

m us t h av e eit h er D{ ’
D ”
, or E f( )
u I n th e f
.o r mer c ase th e su r

faces S an d S, ar e c on r u en t
g . H ence w e ar e br ou gh t to th e sec ond ,

w h ic h i s th e c o n d i ti on t h at th e c u r ves v c on st be g eo d esi cs A s
. .

th e latter ar e as m
y pto ti c l i n es al so, t h ey ar e h
str aig t, and co use

qu en tl
y S m u st be a r u led su r fac e . h
By c ang i n g th e par ameter u,

We h av e E 1, an d e q u ati o n s
( 3 7 ) r ed u ce to

9 0,
bu
 RU L ED SU RFACES 34 3

By a su i ta bl h e c oi c e of th e par amete r v th e fir st of th ese q

e u ati ons

m ay be re
plac ed b
y D
’
an d th e seco n d be c o m es

H
D
da
V5
w h er e 4) is an ar bi tr ary fu nc tion . T h ese resu l ts esta bli hs th e fol
lo w in g th eor em o f B onn et ,

A n ecessar
y an d su
fii ci ent c on di ti on tha t a f
su r a ce ad mi t an

a
ppli ca ble su r face w i th the as m
y ptotic lin es in on e s
ystem on ea c h
su r fa ce cor r es
p on di ng i s tha t the f
su r ace be r u led ; mor eover , a

r u led su r fa c e a d mi ts f
o a i
c on t n u ou s defor ma tion i n w hi ch the
g en er a tor s re mai n str aig ht .

h
To t i s may be add ed th e t h eor e m
If tw o f
su r a ces a r e ap
pli c able an d the asm
y p ti
t o c li n es i n both
s ste
y ms on ea ch f
su r a ce a r e in cor r es
p on d ence, the f
su r a ces ar e con

g r u en t, or s
ymmetr i c .

h
T i s is r ead il
y p ve
r o d wh en th e asy mpt o tic lin es are tak en as

par a metr ic

d
.

We h ll s a esta bli h s th e secon p rt

a o f th e abo ve t h eor e m in
an o th m er anner h
For t is pu rpose we tak e th e e q u ati o ns of th e
d
.

r ul e sur face i n th e for m 1 03 )

( 38) x = r o + lu , g
=
yo + mu , z = z
o + nu ,

w h er e s
o, y, , z0 ar e th e c o o r din ates o f th e d ir ec tr i x 0 ex pr essed as
fun c tions o f i ts ar c v, an d l, m, n a r e t h e d i r ec ti o n c osin es o f th e -

g en er ators, als o fu n c ti o n s o fv . T h ey satisf

y th e co n di ti ons

3 9 l
z —m2 l,
( )
w h er e th e ac cen ts i n d i c ate d i ffer en ti ation w i th r espe c t to v.

Fur t h er m or e, th e li n ear el em e n t is

d 3 = da + 2 ( g
2 2 e
(4 0) cos Oo d u d v a il -
l 2 bu
“

w h er e
= l + u u
b= lx + m y0 +
r
2 r r r r
a 771 + 71 , 7l 2 m
4
( )1 0

cos 0, x
él yém é
z n .

Hen ce i f w e h ave a r u l ed su r face w i th th e lin ear ele m en t th e

pr o blem of fi n di ng a r ul ed su r fac e a
p p l i c abl e to i t, wi t th e g en er h
ators o f th e t w o su r faces corr espon di n g , r ed u c es to th e d eter mi

n ati o n of si x fu n c ti on s o f v, n am el l, m, n , satisf i n
y 2
0; y g
344 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

th e fi ve con d i ti ons Fr o m thi s i t follo w s t h at t h er e is an

ar b itr ar
y fu n ctio n o f v i n v ol ved i n th e pr oblem, an d c on se u en tl q y
th er e i s an i n fi n i ty o f r u led su r faces w i t th e lin ear h elemen t

T h er e ar e tw o g en er al w ays i w h i h th
n hi c e c o ce of thi s ar bi
tr ar y fun c ti on m ay be m ad e, eith d t mi i
er as e er n n g th e for m of

th e d ir ec tor con e o f th e r e u ir e
q d su r face, or by a p ro ert
p y of th e
d
-

ir ec tr i x We con si d er t h ese tw o c ases

db d
. .

1 43 Meth od of Mi nding Th e fi r st c ase w as stu di e y Mi n

k
. .

in g .
*
He to o I, m, n i n th e fo r m
4
( )2 l c os
4) c os ‘l’ a m c os si n « f , i n si n e ,

w h ich ev id en tly satisfy th e secon d of Th e fi r st of 41

( )
r ed u c es to
2
43
( ) i
« f cos ¢ a

If w e solve e u ati on s q 3
( )9 an d 41
( ) for r é, y5 g , z , th e r esul ti n
g
e x pr essio ns ar e r ed u c i bl e by m ean s of ( V II , 6 3 ) to

l
[ m n )N/ ]
2
5
’ 2
44 : l 90 + ’
lb sin 90 b
( ) 33 c os
b ?
a ,

an d an al ogou s e x pr essi on s for y; an d z é H

. en c e i f d) be , an ar bi
tr ar y fu n c ti on of v, an d « f i be g i ven by

—
vla a
< > l
th e fu nc ti on s 330 , zo, obtain e d fr o m (44) by q u ad r atu r es, toget h er

w ith l, m, n fr o m d eterm in e a r u l ed su r face w i th th e li near

ele m en t

Eac h h c oice of ( ) 1 g ives a d iffer ent d i r ector -

c on e, w h ic h is d eter

mi n ed by th e c u r ve in w h ic h th e con e c u ts th e u ni t Sp er e, h w h ose
c en ter is at th e ver tex of th e con e Su c h a c u r ve is dfie n ed by a
d
.

rel ation f i)
ar : 0, so t h at i n stea of c h oosing ar bit r ar il
y we

may ta k e f as ar bi tr ar y ; for , by co mbi ni ng e q uati ons 43

( ) and

f( p : 0, w e obtai n th e e x pr ession s for 4 ) an d 1 i fu n ctions

c , i)
Nt as

of v . H ence
A r u led su r a ce f may be d efor med i n su ch a w ay that the di r ector
cone takes an ar bi tr a r for m
y .

Cr elle, V ol X VIII. pp . 297 302

-
.
3 46 D EFO RMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

an d si m ilx pr essions for m an d n Wh en th ese valu es ar e su b

ar e .

sti tu ted i n th e fi rst tw o o f eq u ation s th e r esu ltin g equ ati on s

d
ar e r e uc i bl e by m eans o f th e Fr en et for mu las I
, ( to ,

C OS 0
'

si n 0
“

si n 90
( cos a srn

(sin 0
'

si n 00 ) a
“ “
b .

T h ese ar e tw q
o e u ati on s o f co n d itio n on a ,
”

p, r , as fu n c ti o ns of v .

Eac h set o f sol u ti on s d eter min es a sol u ti on of th e pr oblem ; for ,

th e d i r ec tr i x i s d eter mi n ed by e x pr essi on s for p an d r , an d e u a q
ti on s4 6 i e th e d i r ec ti on co sin es o f th e
( ) g v
g en er ato r s
-
.

We leave i t to the r ead er to pr o ve th e above t eor e h m by t is h

m ean s, and w e pr oc eed to th e pr oof of th e t h eor em

A r u led su r a ce f may be d efor med i n su ch a mann er that a g iven

cu r ve 0 becomes an a s m toti c li n e on the n ew r u led su rfa ce
y p .

O n th e d efor m w e mu st h ave 0
'

0 or 0
"

7r , so t h at fr o m 4
( 7)
1
p
th e g Si n bei ng fix ed by th e fac t t h at i
p s n ecessarily po si ti ve . Th e
secon d of 4 7 r ed u c es to
( )

If th e cu r ve w i th th ese in tr i nsi c e q u ati on s be con str u cte d , and in

th e o scul ati ng p lan e at eac p oi n t th e lin ehbe d r aw n w i c h hm k es
a

th e an g le h
90 w i t th e tang en t, th e locu s of t ese li n es i s h a r u le d
su r fac e satisfyi ng th e g iv en c on d i ti on s .

Wh en th e c u r ve C is an o r t h o
g on al tr a j ecto ry of the g en er ators,
th e sa m e i s tr u e of i ts d efor m . H en ce
A f m
r u led su r a cea
y be d ef or med i n su ch a w a
y th a t a ll the g en er

a tor s become the pr i n cipal n or ma ls of the d efor m of any one of their

or th og on a l tr aj ector i es .

H av ing th u s con sid er ed th e defor m atio n of r u l e d su r faces in

w h i ch th e g en er ator s re mai n stra ig h t , w e in q u ir e w h eth er tw o
 RU L ED SU RFA C ES 34 7

r ul e d su r fac es ar e appli c a bl e w i th th e gen er ators of eac h c o rr e

s
po n d i ng to c u r ves o n th e ot h er . A ssu me t h at i t is possible, an d
let v : be th e g en er ato rs o f S an d u
c o nst .
= co n st th e c u rv es .

on S c or respo nd ing to th e g enera tors of S, . Fr o m ( V , 1 3) i t

follo ws t h at th e c o n d i tio n s for t i s h ar e r espec ti v ely

a a
4
( 8) 10 g P 2 1o s p
a“ a,

w h er e K — l Bu t e q uati on s 48
( ) are th e n ece ssar y an d

su f
fi cient co n d i ti o ns t h at th er e be a su r fac e 2 applicable to S

an d S, , U pon w h ic h th e as m
y pto ti c l i n es are para metr i c
( cf. V I,
B ut th e c u r ves v = co n st . an d u co ns t . ar e ge o d esi cs o n S and S
an d con se u en tly on q 2 . T h er efo r e 2 i s d o u ly b r uled . H en ce
If tw o r u led su r fa ces S a nd S, ar e a
pp li c a ble to on e an other , the

g en er a tor s cor r es
p on d u nless the su rfa ces a r e a
pp li c able to a
qu ad r i c

f to the tw o difier en t
'

w i th the g en er a tor s o S a nd S, c or r es
p on ding

syste ms of g ene r ator s of the qu ad r i c .

EX AMP LES

1 . l d su r face can be d eformed i n to another r u l ed sur face i n su ch a w ay

A ru e

th at a geod esic beco mes a st raight li ne .

2 A r ul ed su r fa ce for med b y th e b i no r mals o f a c u r ve C can be d e fo rmed i n t o

.

a r ight co no id ; th e l a tte r is th e r ight h e lic o id w he n th e t o rsi on o f C is c o ns ta n t .

P ro ve th e c o n verse also .

3 O n th e h ype r bo l o id o f revo l u ti on d efin ed b y

.
,

z u v v y u v v z u
— COS — + Sl D — — COS —p
c A c c c A c 9

c d A
r

w h ere A 2 cc dfi’
,
th e ci r cl e of g o r ge i s a geod esic ,
w hich is met b y th e gener a tors

u nd er th e an gl e cos l c/A .

4 how
. S th at th e r ul ed su r fa e c w hich resu l ts fr om th e d efor mati o n o f th e
h yper bo l oid of Ex . 3 , in w hich th e ci r cl e of gor ge bec omes str aight is gi ven b y ,

ad

A
0

d
z ud

A
Srn
0

d
uc

5 h ow th at th e r u l ed sur face to w hich th e h yper bo l oid

. S of Ex . 3 is a pp licab le
w ith p ar a ll elism of or res o n n genera to rs is th e h elico id
z u
c
C £:
cc — d?p v
SID
di g y u v c2 d 3
.

S—
v .
-
‘

CO s
z u 2 c
— v,
C A c c2 + d2 c c a c c2 + a2 0 d A A2

and th at th e cir cl e of gor ge o f th e former c orr espo nds to a h el ix p

u o n th e latter .

6 Wh en th e di re ct r ix is a geod esic e qu ati ons ( 4 7) red uc e to

.
,

8 11]

(
C OS 00
i i: _0 ’
B n go 0 + b
-

6 z o,
T
a 2
0
2 0
3 48 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA C ES

7 . When h yper b o l o i d of r evol u ti on of one sh eet is d efor med i n to ano th er

an

r u l ed su r fa c e th e ci r cl e o f g or g e b ec omes a B er t r an d c u r ve an d th e ge ne r a tors
,

are p ar all el to th e c or r esp ondi n g b i nor mals o f th e c o n j u g a te B er t r an d c u r ve .

8 A r u l ed su r fac e can b e d efor med i n su ch a w ay th at a gi ven c u r ve is mad e

.

to lie u p on a sph er e of ar bit rar y r ad i us .

9 W h en a r u led sur fac e ad mi ts a c on ti nu ous d efor mati on i nto i tsel f th e to tal

.

c u r vatu r e of th e su r fac e i s c onstan t al ong th e li ne of str icti on th e gener ators meet th e ,

l atter u nd er constant angl e and th e p ar ameter of di str ib u ti on i s c onstan t (of

,
.

1 0 Tw o applic ab le r u l ed su rfac es w h ose c or resp ondi ng g ener a to r s ar e p ara ll el

.

c annot b e obtai ned from one ano th er by a c on ti nu ou s d efor mati on .

GENERAL EX AMPLES

1 . D eter mi ne th e systems o f c oo r di na te l i nes i n th e pl ane su ch th at th e li near

l
e e men t of th e pl ane is

w h ere U and V cti ons of u and v respecti vel y

are fu n .

2 . Solve for th e sph ere th e p r o bl em si mil ar to Ex 1 . .

3 . D eter mi ne th e fu ncti ons ( u) and f ( u) so th a t th e h elic o id s d efi ned by i! ,

v (p
m z a U2 — b2 cos , y = a \/U 2

sh all be a pplicabl e to th e su r fa e w c h ose equ ati ons ar e

:
=U
a c os v, y U si n v z ,
V I
f U
’
Z
du,

w h ere U is any fu ncti on of u .

4 A ppl y th e meth od o f Ex
. . 3 to fi nd h elicoid s applic abl e to th e p seud osph er e
to th e c aten oid .

5 Th e e q ua ti o ns
.

g
g
i
m 2 —2 = V 2 — 2 i = u — l)
z a u cos , y a u s n z (
a a

d efi ne a p arab ol oid of revol u ti on . Sh o w th at su r fac es applic abl e to it are d efi ned by

23 = ¢2 —
fs df2 ) ¢3

¢s — f3 ¢ 1 +
f (f f —
sd 1 fr dfs) ¢ r d¢ 3 )

z i n
—
fi ¢ z +
f (f1 df2 ”

fz dfr) “

f ( ‘b l d W

w h er e a is a real co nstant , and th e f

’
s and ¢
’
s ar e fu n cti ons of a p ar ameter a and

8 resp ecti vel y su ch th at

fi + fi H
" ‘

? 1, st a
“
a ? 1, fr¢ 1 + f2 ¢ 2 + f3 ¢ 3 u .

6 . I n ves tigate th e speci al c ase of Ex . 5 fo r w hich a and 3 are c o nj ug ate i magi nary
fun cti ons ,
and
2 a 2 (1 2
fs a
2V 2 a

and th e (15 s ar e
’
fun cti ons c onj ugate i magi nary to th e f s ’
.
350 D EFORMA TI ON O F SU RFA CES ,

15 . Sh ow th at th e e q uati ons

y f x/l a 2
U
’2
du , z : aU +

w h ere th e acc en t i ndic ates d iffer en ti ati o n w ith r esp ect to th e a gu ment d efi ne a r
,

fam il y of applic abl e su r faces of t r an sl a ti on A ppl y th e r esu lts o f Ex 1 2 to thi s c ase . . .

16 . th at w hen S an d Si i n Ex s 12 and 13 ar e su r fac es of t r ansl ati on

Sh ow .
,
and

th ei r gener ati ng c u r ves c or r esp ond th e same is t r ue of S and Si ,

’
.

17 . li nes be d r aw n th r ough p oi n ts of a B er t r and c u r ve p ar all el to th e bi nor

If
mal s of th e c onj ug ate c u r ve th ei r l oc us i s applic abl e to a su r fac e of revol u ti on
, .

1 8 I f a r eal r u l ed su r fac e is applic abl e to a su rfac e of r evol u ti o n it i s applic abl e

.
,

to th e r ight h elic o id o r to a h yp er b o l o id of r evol u ti on o f on e sh eet ( cf Ex 9 . .

,

1 9 A r uled su r fac e can b e d efor med i n an i nfi nity of w ays so th a t a cu r ve n ot

.

o r th og on al to th e gen er at or s sh all b e a li ne o f cu r vat u r e o n th e n ew r u l ed su rfac e ,

u n l ess th e gi ven c u r ve i s a geod esic ; i n th e l att er c ase th e d efor ma ti on i s u n iqu e

and th e li ne of cu r vat u re is pl ane .

2 0 L et P b e any p o i nt of a tw isted c u r ve C and M1 M2 p oi n ts on th e p r i ncip al

’
.
,

nor mal to C su ch th at
’
da
P Mg a si n
7
w h ere a b are constants and p is th e r adi us of c u r vature of C Th e l oci of th e li nes
,
.

th r ou gh Mi an d M p ar all el to th e tangen t to C at P are applic abl e r ul ed sur fac es

2
’
.

21 . On th e c
h ose equ ati ons ar e
su r fa e w

ac u y =f ( u )
, WW) z (v) M” ) vii (1 0
,
/
,

th e pai ametr i c c u r ves for m a c on j u g a te system th e c u r ves u c onst lie i n pl anes ,

.

p ar all el to th e yz pl ane and th e c u r ves 11 : c o nst i n pl an es p ar all el to th e x ax i s ;

-

,
.
-

h en ce th e t angen ts to th e c ur ves u : c onst at thei r p o i n ts of i nter secti on w ith a .

c u r ve v c onst ar e p ar all el . .

22 . I nves tigate th e ch ar acter of th e su r fa es of c Ex . 2 1 i n th e fo ll ow i ng c ases

( )
a . 90 ( v) 1 (b w ( >
v c onst M). e ( )v: o (d ) f (u ) au b

23 . If th e q tions of Ex
e ua . 2 1 be w r itten
a
s u. y =f ( u ) a w).
s z = f (u) m) u

th e most
gener al applic abl e sur fa es of c th e same ki nd w ith p arametr ic c urves cor
resp ondi ng ar e d efi ned b y

f v1 2 u
f ( )d a , =f (u )
’
x yi zi

w here x is a parame er , an d t th e fun ctions h i c

,
$ 2 ,
W1 W2,
sa ti sfy th e c onditi ons
i f a
”
¢3 a
“
x , 4 42 W W W.

s wab;
«
w e w as « we ,

¢ i¢ i l (b
i ( mil/é d ull/i )
4> 2 < I> i

Sh ow also th at th e d etermi nati on of I 1 and < > <I> q i

2 r e u r es o n l y a quad r ature .
 CHA PTER X

DEFORMA TION or SURFACES . THE METHOD or WEINGARTEN

1 45 Redu ced for m of th e linear el e m ent Wei ngar te n h as re

k
. .

mar ed t h at w h en w e r ed u ce th e deter min ati on o f all su r fac es appl i

c able to a gi ven on e to th e sol u ti on o f th e e q u ati on ( IX , n amel

y
1
( ) A22 H: ( 1 — A , H
)K,
we m a k e n o u se o f o u r k no w led ge of th e gi ven su r face, an d in
r eali t
y are tr ying to so lv e th e pro ble m of fi n d in g all th e su rfac es

w ith an assig n ed lin ear ele m en t . I n h is c ele br t a ed memo ir Su r la ,

for ma ti on d es
d cf su r faces ,
*
w hi c h w as a w ar ded th e gr an d pr iz e o f
th e Fr enc hA c ad emy i n 1 8 94 , Weingarten s h o w ed t at b
y tha k in g
acco u n t o f th e gi ven su rface th e abo v e e q u ati o n c an
placed be re

by an o t h er w h ic h c an be so lved in sever al i mpo rt an t c ases T is . h

c h a
pte r is d ev o ted to th e e x posi tion
~

of h
t is m et h od . lV e b eg i n by
dete r mi n in
g a par ti c u lar movin g tr i h ed ralfor th e g iv en su r fac e .

It follo w s fr o m (V II, 6 4 ) t h at t h e n ecessar

y an d su f fi c i en t co n

di tion t h at th e d irec tr i x o f a r uled sur fac e be th e li n e o f str i c tion is

+ yém +
'
él
’
2
( ) b x 0 .

Th e fun cti on s l, m, ’ ’ '

n ro o rti on al to th e d i r ec tion c osi n es o f
ar e
p p
-

th e c u rv e in w h ic h th e d ir ec to r o
c on e o f th e su r fac e m eets th e u nit

Sp ere h wi th c en ter at th e v er te x of th e co ne We c all h

t is c u r ve

d
.

th e spher i c al i n d icatri x of th e su r fac e . Fr o m 2

( ) an d th e i en ti ty

ll + mm +
’ ’
nn
'
= 0

i t is seen h
t at th e tang en t to th e h
sp er i cal i nd ic atri x is perpen
di cular to th e tan g ent plan e to th e su r fac e at th e co rr espo n di n
g
po in t of th e li n e o f str i c ti o n T is fac t is g oi n g to en abl e u s . h
m h
to d eter in e u n d er w at c on di ti on s a r uled su rfac e 2 , tan gen t
to a c u r v ed su r face S al ong a c urv e C, ad m it s the latter for
i ts li ne o f str i cti on .

‘ A tac Math emati ca , V ol X X . pp . 15 9 200

-
.
352 D EFORMATI ON OF SU RFA CES

We suppose th at th e par ameters v ar e an

y w h atever , an d h
t at

th e su r face is r efer r ed to a m o vi n
g tr i ed r al h We c onsi d er th e
d db d
.

ru e l s ur fac e fo r me y th e x
—
ax i s of th e tr i h e r al as th e or i
g i n

o f l th e atter d escr i b es th e c ur ve C Th e poin t ( 1 , 0, O) o f a seco n d

hd
.

tr i e ral par allel to t is h o n e, h

but w it or igin fix ed, descr i b es th e
h
sp er i c al d
i n i catr i x of E Fr o m q ti e ua ons
( V 5 1 ) w e find th at th e
d
.
,

co mp on ents of a isplac e m t f th i p i
en o s o nt ar e

0, r da r
l
d v,
(q d u . d
g, )v .

In or d er t h th e d
be perpen icu lar to th e tan g en t
at isplace m en t d
pl an e to 2 at th e c o r r es on i n
p g po i n t o f C t at i s er
p p en i d
cul ar h d
d
, ,

to th e cry plane o f th e mov i ng tr i e r al, w e m ust ave

-
h h
3
( ) r du r
1
d v 0 .

H en ce i f a tr i h ed r al T be assoc i ate dw it h a su r face S in an

y man

n er , as th e ver tex of T d escr ibes an i n teg r al c u r ve o f e u ation q

th e x -
ax is of T gener ates a r ule d su r fac e w h ose line
‘

of stri c ti on is
t ish c ur v e .

Wh en th e par a m etri c lin es on S ar e

g i v en , an d also th e an l
g e U
w h ic h th e x —
ax i s o f T m k
a es w ith th e tan g en t to th e c ur v e 1) c onst

d
.
,

th e fu nc ti on s r an d r
,
ar e co mpletely eter mi n ed, as follow s fr o m
( V , 5 2 , T h ey ar e

4 =
( ) r

H enc e i f U be g i ven th e v alu e

( 5) dv 95 ( u ),

w h ere d) (u ) d en o tes an ar bit r ar

y fu n c ti on o fu , th e fu n c tion r , is z er o ,

an d as the v er te x of th e tr i h ed r al d esc r ibes a c u r ve u = con st th e

d
.
,

x is d escr i bes a r u le su r fac e w h ose line of str i ction h

i s t i s c u r ve
d
x -
a .

Su ppose n o w t h at th e tr i h e r al i s su c h th at r
,
= 0 Fr o . m (V , 4 8 , 6 4)
i t follo w s t h at

6
( )
co n se q u en tly

7
( ) HK dv

w h ere «if is an ar bi tr ar y func tio n of u .

35 1 -
D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

Weing arten s m eth od con sists in r eplacing th e c oeffi cients of

’

f,7 E7 7 ,i n th e l
l,
as t
1 o f eq,
u ati o n s 1 3
( ) yb d i f
f er en ti al par am eter s

of i t fo r med w i th r es
pec t to th e li near e lem en t o f th e s
ph er ic al

re
p r esen tati o n of th e x —
ax is of th e m ovi n
g t i h r ed r al .

By mean s of 9
( ) t i s lihn ear el emen t is r ed u c ible to

: i dZ =
2 2 2 2
X d
2 2 ”
1
( )4 ( 10 + -

1 (11 + 9 )du + 2 qq, d u d v qfd v .

Th e d iffer en tial par ameter s of it , fo r med w i th r es pec t to t ish

h
for m, ave th e v alu es

A , A ,u

A A“ , A 1“ )

Bec au se of th e i d en ti ty
( V , 3 8 )

I f th e last q
o f e u ati on s
( 1 3 ) be dy g,, an d th e
i v id e db v alu es o f

p/91 , q/
q, , p/
g,
l
o btain ed fro m 1
( )5 an d 1 6 be su bsti tu te
( ) d , w e h av e

5
25
”
1
( )7 nI Agzu
1
A , (u , A , u ) 0 .

In q
c o nse u en c e of th e fi r st of e q uati o ns w r itten
1
U
’
9

VA l u

th e coef
fi ci en ts o f E £ in 1
( )7 ar e e x pr essible i n ter m s of

dw
, 1,

differ en ti al par ameter s of i t for m e it h r es

pec t to as w as

to be pr o ved
d
.

An e x ceptio n al c ase is th at i n w h ic h q,
= 0 . Un er h
t is co n d i tion

th e S
ph er i cal r epr esen tati on o f th e x -
a x is r ed u ces to a cu r ve, as is
seen fr o m
i ousl y w e h ave i nd ic at d by a p i me d i ffe enti al pa ameter s fo med w ith espect
Pr ev e r r r r r

to th e li n ea el men t o f th e sph e ic al r ep esen tati on F r th e sak e of si mplicity w e d is

r e r r . o

r eg a d thi s p actic e i n thi s ch apt e

r r r.
 THEOREM O F WEIN GARTEN 355
'

By mean s of ( 9 ) w e fin d t h at

1
( )9 A JAX, u
) A m u
) A AZ p u
)

q
an d co nse u en tly e u atio n s q ( 1 1 ) ma
y be w r i tten

2
( )0 :
a l —
i nvA , (X ,,
n
)]d a nl vA , (X ,,
n
)]d v,

an d si mil ar ly fo r 3/ an d z .

147 . Th e th eor e m of Weingart en Equ ati on ( 1 7) is th e . e q u ati o n

w hi c h lV eing art en h as su g
g ested as a su bs ti tu te fo r e q u atio n

We n ot ice t h at E , 77, ar e k n ow n fu n c tio ns o f u an d v w h en

th e su r fac e S i s g i v en By m eans o f ( 1 8) e u atio n ( 1 7) can be
. q
g i v en a for m w i c h hin vo l ves o nly i t an d di ffere n tial parameters
of n fo r m e d w i th p t r es e c to On acc o un t of th e i n v ar i an t
c h arac te r o f th d i ff es e er en ti al par a meter s h
t is lin ear ele m en t

may be e x pressed i n ter m s o f an m

y par a eters, say u an d v
’ ’
.

We s h all h
S ow h
t at eac h sol u tio n of e u ati o n q
( 1 7 ) d eter min es
a su r fac e appli c able to S . We for mu late th e t h eo r e m of Wei n
garten as follo ws :

L et S be a su i face w hose linea r ele men t in the r ed u c e d for m i s

= + 17 )d u + 2 6 51 + ow du d v
2 2 2 2
2
( 1) (5
’
d8 ( 83+ ab d v ;

then E , E
v
ar e f u n cti on s o fn a nd 1) su c h tha t

Fu r ther mor e let X , ,,

Y, , Z, be the coo r d i na tes o f a
p oi nt on the u n i t

p er e, ex pr essed i n ter ms of
h y tw o par a meter s n
’ '
s an an d v , the lin ea r
elemen t o f the spher e bei ng
”
( 23 ) do

A ny i n teg r a l u
, f
o the e u a ti o n
q

1
( 24 ) 77
1
A22 “ 77 A
( i u yA u e E
V Al u

l
u
) 1 0“ 0,
35 6 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

the difier en ti a l pa r a meter s bei ng for med w i th r espect to r en der s

thefollow ing ex
p r essi on a n d si mi la r on es in g an d 2 :
t ta l d ifi r
o e en ti a ls
'

2
( )5 dx : 1
0+ ” fn
u v
1 )

w her e

an d the f
su r a c e w hose coor d in a tes a r e th e fu n cti on s as, y, z th u s d efin ed

h as the li n ea r ele men t

Befo r e pr o vi ng t is t h h eor em w e r emar k t h at th e par am eter s u!

an d v ma
’
y be c osen ei t h h er as k no wn fun c ti o n s of u and v, o r in
s uc h a w ay t h at th e li n ear el e m en t 1
( )4 S h all h av e a par ti c u lar
fo r m . I n th e fo r m er case X ,,
Y,, Z , ar e k no wn as fu n ctions o f u ’

an d v
'
, an d i n th e sec on d t h ei r d eter min ati on q
r e u i r es th e solu tion

of a Rioc ati equ ation H o w ever in w h at follo ws w e assu m th

e at

k
.
,

X ,,
Y, , Z , ar e no wn .

Su ppose n ow t h at u
’
an d v
’
ar e an
y p ar am eter s w h atever , and

t h at w e h ave a solu tion u o f e u ation

q w h er e th e d iffer en tial
d
,

par ame ters ar e for m e w i th r espect to L et v

,
d en ote th e
q u an ti t
y Bo th u
,
an d v ar e
,
fu n cti o n s of u
' '
an d v , an d

c on se u en tly q th e latter ar e e x pr essible as fu nc tions of th e for m er

d
.

We ex pr ess X , , Y, , Z , as fu n c ti on s of u
,
an d v, an d ete r mi n e the
c o r r espond i ng li near ele m en t o f th e u n i t Sp er e, h w h ic h we w r i te
2
2
( )6 d o
, (5, d
2
u, 2 g , do

In ter m s o f u , an d v
,
we h ave

Fr o m th ese e x pr essio ns i t follow s t h at i f w e pu t

X 2 l l (
X 1,
u
i ) ’ Y2 v
1
A 1(
Y,,
u
l )
’ Z2 v
r
A 1(
Z 1 ’ u i )’

we h ave
358 D EFORMA T I ON OF SU RFA C ES

T ish q
e u ati on w ill be si mplifi ed still mor e by th e in tr od u c tion
of tw o n ew p ar am eter s w h ich ar e su
gg ested by th e follo w in g
con sid er ati on s .

A S pr ev i o u sly d efi n ed, th e fu n ction s X , , Y, , Z , ar e th e d ir ection

cosi n es o f li n es tan g en t to th e g i v en su r face S i n su c a w ay t at h h
th e r ul ed su r face h
for m ed by t ese tan g en ts at poi n ts o f a cu r v e
c on st . h as h
t i s c u r v e fo r i ts lin e o f str i c ti on Mor eover , fr o m .

th e t h eo r e m of Wei ng ar ten i t follow s t h at th e fu n cti o ns X ,,

Y, , Z,
h av e th e sa m e sig n i fi can ce for th e su r face appli cable to S w h ich
c or r espon ds to a par ti c u lar sol u ti o n o f e u atio n q
Bu t X ,,
Y, , Z , m ay be ta k en also as th e d i r ec ti o n -
c osi n es o f th e
n or m al s to lar g e g r ou p o f su r faces,
a as S h o wn in In par ti e
67 .

u lar , w e c o nsi d er th e su r fac e 2 w i c h hi s th e en v elo pe o f th e plan e

X :
,
c Y,g Z ,z u .

Eac h sol u ti on o f e q u ati o n 1

( )7 d eter m in es su c h a su r face . If xy, 2 ,

d en o te th e c obr di n ates of th e poi n t o f con tac t o f h

t i s plan e wit 2 , h
we h av e fr om (V , 3 2)

( 3 2) a; uX
, + A ,(
u,

w h ich ,
in co n se q u en ce o f m ay be w ri tten

5 : X 2
.

H en ce th e po in t o f con tact of 2 li es i n th e plan e t h r ou

g h th e or ig i n

par allel to th e tan g en t plan e to S at th e c or r espo n din g po i n t .

q
If th e s u ar e o f th e d istan ce o f th e poi n t o f con tac t fr o m th e
or i
g i n be d en o ted by 2 g, an d th e distan ce fr o m th e o r ig in to th e
tan g en t plan e by p, w e
*
h av e

3 3 =
( ) p u.

Fr om ( V , 3 5 , 3 7) i t follo w s t h at th e pr i n c ipal r ad ii of E ar e

i v en by
g
= — A
34
p, + p2 ( 2 u +
( ) A u n A2u u
2
,

Th e d er w ill ob serv e th at th e functi ons 19 and q thu s d efi n ed ar e d i ffer ent from

r ea

t h e r o ta ti on s d esign ate d b y th e sa me l ette r s A s thi s no t ati on i s g en er all y empl oyed i n

.

th e t eatm en t o f t h e th eor em of W ei ng ar ten it h as seemed b est to r eta i n it even at th e

r , ,

r i sk o f a c o n fu si o n o f n o t ati on .
 METHOD OF WEIN GA RTEN 359

w h er e th e d i ffer en ti al par am ete rs ar e for med w i th r e s ec t

p to

Fr om t h ese e q u ati o n s w e h av e

—
( Pl + P ) 2
2m

M
2
P “ .

We sh all n ow efi ec t a c h an
g e of
par am ete r s, u sin
g p
d efi n ed by (3 3 ) as th e n ew o n es . By di rec t c alc u latio n w e

34> at ca at 1 37>
T P’ 3
cu 2P 0
9 3v v a9

an an an
l
ae at
2 — 7
2 ’
bu 5p 8p 6g Bq fig

2
1 8 4) 833
2
Eu do
s
u 8p 8g 89
2 2
5 4) 1 8 ¢ 3 34)
n
2 6 2 4
ov v 8g 1) 8g

By mean s o f th e e u ati on s ( 3 3 ) an d q 36
( ) th e fu n da m en tal e q ua

tio n ( 3 1 ) c an be r ed u c ed to

8q
39
2 ( 0
1 1 + a )+

h
T i s i s th e for m i n w h ic h th e fu n da m en tal e q u atio n w as fir st c on

si der ed by Wein gar ten .

"s
Th e m et h od of 1 4 6, 1 4 7 w as a su bse

qu en t d ev elopmen t .

I n te r ms of th e par ameters p an d g th e fo r m u l as 2
( )9 becom e

3k 3
2 2 2
9
2p
3 43 2 8 1) 6 4> 5 43
910
2
317 89 W p
529 99 29
2

f;
”
9 P ) '

If t h ese v alu es an d th e ex pr essi on fo r A , (u , X ,) g

i v en by ( 3 2 ) be

substi tu ted in it is r ed u c ibl e to

n
a
310 3g

Comptes Re nd us , V ol
'
. CX II p . 607 .
36 0 D EFO RMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

H enc e th e e q u ations for S may be wri tten

dy Y, d

dz Z 1d 9? a

an d c on se u en tl
y q th e l in ear el e men t of S is of th e for m
2
4
( )0 ds

Sinc e t h ese v ar i o u s e x pr essi ons an d q

e u ati on s d iffer on ly in for m
fr o m t h o se w h ic h fi g u r e in th e t h eor e m of Weingar ten th e latter i s
k
,

ju st as tr u e fo r t h ese n ew e u ati o n s q We r emar also th at h

th e r ig t
dm m
.

h an e ber of 4 0 d
( ) p se en d o nly u po n th e for m of H ence w e
h av e th e t h eor e m of Weing ar ten i n th e for m
Wh en
I
() in e u a ti on
q 3
( )7 i s a d efin i te fu n cti on of p an d
q,thi s

e u a ti on
q d efin es la rg e g r oup
a of su r fa ces w i th the sa me spher i ca l

re
p r esen ta ti on , the fu n cti on s p,
70 2 d en oti ng the pr i n cipa l r adi i ,
an d

and an d 2 th e d i stan ce fr om the or i i n to the tan en t la n e an d

p q g g p
the squ a r e of the di stan ce to the poi n t of con ta ct Ea ch su rfa ce 2 .

fy g
sa ti s i n thi s cond i ti on
g i ves b
y qu a dr a tu r es ( 3 9) a su rfa ce w i th the
li n ear elemen t Conver sely, each su rface w i th this lin ear element
sta n d s in su ch r ela ti on to so me f f
su r ace sati s yi ng the cor r es on ding
p
equ ati on

As a co r oll ar
y to th e pr eced ing r esu lts, w e h av e th e t h eor e m
The li n ear elemen t f a ny su rface
o S is re d u ci ble to the for m

018 : d u + e fii du d Qlf d e
2 2
‘’ ’
-

,
du
w her e x
]
; is a fu n cti on of u an d v .

For , we h av e seen h
t at th e lin ear elemen t of any su r face is
r ed uc i bl e to th e for m If, t h en , w e c h ang e th e par a m eter s by
m ean s of th e equ ati on s

4
( )2 u

we h av e

2 2 “
4
( 3) de du + 2 p d u d v 2 qd o .
362 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA C ES

r epr esen ta ti on o f i ts n or ma ls a s the tang en ts to the con st.

'

cu r ves v

on S. If p an d fi g d en ote the d i stan ce fr om the ig i n to the tang ent or

lan e to E a n d the squ a r e of the d i stan ce to th e poi n t of c on tact, the

p y
have the va lu es Mor eover , f the
i c ha ng e f par ameter s
o defin ed
by these equ a ti on s be ex
p r essed i n the i n ver se for m

a¢
5 0 L _ 9
( ) u
310
,
39

the pr i n cipa l r ad i i fZ
o sa ti s fy the con d i ti on

2 e 2

1
8 4) b d) 8 d)

and the coor d i n a tes o f S ar e g i ven by qu a d r atu r es of the for m

M fa ce w i th the same r epr esen ta ti on a s Z an d w hose

r eover , ever g su r ,

f u n c ti on s Pp P2 p g fy (5 1 )for the sa me ( I) deter min es by equa

sati s , , ,

ti on s of the for m (5 2 ) a su rfa ce appli ca ble to S *

.

1 49 . Su r faces appli cabl e to a su r face of r ev ol uti on . Wh en th e

lin ear elemen t o f a su r face appli c able to a sur fac e of r evolu ti on

is wr i tten
d8 = d u1 + p
2 2 2
5
( )3 (u 1 )
an d th e oa
a -
x is of th e m ov i ng tr i h ed r al i s tang ent to th e c u r ve

v con st .
, th e fu n c ti on r is q
e u al to z er o , as follo w s fr o m
In o r d er to o bt ai n th e c o n d i ti on s w e efi ec t th e tr ansfor m ati on

o f var i a bl es

u =
q,

so t h at the lin ear ele m en t b ec o mes

d3 = p da + db
2 2 2 ”
5
( )4

Now r = p, ’
r = O, and c on se u en tl
y q in or d er to h ave li n ear
d k
1

el em en t i n th e re u ced for m we m u st ta e

'
(5 5) u u, v p( o) .

d i r ect pr oof o f thi s th eo rem th e r ead er is r efer r ed to a memoi r by Goursat

For a ,

Sur un th éor éme d e M Wei ng ar ten et sur l a th eor i e d es su r fac es applicabl es Tou lo use
'

.
, ,

A n nales V ol V ( 1891) also B ar bo ux V ol IV p 3 16 and B i anc h i V ol II p 1 98

,
.
, .
. .
, ,
.
, . .
 SU RFA C ES OF REV OL U TI ON 363

Fro m t h ese resu l ts an d w e find t h at th e c oo rdi n ates of th e

sur fac e 2 ar e
g i v en b
y

=—l
:
ca v
1
82 :
z
’
+
P 81 6
1 P 3v
1 82 v 82
Z : 1
9
'
p eul P 3 0
1

an d th e di r ec ti on -
c osi n es o f th e n or m als to 2 ar e

A lso , w e h av e

(5 6 )
Hen ce w e h av e th e t h eor e m

To a c u r ve w hi ch i s the d efor m f o a mer id ia n f a su r fa ce of r evo

o

luti on ther e cor r es o nd s on the su rface 2 a c ur ve su c h tha t the ta n en t

p g
pla nes to 2 at
p oi nts o f the c ur ve a r e a t a c on sta n t dista nce fr o m the
orig in , a nd to a d efor m of a pa r a llel ther e cor r espon d s a cu r ve su c h

tha t the pr oj ec tion of the r a d i u s vec tor upon the ta ng en t pla ne at a

p oi n t is con sta n t.

For th e pr esen t c ase 1) = 51 O; co nse u en tl q y we h av e, fr om

2 2
8 4) 92
310 89 W
T is h q
e u atio n is sati s fi ed by

=
( 5 7) ¢ <n q) f 2
( <1
w h er e f is an
y fu n c ti on w h atev er . In te r ms of h
t is fu n cti on w e

hav e, fr om

( 5 8) E
”
2f , n. 4 (2 q

w h ere th e ac c en ts i n di cate d i ffer enti ati on wi th res ec t

p to th e
u men t,
2
ar
g 2q p
By m eans o f ( 55 th e li n ear
) elemen t (5 4 ) c an be transfor med i n to
2/
2 2 2
m gv)d uz
ds (0
( )
vd u + ,
v

th e fu n cti on m (v) bei ng d efi n ed by

w( ) v
p 17
)
3 64 D EFORMATI ON O F SU RFA CES

Sin ce 77 :
£1 0, w e h av e

5 w
(v) ,

an d w e k no w th at r v . Now q
e u ation s ( 5 8 ) become
= — ’
w
( )
v 2 f,
an d h t ese ar e c on si sten t becau se of th e r elati o n —
2 q p = 1/
2 2
v ,

whi h c r esu lts fr om H ence we h ave th e t h eor e m

When I ( p g) i s a fu n cti on of 2
( ) , q p , the c or r es on d i n
p g su rfa ce S
2

i s appli ca ble to a su rfa ce of r evolu ti on , the tang en ts to the d efor ms of

the par a llels bei ng par allel to the cor r espond i ng n or ma ls to 2 .

I th e for m (5 7) and el emen t

’
If w e
g iv e ( )
pu t X” 2 f , th e lin ear
of S is
_
1 ) ?
2 2
4 d
” ”
5 9 618 2 d
( ) ( 9 9

as m (40)
follo w s fr o or

1 5 0 Mini m l l i n n th a es o e sph er e par a m etr i c In § 1 47 w e re

m k d th t th p
. .

ar e m t i a e ar a e r c c u r v es o n h m th e Sp er e a
y be an
y w h at

ever . A n i n ter estin g c as e is th t i w h i h th y

a n c e ar e the i mag i n ar y

g en er atr ices . In § 35 w e saw th t th pa mt e ar a e er s of th ese li nes,

sa
y a an d B , c an be so c h osen th t a

—
X « s a
( 0)
6 1
1 1 “B

C on sequ en tly
4 da d B
6 1 ( 10
2
: dX 2
+ d y1 + n
2
( ) 1 1
1
( +
Fr o m 3
( )2 we fin d t h at th e c oo r d in ates o f 2 , th e en v elope o f

th e Plan e X I
3; Yl y l _17 0,
ar e
2
x pX I

3/ Y
P 1+ + 0
5
W—
d + a>
5;
6p
5 =e + B .

fi
Fr o m th ese w e o bt i a n

2 2 317 81”
3 66 D EFO RMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

H o wever fr o m ( 6 8) i t
, is seen t h at

7
( )0

so t h at 69 m
( ) ay be wr itten
2
7
( )1 ds d u f+ 2 [ u 1 + dv z
.

G at h er i n
g to et
g h er t h ese r esu l ts, w e h av e th e t h eor e m

The d eter min ati on of a ll the su r a ces w i th

f the li n ear ele men t ( 71 )
r ed u ces to the i n teg r ati on f
o th e e u a tion
q
2
9 19 35(r )
”
w as ( 1 + d B
)

Th e i n teg r al of t ish equ ati on for w

(p) ar bit r ar
y i s n ot k no wn
k
.

H o w ever , th e i n teg r al i s no wn in c er tai n c ases . We c o n sid er

sev er al of th ese .

15 1 Su r faces of Gou r sat Su r faces appl i cabl e to cer tain par ab

k
. .

ol oi ds . Wh en we ta e

7
( )3 M 1? ) is m (1 "
o
r
?

m b ein
g any c on stan t, e u ati on
q 7
( )2 b eco mes

2
8a ( 1 a ,8
)
Th e g en er al i n teg r al o f t is e u ation c an be fo u n d by th e h q m th e od

o f L aplac e,
"6
in fi n i te for m
o r i n ter ms o f d efi n ite i ntegr als, accor d

i ng as m i s in teg r al or n ot .

Th e lin ear ele men t of th e su r fac e S is

7
( )5 ds
2
d u,
2
[ 2 u
1
m (1 m)v ]d v
2 2
.

A n d th e su rfaces 2 ar e su c h th at

7 6 2 = m m — 1
( ) +
P1 P2 + r ( >p,
th at is, th e su m of th e pr in ci pal r ad ii i s pr opor tio n al to th e dis
tan ce of th e tang en t plan e fr om a fix ed poi n t T ese su r faces
. h
w er e fi rst stu di ed by G ou r satd '
and ar e c alled , c on se u en tly, q the

sur faces of Gour sat .

‘ B ar b o ux , V ol II,
. p . 56 . t A meri ca n Jou r nal, V ol X . p . 1 87 .
 SU RFA CES O F G O U RSA T 367

D ar bo u x h as r emar k ed h
t at e q u ati on 7
( )1 is si m il ar to th e li n ear
ele men t of rul ed sur fac es
( V II I n fac t, if th e e q u ati ons o f a

d
,

r u le sur fac e ar e wr i tten i n th e for m

77
( ) :
c x 0 + lu l , g g 0 + mu l , z 2
0
nu
l,

w h ere 250 , l, m, n ar e fun c ti o n s o f v alo n e, w h ic h now is n ot

n ec essa r il y th e ar c of th e di re c tr ix , th e lin ear ele men t of th e

su r fac e w ill h av e th e for m p r o vi d e d t h at

7
( )8 El 2
= 1, 0, 2 El : 0 ”
.

In q
co n se u en ce o f th e q
e u atio n s

2 ll = 0,
’
El : 0,
"

i t fo llo w s t h at a r u l ed su r face of h
t is k i nd ad mi ts an iso tr opi c

plan e d i r ec to r . h
I f t i s plan e be x + ig = 0, t h at i s, if

w e h av e

w h ere V is a fu nc ti o n of v . By means of h
t es e v al u es an d e u a q
ti ons w e c an pu t 7
( 7) in th e fo r m

We h
s all fin d t ht a a mong t h ese su rfa c es t h er e is an i magi n ar y
par abo lo id to w hi h c are appli cable c er ta in su r fac es to w hi c h Wein
g ar ten c all ed atten ti on . To t i s h en d w e c ons i d er th e fu n c ti on
2p
,

( 8 0) —2 x c
~ fé

w h er e x d en otes a cons tan t . No w q

e u ati on 6
( )6 b ec o m es

2
1
( + a B)
V ol . W p
,
. 333 .
368 D EFORMAT I ON OF SU RFA C ES

In con se q u en c e of th e i d en ti ty

2
8 2 2
lo g ( 1 d B) 2
6a (1 a ,8
)
th e pr ec edi ng e q u atio n is q
e u i valen t to

f
s
a 2
-

log ( 1 e
it

If we pu t J’

t ish e q u ati on takes th e Li o u v i lle for m

2
8 9
aa

of w hich th e g en er al i nteg r al is
' '
AB
4 a+ A m f

w h er e A an d B ar e fu n c ti on s of a an d B r espec tiv el ,
y an d

acc en ts d
i n i cate d ifi er enti ati on w i th r es
pec t to t h ese . H ence th e
r al in teg r al of 8 1 i
g en e ( ) s

2 a+ A m
and th e li near ele m en t o f S is
2

)
v

8
( )2 d s = du f+
z
u
l
v fi 2 x c
4 2
do 2

If n ow , i n a d di ti o n to we ta k e
v

th e q
e u ati on s ( 7 9) ta k e su c h a for m t h at

ew =
e+
H ence th e su r faces w ith th e li near ele m en t 8
( )2 ar e appli ca bl e to
th e i mag i n ar y par a b oloid Th e gen er ator x + i g = 0 of t is h
par a oloi b d
in th e plan e at i n fi ni t
y is tang en t to th e i agin ary m
c i r cle at th e poin t h h
w ic i s a di fi er ent poi nt
fr o m th at in w h i ch th e plan e at i n fi n i ty tou c h es th e su r face,

th at i s, th e poin t of i n tersecti o n of th e tw o gen erato r s .

3 70 D EFORMATI ON OF SU RFA C ES

6 . Sh ow th at w h en 45 h as th e for m q ti on
th e e u a ( 5 1) i s d u cibl e to
re

( PI + p)( p2 + 19 =
) F (2 q —
p
2
);
h en c e th e d eter mi nati on of all th e su r fac es applic abl e to su r faces of r evol u ti on i s
e q u i val en t to th e d e ter mi n ati on o f th o se su r fac es 2 w hich ar e su ch th at i f MI and

M2 ar e th e c en ter s of p r i n cip al c u r vat u re o f E at a p oi n t M and N is th e p r oj ecti on ,

of th e or igi n 0 on th e n or mal at M th e p r od u ct N M1 N M2 is a fun cti on of ON , .

7 G i ven any su r fac e S applic abl e to a su r fac e of r evol u ti on D r aw th r ou gh a

. .

fi x ed poi n t 0 segmen ts parallel to th e tangen ts to th e deforms of th e mer idians

an d o f l ength s p r op or ti onal to th e r adii of th e c or resp ondi ng p ara ll el s and th r o u gh ,

th e ex t remiti es of th ese segmen ts d r aw li nes p ar all el to th e n or mal s to S Sh ow .

th at these li nes fo r m a n or mal c ongruen ce w h ose o r th ogonal su r fac es 2 h ave th e

same S ph er ic al r ep r esen t ati on of th ei r li nes of c u r vat u r e as S an d are i n teg r al su r

fa c es of th e eq u ati on o f Ex 6 . .

8 L et S b e a su r fac e applic abl e to a sur fac e of r evol u ti on and S th e su r fac e

.
’

c ompl emen tary to S w ith r esp ect to th e d efor ms of th e mer idi ans ; let al so 2 and
2 b e su r fa ces associ ated w ith S an d S r esp ecti vel y after th e manner of Ex
’ ’
7 . .

Sh ow th at c or resp ondi n g no r mal s to 2 an d E are pe r p en dic u l ar to o n e an oth er

’

an d th at th e c ommon p er p endic u l ar to th ese no r mal s p asses th r ough th e o r igi n and

is di vid ed by it i n to tw o seg men ts w hich ar e fun cti on s o f o ne ano th er .

9 Sh ow th a t a su rfa c e d eter mi n ed b y th e e q u ati on

.

w h ere i s a constan t possesses th e p r op er ty th at th e S ph er e d esc r ib ed on th e seg

x ,

men t of each no r mal be tw een th e c en ter s o f p r i n cip a l c u r vat u re w ith thi s segmen t
for di ameter c u ts th e sph e r e w ith c en ter at th e or igi n an d o f r adi us V ; i n g r eat
ci r cl es or th ogonall y or p asses th r ough th e or igi n acc or di ng as is p ositi ve nega
, , ,
x ,

ti ve or z er o Th ese su r fac es ar e c all ed th e surfaces of B i anch i

,
. .

1 0 Sh ow th a t for th e su r faces of B i an chi th e fun cti o n

.
( p q) is of th e form ,

and th at th e li near el emen t of th e asso ci a ted su r fa ec S pplicabl e

a to a su r fa e c
o f revol u ti on is

(
1
— d¢ 2 V 61192
b2
l

Sh o w a sol
th at acc ordi ng as x 0, > 0 , or < o th e li near el emen t of S is re d u cibl e
to th e r esp ecti ve for ms

as2 d u2 e2 u d v2 , da2 t anh4 u d u2 sech fi u d v’, da2 co th ‘ u du2 csch 2 u d v2 .

On cc ou n t of this r esu lt and Ex 1 0 p 3 18 th e su rfaces of B i an chi are said to be

a .
,
.
,

of th e par a boli c elliptic o r h yper bolic type acc or di n g as

, ,
O 0 or 0 ,
x , ,
.

1 1 Le t S b e a p seud osph er i c al su r fac e w ith i ts li near el emen t i n th e form

.

( V II I a
,
nd S1 th e B i an chi t r an sfo r m w h ose li near el emen t i s ( V II I F i nd ,

th e c o ordi n ates a 5 2 of th e su r fac e 2 asso ci a ted w ith S, b y th e meth od of Wei n

, ,

gar ten and sh ow th at by means of Ex 8 p 29 1 th e ex pr essi on for Ei s red u cibl e to

,
.
,
.
,

i
5 ( 00 8 OK I si n 0X ) IX
“ '

£1 6
“
2
2 ,

w h er e X 1 X X ar e th e di re cti o n c osi nes w ith r espe ct to th e a ax is of th e tangen ts

, 2,
- -

to th e li nes o f c u r va t ur e o f S and o f th e n or mal to th e l atter .

 G EN ERAL EX A MPL ES 3 71

12 h ow th at th e su r fac es S and E of Ex 1 1 ha ve th e same sph er ical r ep r esem

. S .

tat ion of their l in es of c ur va tu re th a t 2 is a su r fa ce o f B i an chi of t h e pa r abo lic ,

type and th at c onse q uentl y there is an infi ni ty of these su r fac es of th e p arabo lic
,

type w hich h ave th e same spher ic al rep resen ta ti on o f th ei r li nes of cur vature as a
gi ven pseud ospher ic al su r face S .

1 3 Sh o w tha t if 2 1 and 2 2 are tw o sur faces o f B i an chi of th e para bo lic type

.

w hich h ave th e sa me sph er ica l rep resen ta ti on o f th ei r l i nes of c u r vat ure th e l oc us ,

o f a po in t w hich di v id es in c o nsta n t r ati o th e line j oi n i n g c o r r espon di ng po i n ts o f

'

2 1 and }: is a su r fa ce of B i anchi w ith th e sa me r epr ese n ta ti o n of i ts li nes of our

v atur e an d th at it is of th e elliptic o r h yp er bo li c ty pe acc o r d i ng as th e po i n t di vid es
,

th e segmen t in te r n all y or ex te r nall y .

1 4 W he n S i s a p se ud osph er ica l surf ac e w ith i ts l in ear el emen t i n th e for m

.

(V I II th e c o or di na tes :
El 37 2 1 of th e sur fa ce 2 d e ter min ed by th e meth od
‘

, , 1,

o f We in ga r t en are red u cibl e to

f f
( ac a
c os t? q sin 0)X 1 ( as “
s n i o q cos v)X , ,

and l g p ressio ns for yl and 2 1 w h ere X 1 YI Z 1 ; X 2 Y2 Z? are th e

an a o o us ex
‘ ‘

, , , , ,

d irec ti on c osi nes of th e tangen ts to th e l in es o f cu r va tur e of S Sh ow al so tha t 2

-
.

h as th e same sph e r ic a l rep rese n t ati on o f i ts li n es o f cur va tur e as th e su r fa ce S] w i th

th e lin ea r el emen t ( V III ,

1 5 D er i ve fro m th e eq u ati o ns
.

b y means of a nd th e e ua q ti ons
6% Fl o
:
r. :
:1
u?
E sq? E
u a;

w h ere z , y, z are c oord inates of S

th e .

16 . Sh o w tha t th e eq ua ti ons for 2 si m il ar to (IV , 2 7) are re d u cibl e to

2
o 3 :
— d a — dv
82 1 :
— d a
891 :d o 0,
E
u cv 6172

and s i milar ex p ressi ons i n y and z . De r i ve th erefro m ( cf . Ex . 1 5 ) th e e qua ti ons

F( D d u + d
’ ”
B da + B dv ) 0
2 2
. -

¢ C
du — da
E2 q
w h er e D ,
D
’
,
D
”
a re c d fu nd amen ta l coeffi ci en ts of S
th e se on .

17 . S h ow th at th e lines of cur vatur e on 2 cor r espo nd to a co nj u ate syste m o n g

S (c f Ex. .

18 . S h ow that for th e su r fa e c 2 we have

6X 1 ( 1 8X 1
_ EX 1
_
610 ea 6a GP

19 . Le t S be th e su r fa e c d efi ned by ( 6 7) and 8 1 th e su r face w h ose cob rd inates are

=z — u1 X 1, yl z
y
— u
l Yl , z, z u1Z1 .

S h ow th at S, is an in vol u te of S tha t th e c u r ves p c ons t are geod esic s on ,

. S an d

li nes of c ur vatu r e on S] and th at th e rad i i o f p r in cipa l cur vature of S; are

,

pi “1, [ 11 1 2 511 6]
3 72 D EFORMA TI ON OF SU RFA CES

20 . Sh ow th at w h en m i n ( 73 ) i s 0 or 1 , th e fu n cti on p is th e su m of tw o ar bi
tr ar y fu n cti ons of a and 18 r es ep cti vely th at ,
th e li near el ement of S is
2
ds2 du , 2 ul dv2 ,

th at S is an evol u te of a mi ni mal surface ( cf . Ex . and th at th e mean evol u te of

2 is ap o i n t .

21 . Sh ow th at w h en m in ( 73) is 2 , th e gener al i n tegral of equ ati on ( 74) is

1 ?
at

w here fl and fg are ar bit r ary fun cti ons of a:

and 6 resp ecti vel y . Sh ow a sol th at th e
sur fa c e 2 is mi ni mal ( cf .

22 . Sh ow
th at th e mean evol u te of a sur fac e of Gou rsat is a sur fac e of Gou rsat
h omoth etic to th e gi ven one .

23 . Sh ow th at w h en B ( p) J p ,
a
;
’ th en
19 a log fl a t hi
w h er e fl an d fz ar e ar bit r ar y fu n cti ons th a t th e li near ,
ele men t of S is
2
ds2 du l 2 ( u; av ) d v2
,

and th at th e mean evolu te of 2 is a s ph er e .

24 h ow th at th e surfaces S of Ex
. S . 23 are a pplic abl e to th e sur fac es r evolu

ti o n So w h ose equ ati ons are

v
110 m7 si n
, i
a

w h er e a is an ar bit r ary c onst an t . S h ow al so th at w h en a i a , S0 i s a p ar ab ol oid .

25 . S h ow th at w h en
o ( p, <1 )

th e su r fa es 2 are c ph er ic al or pseud osph er ic al acc or di ng as m is po siti ve or

s g
ne a

ti ve l
a so th at th e su r fac es S ar e applic abl e to th e su r fac e
us
z -
l iyz
-
v, 112 — 1 31 z = u,
2 2m

w hich i s a p ar ab ol o id tangen t to th e pl ane at i nfi nity at a po i n t of th e ci r cl e at

i nfi n ity .
3 74 IN FINI TESI MA L D EFORMA TI ON

fu n c tion s of u an d v, th ey may be ta k en for th e c oor di n ates o f a

su r face S, . Equ ation ( 2 ) ex pr esses th e fac t t h at th e tang en t to

any c u r ve o n S i s per pen d icu l ar to th e tang ent to th e cor r espon d
i ng c u r ve o n S, at th e o mol og o u s poi n t We say t at i n t i s case
h . h h
S an d S, c or r es
pon d w i th or thog on ali ty o f cor r es on d i n
g li n ear ele
p
men ts . An d so w e h av e

The pr oblem of the i nfini tesi ma l d efor mati on of a su rfa ce S i s

e u i va len t to the d eter min a ti on o
f th e su rfa ces cor r es on din to it
q p g
w i th or thog on a li t f li n ear l men ts
“

o
y e e .

1 53 . Ch ar acter i sti c fu ncti on . We p r o ceed to th e d eter min ation

of th ese su r faces S, , an d to t i s h en d re
pl ace q
e u ati o n 2 b th
( ) y e
q
e u i val en t system

br be ,
bu bu 2 : but bx
bu bv
,
+
2
Wein g ar ten re
pl aced th e l ast of h
t ese e q u ati o n s by th e tw o

bx bx
¢H 2b
,
4
( ) ’
v bu

th us d e fi n in g a fu n c tio n a w hich
, Bian c i h as h c alle d th e char a cter
i sti c fu ncti on as u su al H= V EG -
F
2
.

If th e fi r st of e q u ati o ns 3
( ) be d iffer en tiated wi th r es
pec t to v,

an d th e seco n d w i th r espec t to u, w e h ave

z
bro, bw
bu bu bv 2
Wi th th e ai d o f th ese i den ti ties, of th e for mu las V
( , an d of th e

G au ss e q u ation s (V , th e e q u ati on s o btai n ed by th e d ifi er en ti a

ti on of e q u ati o n s 4
( ) w i t h r es
pec t to u and v r espec ti v ely ar e

r ed u cible to
bx
bd)
D Xb v
,

bu H

%
2
’
'

D X
bcb bv
bv

Cr elle, V ol 0 . pp . 296 3 1 0
-
.
 CHARA CTERI STI C FU N CTI ON 3 75

Ex cl udi ng th e case w h er e S is a d e velopable su r fac e, w e solv e h

t e se

:
bx bx
e q u ati ons for X a EX ,
, - — , an
6v
d o btai n

8¢
2
" ]
D D
8v
n

2 E i —
i
(5 ) X
bv K H

w h er e Kd en o tes th e to tal c u r v atu r e o f S . If w e sol v e e q u ati on s

an d 5
( ) for th e d er i v ati v es of r
'

, , w i th r es
pec t to u

an d v, w e o btai n

an d si m ilar ex
press io n s i n y, an d z , Hen c e, w en th e c h h arac te r i sti c

k d
.

fun c tio n is no wn , th e su r fac e S c an be o btai n ed b

, y qu a r atu r es .

h
O ur pr oblem r ed u c es t er efo r e to th e deter i n ation o f d) m .

q
If e u atio n s ( 5 ) be d ifferen ti ated w i t r espec t to v an d h u r es ec
p
ti vely, an d th e r esul ti n
g e q u atio ns be su btra c te d fr o m o n e an o t h er ,

we h av e

W h en th e d er i vativ es of X , Y , Z i n th e ri
g h t-
h an d m ember ar e

re
plac ed by th e ex pr ess io ns (V , th e abo v e e q u ati o n r ed u ces to

H ¢
5 34>
D
— "—
bu bv 2 FD ED’
GD
EH H
4”

Bian c i h c alls h
t is th e ha r a cter i sti c equ ation
c

d
.

In q
c onse u en ce o f ( IV , 73 , 7 4 e u ati on
) ( 7) is q re u ci bl e to

la
a“
ni ?
376 IN FI N ITESI MA L D EFORMA TI ON

w h er e (5 97 s , 0 , ar e th e c oef ci en ts
fi of th e lin ear el e m en t of th e
h
sp er i c al re
p r esen tation of S, n a mely

2 2 2
9
( ) do 5 du 2 fi du du fi dv

an d

By m ean s o f
( V , 2 7) q
e u ati on 8
( ) i s r ed u c ible to

2
H ¢ ad)
( 1 0) D

w h er e th e C h r isto fl el s
ym bols ar e fo r med w ith r es
pec t to
Si nce X , Y ,
Z ar e sol u ti on s o f e q u ati o n s V
( , thy e ar e sol u

tions of an d c o nse u en tl q y also o f e u ati on q Th er efo r e th e

l atter q
e u ation may be w r i tten

h
B ut t is i s th e con d i ti o n o f i n teg r ability of e qu ati on s Henc e
we h ave th e t h eor em

Ea ch solu ti on o f the har a cter i sti c

c e u a ti on
q d eter mi nes a

S, an d c on se u en tly an
q infin i tesi mal d efor ma ti on fS
o .

1 54 Asy mpt ti o c l i nes par a m etr i c Wh en th e asymptoti c li nes

d
. .

on S ar e par a metr i c , e u ati on q 1

( )0 i s r e u ci bl e, in q
c on se u en c e of

V
( ,I to
i
b d) 1 b log p b¢ 1 b log p bcl>
0,
o
1
( )1 + °f ¢
bu bv 2 bv bu 2 bu bv

w h er e

If w e pu t
3 78 IN FINI TESI MA L D EFORMA TI ON

15 5 . Associ ate su r faces . Th e ex pr essi on s i n th e par en t eses o f h

e q u ation 1
( )0 d i f
f er on l
y i n si n fr o m th e
g secon d fu n damen tal c o

D 0 , D 3, D 5,
’
ef c i en ts,
fi of th e su r face S0 e n v el oped by th e plan e

1
( )4 X x + Yy + Z z e .
*

Hen ce q
e u ati on 1 0
( ) yma be wr i tten
1
( )5 D D0 ” u
n ng 20 m; 0 .

h
T is i s th e c on d i ti on t h at to th e as mptoti c
y li n es u pon eit h er

of th e su r faces S, So th er e cor r espon d s a c on u j

g ate system on

th e h
ot er Bi anchi appli es th e ter m associ ate to tw o su r

faces wh ose tan g en t plan es at cor r espo n d i n

g poi n ts ar e par all el,
an d for w h ic h th e asympto ti c lin es on ei t h er co rr espon d to a

j
c o n u g ate system on th e ot h er . Since th e c on ver se of th e pr e
cedi ng r esu l ts ar e r eadi ly s h o wn to be tr u e, we h ave th e t h eo r e m
of B i an ch i r ’

t en tw o f
su r a ces a r e associ a te the ex
p r ession for the d ista nce

fr om a
p fix i n s a ce to the tang en t
ed
p oi n t
p la n e to on e i s the h ar
c

a c ter i sti c fu n cti on for a n i nfin i tesi ma l d e

for mati on of the other .

Hen c e th e pr oblems of i n fi n i tesim al d efor mation an d of th e

d eter min ation of sur fac es assoc i ate to a
g i v en o n e ar e e q u i valen t

d
.

We c o n si er th e latter pr obl em .

Sin ce th e tang en t plan es to S an d So at c or r es

pon d in
g po i n ts

ar e par allel , w e a ve h

an d si milar equ ati o ns i n y0 an d so, w h er e a, u, a, 7 ar e fun c ti on s

o f u an d v to be d eter mi ned i bX bY bZ
If t h ese e u ation s q be m u ltipli ed by
a“ 3“
an d added , an d
a“
li kw e i se by
bX—
bv
v
or
bv
32
bv
an d ad d ed , w e o b tain

' " ' "

DO XD uD , DO aD TD ,

DJ:XD ’
uD = ”
aD
'
r D
'
,

C f § 67
. . TLez i o ni V ol II ,
, . p . 9 .

f Th e ne g ati ve signs befo re i t an d 1 a r e t ak en s th t subs

o a eq u en t r esu lts may h ave a
su itab l e fo r m .
 A SSOC I A TE SU RFA CES 3 79

wh er e D O, D 5, p ;
'
ar e th e seco n d fu n d amen tal q u an ti ti es for So .

Wh en t h ese v alu es ar e su bsti tu te d in w e fi nd

( 7)
1 7t — T = O .

C o nse q u en tly th e q
abo v e e u ati o n s re d u c e to

If w e m a k e u se o f th e G au ss q
e u ati o n s V
( , th e c on di ti on of

b
in tegr a ili ty of e q u ati o n s 1 8
( ) si re d u c ibl e to

f
x
A —
+B

w h er e A an d B are d e ter mi nate fu nc tio n s . Sin ce simil ar e q u ati o n s

h old h
i n y an d 2 , bo t A an d B m u st be id en tic all y z er o C alc u la tin g .

th e h
ex pr essi ons fo r t ese fun c ti o ns , w e av e th e fo llo w i n
g e u ati o n s h q
to be sat is fi ed by 7x, a, an d a

To t h q
ese e u ati ons w e m us t ad d

2 0 2X D — ”
’
— D = O,
( ) u D 0

o btai n ed fr o m th e las t of Th e d e te r mi n ati o n of th e asso

c i ate sur fac es o f a g i v en su r fac e re ferr ed to an

y par a m etr ic s ste
y m
re q ui r es th e i n tegr ati o n of t ish system of e q u ati o n s . Mor eov er ,

ev er
y set o f sol u ti o ns lead s to an assoc iate su r fac e . We sh all n o w

con sid er sev er al c ases in w hi hc th e par ame tr i c c u r v es ar e o f a

p ar tic ul ar k d in .

156 . Par ti cu lar par a m etr i c cu r v es . Su ppo se t h at S is a su r

fac e u pon w h ic h th e par ame tr i c c u r v es fo r m a co nj u

g ate syste m .

We in q ui re un der w h at c o n d i ti o n s t h er e e x ists an assoc i ate su r

fac e u po n w hi c h also th e c o rr espo n d in g c u rv es for m a con u ate

g j
s ste
y m .
3 80 IN FINI TESI MAL D EFORMATI ON

O n t is h hyp th o esis w e h ave, fr o m

ll ' 0
,
09
so t h at e q u ati on s
( 1 9 ) r ed u c e to

b lo g A .

bu

w h ic h ar e c o n sisten t o nly w h en

2
( )2

th at is, w h en th e poi n t q
e u ation of S, na m ely

b9
2
?
a
bu bv bu

h as q
e u al i n var i ants ( cf .

C on ver sely, w h en co n d i tio n 22

( ) i s satis fi ed th e fu n cti on 7k
k
,

g i v en by th e q u adr atur es 2
( )1 m a es th e eq uation s

Xb
bx bx bx
X_
,
p ,
2
( )3 ’

bu bu bv bv

co m p tibl
a e, an d t h us th e c o or d i n ates o f an assoc iate su r fac e ar e

o bt i d by q
a ne d
u a r atu r es . H en c e w e h av e th e th eor em of C osser at *
:
The infin i tesima l d efor ma ti on fa
o su r a cef S i s the sa me pr oblem
as the d eter min a ti on of the j
c on u a te s
g yste ms w i th equ a l poi n t i nva r i
an ts on S .

Sin ce th e r elati o n betw een S an d S, is r ecipr ocal and th e

par ametr ic c u r ves ar e co n u ate

g j for b tho su r faces, h
t ese c u r v es o n

S, also h av e e u alq poin t i n var i ants .

If S be r eferr ed to i ts as
y p to ti c l i n es, th em c o rr espo n d in g li nes
on S, for m g j
a c on u ate s stem.
y In thi s c ase, as is seen fr o m
7x is z er o q
an d e u ati o n s 1
( )8 r ed u ce to

bx 3 3 bx
, 1
M ,
,

bu bv bv

mor eover , q
e u ati o n s (1 9 ) bec o m e
be
u
,
bv

b
f;
bu

Tou lo use A n n al es, V ol V II . N 60 . .

 INFINI TESI MA L D EFORMA T I ON

1 57 . Relations bet w een th r ee su r faces S, S, , S, . Havi ng h

t us
d isc ussed th e v ar i o u s w ays in w h ic h th e pr oble m of i n fin i tesi mal
k
.

d efo r m ati on m ay be attac e d, w e p r o c ee d to th e c o n sid er ati o n o f

oth er pro
per ties w h ic h ar e poss essed by a set o f h
t r ee sur fac es

We r ec all th e d iffer en ti al i
eqi ati on

dx d scl —
f dg clg 1 + d edel = 0,

an d r e m ar k h
t at i t may be re l a
p ce d by th e t h r ee

2
( )6 dx l = z d
o y god s, dg 1 r
o
de z
o
dx , dz 1 god x
d g,

i f th e fu n c ti on s we, g o,
2
0
ar e su c h a for m t h at th e c o n d iti o n s o f

b
i n tegr a ili ty of e q u ati on s 2 6
( ) ar e satis fi ed . T h ese c on d iti o n s ar e

by 32 8310 8g oz, oz ag o
an an Ev 8 0 an 80 321 ,

Ez az 8x 0
81 :
’

an en fin so so cu so au

ar ago 8g 8x 0
815 By, fig ar o
Eu 82) 6a 81) 82) on do an

8x
If t h q
ese e u ation s be m u l ti
pl i ed by
_
_
a
,

25
? 4 ? r es
pec ti vel
y an d

kw Y
it

Q g
add ed ,

by ( IV ,
an d li e i se by
23 ,
30
,
—i
81)
an d by X , , Z , w e o btai n ,

2
( 7)

Fr o m th e fi rst tw o of h
t ese e q u ati on s i t follo w s t h at th e l oc u s of

th e poin t w i th c oor d in ates we, go, z o c o r r espo n d s to S w i th par al

l elism of tang en t plan es

d
.

In or er to i n ter pr et th e last of t h ese e q u ati on s w e r ecall

fr o m § 61 t h at

Z)
,

c(u , v
)
 RELA TI ON S B E T WEE N s, s0 3 83

w h er e a is :
t l acco r di n
g as th e c ur v atu r e o f th e su rfac e is po si ti ve
o r n eg ati ve . If w e su bs ti tu te t h ese v al u es i n th e l eft an d mem
-
h
83 8X: 8X
ber s of th e followi ng equ ati ons, an d ad d an d su bt rac t
an an 80
8x 8X 3X
fro m th ese q
e u ati ons r espec ti v ely, th e r esulti n
g
55 an 81)
e x pr essions ar e r e d i bl
uc e to th e for m of th e ri
g h t h
-
an d m mb e ers

By mean s o f t ese h an d si milar id en ti ti es, q

e u ati o n 2
( 8) c an be
tr an sfor m ed in to

Sin c e this e q u ati on is equ i v al en t to ( 1 5 ) bec au se of th e

q u an tities s 2 in 26
( ) ar e th e c obr d i nates of S0 Hen c e
k
o, go, 0
.

w h en a su rfac e SI is no wn , th e c o o r di n ates of th e c or r espo nd

i ng su r fac e So ar e readi l
y fo un d .

h h
‘

T is r esu l t e n ables us to fi n d an o t er
pro per ty o f S0 and S, .

If X Y1 , Z l d en ote th e d ir ec ti on -
c osi n es of th e n o r m al to S ,
1, ,

t h e
y ar e g i v en b
y

1 W e

II I a(u , )
v

w h er e H I = V E1 G, —F , E , F
f 1 ] , G , be ing th e c oef
fi c ie n ts of th e
l in ear elemen t of S, I f th e v al u es o f th e d er i v ati ves of 1 2
.
1, y, , 1,

as
g i ven by be su b stitu ted in t h ese ex pr essions , we h av e,

in c on se q u ence of

n, H < >
a

Hl
I,

As an i mmedi ate q
c o n se u en ce w e h av e th e t h eor e m

A n or ma l to SI is pa r a llel to the r a d iu s vector of S0 at the cor r e

s
p on din
g p i o nt .
3 84 IN FINI TESI MA L DEFORMA TI ON

By m ean s o f 3
( )0 w e fin d r ead il
y th e ex pr essi o n s for th e sec on d
fu n dm a en tal coef
fic i en ts D 1, D 1,
’
D Yo f S1 If w e n o ti ce t at
. h
8x
8c

an d su bsti tu te th e v al u es fr om (6 ) an d ( 30) i n

3391 6X 1
,

w e obtain
a” a”

;
’
( D D D D O),

(p m D Dg
)
’
(D D ;
’
N 0 0),

B ps
li
) .

Fr o m t h ese e x pr ession s follo w

' '
D gp
'
2p p l
0,
Blog D ; J)O 2 p g);
'
0 .

Co mbi ni n
g t ihs r esu l t w i th w e h av e

The as m
y ptoti c lin es u on
p an
y on e o f a g r ou
p f thr ee
o f
su r a ces

S, S1 , S0 c or r es
p on d to j
a con ug a te s ste
y m on the h
ot er tw o ;

or , in o t er h w or d s
The system of lines w hi ch i s conj ug ate for an
y tw o of thr ee su rfaces
S, S1 , S0 c or r es
p on d s to the as
ymptoti c li n es on the other .

I f th e c u r vatu r e of S be n eg ati v e, i ts asympto ti c li nes ar e r eal ,

an d q
c on se u en tly th e co mmo n j
c o n u g ate system on SI an d S0 is
r eal . I f th ese lines be par ametr i c , th e sec on d of e q u ati on s 8
( )2
r ed u ces to B i Do : 0
l
- .

As an o dd n u mber of th e fo u r q u an titi es h
i n t is eq u ati on mu st
be gn e ati v e, ei t er h So Sl h as po si ti ve c u r v atu r e an d th e o t er
or h
n egati v e . Si m ilar r esu l ts follo w i f w e be in w i t
g th e assu mptio n h
th at Sl or S0 h as n eg ativ e c u r v atu r e .

If th e c u r v atu r e o f S be posi ti ve, th e c on u j g ate syste m c ommon

to i t an d SI i s r ea l ( cf . c on se u en tly q th e asympto ti c lin es

3 86 IN FINI TESI MA L D EFORMATI ON

m ean s o f 2 6
( ) eth e x pressions for th e d i r ec tio n -
c osin es X ’
,
Y ’
, Z ’

of th e n or m al to S
’
ar e r ed u c i ble to

5 =X + z — Z
’
3
( ) X e Y
( o ao)
an d si m ilar e x pr essio n s for Y ’
an d Z ’
.

Th e d er i vati ves of X
’
wi th r es
pec t to u an d v ar e r ed u c ible by
m ean s o f 29
( ) to

8X
’
EX 8Y 3X
e 2
,
Eu bu bu bu
’
8X __8X or H EX
D
av av Ev au

w h er e a i s :
tl ac c o r d i n
g as th e cu r vatu r e o f S0 is posi ti ve or n e
g ati ve .

Wh en th ese r esu lts ar e co mbin ed w i t h 26

( ) an d w e obtain

Ex BX
’ ’
8X
an E
u Bu Eu

be 8Z
“

Th e last e x pr ession i s i dentic ally z er o , as o n e sees by w r iting it

83 :3X
I I

ou t i n fu ll . Fr om t is h an d si milar e x pr essi ons for

bu av
’
ar 8X
on on
I

an d fi g
so so
, th e v al u es for th e secon d fu n d amen tal

fi c i en ts
c oef of S
’
c an be g i v en i n th e for m
A
I I
3
22 52
a ’
—
D + ( D D

a
“

5 ( u
’
s
'
D ( 57 0 ) D
’
o r

b
”
+
a
( D D II I
_D bD H)
7
a '

We k n ow h
t at f is
/ q
e u al :
:
to l E X ac cor d i ng as th e c u r vatu r e

of S i s posi ti ve o r n eg ati ve (cf A lso , by 1 5 7, on e an d only .

h
o n e of t r ee su r faces S, S, , S() h as posi ti v e c u r vatu r e Recalli ng
d
.

h m
t at a in th e abo ve for u las i s ziz 1 ac co r ing as th e c u r vatu r e o f
S0 is po si ti ve o r n eg ative, w e c an , in q
conse uen ce of w r i te
q
e u ati ons ( 3 6 ) i n th e for m
s = : w ea
ri n g,
' "
3
( )7 is

w h er e th e u pper sig n h ol d s w h en S, h as posi ti ve c u r v atu r e.

 I SOTHERMI C SU RFA CES 387

Fr om t h q
ese e u ati o ns i t is seen h
t at . 5
’
an d D
’
c an be z er o si m

ul tan eo usly o n ly w h en ’
D , is z er o . Hen c e w e h av e

The u n i qu e con ug a te system wj h i ch re ma i ns c on u

j g a te in an i nfin i
tesima l d efor ma ti on o f f
a su r a ce i s the on e cor r es
p o n d in
g to a c on ja
g a te s
y ste m on S, , or , w h a t i s the sa me th i ng , to the as m
y ptoti c li nes

h
I n par tic ular , i n o r der t at th e c u r v es o f t i s co n ugate syste h j m
h
be th e lin es o f c u r v atu r e, i t i s n ecessar y an d su ffi c ien t t at th e
S ph i l
er c a p n t ti
re b th
r ese
g l d a q on t ly t h
e or t S b o on a , an c o n se u en a 0
e

a mi im l
n f ( f
a su r ace F m thi i t f ll w th t th ph i l
c . ro s o o s a e s er ca

re
p t ti
r esen a f th li on f o t f S i i th m l C
e n es o c u rv a u r e o s so er a on

f th i k i d t h
.

ly if
v er se ,f i a su r ac e i iq s o mi i m l s n , er e s a un ue n a su r

fac e w ith th m p t ti
e sa f it m
e re
y p t ti li
r esen a d t h i on o s as o c n es, an s

f
su r ac e c an b f d by q d t e oun H th q i d
ua i fi i t
ra u r es en c e e r e u re n n es

ff t d by q d
.

im l d f m ti
a e or f th g i a on of b e ven su r ace c an e e ec e ua ra

tu r es d h th th m f W i g t
an so w e av e e eor e o e n ar en

A n ec essa r y a n d su fii ci en t c ond i ti on tha t a su r a ce a d f mit an i nfini

tesima l d efo r ma tio n w hi ch pr eser ves i ts li n es f
o cu r vatu r e i s tha t the
s h f
er ica l r e r ese n ta tion o th e la tte r be i soth er ma l ; w h en su ch a
p p
su rfa ce i s er
pr essed i n ter ms of pa r ameter s r efer r i ng to i ts lin es of
c u r va tu r e, the d efor ma tion ca n be e
fl ec ted by qu a d r a tu r es .

1 59 . I soth er m ic By m ean s o f th e r esu lts

su r faces . of 158 w e

o bta i n an h
im po r t an t t eor em c o n c er n i ng su rfac es w h ose l in es o f
c u r v atu r e fo r m an iso th er mal s
y ste m . T h ey ar e c alled i sother mi c
f
s ur a c es
(c f Ex. s . l , 3, p .

Fr o m q e u ation s
( 2 3 ) i t follow s t h at i f th e co mmo n c on u g atej
sy ste m on tw o assoc i ate s u r faces is or t h o
g o n al fo r on e i t is th e
sam e for th e ot h er . In t is h c as e e q
u ati on
( 2 2) r ed u ces to

Gu bv

of w h ic h th e g en er al in teg r al is

E U
a

w h er e U an d V ar e fu n cti on s of u an d v r es ec ti vel
p y . H en ce th e
li n es o f c u r vatu r e on S form an i sot h er m al syste m (cf .

Si tz u ng sber ich te de r K on i g A k a
. demie zu B er li n , 1 886 .
3 88 IN FINI TESI MAL D EFO RMA TI ON

I f th e par a m eter s be i so t h er mi c an d th e lin ear el e men t w r i tten

d8 =
2 2
r
(du +
i t follo w s fr o m 2
( 1) t h at
1
3
( 7) r
and e q u atio ns 23
( ) bec o m e

8r 0 1 82: 8x 0
1 8x
8u r 8u 8v r 8v

Fr o m th ese r esu lts w e d er i v e th e follo w i ng t h eor e m of Bou r an d

C h r i stof
fel

If the li n ear ele men t of an i sother mi c su r fa ce f

r e er r ed to i ts lin es

f
o cu r va tu r e be ds
2
= d
2
dv
2
r
( u
)
,

a secon d i sother mi c su r a ce c an f be fou n d by qu a d r a tu r es . I t is a sso

c i ate to the g i ven on e, a n d i ts li nea r elemen t i s

g
dv ) .

Fr o m q e u ati ons 1
( )6 an d 1
( )7 i t foll o w s t h at th e equ ati on of th e
com m on c on u j g ate s
yste m ( IV 4 3 ) o n tw o associ ate sur fac es S, S0
d
,

is re u ci bl e to

dv = O
2 2
3
( )8 p du + 2 It d u d o
. o .

d
Th e pr ece ing r esu lts tell us t at a n ecessar y an d su ffi c ient c on i h d
h h m
tio n t at S be an i sot er i c su r fac e i s t at t er e be a set o f solu h h
ti o ns o f equ ati o ns 1
( )9 su c h th at 3
( )8 is th e e q u atio n o f th e l in es
o f c u r vatu r e o n S . H en c e th er e m u st be a fun c ti o n p su c h th at

’ ” ’
p(ED
”
p FD ), 2 It p( ED GD ), 0 F
p( D GD )
-
.

satisfy e q u ati o n s U pon su bsti tu ti on w e are b r ou

g h t t o tw o
q
e u ati on s o f th e for m
8 log p 8 lo g p
811 . 8v
B ,

w h er e a an d B ar e d eter mi n ate fu n c tion s o f u an d v . In or d er t h at

S be iso t h er mi c , t h ese fu n c tions m u st sati sfy th e c on d i ti on

86 : 8B
81) 8u

Wh en it is sati s fie d , p an d conse q u en tl
y it, 7x , a ar e g i v en by q ua d
r atu r es .

J o u r n al de Z Ecole P o lyte h ni qu e,
’ ’
c Cahi er 39 p . 1 18 .

1 C f B i anchi V ol II,
.
,
. p . 30 .
3 90 IN FINI TESI MA L D EFORMATI ON

4 . De termi ne th e for m of th e r esu l ts of Ex s l 2 w her e h as th e val ue of Ex 3

.
, , . .

5 . Sh ow th at th e fi rst fu nd amen tal c oeffici en ts E1 F1 G 1 o f a su r fa ce SI are o f

, ,
'

th e for m
1 6
E1 = E4)2
mm 81)
1
H 2K 2
1
G1 G¢ 2
1f s

6 . d eno te th e l ocus of th e p o i n t w hich bisects th e segmen t of th e normal

L et 2
to a sur fac e S b et w een th e c en ters of p r i n cip al c u r vat u r e o f th e l atter I n or d er .

th at th e li nes on 2 cor r espondi ng to th e li nes of c u r vatu r e on S sh all for m a conju

gate system i t i s nec essar y and suffi ci en t th at 2 c or r espond to a mi ni mal su r face
,

w ith or th og on ality of li near el emen ts and th at th e l atte r sur fac e and S c or r esp o nd
,

w ith p ar a ll elism of tangen t pl an es .

7 Sh ow th at w h en th e sph er ic al r ep r esen tati on o f th e asympto tic li nes of a su r

.

fac e S sati sfi es th e c onditi on

li i
8 11 a 22
8u 2 ?) 1
a

e qu a ti ons ( 2 5 ) ad mit tw o p ai r s of so l u ti o ns w hich ar e su ch th at p c and p . c .

O n th e tw o asso ci ate su r fac es S0 8 6 th u s fou n d b y qu ad r atu r es th e p a a m t r ic

,
r e

systems ar e i so th er mal c on j u g at e an d S0 a nd So are asso ci at es o f one ano th er

-

,
.

8 Sh ow th at th e equ ati o n o f Ex 7 is a nec essar y an d suffi ci en t c onditi o n th a t

. .

t w o sur fac es asso ci a te to S b e associ ate to on e anoth er .

9 Sh ow th a t w h en th e sph er e i s refer red to i ts mi n i mal li nes th e c onditi on o f

.
,

Ex 7 i s sati sfi ed and i nvestig ate thi s c ase

.
, .

1 0 O n any sur fac e associ a te to a p seu d osph er ic al su r fac e th e c u r ves c or resp on d

.

i ng to th e asympto tic li nes of th e latter are g eod esic s A su r fac e w ith a c onj ug ate .

system o f geod esic s i s c all ed a surfac e of V oss ( cf .

l l D eter m i ne w h eth er m i n i mal sur fac es and th e su r fac es asso ci a te to pseud o

.

sph er ic al su r fa c es are th e onl y sur fac es o f V oss .

1 2 Wh en th e equ ati ons of a c ent r al q u ad r i c ar e i n th e fo rm ( V II

. th e asso ,

ci ate su r faces ar e gi ven b y

so
f U (1 — e2 )d o

yo

u? )d u —
f V (1 + v2 )dv
] ,

w h ere U and V ar e ar bitr ary fu n cti ons of u and v r especti vel y ; h ence th e asso ci ates
are su rfac es o f t r an sl ati on .

1 3 Wh en th e eq u ati o ns o f a p ar ab ol o id ar e i n th e fo r m
.

a: x / d( u v) y ,
v) z 2 uv , ,

th e asso ci ate su r fa c es a r e su r fac es of t r ansl ati on w h o se g ener ators ar e pl ane c u rves ;

thei r equ ati ons are
yo z x b(V — U ),
/

w her e U and V ar e ar bitrary fu nctions o f u a nd v r es e p cti vel y .

 G EN ERAL EX AMP L ES 391

14 .th at a quad r ic ad mits of an infi nitesim al d efor mation w hich p reser ves
Sh ow
i ts l ines of c u r va tu re and d ete r mi ne th e c orresp on d i ng asso ci ate sur fa ce
,
.

15 . Sin c e th e
l ti on bet w een S and 8 1 is re cip ro c al th ere is a sur face S;
re a ,

associ ate to S, w hich b ears to S a r el ati o n si m il ar to th a t o f So to SI Sh ow th at .

th e asympto tic li nes o n So and 8 3 c o r respo n d an d th a t th ese sur fac es are po l ar ,

recip r o c al w ith respe ct to th e i magi n ar y sph ere z ? 2 2 1 O

“

y z .

16 . l tion betw een S and So is recipr oc al th ere is a sur face So co r

Si nc e th e re a ,

respo ndi n g to So w ith o r th ogon ality of li near e l emen ts w hich bears to S a re l a ti on

si mil ar to th at o f SI to So Sh ow tha t th e asym pto tic li nes on S, and S c orr espond

. 2 ,

th at th e c oor di na tes of th e l atter are su ch th at

zi — Ie = yZo — Z yoi vi
—
y2 = 2x o — $ Z
o, 21 — 22 =$ Z
I0
—
yx oi

an d th at th e l ine j o i n i ng c orrespo ndin g po i nts on SI and S o is tangen t to bo th sur faces .

17 h ow tha t if 8 d eno tes th e sur face c or r espond ing to 8 3 w ith or th ogonali ty

. S 5

o f li near el eme n ts w hich is d e ter mi ned b y Sl asso ci ate to 8 th e sur faces S and , 3,

8 a re r el a te d to on e an o th er in a manner si mil ar to S; and S? o f Ex 16

5 . .

1 8 Sh ow th a t th e su rface S, w hich is th e associ a te to S2 d e ter mi ned b y So is

.
, ,

th e p o l a r re cip r o c al of S w ith respe ct to th e i ma i nar y sph ere as? y

? 2 2 1 O g
.

19 c on ti nu e th e p r o cess i n trod u ced

. If w e in th e fore goi ng ex ampl es ,
we o btai n
tw o se q uen c es o f sur fac es

S, 8 19 S3 7 S5 7 S7 , 8 99 8 11)

S, 3 0. 32, Sb Sc, Se, 5 1 0,

Show th at Sn and Sm are th e same su rface lik ew i se Sn and S9 and th at conse , ,

qu en tl y th e re is a cl osed system of tw el ve sur fac es ; th ey are c all ed th e tw elve sur

fac es of D ar boux .

20 c
. A n e essa r y an d suf
f ici en t c o ndi ti on th at a sur fa e re ferre c d to i ts mi n ima l
li nes he isoth er m ic is th at D U
D V
”

w h er e U and V are fun cti ons of u and v res e p cti vel y .

21 . A c ici en t c onditi o n th at th e li nes of c u r vatu re o n an

n e essa r y and su ff iso
ther mic su r fac e be rep r esen ted o n th e spher e b y an iso th er mal syste m is th at
P1 U

n
w here U and V are functi ons of u an d v respe cti vel y th e l atte r being p arameters ,

re ferr i ng to th e li nes o f c u r va tu re Sh ow th a t th e p ara mete rs o f th e asympto tic

.

li nes on su ch a su r face c an b e so chosen th at E G .

22 h ow th a t an iso th ermic
. S su r fac e is tr ansformed by an i nversi on i n to an
i so th ermic su r fac e .

23 . I f S, and h tSo l p fam il y of sph eres o f t w o

are th e s ee s of th e enve o e o f a

p arameters w hich are no t or th ogonal to a fi x ed sph ere and th e po i n ts of c o n ta ct o f

, ,

any sph ere are sa id to c o r respo nd i n or d er th at th e c o r respo nd enc e b e c o nfor mal

, ,

it is nec essary th at th e li nes of cu r vature on 8 1 and 8 2 c orr espo nd and th at these

su r fac es b e i so th er mic c f Ex
( 15 C h ap X III) . .
,
. .
 CHA PTER X II

RECTI LINEAR CONGRUENCES

1 60 Defiriiti on of a congr u ence Sph er ical r epr esentati on A tw o

d
. . .

par a m eter system o f str aig h t li nes in space is c alle a r ecti li n ear

con m
g r u en ce Th e n or als to a sur face c on stitu te su c a syste ; h m
k
.

li ew ise th e g en er atr i c es o f an i n fi n i tesi mal d efor mati on o f a su r

fac e (cf . L ater w e s all h fin d t h at i n g en er al th e l i nes of a

con
g r u en c e ar e n o t n or mal to a su r fac e . H en ce con
g r u en ces of

n or m als fo r m a spec i al c lass ; t h ey ar e c alled n or ma l con

g r u en ces

d
.

T h ey w er e th e fi r st stu ied, par ti c u lar ly in i n v estig ati on s o f th e

effec ts of r eflec ti on and r efr ac tio n u o n r a s o f li
p y g t Th e fi r st h .

pu r el
y m th a e mati c al tr eatmen t of
g en er al r ec tili n ear c on r u en c es
g
w as
g i v en by K u mm er i n h i s e o i r, A l l
g e ei n e T mm
e o r i e d er m h
g r ad l i n i
g e n S t r a h l e n s y s t e m e fi ‘
W e b eg in o u r tr eatm en t o f

th e su bj ect w i th th e d er i v ati o n o f c er tain o f K u mmer

’
s r esu l ts by
m th e od s si m il ar to h is ow n .

Fr o m th e d efi n i ti on of a c on
g r u en c e i t follo w s t h at i ts li nes
m eet a
g i v en plan e i n su c h a w ay t at h t h r ou
g h a po i nt of th e

pl an e o n e li n e, o r at most a fin ite nu m er , b p ass Si mi lar r esu l ts

k
.

hold if a su r face be ta en i nstead of a

plan e ; t i s h su r face is
c alled th e su r a ce f o f f
r e er enc e . A nd so w e may d efi n e a con

g r uen ce an alyti c ally by m ean s of th e c oor d in ate s of th e latter

su r face i n ter ms of tw o par a m eters u, v,by th e d ir ec ti on
an d

c osi n es o f th e li n es i n ter ms of t h ese par am eter s T u s, a co n h

dfi
.

g r u en ce is e n ed by a set of e u ati on s su c q h as

=f =f fs (u
x
( )
u’ v 3/ ( ) u, v 2 v
)
Y
1 , 2 ’ , ,

X : ( I) u v
:( ) , ?
: 4’s (u v) , ,
v
) ’

w h er e th e fun cti ons f an d 4 ; ar e an alytic i n th e do mi a n o f u an d v

u n d er con sid er ation , an d th e fu n c ti o n s ar e su c h th t a

+ Y + Z =1
2 2 2
X .

Cr elle, V ol LV II . pp . 1 89 230
-
.

392
3 94 RECTI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN CES

c o n se q u en tl
y a r u led s u r fac e o f th e c on
g r u e nc e, i s d eter min ed by a
r elatio n betw een u an d v . Hen ce a d iffer en tial e qu ati on o f th e for m

M da N dv 0

d efi n es a family o f r u led su r fac es o f th e co n

g r u en ce . We c on sider
a l in e I (u ,
) v of th e c o n g r u en c e an d th e r u led su r fac e 2 of h
t is
family u po n w h i c h I is g
a en er ator ; w e say th at 2 passes t h ro u h
g I .

We apply to 2 th e r esu l ts of 1 03 , 1 04 .

If d so d en o tes th e lin ear ele men t of th e cu r ve C in w h ic h 2 c u ts

th e su r fac e o f r efe r en ce, i t follow s fr o m ( V II , and 5

( ) t h at

th e q u an ti ti es a
2
an d b for 2 h av e th e v alu es

23
dX d zv e du
2
—
l
__
d s0 d so ds

h h
Fr o m ( V II, 5 8 ) w e av e t at th e d ir ec tio n cosi n es 7x , p v o f th e -
,

co m
mo n per pen di c u lar to l an d to th e lin e l o f par ameter s u
’
du ,
v d v, w h er e d v/du i s g i ven by h av e th e v alu es

dZ dY
12 k -
Z a
do do

w h ic h , by means of V
( , ar e r ed u c ibl e to

8X 8X
09,
8v 8v
13
Vé g 3
2
do
‘

and similar e x pr essi ons for p . an d v .

Fr o m ( 1 2 ) i t follo ws th at
dX dY dZ
7‘ “
so? ?
a 3;

Si nce dX da , dZ /
/do , d Y/ da ar e th e d i r ec tion cosin es of th e tan gen t
'
-

to th e h
sp er i c al r epr esen tati on of th e g en er ator s of 2 , w e h ave th e

t h eo r e m:
Gi ven a r u led su r ace f 2 f
o a cong r u en ce ; let 0 be the cu r ve on

the u ni t s
phper e w h i ch p re r esen ts
p 2, a nd M the oi n t o f 0 cor r es on d

i ng to a g en er ator L of 2 ; the li mi ting posi ti on of the common per

i er en di cu la r to the
p f
en di cu lar to L an d a n ear by g en er ator o 2 s
p p
-

tang ent to C at JII

‘

.
 P RIN C IP AL SU RFA CES 3 95

1 62 . Li mi t poin ts . Pr i nci pal su r faces . By m e an s o f ( V II, 6 2 )

an d 1
( )2 w e find t h at th e e x pr ession fo r h
th e s or test d i stan ce 8

betw een I an d l i s, to ’
w ith in ter ms of h ig h er ord er ,

d so d so dso

X Y Z Ek dx .

dX dY dZ
d so d so d s0

‘V h en th e v alu es ( 1 3 ) for X , p, v are su bst i tu ted i n th e r ig t h h -

an d

m em b er o f h
t is q
e u ati o n , th e r es u lt is r ed u c ible to

1 6 d u + fi d v, fi du fi dv
f da
’
e d a + f d v, + g dv

If N d en o tes th e po in t w er e th is li n e o f s h h o r te st di stan c e meets l ,

th e l oc u s o f N 18 th e lin e o f stri c ti o n o f 2 . Hen c e th e di sta n c e of

N fr o m th e su rface S, meas u red alo n

g l, i s
g i ven by V II,
( if
i t be d en o ted by r, w e h av e, fr o m
2 ’ '
7
e du + (f l f ) du d o g dv
“
- -

6 d u + 2 a du d v
2 ’
fi dv

For th e pr esen t ’ we e x cl u d e th e w h ere th e

c ase c oe f c i en ts o f
fi
th e tw o q u ad r ati c for m s ar e r o or t i o n al
p p H en ce . r v ar i es w i th
th e v al u e o f d v/du, t hat is, wi th th e r u led su r fac e 2 t h r ou
g h I . If
w e li mi t ou r con si d er ati on to r eal su r fac es 2 , th e d en omin ato r is
al ways po si ti v e, an d c o n se u en tl
y q th e q u an ti ty r h as a fi ni te m ax i
mum an d mi n i mu m . In o r d er to fi n d th e su r fac es 2 for w h i c h r

h as t h ese limi tin g v al u es, w e r eplac e d o/

d u by t, an d o b t in
a

T :

If w e q
e u ate to z ero th e d er i v ati v e of th e ri
g h t h -
an d m mb e er wi th
r es
pec t to t, w e
g et

1
( )7 ( 6 + a t) = o,

a q u ad r atic in t . Sin ce é fi 3
2
0 , we may apply to t is h e q u ati on

r eas n ino g si mil ar to t h at used in co nn ecti on wi th e q u ati on ( IV ,

Cf Ex. . 1, 5 1 71 .
3 96 RECTI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN C ES

an d h
t u s pr ov e that i t h as tw o r eal r oo ts . Th e c o r r es
pon d i
g valu es
n

of r follo w fr o m ( 1 6 ) w h en th ese v al u es o f t ar e su bsti tu ted i n th e

latter . Bec au se of ( 1 7) th e r esu l ti n

g e q u ati o n may be w r itten

6 +8 5 3 +55

wh er e 5 i n dicates a r oot o f (1 7) an d r th e cor r esponding valu e of r .

Wh en w e w r ite th e pr eceding equ ations in th e for m

z .
o,

i —
l g t = 0, -

an d eli mi n ate t, w e obtain th e follo w i ng q u adr ati c in r

2 2
1
( )8 (6 5 $ )T [96 c g ]? 69

If r , an d r 2 d e n ote th e r o o ts of h
t is q
e u ati on , w e h ave

g c§ c g
-

“
4 (se a)

Th e poin ts o n l cor r espon d in g to t ese valu es o f r ar e c alled i ts h

limi t poin ts h
T ey ar e th e bo un ar i es o f th e seg men t of 1 u pon
. d
h h h
w ic lie th e feet o f eac per pen dicul ar common to i t an d to a
n ear by lin e of th e con r u en ce. Th e r u l ed su r faces o f th e con
g
-

gr u en ces w h i ch h
pass t r o ug h l an d ar e d eter min ed by e u ati on q
1
( )7 ar e c alle d th e pr incipa l f
su r aces for th e lin e T er e ar e t w o
. h
of t hm e , an d h
t eir tan g en t plan es at th e li m it p i o n ts ar e d eter mi n ed

by l an d by th e per pen d icu lar s o f s or test distan c e h at th e li mit

po i n ts T ey ar e c alle
. h
th e
p r i n ci a l
p p lan es d .

In or d er to fi nd h p
o t er ro
per ti es o f th e pr in cipal su r faces, w e

i mag in e t h at th e par a m ti
e r c c u r v es u pon th e Sp h ere r epr esen t th ese

su r fac es . If equ ati o n 1

( )7 be w ri tten
6 du + e9 d v, 3 du + § du

du dv. g dv
3 98 REC TI L IN EA R CON G RU EN C ES

1 63 . Dev el opabl e su r faces of a cong r u ence . Focal su r faces. In

o r d er h t t a a r u led su r fac e be d ev elo pable, i t i s n ecessar
y an d su ffi
c ie n t th t th a e er en d i c ular
p p d i stan ce betw een v er y n ear
g en er ator s

be of th e secon d o r h ig h er or d er . Fr o m (1 4 ) i t follo w s t h at th e
r u led su r faces o f a c o n r uen c e satisfyin th e c on diti on
g g

5 du + 3 d vi § du + §
2
( )5
’
e d u + f d v, f du + g

ar e d evelopa le b . U n li k e e q u ati on th e v alu es o f d o/du satis

fyi ng t i s h q
e u ati o n ar e n o t n ec essar il
y r eal . We h ave th en th e
t h eor e m

Of a ll th e r u led su r a c es o f f a cong r u en c e thr oug h a li n e of i t tw o

ar e d evelopa ble, bu t they a r e n ot n ecessar i l
y r ea l .

Th e no r mals to a r eal su r fac e affor d an e ample o f a cong r u en ce x

w i th r eal d eve10 pables ; for , th e n o r mal s alon g a lin e o f c u r vatu r e

fo r m a d ev elopa le b su r face Sin ce f a nd f

’
q
ar e e u al h
i n t is
c ase, e q u ati on s 2
( )0 an d 2 5 ar e e
( ) q u i v alen t . A n d, c on v er se ly th y
, e

q
ar e e u ival en t o nly h
i n t is case . Hen ce
Wh en a cong r u en ce i s n or mal, a n d on l
y then , th e
pr i n ci a l
p f
su r a ces

ar e d evelopa ble .

Wh en a r u le d su r fac ei s d ev elopabl e i ts g en er ators ar e tan g ent

to a c u r v e at th e h
po in ts w er e th e li n es of sh or test d istan ce meet
th em . H en c e eac h li n e o f a c on r u en c e
g i s tang ent to tw o c u r v es

in space, r eal o r i mag in ar y a cc or d i n

g to th e c h ar ac ter of th e r oo ts

of e q u ati onTh e poi n ts o f co ntac t ar e called th e foca l poin ts

fo r th e li ne By ean s of 2 5 w
.
( ) m e fin d t h at th e v alu es of r for
h
t ese poi nts ar e g iven by

e du + fd v ,

(5 da {fi d v

If t h ese equ ati on s be w r i tten i n th e fo r m

(670 e)du + (éfp + f )d v 0,

’

( ?
’
of ) +f
) d a
( p g)
5 + d v O,

an d if da , d o be eli mi n ated , w e h ave

( 2 6) ( és— r wu w e —
(f fi i m e g lp
 D EV EL OPA BL E SU RFA CES 3 99

If p, an d
p2 d en o te th e r oo ts o f h
t is e q u ati on , i t fo llo w s t h at

— c
6 3
y<o
9 1 + Pi ,

eg
g — 3
2

Fr o m ( 1 9) an d ( 2 7) i t i s seen t h at

r
l pl P
—
— (f f
( 7
1
“

(Pi P2 )

T h ese r esu l ts may be in te r prete d as follo w s :

The mi d poi n ts -

f the
o tw o seg men ts bou nd ed r es
p ecti vel
y by the
limi t poi n ts an d by the foca l poin ts coi nci d e .

h
T is po in t i s c alled th e mi d d le poin t o f th e li n e an d i ts loc u s th e
mi d d le su r fa ce o f th e c on g r u en c e .

The d ista n ce betw een the foca l

p g o in ts is n ever r ea ter than tha t

betw een the li mi t poi n ts . They coi nc i d e w hen th e cong r u en ce i s n or ma l .

E q u atio n
( 4) may be
2 wr i tte n in th e fo r ms
r — r
2
cos a)

Hen c e i f a)
,
an d to
,
den o te th e v al u es o f 0) c o rr espo n di n
g to

dev elo pa ble su r faces, w e h av e

—r
Pf z

r r
, 2

P
_ T
2 2

T T
l 2

Fr o m t h ese and th e fi rst of 2

( )8 i t fo llo w s t h at

so t h at
cos w
f
1
si n w
’
2
si n e) g 1 2,

2
( )9 c os 2 w c os 2 (0 : 0,
, 2

an d c ons e u en tl
y q
3
( 0) w
, +
a)
,

or

3
( )1
4 00 REC TIL IN EA R CON G RU EN C ES

w h er e n d en o tes an
y i n te
g er . I f th e latter q
e u ati on be t r u e, th e
d ev elopable su r fac es ar e r e r esen ted
p on th e sp er e h by an or th og
o nal system , as fo llo w s fr o m th th m t th e eo r e a e c lo se of 161 Bu t .

by 3 4 th e c o n d i tio n th t q
a ti 2 5
( ) fid
e ua on e n e an or t h o
g on al s
ys

tem on th e sp h er e is f f th t i th
’
, g a s, e con r u en ce mu st be n or mal .

Si n c e in t is h c ase th e pr i n c ipal su r faces ar e th e d eve10 pables, eq ua

ti on ( 3 0) as w ell as
(3 1 ) i s satis fi ed . H en ce q
e u ati o n 3
( )0 i s th e

en er al solu tio n o f
g
Th e plan es t r o ug l h h w h i c h ma k e th e an
g l es 0) m, w i th th e

pr i n c i al
p p lan e to 0 ar e called th e foca l plan es for th e li n e ; t h ey

ar e th e tang en t plan es to th e tw o d e velopabl e su r faces th r ou

g h
th e li n e . I nc i den tally we h av e
p r o ve d th e t h eor e m
A n ec essa r y an d su fii ci en t con d i ti on tha t the tw o foc al plan es for
ea c h lin e o f a con
g r u en ce be perpen di cu lar i s tha t the con r u en ce
g
be n or mal .

A nd fr o m q e u ati on 3
( )0 i t follo w s t h at

The foc a l plan es a r e sy mmetr i c a lly pla ced w i th r es ect to the

p pr in

ci l
alan es i n su c h a w ay tha t the a ng les for med by the tw o a ir s
p p p
f plan es have the same bi secti ng pla n es
o .

I f 6 d en o te th e an gle betw een th e foc al pl an es, t h en

9 a)
,

si n 0 cos 2 co
,
2
c os o)
2

Th e loci of th e focal poi n ts of a c on g r u en c e ar e c alled i ts foca l

f
su r a ces . Eac h li n e of th e c o n g r u en ce tou c h es bo t h s u r fac es, bei ng
tang en t to th e edg es of r eg r essio n o f th e tw o d ev el opables t h r ou
g h i t .

h
By r easonin g si milar to t at employed in th e d isc u ssi on o f su r fac es

o f c en ter 74) w e pr o v e th e t eor em h

A cong r u en ce may be r eg a r d ed a s tw o fami li es o f d evelopa ble su r

fa ces Each focal su rfa ce i s tou c hed by the d evelopa bles of one fami ly
.

a lon th i r edg es of r e r essi on a n d en velo ed b th ose of the other

g e g p y
f a m i ly a lo ng th e cu r ves conj g
u a te to th ese edg es .

d h m h
Th e pr ec e i ng t eor e s ow s t at of th e tw o foc al plan es t r ou g h h h
a lin e l on e i s tang en t to th e focal su r face S, an d th e ot er i s th e h
402 RECTI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN CES

In c on se q u en c e o f t hi s c on d i ti o n e u ati on q 34
( ) m a
y b e w r i tten
3
( )6 t= c

wh er e u 1 is a fun c tio n o f u an d v h
t us d efi n ed If th e or t h o
g on al

k
.

tr a j ec tor i es o f th e c u r v es u , c o nst . be ta en as para etr ic m c u r ves

v
,
con st .
, i t follo w s fr o m ( 36 ) and fr om e q u ati on s in u
1
and v1
an al o
g ou s to 33
( ) an d 3
( )4 t h at

Fr o m th i s r esu lt follo w s th e t h eor em

Th e li n es f a n or mal cong r u en ce cu t or thog on ally

o the cu r ves on

th e f
su r a ce f r efer en ce at w hose po in ts t i s constan t
o .

If 0 d en o tes th e an
g l e w h ic h a li ne of th e c o ng r u en ce m k
a es

w i th th e n or m al to th e su r fac e o f refer en ce at th e poin t of i n ter

sec ti on , w e h av e

X as
3
( )7
2 v17} a .

, w
.

w h er e th e linear ele m en t o f th e su r fac e is

2 2
ds E du l G

I f S be ta k en for th e su r face o f r efer en ce o f a seco nd c o ng r u enc e

w h ose d i r ecti on -
c osi n es X ,,
Y, , Z l satisfy th e co n di ti o n s

2 14 -

55 Ms
« u ,
2
w h er e y fun c tio n is an w h atever of u , , h
t is c o n g r u en ce is
n or mal an d t1 h as th e v alu e

t1 0
1

Si nce is an y fun cti on , t h er e is a fam ily of t h ese n or mal c ong r u

en ces w h ic h w e c all th e f th e g i ven cong r u enc e and o f

a ssoc iates o

o n e an o t h er . T h r ou
g h -
an
ypo i nt o f th e su r fac e o f r e fer en c e t er e h
passes a li n e o f eac h c on
g r uen ce, an d all o f t h ese li n es lie i n th e

pl ane n or m al to th e c u r ve u
1
const . h
t r ou
g h th e
p oin t . H en ce
The tw o lin es f o tw o assoc i a te con r u en ces
g thr oug h the sa me poin t
f the
o f
su r a ce f r efer en ce
o li e i n a lan e n or ma l to the f
su r a ce
p .
 D ERI V ED C ON G RU EN C ES 403

Co mbi n i ng w i th e q u ati o n 37
( ) a si mil ar on e fo r an assoc ia te c o n

g r u en ce, w e h av e

srn 9
( 3 8) sin 0. aw ) .

H en cew e h av e th e t h eor e m

The r a ti o o f the f th e a ng les w hi ch the li n es of tw o associate

sin es o

c ong r uen ces ma k e w i th the n or mal to th ei r s urfa ce of r efer en ce i s con

sta n t a long the c u r ves a t w hose poi n ts t i s con sta nt .

Wh en in par ti cu lar f (u ,) i n ( 3 8 ) i s a c o nstan t th e fo r mer th eorem ,

an d e q u ati o n 3
( )8 co n stitu te th e l aw s o f r eflec tio n an d refr ac ti o n of

r ays o f lig ht , acc or d i n

g as th e c o n stan t is e q u al to or d iffer en t fro m
min us one . A nd so w e h av e th e t h eor em o f Malu s and D u pin

If a bu n dle of r ays Qf lig htfor mi ng a n or mal cong r u ence be r eflected

or fr a cted
re an
y n u mber o f ti mes by the su r fa ces of su ccessi ve homo

g en eou s med i a , the ra

y s c on tinu e to con st i tu te a n or ma l cong r u en ce.

By m ean s of 3
( 7) e q u ati o n 3
( )6 c an be pu t i n th e fo rm

t c sin 0 da , .

Fr o m thi s r es u lt fo llo w s th e t h eo r e m of Beltr ami

If a face of r efer en ce of a n or mal cong r u en ce be defo r med i n su ch

su r

a wa
y tha t the d i r ec ti on s of the lin es of the co ng r u en ce w i th r espec t

to th e su r fa ce be u na lter ed , the con

g r uen ce i
co n t nu es to be n or ma l .

1 65 . Der i ved con gr u ences . It i s ev id en t t h at th e tang en ts to th e

c u r v es o f an y o n e -

par a meter fami ly u po n a su r fac e S c o n sti tu te a

co n
g r u en c e . If t h ese c u r ves be tak en for th e parametr i c li n es
-

v c o ns t .
, an d th ei r con j u ates for u
g co n st , th e d evelo ables in
p .

o ne family h av e
g es of re g r ess ion , an d
th e c u r v es 1) co n st . fo r ed

th e d evelo pables o f th e o t er family e n velop S alon g th e c u r ves h

u con st We may tak e S for th e sur face of r efer enc e If S, be
. .

th e ot h er fo c al su rface, th e li n es of th e g r u en c e are tan g en t to

c on

th e c u r ves u c o n st . on S, . Th e tan g en ts to th e c u r v es 1) co n st .

on S, for m a sec o n d con

g r u en c e of w h ich S, i s on e foc al su rface,

an d th e seco n d su r fac e S , is uni q u ely d eter mi n ed . Mor eo ver , th e

G i or n a le d i ma tema ti h e, V ol II c . p . 28 1 .
4 04 RECTI L IN EA R CON G RU EN CES

lin es of th e secon d con g r u en ce ar e tan g en t to th e c u r ves u c o n st .

on S, . I n tu r n w e may c o n str u c t a h
t ir d c on g r u en ce of tang ents

to th e cu r v es v = c o nst on S, h
T i s pr oc ess may be con tin u ed
d
. .

i n d efi n i tely u nless o n e of t h ese focal su r faces r e u ces to a cu r ve,

or is in fi n i tely d i stan t

k d
.

In li e m ann er w e
g et a c o n r u en c e
g by r aw i ng tang en ts to
th e c u r ves u = co n st on S, w h ic h is on e fo cal su r fac e, an d th e

d
.

ot h er , is c o mpletely d eter mi ne . Th e tan g ents to th e c u r ves

u = c on st . on S fo r m still an ot h er , and so on . In t is h w ay w e

o btai n a su ite o f su r faces

s s, S, , s,

wh ich i s ter mi
y n ated o n l w h en a su r fac e r ed u c es to a c u r ve, o r

i ts poi n ts ar e i n fi n i tely d istan t Upon e ac . h of th ese su r faces th e

par ame tr ic c u r ves for a con u ate s ste

g y m j m . Th e cong r u en ces h
t us
o btain ed h av e been g r u en c es by D ar bo ux
c all ed d er i ved It is c on .
t
a

h
clear t at th e pr obl em o f fi n di n g all th e d er i ved c o n g ru en ces o f a

g i v en d
o n e r e u ces to th e i n teg r ation of th e e u ati on o f i ts ev el q d
opabl es for , w h en th e d ev elopables ar e k no wn we h ave th e
c on u j g ate s
ystem on i ts fo cal su r fac es .

In or d er to d er i v e th e an alyti c al e x pr ession s for th ese r esu lts,

w e rec all 8 0) t h at th e cobr d i n ates x y z o f S , , ar e sol u tion s

q
o f a n e u ati on of th e fo r m

w h er e a an d b ar e d eter mi nate fu n c tio ns o f u an d v . If th e coo r di

n ates o f S, b e d en o ted by :y
c
, ,
,,
z
,,
h
t ey ar e g i v en by

—
w h er e E m easu r es th e d istan c e betw een th e fo cal poi nts Bu t .

as th e lines of th e c on ru ence ar e tan en t to th e c u r ves u = c on st

g g .

on S, , we m u st h av e

V o l II , . pp . 16—22 .
4 06 REC TI L IN EA R C ON G R U EN C ES

Th e fun c ti o n s h an d k, dfi e n ed by

b bb
g
_
bu bv

ar e c alled th e in var i an ts of th e d iffer en tial q

e u ati on Henc e
th e ab ov e r esu l ts m ay be s tated

A n ecessar y a nd su fii ci en t c on d i ti on tha t the foca l f

su r a ce S, or
S_l be a c u r ve i s tha t th e i nva r i a n t k or h r es
p ecti vel
y f the poin t
o

e u a t on
q i of S be z er o .

1 66 . Fu nda mental eq u ati ons of condi ti on . We h av e seen 1 6 0)

th at w i th ev er y c on g r uen ce t h er e ar e asso c i ated tw o q u ad r ati c d if
fer en ti al fo r ms . No w w e s h all in v estig ate u n d er Wh t a c o n di tio n s

tw o qu adr ati c for ms d eter mi ne a con

g r u en c e . We assum e th at w e
h av e tw o su c hf or ms an d th at t h er e is a co r r espo n d in
g c o ng r u en ce .

Th e tangen ts to th e par ametr i c c u r ves on th e su r face of r efer en ce

at a poi n t ar e d eter m
in ed by th e ang les w i c t ey ma e wi t th e h h h k h
tang en ts to th e par ametr ic c u r ves o f th e s ph i l er c a r e r esen tati on o f
p
th e c on
g r u en c e at th e cor r espon d i ng p o in t, an d w i th th e n or m al to
th e u n i t Sp er e h . H en ce w e h av e th e r elati o n s

3X bx
a 3 7X ,
bu bv

bX bX
“
I + 61 + 7 1 i f,
bu bv

an d si m il ar e u ati o n s i n q y an d z w h er e a
, , B , 7 a
,, 7, ar e fun c ti on s

of u an d v . If w e mu l tiply t h ese e q u ati on s by g ,

g 2; , r espec

Y
ou
Y
ti vely, a n d add ; al so by —
aX
,
(
—
i ,
25 and by X , , Z; we obtai n
av cv 8v

s + ea, =
e a
f a
,
s + a ,
s

fr o m w hi ch w e d er ive

§ f é — ’
éf
a =
e
_ e
’
v
(a g
— C9
2

(gs — e
r B m 375
—
c “
71
 FU N D A MEN TAL E U A TI O N S Q 4 07

In o r d er th at e q u ati on s 4
( )4 be con sis ten t, w e m u st h av e

w h i ch , in q
c on se u en c e o f e q u ati ons ( V , 2 2 is r ed u c ible to th e fo r m

a
13 5 + s
0
+ TX : 0,
bu ov

w h er e R , S, T ar e d eter m inate fu n c tio n s . Sin ce t is h q

e u ation m u st

be sati s fi ed by Y an d Z also , we mu st h av e R 0, S : O, T : 0 .

W h en th e v al u es of a , 8,
,
u
,, S, from
, ar e su bs ti tu te d in t h ese

e q u ati o n s, w e h ave

cc Qf

r 0 4) r
f
n

O fig
( 4 7)

by by,
+f f =0 .

bv bu

C o n v ersely, w h en w e h av e a q d
u a ra tic fo r m wh o se cu r v atu r e

k
is + 1 , i t m ay be ta en as th e li n ea r elemen t o f th e sp er i cal r ep h
r esen ta tion o f a c o n r u en ce, w i c
g i s d ete r min e by an
y s et o f h h d
fun c tio n s e, f f
,
’
, g , 7 , y ,,
satisfyi n g equ ations For , w h en
t h ese q
e u ati o ns are satis fi ed , so also is an d q
c o n se u en tly

th e c ob rd in ates of th e su r fac e of re fere n ce ar e i ven b th e

g y
q u adr atu res

I n c id en tally w e r em ar k h
t at w h en th e c on
g r u en c e is n or m al , an d

th e s u r fac e o f r efer e n ce
g is o ne o f th e o rt h o o n al su r ac es ,f th e last
q
o f e u atio n s 4
( )7 is s atisfi ed id en t i c al ly, an d th e fi rs t tw o r ed u c e

to th e C o dazz i e u ati o n s ( V , q
\V e appl
yt h ese r esu l ts to th e d eter mi n ation o f th e co n
g r u en ces

w i th an assi
g n ed S
p er i cal h
r e pr esen tati o n o f t h eir pr i n c i pal su r faces,
an d t h ose w ith a
gi v en re
p r esen ta ti o n o f t h ei r d ev e10 pabl es .

16 7 . Sph er i cal repr esent ati on of pr i nci pal su r faces an d of dev e1

opabl es . A n ec essar
y an d fi ci en t c o n di tion
su f th at th e pri n c i pal
su r fac es o f a c o n r u en ce c u t th e su r fac e o f r efer en ce i n th e par a
g
m e tr ic l in es i s g i v en by
4 08 RECTI L IN EA R CON G RU EN CES

If w e r e u ir e
q t h at th e su r fac e o f r efer en ce be th e middl e sur face

of the c on
g r u en c e, an d if r d en o te h alf th e d i stance b tw e een th e
limi t poin ts, we h av e, fr o m
’
4
( )8 e r é, g r fi .

Wh en t h ese v alu es ar e su bsti tu ted in th e fi r st tw o b eco m e

l f
_9
.

(o bv

l b
g bu

an d th e last i s r ed u c ibl e
9“
to
f
br b l og 5 b b log § br
1 + +
bu ev bv bu bu bv

Mor eo ver , q
e u atio n s 44
( ) b eco m e

_r bX f or bx f 3X 8X
+ r + 7 1x
bu £ 5 bv 5 bu 5
w h er e v
y an d y, ar e
g i ven by an d si milar e u ation s q i n y and z
d d
.

O u r pr oble m re hu ces, t er efor e, to th e eter mi nation o f pai rs of

fu n cti o n s r and f w hi h c sati sfy Evi d en tly ei t h er of th ese

fun c tio n s ma y b h e c osen ar bi tr ar il

y an d th e ot h i s fou n d by th e
er

solu ti on of a
par ti al di fi er en ti al q
e u ati on o f th e seco n d or er d .

Hence an
y or t h og o n al s
ystem on th e u ni t s
ph er e serv es for th e
r epr esen tation of th e pr i n cipal su r faces o f a f m ily
a of c on
g ru enc es,

w h ose e qu ation s i n volve t h r ee ar bitr ar y fu nc tions .

In o r d er t h at th e par a m ti e r c c u r v es on th e h
sp er e r e r esent
p th e
d e velopables o f a co n r u en c e,
g i t is n ec essar y and su f
fici ent th at

as is seen fr o m If th e su rface o f r efer enc e be th e m iddl e su r

fac e, an d p d e no tes h alf th e d istance b et w een th e foc al points , i t

follow s fr o m (1 5 ) t h at e g
(5 5

Cf B . i anchi , V ol I ,. p . 3 14 .
41 0 RECTI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN CES

Fr o m t h ese an d 5
( )4 w e
g et

Th e c oef c i en ts o f
fi th e li n ear ele m en ts o f S, an d S, , as d er ived
fr om t h ese for m u las, ar e

T h e d i r ecti on -
c o si n es of th e n o r m al s to S, an d S2 den o ted by
X , , Y, , Z , ; X ,,
Y, , Z, r es
pec ti v el y ar e fou n d fr o m b
th e a ov e e u a q
ti o n s and ( V 3 1 ) to
, h av e th e v alu es

bZ
y_ _
I b (y,, z ) ,
bv
H , b (u , v
) q?

91 1
y
1 b (y, , bu —l
?)
s bX
H. a(u , v
) « ae
r av

and si m il ar e x pr essi o n s for Y ,

an d Z, . If t h ese e q u ation s be di ffer
en tiated , an d th e r esul ti n g q
e u ation s be r ed u c e d by mean s of (V , 22 )
t h ey c an be pu t in th e for m
bX
+X ,
bu x /g bv
 FOCAL SU RFA CES 41 1

Fro m t h es e e x pr essio n s an d 5
( )5 w e o b tai n

bx ,
bX ,

bu b u

bx ,
bX ,

bv bu

bx 2 hf
,
b
é
bv bv V3

p ; : 0, pg

Fr o m th e foreg oing fo r m ul as w e d er iv e th e follow i ng e x pr ession s

fo r th e to tal c u r v atur e of S, an d o f S2

EX AMP L ES

1 . po n a su rfac e of referenc e S of a no r mal c ongr uen c e th e cu r ves orth og

If u
ona l to th e li nes o f th e c o ng r u en ce are d efi n ed b y ¢ ( u v) c onst and 0 d eno te s ,
.
,

th e angl e b e t w een a li ne o f th e c o ng ru en ce a nd th e n or m al to th e sur fac e at th e

po in t of mee ti ng th en sin 0 ,
w h ere th e d i fi ere n tia l p ar a me te
2 r is fo r m ed

w ith r espec t to th e li n ea r el emen t o f S Sh ow tha t 0 is c onst an t al ong a li ne

. co nst .

o nl y w h en th e l att er is a g eod esic p ara ll el .

2 . W hen i n th e po i n t equati on o f a sur fa ce ,

namel y

62 0 0

b u bv
+ a—
0 11
f+b
.

a or b is z ero , th e c o ordi nates of th e su r fac e can be fou nd by q u ad r a tures .

3 . Fi
d th e d er i ved co n gr u enc es o f th e tan gen ts to th e p ar amet r ic cu r ves o n a
n

te tr ah ed ra l su r fac e ( Ex 2 p . and d ete r mi ne u nd er w h a t co nditi o ns th e su r

,
.

fac e S o r S_ is a c ur ve
, , .

4 . Fi n d th e eq uati on of th e type ( 39) w hich ad mits l ti ons th e qu an titi es

as so u

y, , zl gi ven b y
5 . Wh en c o ngr uenc e c onsi sts o f th e tan gen ts to th e li nes of c ur vatu re i n
a

o ne syste m o n a su fac e t h e fo c al di sta n c es a re eq u a l to th e r adii of geod es ic

r
,

c u r vatur e of th e lin es of cur vatu re i n th e oth er syste m .

41 2 RECTI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN CES

6 . L et S be c
a su r fa e refer re d
cu r vature let 3 , and 3 d enote th e
to i ts l nes i of , 2

ar c s o f th e c u r ves v and u const

c onst resp ecti vel y r l and r th ei r r adii of
. .
, z

fi rst cu rvature and R1 and R thei r r adii of geod esic curvature ; for th e second
, 2

fo c al sh ee t 2 1 of th e c ong ruen ce of tangen ts to th e c u r ves v const th e li near .

el emen t is red u cibl e to 2

R
( as , "

F1
;
h enc e th e c u r ves 3 1 c onst . ar e geod esics .

7 . Sh ow th at 2 1 of Ex . d evel op abl e w h en r 1
6 is f a nd d e termi ne th e
most gen er al for m o f r l so th at 2 1 sh all b e d evel op abl e .

8 .ter mi ne th e c onditi on w hich p mu st sati sfy in or d er th at th e asympto tic

De
li nes on eith er fo c al su r face of a c ong r u en ce sh all cor respond to a c onj ugate syst m e

o n th e o th er and sh ow th at i n thi s c ase

,

w h ere 0 deno tes th e angl e b etw een th e fo a c l pl anes .

9 . d er th at th e foc al sur fac es d egener ate i n to cu r ves it i s nec essar y and

In or ,

suffi ci en t th at th e sph er ic al r ep resen ta ti o n sati sfy th e c on diti ons

a b
bu 1 be 2 1 2

10 . S h ow th at th e c
su r fa es or th ogonal to a n or ma l c ong ru en ce of th e type of

Ex . 9 ar e c yc l id es o f D u pi n .

11 . A c
n e essar y and su f fi ci
t co nditi on th a t th e sec ond sh eet o f th e c ong r uenc e
en

of ta ngen ts to a famil y o f c u r ves o n a su r fac e S b e d evel o p abl e i s th at th e c u r ves

be plane .

1 69 . I sotropic congr u ences . A n i sotr opi c c ong r u en ce is o n e w h ose

foc al su r faces ar e d eve10 pables w i th min i m al ed g es o f r eg r essi o n .

In 31 w e saw h
t at H 0 is a n ecessar y an d su f
fi c i en t co n di ti on
th at a su r ac e f be of h
t is k ind . Referr i ng to 5
( )6 an d w e see

th at w e m u st h ave

h
Fr om (5 4) i t is seen t at i f p w er e z er o th e m id dle su r face w o uld
be a po in t, an d fr o 5
( )5 t at i f th e ex pr essi o n m
s in
pa r en t eses h h
w er e z er o th e su r fac es S, an d S2 w ou ld be c u r v es . C o nse q u en tl
y

an e= e = a

C o nv er sely, i f t is h c on di ti o n be satis fie d , S, an d S2 are iso tr opic

dev e10 pables . H enc e an i sotr Opic gco n r u ence is one w h ose d evel
o
pables ar e r e
pr esented o n th e s
p h
er e by m i im
n al lin es .
41 4 RECTI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN CES

170 . Congr uences of Gu i ch ar d . G u ic h ar d *

p p
r o o se d an d sol ved

th e pr o blem :
To d eter mi ne the cong r u en ces w hose foc a l su r faces ar e met by the
d evelopables i n the lines o f cu r va tu r e .

With Bi an ch i w e call t hm g r u en c es of Gu i cha r d

e con

k
.

We r emar th at a n ec essar y an d su f fi c ien t co n di tion t h at a con

g r u en c e be of thi s k in d is th at F, an d F, of
§ 1 6 8 be z er o . Fr o m
5
( )6 an d (5 7 i t i s
) seen t h at h
t is i s q
e u ivalen t to

64
( )

C o mpar ing t is h r esu lt w i th 78, we h av e th e t h eor e m

A ci en t di ti on tha t the d evelopables
n ecessa r y an d su fii c on
f
o a con

g r u en ce meet the focal f

su r a ces i n thei r li nes f
o cu r va tu r e i s that the
con
g r u en ce be r e r esen ted on
p the
pher e by cu r ves
s r e r esen ting
p a lso

the as m
y ptoti c li n es on a
pseu d os her i ca l su rface
p .

h
I n t is c ase th e par a m eters c an be so c h osen h
t at
’
r

f:
o e 1, cos m,

w h er e a) is a solu ti on of

si n a) .

h
I n t is q
c ase e u ati o n 5
( )3 i s

p c o s (0 .

In par t ic ular , t i s h q
e u ati on is sati s fi ed by X , Y , Z V
( , If w e
r eplac e p by X in we h ave

bx
bv

q
c on se u ently, for th e c on gr u en ce d eter mined by t is h v al u e o f p,
th e m iddl e su r fac e is a pl an e .

Fr om (5 5) i t follo w s h
t at th e li nes o f th e c o ng r u enc e ar e tang en t

to th e li nes of c u r vatu r e v c onst . on S, . C o n se q u en tly t h ey ar e

p . 346 .
f Thi s i s th e onl y r eal so ul ti o n of
 C ON G RU EN CES OF G U I CHAR D 41 5

p ar all el to th e n or m al s to on e o f th e s h eets of th e evol u te o f S,

( of. call i t S, . Hen c e th e co n ugate j syste m on 2 ,

c o rr e

s
po n d in
g to th e lin es o f c u r v atur e on S, is re
pr esen ted o n th e
h
Sp er e by th e sa me lin es as th e d ev e10 pables o f th e c on r u en c e
g .

Referr in g to ( V I, w e see t h at c o n d i ti o n 64
( ) is q
e u i v alen t to

w h er e th e C hr istofi el sy mbo l s ar e for med wi th r espec t to th e li n ear

elem en t of S, . But t h ese ar e th e co ndi ti on s t h at th e par ametri c

c u r v es on 2 , be g eo d esi cs ( c f Su r faces w i t a c on u gate

. h j
system o f g eod esi cs w ere stu d ied by V o ssfi an d o n t i s ac co u n t
‘
h
ar e c alled su rfa ces of Voss Si n c e th e c o n verse o f th e a o ve resul ts
. b
is tr u e, w e h av e th e follo wi ng t h eore m of G ui c h ar d

A fi ci en t condi ti on tha t the tang en ts to the lines

n ecessar y a n d su

f cu r va tur e in one fa mi ly of a su rfa ce for m a congr u en ce of

o

Gu ic ha r d i s tha t one sheet of th e evolu te of the su rfa ce be a su r

f a c e f
o Voss a n d tha t t
,
h e ta n en ts consti tut in
g g the c ong r uen ce be
tho se w hi ch ar e
p a r allel to th e n or ma ls to th e la tter .

If W, den o te s th e d i stan ce fr o m th e or i
g i n to th e tan en t
g pla n e

to th e su r fac e o f V oss 2 th en W ,
is a so lu tio n o f e u ati on 6
( ) 5 q
( cf. H en ce W, + x p is a sol u ti o n o f h
t is e q u a ti o n ,
p r o vi d ed K

be a co n sta n t Bu t Sin ce th e tangen t pla ne to 2 , passes t h r ou

g h
th e c or r espo n di n g poin t o f S, , th e abo v e resul t s h w th o s at a
pl an e

n or ma l to th e li n es o f th e c o n g r u en c e, an d w i c h h di i d v es in c on

stan t r ati o th e segm en t b et w een th e foc al po i n ts, en v elopes a su r

fac e of V o ss . I n parti c u lar , w e h av e th e c or oll ar

y
The mi d d le envelope of a cong r ue n ce o f Gu i char d i s a su rface of Pb ss .

1 71 Pseu dosph eri cal congr u ences Th e lin es j oin in

g co r r espo n d

k
. .

i ng poin ts on a pseu d os
p e h
r i c al su r face S and on o n e o f i ts Bac lu n d

tr an sfor m S ( f § 1 2 0)
s
,
o . co n sti tu te an i n ter esti n g c on
g r u en c e . We
r eca ll th t th di t
a b e s an ce etw een c o r respo n d i n
g po in ts is c onsta n t,
an d th t th t n
a
g t epl a en a n es to th e t w o su r fac es at t ese
poin ts h
meet un d er co n sta n t an
g l e . Fr om ( 3 2) i t follo ws t h at th e d istan ce
b et w een th e li mi t po in ts also is co n sta n t .

‘
Munch ener c
B er i h te, V ol X V III .
pp 95 1 02
.
-
.
4 16 RECTI L IN EA R C ON GRU EN CES
.

C on v er sely, w h en th e an
g le b tw th e een e foc al planes o f a c on

g r u en c e is c on stant, an d con se u en q tly l a so th e an le 9

g e tw een b
th e par ametr i c li n es on th e S
ph p er e r e r esen tin
g th e d ev e10 pabl es,

we h
av e, fr o m V
( ,

(66 )

Fu r t h m er or e, i f th e distan ce be tw een th e fo c al poi n ts i s c on stan t, w e

h ave p a, an d by 60)
( sin 9
”

2
4 a

H en ce th e tw o foc al su r faces h av e th e same con stan t c u r v atu r e.

C o ng r u en ces of t ish k ind w er e fi r st s tu di ed by He

c alle d t hm e
p seu dos
p her i ca l con r u en ces
g
d
.

In or er h t th t
t a e wo fo c al su r faces o f th e c on
g r u en ce be Back
lu n d tr an s f m or f s o on e an ot h er , it is n ecessar y th at t h ei r l in es of

c u r vatu r e cor r espon d . It i s r ead il

y fou n t at for bo t su d
rfaces h h
th e q
e u ati on of t h ese lin es i s r ed u cible b
y ean s of 66 to
( ) m
g "
du to

Mor eov er , th e d i ffer ential e q u atio n o f th e as mptotic

y li nes o n eac h
s u r face is 6 du
2
§ dv = 0
2
. Hen c e we h ave th e t h eor ems

On the foca l f
su r a ces o f a seu d os her i ca l cong r u en ce the lin es f
o
p p
cu r va tu r e cor r es on d , a n d li k ew i se
p the a symptoti c li n es .

The focal f
su r a ces o f a
p seu d os
pher i ca l cong r u en ce a r e B a cklu nd

for ms
tr an s f on e an other
o .

EX AMPLES
1 . Wh en p ar ame ters of a c ongr uen c e are any w h atsoever
th e ,
and li k ew ise th e
c
su r fa e o f referen c e a c on diti on ne c essar y and suf
,
fi ci en t th at a congr uen ce be
i sot r opic is e f +1
"
g

6 2 c? 5
2 . A c i cient c onditi on th at a c ongruence be is otr opic is th at
ne essar y and suf
f
th e l o c us of tw o p o i n ts o n each li ne at an eq u al c onst an t d istan c e fro m th e middl e
su rfac e sh al l d esc r ib e applic abl e sur fac es .

2 $
w
3 Sh o w th at eq u ati on ( 6 5 ) ad mits — and
.
3 as solu ti ons Prove th at i n each .

u v
c ase one of th e fo c al sur faces is a sph er e .

A nnal i Ser 2 V ol X V
*
,
. pp 16 1—172 ; al so L ez ioni V ol I pp 3 23 324
, . .
,
.
,
.
, .
41 8 RECTI L IN EA R CON G RU EN CES

an d Si milar q i n y, z , y, an d z
e u ati on s . Th e fu n c ti on s v
,,
v
,,

u
,,
v
,,
v
,,
r es ec ti v el
p y ar e sol u ti on s o f e q u ati on s of th e for m
2
b0
bu bv

an d h
t e
y ar e s u c h th at

f
2 2 2
7
( )0 v v
,
11
3
7
1
3

w h er e a an d a ar e d efin ed by

Si n ce v v v an d v v
p ar e ro
por ti o n al to th e d i r ec ti on
,, ,, , , , ,

c osin es o f th e n o r mals to S an d S, th e c o n di ti on t h at th e lin es

j o i n in g c o r r espo n d in g po i n ts be tan g ent to th e su r faces S an d

S is
u
se x
) as y) as z
) 0.

D
,(
E
Hen ce
x — x z — z

“
” v
2 s i e

w h er e m d en o tes a fac tor of p ro

por ti o n ali t
y . In o r d er to fin d i ts
val u e, w e n o tic e t h at fr om t h ese e q u ati o n s foll o w th e r elatio n s

2
( P)
2
E@ 772
2
2 0 2
1
3

—
m2 2
[ da E
( g0 ]
n /
2
m 2
a cr Si n
2
9,

w h er e 9 d en otes th e an g le b et w ee n th e fo c al pl an es . I f t is h v alu e

of 2 p and th e v alu es o f K an d Kf ro m ( 71 ) be su bsti tu ted i n

i t i s fou n d t at m
4
1 h z . We ta k e h
m = 1 , t u s fix in g th e Sig n s of

v
19
v
,,
n
a,
an d th e abo ve e q u ation s bec o me

7 2 — : — — = —
( ) z
it re v v
2 8
v v
8 2, y y u u
a ,
z z
2

I f th e fi r st of t h ese e q u ati o n s be d ifi e r en ti ated wi th r es

pec t to u,

th e r esu lt is r ed u ci bl e by (6 8 ) to
 W C ON G RU EN CES
— 41 9

P roc eedin g in li k e m an n er w i th th e ot h ers , an d also di ffere n tiatin g

wi th r espe c t to v, w e ar e bro ug t to h
(2 + V
i ) vi ) ,

2, 3 )

(Di vi
) l iDi l ’ "
V
)
i ,

w h er e l and k ar e fac to rs o f pr opo r ti onal i ty to be d ete r mi n ed .

If th e firs t of t h ese e q u ati o ns be d iffer en tiate d w i th r espec t to v,

an d i n th e re d u c tion w e ma k e u se of th e sec on d an d o f we fin d

X — hl

In li k e m an n er , i f th e sec o n d of th e abo v e e u ati o ns q be difi ere n

ti s ted w i th r es
pe c t to u , w e o bta i n

bl
_ kl V
,
= 0 0

bv

Sin ce t h es e e q u ati o ns ar e tr u e for i z l , 2 , 3 , th e q u an ti ti es

par en th eses mu st be z ero . h

T is g i ves

blc bk
+ k 1. x
a)

In ac cor d an c e w i th th e las t w e pu t

_3
l
bu

an d th e ot h ers be co me

X = Q bu bv

Hen ce q
e u ation s
(6 9) may be wr itte n
2 fl
b0 b 9,
2
bb
2
1 b
01
bu bv 0, ba bu bu bv bu bv

fr o m w h ic h i t follo w s t h at 9, is a solu ti o n of th e fi rst of e q ua

tions ( 6 9 ) an d 1 ( 9 , of th e sec o n d . Mo r eo ver , e q u ati on s ( 7 3 ) may

n ow be wr i tte n i n th e for m

01 v .
0,
b
,

g
( l )
u 60] avi e
( l vi ) 801
a t
av
bu
’
bu b?
) 31)
4 20 RECTI L IN EA R CON GRU EN CES

H enc e i f 9, be a k no w n sol u ti o n of th efi r st of equ ation s we

obtai n q d
by u a r atu r es t r ee fu n ction s h i w h,i c h lea by th e q udad r a

tu r es 6
( )8 to a su r face S T h e l atter i s r efer r ed to i ts as m
y pto ti c
d
.

li n es an d th e j o in s o f c or r espon ing poi n ts on S an d S ar e tan g en t

to th e latter . A nd so w e h av e

If fa su r a ce S be f
r e er r ed to i ts as
ymptoti c li n es, an d the equ ations
of the su rfa ce be i n the L eli eu vr e for m, each solu ti on of the cor r e
s
p on di ng e u a t on
q i 39
2

X9
bu bv

d eter mi n es a su r a ce f S, fou n d by qu a dr a tu r es, su ch tha t S an d S ar e

th e foca l f
su r a ces o f a W cong ru en ce
-
.

C o mpar ing ( 74 ) w i th (X I, w e see t at h i f w e pu t

x = 9 v , = 9 z = 0v’
, , , y, v ’
1 2 1 1 3

th e lo c u s of
th e poi nt y, , )
, z co rr espo nd s to S w i t o r th o
g o h
n ali ty o f li near ele ents m
H en ce v, , v, , v, ar e pr opor tional to th e
d
.

d i r ec tio n c o sines of th e g en er atr i ces o f an in fi n itesi al efor mation

-
m
of S, so t h at w e h ave

Ea ch foca l f
su r ace o f a W cong r u ence
-
ad mi ts of an i nfini tesima l
defor ma ti on w hose g en er atr i ces ar e
p ar a llel to th e n or ma ls to the
h
ot er focal su r a cef .

Si n c e th e ste s
p i n th e pr ec ed ing ar g u m en t ar e r ev ersi bl e, w e

h av e th e t h eor e m
The tang en ts to face w hi ch ar e perpen di cu lar to the g en er a
a su r

tr i ces of a n i nfi n i tesi ma l d efor ma ti on of the la tter con sti tu te a W

cong r u en ce of the most g ener al ki n d an d the n or mals to the other

su rfa ce a r e en er atr i ces of the d e or ma ti on
par allel to th e
g f .

1 73 . Congr u ences of Ribau cou r . In h is stu dy of su r fac es c or r e

spon d i n
g w i th or t h o
g o n ali ty o f l i near ele m en ts Ribau co u r c onsi d

ered th e c on
g r u en ce for md by e th e lin es t p h ro u
gh oin ts on on e

su r fac e par allel to th e n o r mals to a su r fac e c or r espond ing w ith th e

fo r m er in h
t i s man ner Bian c i h “
’
c alls su c h a con r u en ce a con
g
d
.

g r u en ce o f Ri bau cou r , an d th e Sec on su rfac e th e d i r ector f

su r a ce .

In o r d er to ascer tain th e pr oper ti es o f su c h a con g r u en ce, w e

r ec all th e r esu lts of 153 . L et S, be tak en for th e su r face of

V ol 11,. p . 17 .
4 22 REC TI L IN EA R C ON G RUEN C ES

an d Similar e x pr essio n s for y an d z . C o mbin in g t h ese e q u atio n s

w i th w e fin d t h at

en
es as
g bu bu bv bu

H en c e S an d S, c or r espon d w i th or t h
g o
y on al i t of lin ear el e m en ts,

an d th e n or mals to th e for m er ar e par allel to th e li n es of th e co n

g r u en c e . Hen c e
A n ecessar y an d
ffi ci en t condi ti on tha t the d evelopables of a
su

cong r u en ce cu t th e mi dd le su rfa ce i n a conj u ate s stem i s th at thei r

g y
r e r esen ta ti on be tha t a lso o f th e a s m toti c li n es o
f a su rfa ce i n w hi c h
p y p ,

c a se the la tter a n d th e mi dd le su rfa ce cor r es on d w i th or tho on a li t

p g y
of li nea r elements .

EX AMPLES
1 . Wh en th e cobr d i n ates o f th e u n it sph ere ar e i n th e for m ( I II th e p ar a ,

metr ic cu r ves ar e asympto tic li nes . F i nd th e W—congr uenc es for w hich th e spher e
i s one of th e fo c al sh eets .

2 L et
.
f ( u) v,
(v) w h ere f, and qt ar e fun cti ons of u and v r esp ecti vel y
, , , ,

an d i z 1 2 3 b e th ree so l u ti on s of th e fi rst o f eq u ati ons

, , ,
i n w hich c ase x 0 ,

an d let 01 i n ( 74) b e u n ity Sh ow th at for th e c or resp on di n g lV c ong r u en c e th e mi d

.
-

d le su r fa c e is a su r fac e of t r an sl ati on w ith th e g ener a t r ic es u c onst v c onst .

, .
,

th at th e fu n cti ons f, and ar e p r op or ti onal to th e di recti on c osi nes of th e bi nor -

mal s to th ese g enera t r ic es and th at th e i n tersecti ons of th e osc u lati ng pl anes of

,

th ese gener atr ic es ar e th e li nes of th e c ong ru enc e .

3 :Sh ow th at i so t r opic c ong r u en c es and c on g r uen c es of Gu ich ar d are c ong ru

emees of Rib au cou r .

4 . A c ici en t c ondition th at a c ongr uen ce of Rib au cou r b e nor

n e essar y and suf
f
m al is th a t th e sph er ic al r ep r esen t ati on of i ts d evelopab les be i soth er mic .

5 Th e n or mal s to q u ad r ic s and to th e cycli d es of D u pi n c onstitu te c ong r uen c es

.

of Rib au cou r .

6 . Wh en th e middl e su r fa e of a c c ong r uenc e is pl ane ,

th e c ongr uenc e is of th e
Rib au co ur typ e .

7 Sh ow th a t th e c ong ru en c e of Ri b au cou r w h ose di r ector su r fac e i s a sk ew

.
,

h elic oid is a no r mal c ong r uenc e and th at th e nor mal su rfaces ar e moldi ng sur faces
, ,
.

8 Sh ow th a t a n ec essar y an d suffi ci en t c o nditi o n th at a c ong r u en c e of Rib au cou r

.

b e norm al is th at th e di rect or su r fac e b e mi n i mal .

GENERAL EX AMPLES

1 .h r ough each li ne o f a congr u en c e th er e p ass tw o r ul ed sur fac es of th e con

T

g r uen ce w h ose li nes o f st r i cti on li e on th e m iddl e su r fac e th ei r eq u ati on is

96 c g edu2 gv ,

nee -
a)
“

th ey ar e c all ed th e mean r uled sur a es o f f c th e c ongru en ce .

 G EN ERAL EX A MP L ES 4 23

2 . Sh ow
tha t th e mean r u l ed su r faces of a c on gr uen ce ar e rep resente d on th e
sph ere b y an or th og o n al syste m o f rea l li nes a nd th a t th ei r ce n t r a l pl anes
, 105 )
bise ct th e angles be tw ee n th e fo c al pl anes L e t u c o ns t 0 c o ns t be th e mean
. .
,
.

r ul ed su r fac es and d e ve l o p a th eo r y a na l ogous to tha t i n 167 .

3 If t h e t w o foc a l sur fac es of a c on gr u en c e in te rsect th e in te rse cti on is th e

.
,

en vel o pe o f th e ed ges o f regr essi o n of th e t w o fam ili es o f d evel op abl e sur fa c es o f

th e c o n gr uen c e .

4 If a c o ng r u en c e co ns ists of th e li nes j o i ning po in ts on tw o t w is te d c ur ves t h e

.
,

fo c a l pl an es fo r a li ne of th e c o ngr uen ce are d e te r mi ned b y th e li ne an d th e ta ngen t

to ea ch c ur ve at th e po i n t w h ere th e c ur ve is met by th e l in e .

5 In o r d er th a t th e li nes w hich j oin th e cen ters of geo d esic c ur vature o f th e

.

c u r ves of an or th ogona l system o n a sur face shall for m a nor mal c ongr uen c e i t is ,

n e c essa ry a nd su ff i ci en t th a t t h e c o rrespo n d i ng r ad ii of geod esic c ur va tu re be fu n c

tio ns o fone ano th er or tha t th e c ur ves in one famil y h ave co ns tan t geod esi c cur va tu re
, .

6 Le t S be a sur fa c e w h ose li nes of c ur va tur e i n on e system are ci r cl es ; let C

.

d eno te th e ver te x of th e co ne ci r c u msc r ibi ng S al o ng a ci r c le and L th e co r e ,

r

spo nd i ng gener a to r o f th e e n vel ope of th e pl anes of th e c i r cl es ; a ne cessa r

y a nd
su f fi cient condition tha t th e li nes th roug h th e po in ts C and th e correspo ndi ng lines L
for m a nor ma l c o n gr u en c e is th a t th e distan ce fro m C to th e po in ts o f th e c o r respo nd
i ng ci r cl e sha ll b e th e sa me fo r ever y ci r cl e ; if this d is ta n ce be d eno ted b y a th e ,

r ad i u s of th e sph ere is gi ven b y

R? R 2 R?
’

(
w here th e ac c en t in dicate s di ffere n ti atio n w ith r espe ct to th e arc of th e cur ve o f
cen te rs of th e spheres .

7 L e t S be a su fa c e re fe r red to i ts li n es of c ur va tur e C l an d 0 2 th e cen te rs

. r
,

o f p r i n cip a l nor mal c u r vatu re at a po i n t GI and G th e c en te rs o f geod esic c ur va ,

,

tu re o f th e li nes o f c ur va tu re at this po in t ; a nec essary and suffici ent c o ndi ti on

th at th e l ine j o i ni n g Cg and 0 , for m a nor mal c on gr uence is th at P2 be a fun cti on
of or th at one of th ese r ad ii be a c o nstan t .

8 L e t S be a su r face o f th e k in d d efi ned in Ex
. 6 ; th e c one for med b y th e .

n o r m al s to th e su r face at po in ts o f a ci r cl e A is ta ngen t to th e se co nd sh ee t o f th e

evo l u te o f S i n a co ni c 1 Sh ow th at th e li nes th ro u gh po in ts o f 1 an d
( cf
‘ ‘
.

th e ver tex C of th e co n e w hi ch c ir c u msc r ibes S along A gene ra te a nor ma l co n

g r u en ce and th a t C li es i n th e pl ane o f I
‘
, .

9 G i ven an iso ther ma l o r th o gonal syste m o n th e sph ere for w hi ch th e linear

.

e l emen t is
d ? l d lfl
g
o du ; ( )
on ea ch tangent to a c u r ve 1: const lay o ff th e se gmen t o f l ength x measur ed fro m
.

th e po i n t o f co nta ct and t h r ough th e ex t r em ity of th e se gmen t d r aw a li ne pa r a ll el to

,

th e r adi us of th e sphere at th e po i n t of c on ta ct Show tha t thi s co ngr uen ce is iso tr opic .

1 0 Wh en a co ngr uen ce is iso tr opic and i ts di re cti on c os in es are of th e for m

. -

( 111 ,
eq ua ti on ( 53 ) r ed u ces to
Ban
bu bv
S how that th e genera l in tegral is
’
2 +f
’
p o.
w here f and q:are ar bi tr ary fun ctions of u and 0 r es e p ctivel y . Fi d
n th e q ti ons
e ua

o f th e mi ddl e sur fa ce .
4 24 REC TI L IN EA R C ON G RU EN C ES

11 . S h ow th at th e i n ter se cti ons of th e pl anes

(1 i (1 u2 )y 2 uz 4 f (u ) 0,

(1 ):
v2 c i (1 + v2 )y 2 132 : 0

c onstitu te an isotr Opic c ongr uen c e for w hich th ese are th e foc al planes ; th at th e
,

l oc us of th e mid p oi n ts of th e li nes j oi ni ng po i n ts on th e edges of r egression of th e

-

d evelopab les envel ope d b y th ese pl an es i s th e mi n i mal surfac e w hich i s th e middl e

e nvel op e of th e c ong r u en c e b y fi ndi ng th e c oor di n ates of th e po i nt i n w hich th e
,

t angen t pl ane to thi s su r fac e meets th e i n tersecti on of th e ab ove pl anes .

12 . Sh ow
th at th e m iddl e su rfac e of an iso tr Opic c ongr u en c e is th e most general
su rfac e w hich c orr esp o nd s to a sph er e w ith o r th og on ality o f li near e l emen ts and ,

th at th e c or resp ondi ng asso ci ate su r fac e i n th e i nfi nitesi mal d efor mati on of th e

sph ere is th e mi n i mal sur fac e adj o i n t to th e middl e envelope .

13 . Fi
d th e sur face asso ci ate to th e middl e su rfac e of an iso t r opic c ongruenc e
n

w h en th e sur fac e c or r esp ondi ng to th e latter w ith o r th ogon ality o f li near elemen ts

i s a sph er e and sh o w th at it is th e p o l ar re cip r o c al w ith r espect to th e i magi nar y

, ,

sph ere is? 0 o f th e min i mal su r fac e adj o i nt to th e middl e envelope

2 z 2 1
y ,

of th e c ongr u en c e .

1 4 Th e li nes of i n tersecti on of th e oscu lati ng pl anes of th e generat r ices of a

.

su r fac e of t r ansl ati o n c on stit u te a W c ongr u en c e of w hich th e gi ven su r fac e is th e

-

m iddl e su r fac e ; if th e gener at r ic es b e c u r ves of c onstan t torsi on equ al bu t of ,

oppo site sig n th e c ong ru en c e i s nor mal to a W su r fac e of th e typ e ( V III

,
-

15 . p o i nts of a sur fac e S be p r oj ected or th ogonall y upon any pl ane A

I f th e ,

and i f after th e l a tter h as b een r o ta ted ab ou t any li ne n o r mal to it th rough a

,

r ight ang le l i nes b e d r aw n th ro u gh p o i n ts of A p aral lel to th e c or resp ondi ng n or

m
,

al s to S th ese li nes for m a c ongr uen c e o f Rib au cou r

,
.

16 . A n ecessary and suf t c onditi on th at th e tangen ts to th e c ur ves 1: c onst

fi ci en .

on a sur fac e w h ose po i n t equ ati on i s (V I

, sh al l fo r m a congr uence of Rib au cour is
,

8a 8b 62 log b
au 80 :
bu 8 1

17 . Sh ow
th at th e t angen ts to each system of p ar ametr ic cu rves on a su rface
fo r m c ongr uenc es o f Rib au cou r w h en th e po i n t eq u ati on i s

82 0 80 60
Ut h
I
V1
au 80 an E
w h ere UI and VI are fun cti ons of u and 17 r especti vel y and th e accen ts i ndic ate ,

di fferenti ati on .

1 8 Sh ow th at i f th e p aramet r ic c u rves on a su rfac e S for m a conj uga te system

.
,

and th e tang en ts to th e c u r ves of each fami ly for m a c on gr uenc e of Rib au cou r th e ,

same i s t r u e of th e surfac es SI and w hich toge th er w ith S c onstitu te th e foc al

su rfac es of th e tw o c ongr uen c es .

1 9 Sh ow th a t th e p ar ame ter of di st r ib u ti on 1) of th e r uled sur fac e of a con

.

gr uenes d etermi ned by a value o f dv/du is gi ven by

, ,

1
 CHAPTER X III

CYCLIC SYS TEMS

1 74 Gener al equati ons of cycl i c syste

. m s . Th e ter m con
g r u en ce

is n o t r estr i c ted to tw o par ameter syste m s of str ai

g h t l i n es, bu t i s
k
-

appli ed to tw o par a -
m eter syste m s of any i n d of c u r ves . B ar b ou x
h as m ad e a stu dy o f t h ese g en er al co n
g r u en ces an d Ribau c ou r t h as -

con si d d er e c ong r u en c es of pl an e cu r ves . O f par tic ular i n ter est i s

th e c ase w h er e t h es e c u r ves ar e c i r cles . Ribau c o u r h as g i ven th e
n ame cycli c systems t o con
g r u en ces o f c i r cl es w h ic h ad mi t o f a on e

p ar a m eter family of o r t h o
g on al su r faces . T is h c h apter i s d evoted
to a stu dy o f c ycli c syste m s .

We beg in w i th th e g en er al c ase w h er e th e plan es of th e cir cles

en vel o p a n on d ev elopa bl e su r face S. We associ ate w i th th e latter

a m ov i n
g tri h ed r al and for th e pr esen t assu m the at th e

par am etr i c c u r v es on th e su r fac e ar e any w atever h .

A s th e ci r cles lie in th e tan g en t pl an es to S, th e c oor d in ates

of a poi nt on on e of hm t e w ith r espec t to th e c or r es on

p d in g
tr i h edr al are of th e for m
1
( ) a +R c os €, b + R si n 9, 0,

w h er e b ar e th e coor d i nates of th e center R th e r adiu s an d 9

a,

k
, ,

th e an gle w h i ch th e latter to a g i ven poi nt m a es w i th th e mo ving

x —
ax i s

d
.

In 6 9 w e fou n th e follo wi ng ex pr essions for th e pr oj ec tion s

o f a d isplacemen t o f a poi n t w i th r espect to th e m o vi n g ax es :

dz fdu Edv l
d
(q u d
ql )v z ( r du r
l
d )
v y,

dy n du nl d v du d v x — ( d d
( r r
, ) p u +
pl )v z,

dz (1 d u + ) d g du ads—
v,
”
0
rl

* V ol . II , pp 1 10 ;
.
-
a soEi senh ar t , C ongr uenc es of C ur ves, Tr a nsac ti ons of th e A mer
l .

Ma th Soc V ol IV pp 470—488
é
. . . .
,

TMemoi r e
’

su r la theor i e g enér ale des su r fac es cour bes, Jour nal des Math matiques,
‘

Ser 4 , V ol V II
. .
§ 1 17 cc . seq .
 GEN ERAL E U ATI ON S Q 4 27

w h ere th e translati ons 5 £1 , , 17,

m an d th e r o tations
p, q, r ; pl , 91 , r
,

satis fy th e co n di tions

3E 85.
31)
g —r
Q1 ’
Ev 8a
3
A

23
— ” fi r —
E
7
7 9
7 1 1 1,
1

—
9E
—
9E
9 1) = —
1 917
91 7
1, 19171 1 1 1 1
'

t en th e v alu es 1
( ) ar e su bsti tu te d in 2
( ) th e latte r

r ed u cible to

A da Al dv c os o d R d d du d v R si n 0,
( r r
, )
B du si n 0 dR + r du r
l
d r R
) c os 0,

(1 d a + p d v (b
)
1 ) R sin 0) (9 d u d
q, )(
r a R co s

w h ere we h av e u
p ,t for th e sa k e of brevi ty,

Cu

61 '
r b
l ’
B1 71 +
7 r a
l
’

Th e co n di ti o n s t h at

ar e r ed u cible, by m ean s of to

8A
r
.
B r 13
1
. —z
;
( m.
av a“
as as ]
—
pl q)
av an

Th e d irec tion c osin es -

of th e tan g en t to th e g i v en c i rc le at th e

po in t (1 ) are

( 7) sin 0, c os 0, 0 .

Hen c e th e con di ti on t h at th e loc us of th e po in t, as u an d v v ar y,

be h
or t o
g o n al to th e cir cle is th at th e su m of th e e x pr essio ns (4)
mu ltipli e d r espec ti v ely by th e q u an ti ti es 7
( ) be z ero . Thi s giv es

8
( ) R d 6 + ( B c os e
428 CY CL I C SY STEMS

In or d er t h th e syste
at m f o c i r cl es be n or mal to a fa m ily o f su r

fac es t i s e h q u atio n u st a m d m it of a sol u ti o n in volv in g a par a m eter .

Si nce i t is of th e for m
9
( )
th e c o n d iti o n t h at su c h an i n teg r al x ist i s
e th at th e equ ati on

BU aV
1
( )0 fl ”

ac

be satis fie d d i en ti c ally
*
For equ ati on ( 8) t ish con di ti on is
d
.

re u ci bl e to

A 1 " R6 “721
" "

P1 9)

i
00 3 9 B
i; B , — Ra ( pq1

—
R m)
2
( I
A B A1 3 ) ( pa 0

In or d er t h at t ish equ ation be sati s fi ed i d en ti cally, th e ex pr essions

i n the br ac k ets m u sti t is possible
be z er o . If t h ey ar e n o t z er o ,

h
t at th e t w o solu tions of t is e u ati on w ill satisfy an d t u s h q h
m
d ete r in e tw o su r faces or t og onal to th e congr uen ce o f cir cles h .

H en ce w e h av e th e t h eo re m of Ribau c our
If the ci r cles fa
o c ong r u ence a r e n or ma l to mor e than tw o su rfaces,

they for m a cyc li c syste m .

Th e equ ati o ns of con d i tion t h at th e s ste

y m be c
yc li c ar e

c onsequ ently
are

ER
5,
B . — Ra (pal — m) 0,

A
( BI A 18 ) R < f791
2 fi

pi ql 0 °

Th e total cu rv atu r e o f S is giv en by ( of. 70)

m
—
6 71 5177
1

* Mur r ay D i fferen ti al Eq u ations

, , p . 1 37 New Yor k , 1897 ; l
a so For sy th , fer ential
D if
Equa ti ons, p . 25 7 . L on d on , 1 888 .
4 30 C Y CL I C S STEMS Y
an d d eter mi ne th e c on d i ti on w hi c h < 1; mu st sati sfy We ta k e for
d
.

a and b th e ex pr essions o btai ne by solvi ng t h at is

9? i " gf

1
( 7)
3a
17 i
do fi t s s
-
f
a
for $ 117
No w th e q
e u atio n ( 1 5 ) v an ish es i den tically , an d th e o n ly ot h er

c o n d i ti o n to be satisfi ed i s th e last o f h
t is, by th e s ubsti

tu tio n of t h ese v al u es o f a , b, R, b ec o mes a

par tial di ffer en ti al
e q
u a ti o n in d) of th e for m
2 2 2

1 8
3 l
<> 3 95 5 ¢
+N =0
( ) 3a
”
or 6 1?
7 8u 8 v
+ fl1
80
w h er e J, L , III , N d en ote fu n c tion s of ( pE
, , r
,,
an d ht eir d er i va
tiy es of th e fi rst o r d er . C on versely, eac h sol u tio n o f th i s equ ati on

g i ves a cycli c syste m wh ose c i r cl es lie i n th e tangen t planes to S .

EX AMPLES
1 . c e of r evo l u ti on d efi ned b y (I II
L et S b e a su r fa and let T b e th e t r ih ed ral ,

w h ose x ax i s is t ang en t to th e c u r ve 1)
-
c onst D e ter mi ne th e c onditi on w hich th e .

fu n cti on ( u) must sa tisfy i n o r d er th at th e q u an titi es a b i n ( 1 ) may h ave th e val ues ,

30 ( u)

and d eter mi ne al so th e ex p ressi on for R .

2 A nec essar y and suffi ci en t c onditi on th at all th e ci r cl es of a c yclic system

.

w h o se pl an es en vel op a n on d evel op abl e su r fac e sh all h ave th e same r adi us is th at ,

th e pl anes of th e ci r cl es t ou ch th ei r envel op e S at th e c ent ers of th e c i r cl es and ,

th at S b e p seu d osph er ic al .

3 L e t S b e a su r fac e re fer red to an o r th ogon al syst em of li nes an d let T b e

.
,

th e t r ih ed r al w h ose se ax i s i s t an gen t to th e c u r ve 1;
-
c onst W ith r eferen ce to th e .

t r ihed r al th e eq u ati ons of a c u r ve i n th e tangen t pl ane ar e o f th e for m

x = p00 8 0, y z
p sin fl,
w h ere i n gener al p is a fu ncti on of 0 u and v Sh ow th at th e c onditi on th at th ere
, ,
.

b e a su r fac e o r th og o nal to th ese c u r ves is th at th er e ex ist a r el a ti on b etw een 8 u , ,

and c w hich sa t isfi es th e equ ati on

()
8p

(
8p 8p 6p
do _
_
_ t cos 0 pgsi n 0
so as on as

(232
8
+ 1) i
s n e 0 .

Wh en thi s c onditi on is sa tisfi ed by a fun cti o n 0 w hich i nvol ves an ar bitr ary c on
t t th er e is an i nfi nity of nor mal sur fac es I n
s an ,
. thi s c ase th e c u r ves ar e said to
fo r m a nor ma l c ongr uenc e .

4 Wh en th e su rfac e envel oped b y th e pl anes of th e c u r ves of a nor mal con

.

gr u en ce of p lane c u r ves i s d efor med i n su ch a w ay th a t th e c u r ves remai n i nvari

ab ly fix ed to th e su r fac e th e congr uence c onti nues to be normal

,
.
 C Y CL I C C ON G RU EN CES 43 1

Cycli c congr u ences Th e ax es of th e circles o f a cycli c sys

1 75 . .

te m con sti tu te a r ecti lin ear c o n gr u en c e w i c Bian c i h as c all ed h h h

a cycl ic cong r u ence In or d er to d eri ve th e pr oper ti es o f t is c o n
. h
g r u en ce an d fu r t h er r esul ts c on c er n in g cycli c syste ms , w e assu m e

t h at th e par am etr i c c u r ves on S c or r espond to th e d ev e10 pables of

th e con g r u en c e .

Th e coo r di n ates o f th e fo c al po i n ts of a li n e of th e co n gr u en c e

wi th r efer en ce to th e c o r r es po n d i n
g tr i h e dr al ar e of th e for m
a, 6, P1 3 a, 6, p2 O n th e yp ot esis at th e fo r m er h h th ar e th e
v
.

cobrd in ates o f th e foc al po i n t fo r th e d ev elopable c o ns t .

t h r ou
gh th e li n e, w e h av e, fr o m

b
”

g —
— r b = 0, l n — l
r ra 0
ppl
- -
.

Pr o ceedi ng i n li k e man n er w it h th e ot h er po i n t, w e o bta i n a

pa i r

o f si m il ar e u ation s q . A ll of t h ese e q u ati o ns may be w r itte n i n th e

abbr ev i ated fo r m
1
( )9 A 9px
: 0, B _
PP1
= 0’ A 1 + 91 00 2 : 0, B 1 _P 1 P2 = 0’

in c on se q u ence o f t en t h ese v al u es ar e s u bsti tu ted i n th e

last of e q u ati on s i t is fo u n d t h at

2
( )0 R 2
Pi pz '

Hen ce th e li n es j o in i n
g a po in t on th e c i r c le to th e foc al poin ts are

per pen di c u lar . If w e pu t

2 P = pi _P 2’
2 8 = P1 + P
t h i n d ic ati ng by 2 p th e di stan ce betw een th e fo cal po in ts, an d by
us

8 th e d ista n c e betw een th e cen te r o f th e cir cl e an d th e mi d poin t -

of th e li n e of th e c o n g r u en ce, w e fin d t h at

R + 82
: 2 2
p

“ r
e r eplac e h
t is e q u ati o n by th e tw o
2
( )1 8 = p c os a , R = p si n 0 ,

t h us d efi ni n g a fun c ti o n 0 . Now w e h av e

so th q
at e u ati o n s 1
( )9 m a
y be wr i tten
qp( c os a
”
B = pp( cos a

q,p( co s a
'
3 1 = P1 P(c os 0 '

‘ V ol 11 ,. p . 161 .
432 C Y CL I C SY STEMS

By m eans of
( 5 ) e q u ation 15
( ) c an be pu t i n th e for m
Ag — A5 + B m —B
m = a

Wh en th e v al ues ( 2 2) ar e su bstitute d i n t is h q
e u ation , i t beco m es

—
c os fi r m m 951 + 91 § + P 7r 1 ~
0

Sin c e by ( 3 ) th e ex pr essi o n i n the fi r st p ar en t h esis i s z er o , th e same

is tr u e of th e sec o n d , an d so w e h ave

— :
pnl ggl O’ pi n 9 5 0
-
z -
°
1

B ut t h ese ar e th e c on d i ti o n s ( V , 6 7) t h at th e par a m etri c c u r ves

on S for m j
a c on ug ate system . H en ce w e h av e th e t h eor e m of

Ribau cou r
On the envelo
p e o f the plan es o f the ci r cles o f ya c cli c s st
y e m the
cor r es on d ing to the d evelo a bles f
o the associ a ted c clic con
cu r ves
p p y
g r u en ce f mor j
a con u ate s ste
g
‘

y m .

1 76 Sph er ical r epr esentati on of cycl i c congr u ences When th e

d
. .

ex pr essio ns ( 2 2 ) ar e su bsti tu te in w e obtai n

-
l >i — q
g w cos m n
o
as m . “pa m ) — a

a
£3 q
.
—r
ql
—a
( pq. —
r .q>

Sin ce pq, p, q 0 u nless S is d evelopa bl e, th e pr ecedi ng e q u ations

may be r epl ace db y

8
—
3u
[ p( cos or 2 P “

H a
g
“

8
—2 P + ( Q1 a ' —b
pi )’

w h er e th e C h r is toffel symb ols ar e for m e dw it h r es

pect to

( 24) ( 10 du ( 9?d u

th e linear ele m ent of th e s

p h eri cal re
pr esentati on of S.
43 4 C Y CL I C SY STEMS

By th e et o m h
of d
1 6 7, or t at h h er ein after e x plain e d we fin d th e
k
,

mi ddle su r fac e o f th e co ng r u ence . T h en w e ta e th e poi nt o n eac h

l ine at th e d istan ce p co s fr om th e mid poi nt as th e c en ter o f th e
a -

c ir cle of r ad iu s p sin a an d for w i c h h

th e l in e i s th e ax i s T ese cir . h
cl es fo r m a cyclic s
ystem , as w e s h ll h a s o w
d
.

In th e place w e dete r min e th e m id le su r fac e w i t r efer en c e

fi r st h
to a h h
tr i ed r al of fix ed v er tex , w o se z ax is coin ci des w i t th e r adi u s -
h
of th e s
ph er e
par allel to th e lin e of th e c on g r u en ce an d w h ose x ~

an d y
—ax es ar e an
y w h atev er If y, 240 d eno te th e c o br di nates
.
,

of th e mid poi n t o f a lin e w i th r efer en c e to th e c or r espon d in tri

g
-

h ed r al, th e coo r d in ates o f th e foc al poi n ts ar e

$
0, yo, 2
0 + P; $
0, yo, z
o
' “

P ‘

Fr o m ( 2 ) i t i s seen t h at if t h ese po i n ts c or r es o n
p d to th e d ev elop

ables v co nst . an d u c on st . r espec ti vel , w e

y m ust h ave

+ TC
C
O

— = 0 —
+ pl (
‘
7 x 0 z
r
i yo ’ l o

Si n c e pql pl q 0, th e con d i ti on s of b
i n teg r a ili ty o f t h q
ese e u a

tion s c an be pu t i n th e fo r m
( pyo _ 9270 ) 0,

(P y i o
O ’

It i s r ead i l
y fo u nd t h at th e c on d iti on o f in te
g ra b ility of t h ese e q ua

tion s i s r ed u ci ble to

It w ill be to ou r ad van tag e to h ave also th e c oo r d in ates of th e

po i n t o f c on tac t o f th e plane of th e w i th i ts en v elope S

c i r c le . If
x
y zo —
p c os o
'

d en ote t h ese c oor d i n ates wi th r efer en ce to th e

d
, ,

b
a ove tr i h e r al , i t follows fr o m 2
( ) t h at

8
er e c os a
)+ r z/ s = 0,
e
w
8
( _ P 2 C OS gl ib :0
5;
'
0
 C Y CL I C CON GRU EN CES

If t h q
ese e u ati o ns be su btra c ted fr o m th e r espec ti v e on es of

th e r es ul ts ar e r ed u c ibl e, by mean s of to

8 — —
( cos a + r <yo 7
y s( e
o

8 —
— = o,
y> a

w hi c h are the sa m e as For , th e qu anti ti es m, — z , yo y ar e

th e c oii r d i n ates of th e cen ter of th e c irc le with r efer en ce to th e tr i

h edr al par allel to th e pr ec ed ing on e an d wi th th e c or r espon di n
g
o in t o n S for v er te x
p .

I f, t h en , w e h av e a so lu ti on 0
'

of
( 2 5 ) an d
p o f th e c orr e

spo nd i n
g v al u es o f a an d 6 g i v en by ( 2 6 ) sati sfy sin ce th e
latter ar e th e con d iti ons h
t at th e par a m etri c c u r v es on th e sp h er e

re
p r esen t th e d evelo pables of th e co n
g r u en c e . H ow ever , w e have

seen t h at w h en th e v alu es 22
( ) are su bsti tu ted in w e obtai n

e q uati ons r ed u c i ble to 25

( ) an d H enc e th e c ir cles co n stru c te d

as i n di c ate d above fo r m a cycl ic syste m .

Si n ce e q u ati on s 25
( ) ad m i t only o n e so l u ti o n 2
( )7 u n l ess th e con

di tion (2 8) i s satis fi ed , w e h av e th e t h eore m

IVi th ea ch c
yc lic cong r uen ce ther e i s associ a ted a u n i qu e cycli c sys
tem u n less i t is a t the same ti me a c ong r u en ce of Riba uc ou r , i n w hi ch
cas e ther e i s an i nfi ni ty f associ ated
o c
yclic systems .

Rec alli n g th e re sul ts o f 1 4 1 , we h av e th e t h eo r e m o f Bi an chi

Wh en the to ta l cu r va tu r e o f a su r fa c e r efer r ed to i ts as m
y ptotic

lin es i s o f the for m 1

PM ) “
$ 4 0] 1

i t i s the su r a cef g en er a tr ix f
o a c ong r u en ce f Ri ba u cou r
o w hich i s
cycli c in an i nfin i ty f w ays a n d these ar e the on ly
o , c
yc li c cong r u

en ces w i th a n i nfin i ty of a ssoc i a ted cycli c systems .

In t i s h c ase th e g en er al sol u tio n o f e q u ati o ns 2

( )5 is

31 cos 0 M e
,

e 4»

w h er e a 18 an ar bt i r ar
y c on stan t .

V ol II ,
. p . 165 .
4 36 C C L C S S EMS
Y I Y T

1 77 . Sur faces ort h ogonal to a cycl ic syste m . I n t is h section w e

c o n si der th e su rfaces SI or t h g on al to th e c i r cles of a cyc lic sys

o

tem . Sinc e th e d i recti on -

cosi n es o f th e n or als to th e su r faces m
w i th r efer en c e to th e
g tri m o v in hd e r al in 1 74 ar e sin 9, c os 0, O,
th e h
Sp er ic al r epr esen tati on o f t h ese su r faces is g i ven by th e po i n t
w h ose c oor din ates ar e th ese w i th r es ec t to a tr i e r al o f fix ed
p h d
v er tex par allel to th e ab ov e r t ih d e r al . Fr o m ( 2) we fin d t h at th e
ex pressi on s fo r t h e pr oj ec ti on s of a d isplace m t en of h
t is poin t ar e

c os 0 ( d0 r du r
l
d )
v ,

sin 0 (d 9 r du r
l
ds),

d d v c os 0 d d v sin 9
(p u +
p1 ) (q u
ql ) .

Mor eov er , by m eans o f w e o bt i a n th e i d en tity

d d 9 9 )du
'

( 3 2) sin a ( d r du r
l
s
) cos a
)( p c os
q sin

( 1 cos a )( p, cos 9 ql sin 9)d v .

H ence th e lin ear el e m en t o f th e h

sp er ic al r epr esen tati o n of SI i s

2
(p c os 0 q si n 9 ) du 2

2 2
pl co s 0 ql sin 9) d v .

m
Since th e par a etr i c cur v es o n th e sp er e for h m an ort h o
g on al

s ste
y th m
e par ametr i c c u r ves o n th e su r face ar e th e lin es of

d
,

c u r vatu r e, if t h e
y for m
an or t og onal system hI n or er to s o w h
d d d
.

th at h
t is c on i ti on is satisfi e , w e fi r st r e u ce th e ex pr essi on s (4 )
for th e pr o j ecti ons of a di splace m en t o f a po mt on S, , by means
of an d to

cos Bsi n a

d
sm 0 s1n o
l — c os a 1+ c os o

C du + d ,

w h er e w e h av e
p ut

C = p ( b + R si n 9)— q (a + R c os

D = p1 (b + R sin 9 ) q,( a + R c os
43 8 C Y CL I C SY STEMS

Sin ce th e su r fac e 2 an d th e en v elo pe S of th e plan es of th e

c ir cl es h av e th e sa me r epr ese n tati o n of t h ei r li nes of cu r vatu r e,

th e tan g en ts to th e latter at c or r espo n d in oin ts on th e tw o

g p
su r fac es ar e
p ar allel . H en ce w i th r efer en ce to a tr i h d
e r al for 2
par allel to th e tr i h ed r al for S th e c o or d in ates of a poi nt on th e
c ir c le ar e R co s 9, R si n 9, u, w h er e n re mai ns to be deter mi n ed

an d 9 i s g i ven by w h ich c an be pu t i n th e for m

fi +
8w
_ c os w si n d,
0 9 aw
— — sin co c os d .

an 80 av on

If w e e x pr ess , by m
ean s of th e c o n di ti on t at all isplac e h d
m en ts of h
t is po i g h
n t be o r t o o n al to th e lin e w ose di r ecti on h
cosi n es ar e — si n 9, c os 0, O, th e r esu l ti n
g q
e u ation is d
r e uci bl e,

by m ean s o f to

sin 9 (R c os a —
n si n m— E
w u

— co s € (R si n — d = 0
w +u c os w n1 ) v .

Hen ce th e q uan titi es in par en t h eses ar e z er o , fr om w h i ch w e obtain

4 1 =
( ) u

Wh en , i n par ti c u lar , 2 i s a pse u d osp e h

r i c al su r face o f c u r vatu r e

—l /a
2
, w e h
ave
( V III ,
2 2 )
f a co s w , n1 = a si n a) ,

so t h at R a an d ,u. 0 . H en ce th e c ir c les ar e o f c onstan t r adiu s

an d th e en v el ope of t h
plan es i s th e loc u s
ei r of t h ei r c en ters

( of
. Ex . 2, C on v er sely, w en th e latter h con d ition is sat

i sfied, i t fo llow s fr o m 1
( )3 t h at R is co nstan t Mor eover h
i n t is
d
.
,

c ase p1 an d p2 , as d efi n ed i n 1 75 , ar e th e pri n c ipal ra ii of th e

su r fac e, wh ic h by (20) i s pseu d o sp er i c al h Wh e n t h ese v alu es

d d
.

ar e su b stitu te i n ( 36 ) an d i t i s fou n t h at th e li n ear ele

m ent o f eac h or t h og o n al su r fac e is

2
d sf a
2
(
2
c o s (9 da
"
si n 0

an d of i ts h
Sp er ic al re
p r esen tati on

2 2 ’
4
( )2 do , “
si n 9 da 2
cos 0dv .

H ence t h ese o rt h o
g o n al su r faces ar e th e tr an sfor m s of 2 by m eans

of th e Bianc i tr an sfor h m ation

 PL A N ES O F C I RC L ES TA N G EN T TO A C U RV E 439

Th e ex pr ession (4 2 ) is th e lin ear ele men t of th e h

sp er i cal r e
p
r esen ta ti o n o f th e su r fac es o r t g h o o n al to th e c ir cl es assoc iated wi th
an
y su r fac e 2 , w h eth er i t be pseu dosp h er i c al or n o t, w h h
ose sp er i c al

re
presen tati o n i s g iv en by Sin ce t h ese o r t h og o n al su r fac es

h av e h
t is repr esen tati on o f t h ei r li nes o f c u r v atur e, t h y ar e o f th e
e

sa m e k i nd as Z . We h av e th us fo r all sur faces wi th th e same r ep

r esen tati o n o f t h ei r li n es o f c u r v atur e as
pse u do sp er i cal sur fac es, h
a tr an sfor mati on in to si milar su rfac es o f w ic h h
th e Bian c i tra ns h
fo r mati on i s a par ti cu lar c ase ; w e call it a
g en er aliz ed B ian c i h
tr ansfor matio n fi ‘

1 79 . Cycli c systems for w hi ch th e env el ope of th e planes of t h e

cir cl es V e c on si d er n o w t h e par ti c u lar c ases w ic

i s a cu rv e \ . h hh av e

bee n e x cl ud ed fr o m th e pr ec edin g d isc u ssi on , and beg in w ith th at

fo r w hi c h th e en v el ope S o f th e plan es o f th e c i r c les is a c u rv e C

k
.

We ta e th e mo ving tri h ed r al s u c h th at i ts
pl an e, as befo r e,
ry

k
-

is t h at o f th e c ir c le, an d ta e th e :axi s
c -
tang en t to C If 8 d en o tes .

th e ar c o f th e latter , w e h av e

ds = g du + £1 dv, 7) 77
1
= 0,
an d by ( 3 )

3 fl = 0,
l§ 95 1 15
4
( ) r r 1
( 0

Fr o m an d 1
( )6 i t fo ll o w s h
t at a an d ar e fun c ti o n s of 8 ,

so t hat th q
ese e u ati o n s may be re
pl ac ed by

(44) R : 2
a
2
+ 6 +2
2

If th e par ametri c c u r ves o n th e sp ere r epr esen t th e d ev elopables h

o f th e c o n r u en c e, th e c on di ti o n s
g 1
( )9 m u st ol B u t fro m h d .

15 an d 4 3” 73 0 bta m
A gl

If th e v al u es fr o m ( 1 9 ) be su bstitu te d in t is h e q u ati o n , w e h av e,

fr o m _
_ : 0
P PI 2
.

H ence th e foc al su r faces c o in c i de . If w e pu t

P P1 P:

in 1 9 an d su bsti tu te i n th e last of w e ob tai n

( )
(PH )( Psi p1 9)
— ?
R -
0

t . A mer i can Jou r nal , V o l x x vr ( 1 9

. m) pp,
. 1 27 1 32 -
.
4 40 C Y CL I C S STEMS Y
Th e v an is hi n
g of
PQ1
“

F1 ? i s th e c o n d i ti o n h
t at t h er e be a sin
g l e

i n fin i ty of h h
plan es, w i c c ase w e e x cl u d e for th e pr esen t Hen ce .

p h
= i iR ; t at i s, th e d ev elo ables o f the c cli c c on r u ence ar e
p y g
i m a
g i n ar y .

I nstead of r etai n in g as p ar a metr i c c u r ves t h ose r e r esen ti n

p g th
k k
e

d evelopabl es, we m a e th e follo w i n g c h oi ce . We ta e th e ar c o f C!

for th e par ameter u ; c on se u en tl q yE = 1, :

£1 0 . Sin ce 7; 0
also, w e ave, fr o m h
91 1

h en ce w e may c h oose th e par ameter c so t h at

p = 0, pl = 1 .

Fr o m 3
( ) i t foll ow s fur t , h m er or e, t h at

as
av

of w hi ch th e g en er al i n tegr al i s

= U c os v + Uz sin v, =— U si n v + Uz
g l
r l
c os v,

w h er e UI an d U2 ar e ar bit r ar
y fu n c tion s of u . Fr o m (5 ) w e h av e

— ab
A= ¢ ( u
)+ 1 r l) , Bl = — s -

8c

so th at th e t ir h d of e u ati o n sq 1
( )2 i s r ed u c i ble by (44) to

su n gf
—
,

av 2 l
6
( + 2 4) )

H en ce i f w e ta k e fo r a an
y fu nc ti on of u d en oted by equ ation

4 5
( )g i ves 6, an d R follo w s d i r ectly fr o m

Cycl i c syste s for w h i ch th e planes

1 80 . m of th e ci r cl es pass
t h r ough a poi nt I f th e plan es o f th e c i r cles of a c
y c l ic s
y ste m
k
.

p ass t h r ou
g h a p oi n t 0, w e ta e i t fo r th e o r ig i n and for th e
v er te x of a m o vin
g tri h e d r al w h ose z a-
x is i s par allel to th e ax is
of th e ci r cl e u n der c o nsi d er ati on . In h
t is c ase eq u ations 1
( )4
may be re
pl aced b
y
2
4
( 6) R 2
a
2
6 c,

w h er e c den o tes a c on stan t . h

Bu t t i s is th e c on d ition t h at al l th e

c i r cles ar e o r t h o
g on al to a sp er e h w i th cen ter at 0, or cu t i t in
4 42 C Y CL I C S STEMS Y
We c on sid er fi nally th e c ase w h er e th e plan es o f th e c i r cles
d epen d u pon a si n g le ar amete r
p . If w e ta e for k m
o vi ng a x es th e

tangen t, pr i n c ipal n o r mal, a nd bin or mal of th e edg e o f r eg r ession

of t h ese plan es an d i ts ar e fo r th e par ameter u, w e h av e

pr

and c o mp ar in
g ( V , 5 0) w i t h w e see t h at

r :

w h er e p an d r ar e th e r ad u o f fi rst an d c u r v atu r e o f

ed
g e of r e
g r essi o n . Now

ou b
7
6s P

Th e e q u ati on s 1
( ) r edu ce to t w o
2 . O ne of th e fu n c ti on s a, b may
be c h osen ar b it r ar i l
y ; t h en th e ot h er an d R c an be o btain ed by
th e solu tio n o f par ti al d iffer en ti al q
e u atio n s o f th e fi r st o r der .

EX AMPLES

1 . h ow th at a c ong r uen ce of Rib au cou r w h ose sur face gener ator i s th e r ight
S
h elic o id is c yclic and d eter mi ne th e c yclic systems
,
.

2 A c ongr uen ce of Gu ich ar d i s a c yclic c on g r u en c e and th e en vel o pe of th e

.
,

pl anes of th e ci r cl es of each asso ci ated cyclic system is a su r fac e of V oss .

3 Th e su rfac e gener ator of a c yclic c ong r uen c e of Ri b au cou r i s an associ ate

.

su r fac e of th e pl anes of th e ci cl es o f ea ch asso ci ate d c yclic system

r .

4 I f 8 is a su r fac e w h ose li nes o f c u r vatu re h ave th e same sph e r ic al rep resen ta

.

ti on as a p seud ospher ic al su r fac e and SI i s a t r ansfor m of S r esu lti ng fro m a gen

,

e r ali z ed B i an chi t r an sfor mati o n th e t an g en ts to th e li nes of c ur vat ure o f

SI p ass th rough th e c en ters of p r i n cip al c u r vatu r e o f S .

5 W h en th e fo c al seg men t o f each li ne o f a c yc lic c o ng r u en c e i s di vid ed i n

.

c ons tan t r ati o by th e c en ter of th e ci r cl e th e envel op e of th e p lanes of th e ci r cl es

,

i s a surfac e of V oss .

6 Th e ci r c les o f th e c yclic system w h ose ax es are nor mal to th e su rfac e 2

.
,

d efi ned i n Ex 1 1 p 3 70 p ass th r ou gh a poi nt and th e su rfac es or th ogonal to th e

.
,
.
, ,

ci r cl es are su r fac es of Bi an chi of th e p ar ab olic type .

7 I f th e sph eres w ith th e fo c al seg men ts o f th e li nes of a c o ng r uenc e for

.

di ameters p ass th r ough a poi n t th e c ong r u en c e is cyclic and th e ci r cl es p ass

, ,

th r ough th e po i nt .

8 Sh ow that th e converse of Ex 7 is t ru e
. . .
 GEN ERAL EX AhIPL ES

GENERAL EX A MPLES

1 . ter mi n e th e nor mal c on gru en ces of Ri bau co ur w hi ch ar e c yclic

De .

2 If th e en ve l ope of th e plan es of th e ci r cl es of a c ycli c sys te m is a su r face of

.

V oss w h ose c o nj uga te geod esic syste m co r respo nds to th e d evelopables o f th e as so

c ia ted c yclic co ngr uen ce any fami l y of pl anes c u ttin g th e fo ca l se gments in c on

,

stan t r a ti o and per pe ndi c u l ar to them envel o p a sur fa ce o f V oss .

3 A nec essa r y and sufii cien t c onditi on th at a c ongr uen c e be c yc lic is tha t th e
.

d evelo pab les h ave th e same sph er ica l rep resen ta ti on as th e co nj u ga te l ines of a su r
fac e w hi ch r emai n c o n j u g a te i n a d efo r ma ti on o f th e su r face If th e d evelopab les .

o f th e co ngr uen c e are rea l th e d efor ms o f th e sur fac e are im agi n ar y

,
.

4 Th e pl anes of th e c yclic syste ms asso ci ated w i th a c yclic c ong r uence o f

.

Ri bau cou r to uch th eir respe cti ve envel o pes i n su ch a w ay th at th e po i n ts o f con

tac t o f all th e pl anes co r r espo ndin g to th e same lin e of th e c o ngr uenc e li e on a
str a ight lin e .

5 If th e sph eres d esc r ibed on th e fo c a l se gme n ts o f a c o n gr u en ce as di ame te rs

.

cu t a fix ed sph ere or th o go na ll y o r i n g rea t c ir cl es th e c o n g ru en ce is c yclic and ,

th e ci r cl es c u t th e fix ed sph ere o r th ogo na ll y o r in di amet r ic all y o ppos ite po i n ts .

6 I f o n e d r aw s th e c ir cl es w hi ch ar e no r ma l to a su r face S and w hich cu t

.

a fix ed sph er e So i n dia me t r ica ll y O ppos ite po in ts o r o r th og o na ll y th e sph e res ,

d esc r ibed on th e foca l segments of th e c ongr uen ce of ax es as di amete rs ou t So i n

'

grea t c ir cl es o r or th og onall y .

7 D e ter mi ne th e c ycli c systems o f eq ual ci r cl es w h ose pl anes en vel op a d evel

.

opa b le sur face .

8 Let 2 1 be th e su rface d efi ned i n Ex 14 p 3 7 1 and let S b e th e sph ere w i th

. .
,
.
, o

cen te r at th e or igi n and radi us r D raw th e c i r cl es w hi ch are nor mal to 2 1 and

.

w hich ou t So o r th og onal l y o r i n d ia metri ca ll opposi te po in ts Sh ow th at t h e

y .

cyclic c ongr uen ce of th e ax es of th ese ci r cl es is a nor mal c ongr uen ce and th at th e

-

coordi nates of th e normal sur fac es ar e of th e for m

g t
28 a

f
l —
n COS O X
] 2 + tX a

w here is eq ual to r 2 or
x r “, a cc or di ng as th e ci r cl es ou t So or th ogonall y o r in
di ametr i call y opposi te po in ts ,
and w h er e t is gi ven b y

_f f
{
fi e ( 113 + x ) e°
I cos o + u si n 0
]
sin w du

§
x ) e
£
si n o — n cos 0
]co
s a dv
.

9 . tha t the surfac es of Ex 8 ar e sur faces of B i anchi w hi ch h ave th e

Sh ow .

same sph er i cal rep resen ta ti o n o f th ei r l i nes o f c ur vat u re as th e pseu d osph er i ca l

su r fac e S referr ed to i n Ex 14 p 3 7 1
.
,
. .

1 0 Sh ow th at th e su r fa ces or th ogonal to th e cyclic system of Ex 8 are sur faces

. .

of B ian chi of th e parabo lic t ype .

444 C Y CL I C S STEMS Y
11 . L et S b e c
a su r fa e r efer r e d th ogon al system and let T be th e tr ih e
to an or ,

d r al w h ose m—ax i s is tangent to th e cu rve 1: c onst Th e e qu a ti ons

.

y = 0, z = p sin 0

de fi ne a ci r cl e n or mal to S Sho w th at th e necessar y and. suf fi ci en t c onditions th at

th e ci r cl es so d efi ned for m a c yclic system are

a a
£
E + P7l l r = 0a P( Pr i
—
Pi r )
av ou

12 . c A n e essar y a nd suf fi ci t conditi on th at

en a c yclic system r emai n cyclic
w h en an or th og on al su r fa e c S is d efor med is th at S b e applic abl e to a su r fac e of
revo l u ti on and th at
1

w here c is a c onstan t and th e li near el emen t of S is (13 2 d a2 do? (cf Ex . .

13 . ter mi ne u nd er w h at c onditi ons th e li nes of i n tersection of th e pl anes of

De
th e ci r cl es of a cyclic system and th e tangen t pl anes to an o r th og on al su r fa ce for m
a nor mal c on g r u en c e .

14 . L et 2 1 an d 2 th ogonal to a cyclic system and let M1 and

2 b e tw o c
su r fa es or ,

M2 b e th e p oi n ts o f i n ter secti o n of one of th e ci r cl es w ith 2 1 and 2 Sh ow th at 2 .

th e n o rm al s to 2 1 an d 2 at th e p o i n ts Ml and M2 meet i n a p o i n t M eq u idi stan t

2

fr o m th ese p o in ts and sh ow th a t 2 1 and 2 2 c o ns titu t e th e sh ee ts o f th e envel ope o f

,

a tw o p ar ame ter famil y of sph eres su ch th at th e l in es of c u r va t u r e on 2 1 and 2 2

-

c or resp on d .

L et S b e th e c en tersof a tw o p ar ameter famil y of sph er es of

su r fa e of c -

var i abl e r adi u s R and let 2 1 and 2 2 d eno te th e tw o sh ee ts of th e en vel op e o f th ese

,

sph eres Sh ow th at th e p oi n ts o f c on t act M1 an d M o f a sph er e w ith th ese sh eets

.
2

ar e symmet r ic w ith r esp ect to th e t an gen t pl an e to S at th e c or r esp on di ng p o i n t M .

L et S b e r efer r ed to a movi ng t r ih ed r al w h ose pl ane 31 0 i s th e pl ane MI MMz and ,

let th e p ar amet r ic c ur ves b e tan gen t to th e :c and y ax es r esp ecti vel y Sh o w th at -

.

i f d eno tes th e angl e w hich th e r adi us MMI m ak es w ith th e x ax i s o f th e t r ih ed ra l

0 -

th e li n es of cu r vat ur e o n 2 1 ar e gi ven b y

( 2)
1
Ei s n a ( si n up r cos a )d u ‘l 171 ql
v

[ ( 2) q
1 Eis n0
( cos o n 1) si n c ) dud u 0
'
771 .

16 . Fi n d th e c onditi on th at th e li nes of cu r vatu re on El and 2 2 of Ex 15 c orr e .

spond , and s ow h th at i n thi s c ase th ese cu r ves c or r esp ond to a c onj ugate system on S .

17 . S h ow th at th e ci r cl es or th ogonal to tw o sur faces for m a c yclic system , pr o

vi d ed th at th e li nes of c u r vatu re on th e tw o su r fac es c or r esp ond .

18 . p seu d osph er ic al su r fac e w ith th e li near el ement (V III

L et S be a th e ,

li nes of c ur vature b ei ng p ar amet r ic and let A be a sur fac e w ith th e same sph er
,

ical rep resen tati on of i ts li nes of cur vature as S fur th er more let A 1 d enote th e ,

envelop e o f th e pl ane w hich mak es th e c ons tan t angl e w ith th e tang en t pl ane a
'

at a po i nt M of A and meets this p lane in a li ne L w hich form s w ith th e tan gen t ,

to th e c u rve v : c onst at M an angl e 0 d efi ned by equa ti ons ( VII I

. If M1 ,
 CHA PTER X IV

TRIPLY ORTHOGONAL S Y S TEMS or SURFACES

181 . Tr ipl e syste m of sur faces associ ated w i th a cycli c syste m .

L et S, be o n e of th e su r faces o r t h o
g o n al to a c
ycli c syste , an d m
let i ts lin es of c u r vatu r e be par ametr i c . Th e lo cu s 2 , of th e
c i r cles wh ic h m eet S, i n th e lin e o f c u r v atu r e v co n st . t h r ou
g h
a o in t M is a su r face w h i c h c u ts S, or t h o H
on all
n ce, b
p g y e y .

Joac h i msth al
’
s t h eo r e m th e l in e of i nter sec ti on i s a li n e o f

c u r v atu r e for I n li k e man ner , th e lo c u s E, of th e c i r c les

w h ic h m eet S, i n th e lin e o f c u r v atu r e u con st . t h r ou

g h M c u ts

S, or th g o o n all
y, an d th e c u r ve of i nter sectio n i s a l in e o f c u r va

tu r e on 2, also . Sin c e th e d e velopables of th e asso c i ated c yc lic

co n r u en ce co r r espo n d to th e lin es o f c u r v atu r e on all of th e

g
or t h og on al su r fac es, eac h of th e latter i s me t by E, an d 2 2 in a

lin e o f c u r vatu r e of bo th su r fac es . At e ac h po in t o f th e c i r c le

t h ro u
g h M th e tang en t to th e i
c r cl e i s per pend i cu lar to th e li n e
o f c u r vatu r e v con st . on 2 ,
t h r ou
g h th e po i n t an d to u c on st .

on 22 . H en ce th e c i rc le is a li n e o f c u r vatu r e for bo t h2 ,
an d Z
and th ese su r faces c u t o n e an o t h er or t h og on all
y al on
g th e ci r cle .

Sin ce t h er e is a su r fac e 2 ,
for eac h c u r ve v con st . on S, an d a

su r fac e 2 , for eac h u c on st th e c i r c les o f a cycli c syste m an d

kd
.
,

th e or t h o
g o n al su r faces may be lo o e u pon as a s ste
y m of th r ee

fa m ili es o f su r fac es su c h th at t h r ou
g h eac h p o in t in spac e th er e

passes a su r fac e o f eac h f mily M a . o r eo ver , e ac h f th o ese t h r ee su r

faces m eets th e o th ter th g lly

w o or o on a , an d eac h c u r v e o f i n ters ec

tio n i s a line of cu r va u r e o n
t b th f o s u r ac es . W h e ave seen 9 6)
th at th e c o n fo ca l q d i uaf m h
r cs or s uc a system o f su r fac es, and

an o t h er ex a mpl e is af
for ded by a family of
par allel su r faces an d

th e d evelo pables of th e c o n gr u en c e o f n or m als to t h ese su r fac es .

Wh en th r ee famili es o f su r faces ar e so c on sti tu ted t h at th r ou

g h
eac hpi t o n o f space th er e
passes a su r face o f eac h f m ilya an d eac h
o f th th e r ee su r fac es m eets th e ot h er tw o or t o h g onall
y t , h e
y ar e

446
 GEN ERAL E U A TI O N S Q
sai d to for m a tr iply or thog ona l system .In th e pr ec e i ng ex amples d
th e c u r ve o f i n te rsec ti on o f an y tw o su r fac es is a l in e o f c u r v atu r e

for b th
o . D upi n sh o we d t h at h
t is is pr ope r ty o f all tr i ply o r t h o g
a

onal syste m s . We s h all pro ve t ish h

t eo r em i n th e n ex t sectio n .

1 82 Gener al eq uati ons Th eor e m of Dupin Th e si mplest e x am

d
. . .

pl e o f an or t h o
g o na l s
yste m is affo r d e by th e planes par all el to
th e c oo r d in ate l
p an es . q
Th e e uati ons o f th e syste ar e m
z = u = u
,, y ,,

w h ere u
,,
u
, , u, ar e par am eters . Ev id en tly th e v al u es of h
t ese

p ara m eters c or r espo n d i n

g to th e
pl an es t h r ou
g h a po i n t ar e th e
rec tan
g u lar c oiir d in ate s o f th e po i n t . In li k e mann er th e , sur fac es

o f eac h f mi lya o f any tr i ply o rt h o

g o n al s
y m ms te
ay be d e te r mi n ed
by a
p m
ara t e er , an d th e v al u es o f th e h
t r ee par amete rs fo r th e

th r ee su rfac es t h r ou
g h a po in t c o n sti tu te th e c u r vil i n ea r coor d i

n ates o f th e po in t B etw een th e latte r an d th e r ec tan u lar c oor

g
o
.

di n ates t h er e o btai n e q u ations o f th e fo r m

1
( ) 2 : “
2’
u )
s ? y u
z’
u
)
s , 2 =f
8 ( u
l’
“9 u
)
s ?

w h ere th e fun c ti o n s f ar e an alyti c in th e d o main c o n si d er ed . An

ex a h
mple of t is is affo r d ed by fo r m ul as ( V II, w hi c h d efi ne Spac e
referr ed to a syste m o f c o n foc al q u ad r i cs .

In h
o r d er t at th e syste mb e ort h o
g on al it is n ec essa r
y an d su f
fi
c ien t th t th a ese fun c tions sati s fy th e t hr ee co n di ti o n s

82 : 81 21
2
Ew I
an2 3
3 a3 m 1

A ny o n e of th e su rfac es u , = co n st . is d efin e d by ( 1 ) w h en u, is

g i v en t is h consta n t v al u e .

By th e li n ea r e el ment f spa ce
o at a
p oi n t w e mea n th e lin ear ele

m en t at th e po in t o f an
y c u r ve t h r ou
g h i t . h
T is is

da = chf df + d z
’ ”
,

w hi h
c , in q
co n se u en c e o f may be wr i tten i n th e par a metri c for m

(3) Hfd 2
u, Hfd uf ,

wh er e
( 4) Hf

As t h us d efi n ed , th e fu n c ti on s H , , H2 , H3 ar e r eal and w e S h all

448 TRI PL Y ORTHOGON AL S STEMS OF SU RFA CES Y
Fr o m ( 3 ) w e h av e at o n c e th e li n ear ele m ent o f any of th e su r

faces of th e system . For i nstanc e, the lin ear elemen t of a su r face

con st is
:
d ef n Hfd u f
g
d
.

u .
l

No w w e sh all fin d t h at th e sec o n d q u ad r ati c for m s of t h ese su r fac es

ar e e x pr essible i n te r ms of th e fu nc ti ons H an d th ei r d er i vati v es .

If X ”
Y, , Z‘ d enote th e d ir ec ti on -
c osin es of th e n or m als to th e
su r fac es u , = co n st .
, we h ave

1
a ’
H au, ,

We ch o ose th e a x es su c h th at

In q
con se u en c e o f 5 h
( ) e
t sec on d dm fun a en tal coef ci ents o f a su r
fi
fac e ui = c on st . ar e d efi ned by

1 8x 6
2
x 1 3x 8
2
3: 1 8x
11 , 2a n, au g
’
11, 2e u, Bux au , H ,
2a n, au f
’

w h er e i, 1c, I ta k e th e v alu es 1 , 2 , 3 in c
yc l i c o r d er , an d th e Si
gn 2
r efer s t o th e su m m ati on of ter m s in x , y , 2 , as for mer ly . In or d er

to ev al u ate th ese e x pr essions w e di ffer en tiate q

e u ation s 2 w
( ) ti h
r es e ct
p to n a, u
,,
u
,
r es
pec ti vely . h
T is gi v es

81 :
2
Bx 8 x

an , an , 2E u
,
du , an s

6x 3
2
2 : an 8
2
:
2

du , an , Bu , Bu , Eu a
,
n
,

81 :a z
z 83 :fit
an , au , 8u 2 an , an, au a

If eac h of h
t q
ese e u ati on s be su bt r acted fro m on e h alf of th e su m
of th e t h r ee, w e h av e

an , an , an,
’
c onseq u ently D, O .
45 0 TRI PL Y ORTHOG ON A L SY STEMS OF SU RFA C ES

For e ac h o f th e su r faces t h er e is a s ste m o f e u ati on s o f

y q th e
for m V
( , Wh en th e valu es fr o m 7
( ) are su bsti tu te d in t h ese

equ ati on s w e h ave

3X ,
1 311 , 1 off,
on, an ,
H, on,
8X ,
1 311 ,
3X ,
1 311 ,
H , on W H an
1 '

an, , , , ,

Rec alli ng th e r esu lts o f 65, we h av e ht h

t a eac set o f solu tion s

of e q u atio n s 9
( ) d e ter min e a tr iply or th g l o on a system , u n i q ue

to w ith in a mo ti o n i n Spac e In or d er to obtai n th e c ohr d in ates

d
.

o f spac e r efer r e to t is h syste m , we m u st find n in e fu n ctions

Y, , Z , w h ic h satisfy 1 0 and
X ” ( )
Ex 1
“
: 1, 2 X ,X ,
= 0 . i
( a )
1c

T h en th e c oo r d i n ates o f space ar e
g i v en b
y q u ad r atu res o f th e for m
x E ,X ,
d a
,
E 2X 2
olu
2
HSX 3
du
,
.

I f pm d en otes th e pr i n ci pal r ad i u s o f a sur fac e u = ,

co n st . i n th e
d ir ec tion o f th e c u r v e o f par ameter u , w e av e, fro p
h m
1

p .

L et p, d en o te th e r ad i u s of fi r st c u r v at ur e o f a c ur v e of ar am
p
e ter u
,
I n acc or d anc e w i t
. h 49 we let 6 , an d w
,
7r /2 den o te th e
an g les w hi c h th e tan g en ts to th e c u r v es o f p ar a m an d u
eter a , _

k
,

r es
pec ti v ely th r ou
g h th e g i v en po int ma i n th e positi ve
e,
"

sense,

w it h th e posi tiv e d i r ec ti on of th e pri nc i pal n o r al o f th e m c u r ve

of p ar a me ter u, . H en c e , by ( I V , we h ave

c os co 1

P3 1

Fr om t h q
ese e u ati ons an d Si mi lar on es for c u r ves o f par a m eter a ,

an d w e d edu ce th e r elati o ns
 ON E FA MIL Y O F SU RFA CES O F REV O L U TI ON 45 1

w h er e i , x , I ta k e th e v alu es 1 , 2 , 3 in c yc l i c or d er . Mor eov er , sin ce

th e par ametr i c c u r ves ar e li n es o f c u r v atu r e , i t follo w s fr o m 5 9)

h
t at th e to r sio n o f a c u r ve o f p ar a m eter u, .
is

1 1 55 ,
1
( )4
T, H du , ,
.

1 84 . Tr i ple syste m s containi ng on e fa m il y of su r faces ofr evol u ti on .

G i v en a famil y of pl an e c u rv es an d th i e r or t h o
g o n al tr a j ec to r i es ;

if th e plan e be abo u t a li n e of th e plan e as an ax i s, th e

rev olv e d

tw o famil i es of su r fac es of rev olu ti o n t u s g en era ted, and th e plan es h

h g h th
t r ou e a x is , fo r m a t ri ply o rt h o
g o n al s
y ste m . We i n quir e
w h th the er er e ar e an y o t er h tri ple syste m s c o n tain i ng a fam ily of

su r fac es o f r ev ol u tio n .

Su ppos e th at th e su r fac es a s c o ns t . of a tri ple ystem

s ar e sur

fac es o f r ev olu tio n , an d t h at th e c u r v es u

,,
c o n st . u po n thm e ar e

th e m er i di ans . Sin c e th e latter ar e

g eo d esi c s, w e mu st h av e

83
15
a,

Fro m ( ) t follo ws t
8 i h at eit h er

n, HI ,
a
on
0, or
8a
,

In th e fi rst c ase i t follo w s fro m (1 1 ) th at 1/

p3, 0 . C onse q u en tl
y,
th e sur fac es o f re vol u ti on a s c o nst . ar e dev elo pables t h t i i th
, a s, e er

c i r c u lar c yli n d ers o r c i rc u l ar c o n es . Fur t h er mor e , f m (1 5 )

ro d an

w e h av e 1/
p2, = 0, so t hat th e su r faces 11 cons t . also ar e

d evelopables, an d in ad d i ti on w e h av e, fro m h
t at 1/
p, 0, t h at

is, th e c u r v es o f para meter u , ar e str aig h t li n es an d c onse u en tly q

th e su r faces u
,
c o ns t . ar e p ar all el . Th e latter ar e p l an es w en h
th e su r faces u 3 c o nst . ar e cyli n d ers, an d su rfac es h
w i t c ir c u lar
li nes o f c u r vatur e w h en a
s
c o nst ar e c i r c ul ar c o n es
. . C on ver sely,
fr o m th e t h eore m of D ar bo u x 1 8 7) an d fr o m § 1 3 2 , i t fo llo ws
th at an y system of c i r c ul ar cyli n d ers wi th pa rallel g en erato rs, o r
any fam ily of cir c ular co n es w h ose ax es ar e tan g en t to th e lo c us

of th e v erte x , leads to a tri ple syste m of th e k in d so u

g h t .

We c onsi d er n ow th e second c ase , n amely

are,
?
a 2
45 2 TRI P L Y ORTHOG ON AL SY STEMS OF SU RFA CES

Fr o m ( 1 1 ) w e fin d t h at 1/
p2 , = O, an d O; con se q u en tl
y th e
su r faces u , co n st ar e plan es Si n c e t h ese ar e th e plan es o f th e

d
. .

mer i ian s, i t fol low s h

t at th e a x es of th e su r faces c oin c i d e, an d

c on se u en tly q th e c ase c i ted at th e beg i nnin g of t is h secti on i s th e

o nly o n e for n o n dev elopable s u r fac es .

1 85 . Tr i ple syste m s of Bi anch i and of Wein gar ten . In § 1 19

it w as fo u n d t h at all th e Bi an c i tr an sfor ms h of a
g iven pseu do
h
sp er i c al su r face ar e pseu d os
p er i cal h su r fac es of th e same to tal

c u r v atu r e, an d t h at th ey ar e th e or t h o
g o n al su r fac es of a c
ycli c

system o f c i r cles of c o n stan t r a d iu s . Hence th e to tali ty of t h ese

c ir cl es an d su r fac es c o n stitu tes a tri ply or t h

g on al system , su c
o h
th at th e su r fac es in on e fa m ily ar e pseu d osp e r i c al h
A s system s .

of h
t is sor t w er e fi r st c o n sid er ed by Ribau c o u r (cf t ey . h
ar e c alled th e tr iple syste ms of Ribau cou r We pr oceed to th e
.

c on sid er ati o n o f all tr iple systems su c h th at th e su r fac es o f on e

family ar e pseu d o s
p er i c al h . T h ese syste ms w er e fi r st st u d ied by
Bi an c i, h *
an d co n se u en tl q y D ar bou x I h as call ed th m th
e e syste ms
f
o B i a n c hi .

Fr om 1 1 9 i t follo w s t h at th e par am eter s of th e li n es o f c u r va

tu r e of a pseu d osp eri c al su r face h o f c u r v atu r e — 1 a2

/ c an be so

c h osen h
t at th e li n ear el em en t ta k es th e for m
2 2 2 e z
1
( )6 da 0 0 8 0) du sin w dv ,

w h er e a) is a solu ti o n o f th e e q u ati on

2 z
3 a) am
‘
av

In t is h c ase th e pr in c ipal r ad n ar e
g i v en b
y
1 c o t to

a
P2

In g en er al th e total c u r v atur e of th e pseu d osp h er ic al su r faces

o f a system o f Bi an c i h var i es w i th th e su r faces If th e su r faces

d
.

a
s
c o nst . ar e th e pseu h
osp er i c al su r faces, w e may wr ite th e
cu r vatu r e in th e for m w h er e U3 i s a fun ctio n of u
,
alon e .

“
a A r ma n
, Ser
2 , V ol X III . . pp . 1 77 23 4 ; V ol X IV
-
. pp . 1 15 1 30 ; L ez i om ,
-
’

V ol I I ,
. a ch p . x x v ii .

t L econ s su r les system s o r th og o na u x et les coor d o nn ees

’
cu r vi lig nes pp , . 308 —3 23 .

Par is ,
1 898 .
4 54 TRI PL Y ORTHOG ON A L S STEMS OF SU RFA C ES Y
If t is h q
e u ation be d iffer en tiated su c cessi vely w it h r espe c t to u

an d v, we fin d

unless U ’
or
’
V is eq u al to z ero . Fr o m th i s i t follo ws t h at

4 x U UQ 4 x V Vz

w h er e x d en otes a c on stant . I n tegr ati ng , we h av e

”
V

a an d B bei ng co n stan ts, an d an ot h er i n tegr ati on g iv es

V ’2 — x V ‘ + BV 2 -
8 .

Wh en th ese ex pr ession s ar e su bstitu ted in we fin d

U +
2
— 1 V2 — 2 y '
2
a

T ish c on d iti o n c an be satis fi ed o nl

y w h en th e c u r vatu r e is z er o .

H en c e U ’
or V m u st be
’
z er o , th at i s, a) m u st be a fu n c ti on o f u or v

alon e . I n t is h c ase th e su r face i s a su r face o f r evol u ti o n . In ac cor d

an ce w i th 1 84 a tr iple s
y ste m of Bi an c i h ari ses fr o m an in fi ni ty
h
o f pseu d osp er i cal su r fac es of r e vol u ti on w ith th e sa me ax i s .

Wh en ex ception i s mad e of h
t is c ase, th e fu n c tion s an d
in ( 2 0) ar e i n d epen d en t of a s . Hen c e th e p ar ameter s o f th e s
ys

tems may be c h osen so t h at w e h av e

2
( )4 H, co s to , H2 si n a) , H3 U3

Wh en t h ese v al u es ar e su b tit
s u ted i n th e six q
e u ati o ns

th ey r ed u c e to th e fo u r eq u ati on s

am
2
am
2
si n w c os ( 0

du,
” 2
8 162 U3

c o t co tan w

2
1 800 2 a)

sin co an , an , 8a ,

11 1 am 1 am am
an , si n w ah au , /
cos a) m
an , a aze,
 TRIPL E SY STEMS OF WEIN GARTEN 455

D ar bo u x h as i n qu i r ed in to th e g en er ali ty o f th e solu tion o f t is h

y q
s s te m o f e u ati on s, an d h e h as fo u n d t at th e
g en er al solu ti o n h
i n vo lv es fi ve ar
yb it
fu n c tions
rar o f a sing l e v ar i abl e . We h
s all

n ot
g i ve
,
a
p h
r o o f of t is fac t, bu t r efer th e r ead er to th e in vesti
i of D ar bo u x
f
g at o n

We tu r n to th e co n si d er atio n o f th e par tic u l ar c as e w h er e th e

to tal c ur vatu r e o f all th e pseu d osp h er i c al su r fac es is th e sa me,
w h ic h may be ta k en to be — 1 wi th ou t any loss of g en er ali ty .

A s tr iple systems o f t i s sor t w er e fi rst dis c u ssed by Weingar ten ,

h
w e follo w B i an c i i n callin
g t em systems o h f W ei ng a r ten O f t is h h
k d
.

i n are th e tr iple syste s o f Ribau co ur m .

h
For t i s case w e h ave U3 = 1 , so th at th e lin ear el e m en t of space is

d e=
2 z
sin w ( 111 3+
”
c os w da ,

Sin ce th e sec on d Of e q u ations 2

( )5 m ay be w r i tten in ei t h er of

th e for m s
1 6m
c os w an ,
2
1 8m 8 01

sin a) Bu , Bu , Bu ,
if w e pu t

an , an ,

i t follow s from th e las t tw o of 2

( )5 an d fr o m 2 7 t
( ) h at

3 4> 3 4>
311 , an ,

H en ce ( I) i s a fu n c ti o n of u
,,
al on eB u t by .c an i
g gn th e par a h m
eter a s, an O per ati o n w hi h c wi ll n ot affec t th e form O f w e c an

g i v e ( I) a c onstan t v al u e, say c . C on se q u en tl
y we have

2
1 8 0)

to

B ianc i h ash sh o w n f th at q
e u ation 28
( ) an d th e fir st of 2
( )5 ar e

e q u i val en t to th e s ste
y m w h en U3 = 1 . C on sequ en tly th e
pr o l em o f th e d eter mi n ati on of tr iple systems of Wei n g ar ten is
b
b
th e pr o l em o f fin d in g c o mmo n solu ti on s o f t ese tw o e u atio ns h q .

L . c .
, pp 3 13 , 3 14 ; B
. i anchi , V ol 11 , pp 531 , 532
. . .
1 V o l 11 p 550
.
, . .
45 6 TRI P L Y O RTHOGON A L SY STEMS OF SU RFA CES

EX AMPLES
1 . Sh ow th at q ti
th e e u a ons

x =r c os u cos v, y z r cos u si n v, z z r si n u

d efi ne sp ace r efer red to a t r ipl y Or th ogonal sys e t m .

2 . A c c onditi on th at th e sur fac es a s const of a t r ipl y

n e essar y and sufii c i en t .

or th og on al syst em b e p ar all el i s th a t H3 b e a fu n cti on of u s al o ne What ar e th e .

o th er su r fa c es u 1 c onst U c onst .
, 2 .

8 . Tw o n ear -
by c o nst i nter c ept eq ual segments on th ose or th og
c
su r fa es a s .

on al t r aj ect or i es of th e su r fa c es U 3 c onst w hich p ass th r ough a c u r ve H 3 c onst

. .

on th e fo r mer ; on thi s acc ou n t th e c u r ves H3 c onst on th e su r fac es U 3 co nst . .

ar e c all ed c urves of equ id i stance .

4 . L et th e c ons t of a t r ipl e system b e di ffer en t p ositi ons of th e

su r fa es a s c .

same p seu d osph er e o bt ai ned b y t r an sl a ti ng th e su r fa c e i n th e di r ecti on O f i ts ax i s

,
.

D eter mi n e th e ch ar acte r o f th e o th er su r fac es of th e system .

5 . D er i ve th e fo ll ow i ng r esu l ts for a t r ipl e system of Wei ngar ten

bu g

w h er e th e differenti al p ar ameter i s for med w ith resp ect to th e li near el ement of a

aw
su r fac e a s c onst and p i s th e r ad i us of geod esrc c ur vatur e of a c u r ve c onst
5us
,
.
, .

o n thi s su r fac e Sh ow th at th e cu r ves Of eq u i di stan c e o n th e su r fac es u

. c onst s .
'

ar e geod esic p ar all el s of c on st an t g eod esic c u r vat u r e .

6 . Sh ow th at w he n c in ( 2 8 ) is e uaq l to z er o , th e fi
t c u r vatu r e l /pg of th e
rs

c ur ves of p ar ameter us is c onstant an d e q ua l to u n ity ; th a t eq u ati ons si mil ar

to ( 1 2 ) b ec ome
a2 o: aw 82 m aw
—srn c S w3 — C OS w Sl n w3
dug aus au l aus bit s

th at i f w e pu t 0 (0 3
,
th e l ast tw o o f eq ua ti ons w h ere U, 1, may be
w r it ten

si n 0 cos w , cos 0 si n to ;

1 a20
si n 6 cos 0,

Wh en 0 0 i n ( 2 8) th e sys t em is said to b e of c onstant cur vatur e .

7 . A c
n e essary and suf fi ci
t c onditi on th at th e cu r ves of p ar ameter a of a
en s

system of We i ng ar t en b e ci r cl es i s th at 6 3 b e i n d ep en d en t o f u s I n thi s c ase .

( Of E
. x 6 ) th
. e s u r fac es a s c o ns t ar e th e B i an chi t r an sfo r ms o f. th e p se ud o

sph er ic al su rfac e w ith th e li near elemen t

d s2 si n2
‘
cos2 0 da 2 0 d v2 .
45 8 TRI P L Y ORTHOGON A L S STEMS OF SU RFA C ES Y
Th e co nd i tio n t h at i t be c
yc li c is

i 2
Eu av

sin cos 45
( 610 1 + mg)

Sin ce th e pr in cipal r ad n o f S ar e
g i v e n by
1 1
3 1 2. _ £4 ,
( )
pl 6 P2 7
71

th e secon d of e q u ati on s ( 3 0) r ed u c es to th e fi rst w h en S is a s

ph er e

or a pl ane . Hen ce we h ave i nc i d en tally th e t h eo r e m

A tw o pa r a meter
-
s ste
y m of ci r cles or t hog on a l to a s
pher e an d to

any oth er su r a c e co n sti tu te a cycli c syste

f m .

We r e tu r n to th e pr oof o f th e t h eo r e m of Ribau c ou r and a l

pp y
th e for eg o ing r esu l ts to th e s
y ste m o f o sc ul atin
g c ir cl es o f th e

c ur ves o f p ar a meter u
8
O f an o r t h o
g o n al syste m at t h eir poi n ts of

i n ter sec tio n w i th a su r face u

3
c on st .

Fr o m q e u atio n s Si m il ar to 1
( )2 w e h av e, by

008 4
) 1 fiH, 1 aH,
, ’

R H , H3 du , H 2 H3 au z

an d th e e q u ati o n s an al o
g ous to 3
( )1 are

1 1 1
ii ], )
L,
p, , H, H3 au a p3 2 H2

Wh en th ese v alu es ar e s u bsti tu ted in e q u atio n s 30

( ) th e fi rst
v an is es h i den tically, l i kw
e i se th e sec o n d, in co n se q u en ce o f e u a q
tion s H enc e th e t h eo r e m of Ribau c ou r is pr ov ed .
"6

18 7 . Th eor e m f s o Dar bou x . Th e q u estion n atu r ally ar ises

w h eth er an
y f m ila
y w h atev er for ms par t o f a tr iply
o f su r fac es

o r th o o nal s ste m T h i q u s ti n w ill be an s w er ed w i th th e aid

g y s e o .

o f th e follo w i n
g th eo r em o f D ar bo u x
l w h ic h w e establish by h is ,
-

m et h od s :
A n ecessar
y a n d su
fii c i en t con di ti on tha t tw o f a mi li es o f su r aces f
or th og onal to on e an other a d mi t of a thi r d f mi ly
a h
or t og ona l to both

i s tha t the fi r st tw o meet on e an other i n lin es o f c ur vatu r e .

For a geometr ical proo f th e r ead er is r efer r d to Darb e o ux , l . o

.
, p . 77 . 1L a , pp . 6 8
-
 THEORE MOF B ARBOU X 45 9

L et th e tw o fa ili es m o f sur fac es be d efin ed by

3 2 Be a = b,
( ) w
e a )
. z , a
)
w h ere a an d b ar e th e par ameters . Th e c o n di ti on o f or t h o
go n ality i s

8a 8a 8a
n

81 8g 82
A

01 oy oz

In o r d er h
t at a h
t ir d m
fa ily o f sur fac es e x i st or th og o n al to th e
sur fac es o f th e o th er m
fa ili es, t h er e mu t b s e a fu n c ti on y(r , y, f
z)
satisfying th e q
e u ati o n s

8a 87 8a 8 7 '
801 87 88 87
A A

81 01 8g oy 82 oz 01 01 8y 8g 82 82

If (11 dy, d z d en ote th e pr o ec tion s on th e ax es o f a d isplace

, j
m en t of a po in t o n o n e o f th e su r faces 7 c o n st , w e mu st av e . h
( is : dy dz
8a 8a 8a
8g 82 0 .

88
81 8g 82

h q ti
T is e ua on is of th e fo r m ( X III , Th e c on di ti o n ( X I II , 1 0)
th t i t d mi t
a a o f an in teg r al i n v olvi n g a par am e te r is

8 m 5) 813 8
3
a 8a 8a 8
2
3 8
2
a

2
,

8 ( y, z
) 81 82 82 81 82 81 82 82 81 82
2
86
2 2 2
8 a 8a 8 3 8a 8 6 83 8 a
2 + ?
8g 81 8g
“
8g 81 8g 81 8g 81 8g

w here 2 i n d icates th e su m o f th e t h ree ter ms o btai ned by per mu t

in g 1 , y , z in t is h e x pression . If w e add to t is e h q u ati on th e id en ti ty

th e r esul tin g e q u ati o n may be w r i tte n in th e

8a 83
81 81
8a 83
8g 8y
8a
82 82
46 0 TRIP L Y ORTHOG ON A L S STEMS OF SU RFA CES Y
w h er e for the sa k e of b r evi t
y w e h av e i n tr od u ced th e sy mb ol

d
, ,

d efi n e by
so ap so ap so ap
81 81 8y 8g 82 82

If e q u ati on
( ) be
3 3 diff er en tiated w i th r es
pec t to 1 , th e r es u lt m ay
be w ri tten

C onse q u en tly e u ati on q 34 i

( ) s r ed u cibl e to

8a 8B
81 81
86: 8B
8y 8y
8a 8B
82 82

w h i ch is t h er efor e th e co nd i tio n u
p on a an d B in or der th at th e
d esir ed fu n c tio n 7 ex ist
d
.

m
A isplace en t alon g a c u r ve o r t h o
g o n al to th e su r fac es a = con st .

i s g iv en by

Su c h a c ur ve lies u pon a su r face B con st an d sin ce, by

d
.
,

it sati s fi es th e c on itio n
8B
d
8
B
81 81
as
d y;
a
8y 8y
as
a ?
82 82

it is a li ne o f c u r vatu r e o n th e su r fac e ( of Ex 3, p Hen ce

B
. . .

th e c u r ves of i nter sec ti on of th e su r faces a = con st .

, c ons t .
,

bei ng th e h
o r t o on al
g tr a j ec to r i es o f th e b
a o v e c u r v es, ar e li n es of

c u r v atu r e on th e su r faces B A n d by Jo ach i msth al s t eo

c on st .
’
h
re m 5 9) t h ey ar e lin es o f c u r v atu r e on th e su r fac es a = co nst .

also . H av ing t h u s esta bli h s ed th e t h eor em o f D ar bou x , w e ar e in

a
po si ti on to ans w er th q
e u esti on at th e beg inn ing of t ish sec tion .
46 2 TRI P L Y ORT HOG ON A L S STEMS O F SU RFA CES Y
We ma k e u se of a set Of fu n c ti o n s B “ ,
i n tr o d u c e d by D ar
bo u x in h i s developm en t O f a si m ilar tr an sfor m ation i n s ace of
p
n d imen si o n s . By dfi e n i ti o n

i
( s

I n ter m s of t h ese fu n c ti ons equ ati on s 9

( ) ar e e x pr essible in
th e f m or
8B
3
( )7 0.
",

8 a, cu,

an d fo r m u las 1
( )0 b ec o me

8X
B X Bt
!

“ " ’
811

Equ ations 3
( )8 ar e th e fi c i en t c o n di tion s
n ecessar y an d su f t h at

th e e x pr essi on X ,
H ,
d a, X ,
H,
d u
,
X , H3 d u ,,

be an e
’

x ac t differ en ti al Fr o m t h eir fo r m i t i s seen t h at if w e h av e

d
.

anot h er set o f fun c ti on s Hz H, ’

,
’
sati sfyi n
g th e si x c on i tion s

s
1 a
!
H ] 8u ,

w h er e th e fu n c ti on s h av e th e sa me v alu es as for th e g iven

syste m, th e e x pr essi on
X ,
H d u
, ,
’
X z
H du z ,
’
X 3
H8
'
du , ,

an d Sim ilar o n es in Y , Z , ar e e x ac t differ en tials, an d so by q u ad r a

tur es w e o tai n b an o r t h og o n al system possessi n

g the desir ed pr oper ty
d
.

In or er to ascer tain th e an alyti cal c h ar ac ter of h

t is pr oblem,
w e eli mi n ate H2 ’
an d H fr om ,
’
e q u ati on s 39
( ) an d Ob tai n th e t h r ee

e q nations
8 H1
2 r
1 38 2 1
r
Q5
B + 6 2 1 6 12 H
’
1,
8u , 8u 2 8u , 8u 2

B3 1 8 2 3 i Ifl B2 1 8 3 2 aHl
2 , l
8 11 1
+ ’

8162 871 8 8 21
1 816 2 £3 1
8H 1 8B, , 8H
2 ’ ’

+ 5 “ 6 18 H
, ,

8u 3 8u , em 8u , at,

Th e g en er al in tegr al of a syste O f e u ation s o f t i s i n d i nv olv es m q h k

t r ee ar itr ar y fu n c ti ons eac o f a si ngle par a eter u , W en on e
h b h m . h
L . o .
, p . 1 61 .
 G EN ER AL EX Ahl PL ES 4 63

H,
’
h as an i n tegral, th e co rr espo nd in g val u es o f ar e
g i ven di r ec tl
y
by H ence w e h av e th e t h eo r e m
With eve y tr iply or thog onal
r s
y ste m ther e is associa ted a n i nfi ni ty

f
o othe r s, d epend ing u
p on thr ee a r bitr a r
y f un cti on s, su c h tha t the

no r mals to the su r a ces of f an

y tw o syste ms a t cor r es ond in
p g poi nts
a r allel
‘
ar e
p .

1 . In ever y syste m of We i nga r te n for w hich c in ( 2 8) is z ero th e system of c ir ,

cl es osc ul a tin g th e c u r ves of parameter w; at po in ts o f a su r fac e a ; c onst for m a .

syste m of Rib au cour ( 5

2 . th ogona l t raj ecto r ies of a famil y of L ame ar e t w iste d c ur ves of
If th e or

th e same co ns ta n t fi rs t c u r va tu re th e sur faces of th e fam il y a re pseu d osph er ic a l

,

su r faces of e qu al cur va tu r e .

3 Every t r ipl y or th og o nal syste m w hich is d e r i ved fr om a cyclic system b y a

.

tra nsformation o f C om besc u re possesses one fami l y of pl ane or th ogonal traj ecto r i es .

4 If th e o r th ogon al t r aj ecto r i es o f a famil y o f La meare p la ne c u r ves t h e c yclic

.
,

system o f c ir cl es oscu la ti ng th ese t raj e cto r i es a t th e po in ts of an y su r face o f th e

fami ly may be o bta in ed fro m th e gi ven system b y a t ransfor mati on o f C o mbesc u re .

5 De te rmi ne th e tr ipl y o r tho go na l syste ms w hich resu lt fro m th e applic a ti on of

.

th e t ra nsfor ma ti on of Co mbesc ure to a syste m o f Rib au cour

GENERAL EX AMP LES

1 . i on by re cip roc al rad ii 80) b e efi ec ted upon a tr ipl y or th ogonal

If an i n vers
syste m th e r esul ti n g syste m w ill be o f th e sa me k i nd
,
.

2 D ete r mine th e char ac ter of th e su r fac es of th e syste m o btai ne d by an inversi on

.

fr om th e sys tem o f Ex 1 5 1 8 5 and sh o w th a t all th e c u r ves o f i n ters e cti on ar e ci r cl es

.
, , .

3 Esta blis h th e ex is te n ce o f a t r ipl y o r th ogo na l syste m o f spheres

. .

4 A ne cessar y an d suffi ci en t co nditi on th a t th e asym pto ti c l in es c o rrespo nd o n

.

th e sur fac es const of a t r ipl y or th ogonal system is th at th ere ex ist a rel ation
.

w h ere m ¢ 3 are fun cti ons i n d epen d en t o f u ,

,
.

6 W h en th e co nditi on of Ex 4 is sa tisfi ed th ose o r th ogo nal tr aj ecto r i es of th e

. .
,

su r fac es 11 cons t w hich pass th r ou gh po i nts of an asym pto ti c line o n a su r

; .

fac e u; co nst c onstitu te a sur face S w hich mee ts th e su r fa ces 11. co nst in
. .

asym pto ti c li nes of th e l atte r an d geod es ic s on S .

6 Sh ow tha t th e asym pto tic li nes c o rrespo nd o n th e pse u d osph er ica l sur faces
.

o f a tri pl e syste m o f B i an chi .

7 Sh ow tha t th ere ex is t t r ipl y o r th o go nal systems fo r w hich th e su r fa ces i n one

.

famil y say u; ,
co nst are spher ic al and th at th e par a mete rs can be chosen so th at
.
, ,

Cg
H 1 = 00 8 h 0, s sin b fl, H 3 = U3 7
~

Fi n d q ti ons o f Lame for this case

th e e ua .
cu I

8 . Ever y one pa ra mete r fami l y o f sph eres o r pl anes is a fami ly of L ame

-
.

‘ Cf B an
. i chi ,
V ol I I,
. p . 494 .
4 64 TR I PL Y OR THOG ON A L S STEM S
Y OF SU R ACESF

9 . In or d erbtai n th e most gener al t r ipl y or th ogonal system for w hich th e

to o

su r fa c es i n o ne fam il y ar e pl anes o ne n eed c on st ru ct an or th ogon al system of

,

c u r ves i n a pl ane an d all o w th e l at ter to r oll over a d evel op abl e su rface i n w hich ,

c ase th e c u r ves gener ate th e o th er su r fac es Wh en th e d evel op abl e is gi ven th e .

,

d eter mi nati on of th e system r ed u c es to q u ad r atu res .

1 0 Sh ow th a t th e most g en er al t r ipl y or th ogonal syste m for w hich one famil y

.

o f L ame c on si sts of sph eres p assi ng th rough a p o i n t c an b e fou n d b y qu ad r atu res .

1 1 Show th at a fam il y o f p ar all el su r fac es i s a famil y of L ame

. .

1 2 Sh o w th a t th e t r ipl y o r th ogon al systems for w hich th e c ur ves of par ame ter

.

u s ar e ci r cl es p assi ng th r o ugh a p oi n t c an b e fou n d w ith ou t q u ad r a ture .

1 3 B y means of Ex 6
. 1 85 sh ow th at for a system of Wei ngar ten of c onstan t
.
, ,

c ur vatu re th e p r i n cip al nor mal s to th e cu r ves of p arameter 11 3 at th e po i nts of meet

i ng w ith a su r fac e a s c onst form a normal p seu d osph er ic al c ongr u en ce and th at
.
,

th e su r fac es c ompl emen tar y to th e su r fa ces u s c onst and th ei r or th ogonal tr a .

jector i es c onstitu te a system of Wei n garten of c onstant c ur vatu re .

1 4 B y means of Ex
. 1 3 sh o w th at for a t r ipl e system ar isi ng from a system of
.

Wei ngar ten of c onstant cu r vatu re by a tr an sfor mation o f C ombescu re th e osc ulat
i ng pl an es of th e cu r ves 14 3 c onst at p oi nts of a sur face us c onst en vel op a
.
, .
,

su r fac e S o f th e same ki nd as thi s su rfac e u s const ; and th ese su rfaces S and .

th ei r or th ogonal tr aj ector i es c onstitu te a system of th e same ki nd as th e one r esult

i ng fro m th e C omb escu re t r ansfor mati on of th e gi ven system of Wei ng ar ten .

1 5 Sh ow th at a nec essar y c o nditi on th at th e cu r ves of p ar ameter u l of a t ri p le

.

system of B i an chi be pl ane is th a t sa ti sfy al so th e c ond iti ons

to

do: aw
¢ 23 8 11] w , ¢ 1 3 sm to,
bu g au l

wh er e am and am ar e i nd epend en t of u l and u z respecti vel y ( cf Ex. . 5, p .

Sh ow th at if pm and m a sati sfy th e c o nditi on s

«

$
4
18
2 “W 2
13
b»

w h er e a and b ar e c onstan ts and U3 i s an ar bitrary fun ction of u s ,

th e fun cti on to
,

gi ven b y 5¢ 2 s a¢ 1 s
311 2 an!
c os w
a 2 1
¢ 13 ¢ 23 g
Us
d eter mi nes a tr iply or th ogonal system of B i an chi of ki nd sought
th e .

1 6 W h en U,
. 1 and w is i nd epe nd en t o f ug , th e fi rst an d fou r th o f equ a ti ons

( 2 5) may be r epl ac ed by aw
Si n
au l
Sh ow th at for a val u e of w sa ti sfyi ng this conditi on and th e o th er equati ons ( 2 5)
th e ex p ressi ons
¢3 d ¢8 cos w
H1 0 0 8 0)
s m to s m
.
du8 M y

H 2 = sm w md a8
¢ s da g + ¢ 2 1
sin to
 I N D EX

Th e b
n um ers r efer to pages Refe n ces t an u th and h i con t ib uti ons ar e mad e re o a or s r
m f th e fi st Bi a nchi pa a g ph w h reas w h en a p p n am i pa t f a titl
.

i n th e fo r o r r ra , e ro er e s r o e
t h e r efere n ce i gi ven th e f m a i n th e seco n d B i a nchi pa a g aph
s or s r r .

A cc el erati on 1 5 50 , ,
s ph er ica l li nes of cu r vature) 3 1 5 ; ,

A n gl e bet w ee n c ur ves 74 200 , , ( asso ci ate su r faces) 3 78 ( c yclic co n ,

A ngl e o f g eod esic c o n tin gen c e 2 12 gr uen ces o f Ri bau co u r ) 43 5 ; ( c yclic

A pplic abl e su r fac es d efi ni ti on 1 00 ; to
, ,

, ,
systems) 44 1 ,

t h e pl ane 10 1 1 56 ; i nvar i an ce of
, ,
B i anchi tr ansfor mati on o f 280—283
, , ,

geod es ic c ur va tu re 1 3 5 ; in var ian ce ,

290 3 18 3 20 3 70 4 56 ; su rfa ces o f
, , , , ,

o f to ta l c u r vatur e 156 ; so l u ti o n o f ,
3 70 3 7 1 44 2 44 3 44 5 ; gener a li z ed
, , , ,

t h e p ro bl em o f d ete rmi n i ng w h eth er t ra nsfor mati o n of 4 39 t r ipl y o rt h og ,

t w o gi ven su r fac es a re app lica bl e o na l syste ms o f 4 5 2—4 54 4 64 4 65

B i no r ma l to a c u r ve d e fi ni ti o n 12 ;
, , , .

3 2 1— 3 2 6 ; pa i rs o f d er i ved fro m a , , ,

gi ven pai r 34 9 See Deformati on of,

. sph er i ca l i n d ic a t r i x 50 ,

su r fac es B i nor ma ls w hich are th e p r i ncipa l no r

A rea el emen t o f 7 5 14 5
, , ,
mals to ano th er c ur ve 5 1 ,

A rea o f a po r ti o n o f a sur face 1 4 5 2 50 ; , ,

Bo nne t ( for mula of geo d es ic c u r va tu re) ,

mi n i mum 2 22 1 3 6 ; ( su r fac es of co nsta n t c u r vat u re )

Asso ci a te sur fac es d efi ni ti o n 3 78 ; d e
, ,

1 79 ; ( li nes o f c ur va tu re o f L i ou vill e
ter mi na tio n 3 78—
, ,

38 1 ; o f a r u l ed,
type) 2 3 2 ; ( r ul ed sur fa ces) 248 ; (su r
, ,

su r face 38 1 ; o f th e sph ere 38 1 ; a p

, ,
fa ces o f co ns tan t mea n c ur va ture ) ,

plica bl e 3 8 1 ; o f th e r ight heli co id

, ,

38 1 ; o f an i so th er m ic su r face 38 8 ; ,
Bo u r ( e o h li c id s) 1 47 ; , ( assoc ia te iso th er
o f pseud osph er ic a l sur faces 3 90 o f ,
m ic sur fa c es) 3 88 ,

quad r ic s 3 90 3 9 1 ch ar ac ter istic

C anal su r fac es d efi n itio n 68 su rfac es
, ,

p ro per ty 42 5
Asympto tic d i re cti o ns d efi ni ti o n 1 2 8
, , ,

o f ce n te r 1 86
A symp totic lin es d efi n iti o n 1 2 8 pa r a C a teno id d efi n iti o n 150 ; ad j o i nt su r
, , ,
‘
, , , ,

met r ic 1 29 1 89—1 94 ; o r th ogonal 12 9 ;

, , ,
fa ce o f 26 7 ; su r faces applica bl e to 3 1 8
, .

st ra ight 1 4 0 2 34 ,
sph er ica l re prese n ,
C au chy pro bl em of 26 5 33 5
, , ,

ta tio n 144
,
1 9 1—1 93 ; p reser ved by ,
C en tra l po i n t 243 ,
p ro j ec ti ve tr ansfor matio n 2 02 ; pre Cen tr al pl ane 2 44
se r ved i n a d e fo r ma ti o n 34 2 —
, ,
3 47 , C esa ro ( mo vi ng tr i h ed ral ) 32 ,

C h ara cter is ti c equa ti on 3 7 5 ,

l d t ti
B ac k u n , r ansfor ma o n o f, 2 84 2 90 -
C harac te r istic fu n cti on 37 4 3 77
C hara cte r ist ic li nes 130 13 1; paramet
,

lt i d t l p
Be ra m ( iffe ren ia t ara me e rs ), 88 , , ,

g d ic c
90 ; ( eo es t u r va ur e), 1 83 ; ( r ul ed r i c, 203
W c pplic bl
su r fa es), 2 99 ;
-

(a a e ru e l d C har acte r istics of a l fami y of su r fac es ,

5 9—
,

c
s ur fa es), 34 5 ; lc g
(nor ma o n r uen es), c 6 1 ; o f th e tangen t pl anes to a su r
4 03 c
fa e , 1 2 6
Be r ran t dc
u r ves , e n on , 3 9 ; ro e r d fi iti p p Ch i t l
r s o ffe ci te iso th er mic su r
( asso a
ti
es , 39 —4 1 ar ame r eq ua i o ns , 5 1 p t ic t c
fa es), 388
l d
o n a r u e su r face , 2 50 efor ma i o n , d t Ch i t l b l d efi ni tion 152 1 53
r s o ffe sym o s ,
, ,

348 rel a ti ons be t w ee n for a su rfa ce and ,

B i anchi ( theo rem o f per mu ta bili ty), i ts spher ica l re p rese n ta ti on 1 6 2 19 3 , , ,

2 86 —2 88 ( sur fac es wi th ci r c ul ar lin es 20 1

of c ur va tur e) 3 1 1 ; (sur faces w ith ,
C ir cl e , of cur vatu r e ,
14 ; os u a c l tin g ,
14

Re fe ren ce s to t ti li n asym p o c es , g eo d esi cs, li n es o f c u r v a u r e , etc t .

, on par ti c ula r kin ds of
su r fac es ar e li t d n d
s e t h l tt u er e a er .
46 8 IN D EX
C i r cl es or th ogonal system of i n th e
, ,
C or r esp ond en c e w ith or th o gonality of
pl ane 80 9 7 ; o n t h e sph ere 30 1
, , , li near el emen ts 3 74—3 77 390 , ,

C i r c u l ar li nes o f cu r vatur e 1 49 3 10 C o r r esp ondi ng c o nj u gate systems 1 30

C o sser a t ( i nfi n itesi mal
, , , ,
3 16 , 423 , 446 d efor mati on) ,
C i r c u l ar p o i n t on a su r fac e 1 2 4 ,
3 80, 3 8 5
C od az z i eq u ati ons of 1 55—1 57
, , ,
16 8 , C r oss r ati o of fou r sol u ti ons o f a Ri oc ati
-

1 70, 18 9 , 2 00 e qu ati on 2 6 of p o i n ts o f i n t er se cti on

,

C ombescu re t r an sfor matio n of cu r ves of fou r c u r ved asy mpto tic li nes on a
'
'

-
, ,

50 ; o f t r ipl e syste ms 4 6 1—46 5 ,

r u l ed su r fa c e 249 ; o f th e p o i n ts i n,

C ompl ement ar y sur fac e 1 8 4 1 85 2 83 , , , ,

w hich fo u r su r fac es or th ogonal to a
2 90 , 3 70 , 46 4 cyclic system meet th e ci r cl es 42 9 ,

C on for ma l p
r e r ese n a o n , o f tw o su r t ti C u bic t w i sted 4 8 1 1 1 2 1 5 2 69
C ur vatu r e fi r st o f a c u r ve 9 ; r adi us
, , , , , , ,

c
fa es, 9 8— 1 00, 3 9 1 ; of a su r fa e and c , , ,

ph ic l p t ti
i ts s er a re r esen a on , 1 43 ; of of 9 ;
,
c en te r of 14 ; ci r cl e of 14 ; , ,

c p it l
a su r fa e u on se f, 1 0 1 —1 03 ; o f a c o nstan t 2 2 3 8 5 1 , , ,

pl p it l
ane u on ph
se f, 1 04 , 1 1 2 ; o f a s er e C ur vatur e G au ssi an 1 23 geod esic (see
, ,

p
u on th e pl an e, 1 09 of aS ph p
er e u o n G eod esic )
it l se f, 1 10, 1 1 1 ; of ap d ph ic l
se u os er a C ur vatu r e mean of a su r fac e 1 2 3 12 6
, , , , ,
c p
su r fa e u on th e pl an e , 3 1 7 1 4 5 ; su r fa c es of c on sta nt ( see Su r
C onfor mal c onj ug ate r ep resen t atio n of
-
fac e)
tw o su rfa c es 2 2 4 ,
C u r vat ur e nor mal o f a sur fac e r adi us
, , ,

C ong r uen ce of cu r ves 42 6 n or mal 4 80 , ,

o f 1 1 8 1 2 0 1 3 0 13 1
, ,
1 50 ; p r i n cip al
, , ,
C ong ruen c e o f str aight li nes (r ectili near ) r adii of 1 1 9 1 20 2 9 1 4 50 ; c en t er of
d efi niti on 3 92 n o r mal 393 3 98 401
, , , , , ,

, , , , ,
1 1 8 1 50 ; p r i ncip al c en ter s o f 1 2 2
, ,

402 4 03 4 12 4 22 4 2 3 43 7 ; asso ci a te
, , , , , C ur vature second of a cu r ve 16 c o n
, , ,

n o r mal 40 1 — 4 03 4 1 1 ; r u l ed su r fac es stan t 50 See To r si o n

'
.
, , , ,

3 93 39 8 40 1 ; li m it p o i nt s 3 9 6 ; p r i n
, , ,
C u r vatu r e t o tal o f a su rfac e 12 3 1 2 6
, , , , ,

c ipal su r fac es 3 9 6—3 98 408 p r i ncip al , ,

1 4 5 , 1 5 5 , 1 56 , 1 6 0, 1 72 , 1 8 6 , 1 94 , 208 ,
pl an es 396 3 9 7 ; d evelopables 398
, , ,
2 11 ra us o f, 189 di su r fa es of co n c
409 4 1 4 4 2 1 4 3 2 4 3 7 ; fo c al p o i nts t t
s an (see Su r fa e) c
,

,
,

3 98 3 9 9 4 2 5 ; m iddl e p oi n t 3 9 9 ;
,
, ,

,
C u r ve, e n d fi
on , 2 ; o f iti
o ns an rs c t t fi t
m iddl e su r fac e 3 99 401 408 4 13 c t
u r va u r e , 22 , 38 , 5 1 ; of on s an c t t
42 1—
, , , , ,
42 4 ; m iddl e en ve l o pe 4 13 4 1 5 ; , ,
t i
or s o n , 5 0 ; fo r m of a, 1 8
fo c al pl anes 400 40 1 40 9 4 1 6 fo c al C clic c g
y on r u en es See o n r u en es c C g c
su r fac es 4 00 406 4 09— d fi iti
.
, , , ,

,
4 1 1 4 1 2 4 14 , , , , ,
C clic t
y sy s e m ,
4 2 6 —44 5
; e n on , 4 2 6 ;
4 16 4 2 0 ; d er i ved 4 03 405 4 1 1 4 12
, ,
-

, ,
q l ci
of e u a r cl
es, 4 30 , 4 43 ; su r fa es c
i sot ropic 4 12 4 13 4 16 ; of G u ich ar d
, , , ,
orth g l
o on a to , 4 3 6 , 4 3 7, 44 4 , 4 5 7 ;
p seud osph er ic al ,
pl anes enve o a u r ve, 4 3 9l p 440 ; c ,

1 8 4 , 4 1 5 , 4 1 6 , 4 6 4 ; MC , 4 1 7—4 20, 4 22 , pl anes th r ou a gh

o n , 440, 44 1 ; p i t
4 2 4 ; o f Ri bau co u r , 42 0—4 2 2 , 424 , 4 2 5 , pl anesd p e en o n on e d
ar ame er , 4 4 2 p t
4 3 5 , 442 , 4 4 3 ; me an r u e su r fa es, l d c t ipl
r t
e sys em asso a e w a , 4 46 ci t d ith
42 2 , 42 3 , 4 2 5 ; y ,
4 3 1 —44 5 s
; c clic
er ph associ t da e w a r ith
e sys em, 4 5 7 t ipl t
ic l p
a r e r ese n a on o f y , 43 2 t ti
433 ; c clic -
4 58
c clic
y o f Ri b au cou r , 4 3 5 , 442
,
443 ; C yc lid es o f D u n , 1 8 8 , 3 12 —3 14 , 4 1 2 , pi
d evelopables o f y ,
4 37, 44 1 ; c clic 4 2 2 , 46 5
l c clic
no rma y 43 7
d efi niti on 1 15 for th e mov
,

C j g t di cti
on u a e re l
o ns, 1 26 , 1 73 ; n or ma D, D , D
’

dii
ra in , 13 1 t ih ed r al 1 74
i ng r
d fi iti ? defi n iti on 38 6
,

C j g t t
o n u a e sys em ,

giffi n (movi ng t r ih ed r al ) 168 169

e n on , 1 2 7, 2 2 3 ; ,

p t ic
ar ame r ph
, 1 9 5 , 2 03 , 2 2 3 , 2 2 4 s er r , , ,

ic l p t ti pl
a r e r ese n a o n o f, 200 ; o f a ne 1 70 ; ( asympto tic li nes p aramet r ic ) ,

c p
u r ves, 2 2 4 ; d p j cti
r eser ve by r o e ve 1 9 1 ; ( c o n j u g ate li nes p ar amet r ic ) ,

t ti p
r ansfor ma o n , 2 02 ; d r eser ve in a 1 9 5 ( l i n es o f c u r vatur e p r ese r ved b y
d ti
e fo r ma o n , 3 3 8—3 4 2 , 348 , 3 49 an i n versi on) 19 6 ; ( asympto tic li nes ,

C j t t c p d c
o n ug a e sys ems i n or r es on en e 1 3 0
,
and c on j u g ate sys tems p r eser ved b y
C id ight
o no ,
r 5 6 , 5 8 , 59 , 6 8 , 82 , 9 8 , 1 12 ,
. p r oj ecti ve t r ansfor mati on ) 2 02 ; (geo ,

d esic p ar all el s) 2 16 2 1 7 (gener a , ,

C o rdi nates c u r vili near on

o
, , a su r fa e, c ti on of new su r fac es of Wei ngar ten) ,

5 5 ; c u r vili near i n sp ac e , ,
44 7 ; sym 2 98 ; ( gener ati on o f su r fac es w ith
me t r ic 9 1—9 3 ; t angen ti al
, , 1 6 3 , 194 , pl ane l i nes o f c u r vatu r e i n b o th sys
2 0 1 ; elliptic 22 7 ,
tems) 304 ; gener al p r obl em of
,
4 70 IN D EX
F or c u r ve 1 8
m of a Helic oid , g ener al 1 46 — 1 48 ; p ar ameter
F re ne t Se e t fo r mu l as 1 7
rr
,

o f 1 46 ; me i d i an o f 146 ; geod esic s r

,

F
-

, , , ,

u n d amen t al eq u ati o n o f a c o ng r u en c e s , 149 1 5 1 2 09 ; su r fa c es o f c ent er o f

, , ,

1 86 ; p seu d osph er ic a l 2 9 1 is a W su r -

F d am en t al q u ad r atic for m of a su
un r fa c e 3 00 ; m i n i ma l 3 2 9 33 1 ; appl i
, ,

fac e fi st 7 1 ; o f a su fa c e se c o n d
, , , ,

,
r ,
r , , c abl e to a h yper b o l o id 3 47 ,

1 1 5 ; o f a c ong r u en c e 3 93 Helic oid r ight 14 6 1 48 2 03 2 4 7 2 50

F un d amental quanti t1es of th e fi st ,

,
r
,

2 60, 2 6 7 , 330, 3 47 , 3 8 1 , 42 2
, , , , , ,

o de 7 1 ; o f th e se c on d o r d er 1 1 5
r r l ci c l
He ix , r u ar , 2 , 4 1 , 4 5 , 203 cylind r i
F und amen tal theor em o f th e theo ry of
,

,
,

cal , 2 0, 2 1 , 2 9 , 3 0 , 4 7 , 6 4
c u r ves 2 4 ; of th e th eory of su r faces
, , b g c
Henn e er , su r fa e o f, 2 6 7
159 H y er o p b lic p i t
o n , 1 2 5 , 200
Hyper o b lic t p p
y e, o f seu os er a su r d ph ic l
G . See E c
c
fa e, 2 73 ; ofsu r fa e of B an ,
3 7 1 , 3 79 i chi
fi 3 9 6 (5 p b l id q ti
Hy er o o , e u a ons, 22 8 ; fu nd ame n
9 . See e t al q titi
u an es, 22 8 —2 3 0 ; evo u e o f, l t
G au ss ( p a r amet r ic fo r m q u ations) of e ,
l ti
2 3 4 ; o f r evo u on , 2 4 7, 3 48 ; nes o f li
50 ; ( Sphe ic a l r ep r esen ta ti o n ) 1 4 1 ;
r ,
s r t icti
on , 2 68 ; defo r ma o n of, 3 4 7 , ti
( t ot a l c u va t u e o f a su r fa c e) 1 5 5 ;
r r , 3 4 8 See Q ua r s . d ic
( g e o d e ic p a r all el s) 2 06 ; geo d esic
s
( i
,
r c

cl es) 2 07 ; ( ar ea f geod e ic t r i angl )o s e In dic at r i x , of D u pi n (see D u pi n) sph er i

209
ti
G a u ss, e q u a o ns o f, 1 5 4 , 1 5 5 , 1 8 7 su r fa e , c
G ener atms , o f a eve o a d
e su r fa e , l p bl c 3 73 , 3 8 5 3 8 7 ; —
gener at r ices 3 73 4 2 0 ; , ,

4 1 ; o f a su r fa e o f r a ns a i on , 1 9 8 ; c t l t ight h l c oid 3 8 1 of r u l ed sur

of a r e 1 ,

of a r u e l d c
su r fa e , 2 4 1 cfa es, 38 1 ; i n w hich li nes of c u r va
G eo es d ic ci cl
r es, 2 07 t u e ar e p r eserved 3 8 7 39 1 ; o f th e
r , ,

G eo es d ic c ti g c
on n en e, an e o f, 2 1 2 gl fo c a l su r fac es o f a W c o n g ru en c e 4 2 0 -
,

G eo es d ic c t
u r va u r e , 1 3 2 , 1 3 4 , 1 3 5 , 1 3 6 , I n t i nsic e q u a ti o n s of a c u r ve 2 3 2 9
r , , ,

di
1 4 0, 2 13 , 2 2 3 ; r a us o f, 1 3 2 , 1 50 , 1 5 1 , 3 0, 3 6
1 74 , 1 76 , 2 09 , 4 1 1 ; en er o f, 1 3 2 2 2 5 , c t , I nvar an s, i t di ti l
fferen a , 8 5—9 0 of a d i f
42 3 ; i
n var an e o f, 1 3 5 ; i c u r ves o f c q ti
fer en ti al e u a on , 3 8 0, 3 85 , 4 06
c t t
ons an , 1 3 7 , 140, 1 8 7 , 2 2 3 , 3 1 9 I nver s o n , i
e n d fi iti
on , 1 96 ; r eser ves p
G eo es ed ic llip
ses and y er o as, 2 13 h p b l li
nes o f c u r vatu 1e , 1 96 r eser ves an p
2 1 5, 2 2 5 so i th
er m system o f i n es of ic u r va l c
Geo es d ic p ll l
ar a e s, 207 t
u r e, 3 9 1 ; r eser ves a r p
y or th og t ipl
G eo es d ic p t
ar ame ers, 2 07 l
o n a sys em , 4 63 t
See Tr ansfor ma on . ti
G eo es d ic p l
o ar c o or n a es, 2 07—209 , di t b y re ro a r a cip c l dii
2 3 6 , 2 76 l t
I nvo u e, o f a u r ve, 43 —4 5 , 3 1 1 ; o f a c
G eo es d ic p
r e r esen a on , 2 2 5 , 3 1 7 t ti c
su r fa e , 1 8 0, 1 8 4 , 3 00
G eo es d ic t i
or s on , 1 3 7—14 0, 1 74 , 1 76 ; I so me rt ic p t
ar ame ers th ic
See I so er m .

ra di
u s o f, 1 3 8 , 1 74 , 1 76 p ar ameter s
G eo es d ic t i gl
r an e , 2 09 , 2 10 I o met r ic r ep r esen tati o n 1 00 1 1 3
s

d ic d fi
, ,
* G eo es s
,
e n on , 1 3 3 ; i ti
an e , 1 40 ; pl I o th er mal c on j ug ate systems o f c u r ves
s -

ti
eq u a o ns o f, 2 04 , 2 05 , 2 1 5—2 1 9 ; 0 11 1 98 200 ; spher ic al r ep r ese n t ati on 202 ;
-

c
su r fa es o f n e a ve g ti c
u r va u r e , 2 1 1 ; t fo r med o f li nes o f c u r va t u 1 47 203 r e, , ,

c
o n su r fa es o f L o u v i ill
e, 2 1 8 , 2 1 9 2 33 2 78 ; o n asso ci ate u r fa c es 3 90
,
s ,

c
G ou r sa t, su r fa es o f, 3 6 6 , 3 72 I so th e r mal o r th ogo n a l syste m See 13
-
. 0

Gu ar ich d ph
(s er a r e r ese n a o n o f ic l p t ti th er mic o r th ogonal syste m
th e d evelo pab les o f a o n r ue n e), c g c I oth er mic o r th ogo n al syst ems 9 3 —9 8
s , ,

c g c
409 ; ( o n r u en es o f Ri b a uco u r ), 4 2 1 2 09 2 52 2 5 4 ; fo r m ed o f li nes o f c ur va
, ,

G mc h a i d c g c
o n r u en es o f, 4 1 4 , 4 15 , 4 1 7 ,
,
t u e ( see Iso th er mic su r fac e)
r

I so th er mic p ar ame ters 9 3 —9 7 102 , ,

I o th er mic su r fac e 1 08 1 5 9 2 3 2 2 5 3
s .

d efi niti o n 7 1
, , , ,

I] , 269 , 2 9 7, 3 87—3 8 9 , 3 9 1 , 4 2 5 , 46 5
d efi niti o n 1 42
,

,
I so r o t pic c g
o n r uen e, 4 1 2 , 4 13 , 4 1 6 , 4 22 c
Ham ilt o n eq u ati o n o f 3 9 7
, ,
42 4
Haz z id ak is t r a nsfo r ma ti o n o f
, ,
2 78 , 2 79 , Iso r o t pic d l p bl
eve o a e, 72 , 1 7 1 , 4 1 2 , 4 24

3 38 I so r o t pic pl
ane, 4 9

4' Se e fo o t t
no e, p 4 67
. .
 IN D EX
Jaco bi ( geod esic li nes) 2 1 7 ,
Mer idi an c u r ve on a su rface 2 60 ,

Joa chi msthal ( geod es ics and li nes o f Meus ni er th eorem of 1 18

, ,

c ur vatu re on cen tr al q uad r ics ) 240 ,

Mid d l e envel o pe o f a c ong ru enc e ,
4 13 ,
Joachi msthal th eo rem o f 140 ; su rfaces
, ,
415
o f, 308 , 309 , 3 19 Middl e po i n t o f a li ne of a c o ng r uen ce ,

399
K ummer ( re ctili near c ongr uence s) ,
3 92 Mid d l e su r fa e c of a c on gr u en c e , 399 ,
4 0 1 , 4 08 , 4 1 3 , 42 1 —4 2 4
g g
L a r an e ( m n ma sur fa es), 2 5 1 i i l c Mi ndi ng ( geod esic c u rvatu re ) , 2 22 , 2 2 3
L ame ( ifferen ia d t lp
ar ame ers), 8 5 t Mi ndi ng p ro bl em,
o f, 32 1, 323 , 3 2 6 ;
ti
L a me, eq u a o ns of, 44 9 fam y o f, 46 1 , il method o f 344 ,

46 3 , 464 Mi n i ma l c u r ves 6 4 7 , 49 , 2 5 5 , 2 5 7 ;
, ,

Le lieu vr e, fo r mu as o f, 19 3 , 195 , 4 17 , l c
o n a su r fa e , 8 1 , 82 , 8 5 , 9 1 , 2 54—2 6 5 ,

41 9 , 42 0, 4 2 2 3 1 8 , 3 9 1 ; o n a s ere , 8 1 , 2 5 7 , 364 —
ph 36 6,
c t
L ie ( su r fa es o f r ans a o n ), 1 9 7, 1 9 8 ; l ti 3 90
d bl i i l
( ou e m n ma sur fa es), 2 59 ; ( i n es c l M n ma s r a
i i l t ight li nes , 48 , 49 , 2 60
of u r va u re o f W su r fac es), 293
c t -
l c d fi iti
M n ima su r fa e, e n on, 1 2 9 , 2 5 1 ;
i
t ti
L ie, rans for ma on of, 2 89 , 2 9 7 asym pt t c li
o i nes , 1 2 9 , 18 6 , 1 9 5 , 2 54 ,
L m i it p i t
o n , 3 96 3 99 , 2 57, 26 9 ; s ph ic l p
er a t ti
re resen a o n ,
i it
L m su rfa e, 38 9 c l d
1 4 3 , 2 5 1—2 54 ; ru e , 1 48 ; h lic i d l
e o a ,
i g l
L ne, si n u a r , 7 1 l ti
14 9 , 33 0 , 33 1 ; of re vo u o n, 1 50 ;
i c t
L ne o f u r va u re , e n o n , 122 , d fi iti p ll l pl
a ra e ane secti i i
o ns o f, 1 60 ; m n
q ti
128 ; e ua o n o f, 12 1 , 1 7 1 , 2 4 7 ; pa r l li
mal ines, 177 , 1 86 , 2 54—26 5 ; n es o f
ti
ame r e, 122 , 1 5 1 , 1 86 no r ma c ur l c t
ur va u re , 1 86 , 2 53 , 2 5 7, 2 64 , 2 6 9 ;
vature of, 12 1 , 1 3 1 ; eo es o rs o n o f,g d ic t i ou d bl e, 2 58 2 60 ; a lg b ic
e ra
-
, 2 6 0 —2 62 ;
g d ic
1 3 9 ; eo es , 1 40 ; t w o su r fa e s n e r c i t l t j i t
evo u e , 2 6 0, 3 72 ; ad o n , 2 54 , 26 3 ,
sec ting i n , 1 40 ; s er a re rese n a ph ic l p t ci t
2 6 7, 3 7 7 ; asso a e , 2 6 3 , 26 7 , 2 6 9 , 3 30,
ti
o n of, 1 43 , 14 8 , 1 50 ; os u a n ane , c l ti g pl b g
38 1 ; o f Sc h er k , 26 0 ; o f Henn e e r ,
1 48 pl
ane , 14 9 , 150 , 2 0 1 , 3 05— 3 14 , 26 7 ; o f Ennepe r , 2 69 ; d ti
e fo r ma o n
3 19 , 3 2 0, 46 3 ane i n o pl
sys e ms , b th t o f, 2 64 , 3 2 7—3 2 9 , 34 9 , 38 1 ; d e te r m i
269 , 300—3 04 , 3 1 9 , 3 20 s er a , 1 49 , ph i c l ti
n a o n o f, 2 65 , 2 66 ; g d ic
eo es s , 2 6 7
3 14—3 1 7, 3 19 , 3 2 0, 4 6 5 ; r u ar , 1 4 9 , ci c l c d fi iti
Mo n su r fa e , e n o n , 3 02 ; eq u a
ldi g
3 1 0— 3 14 , 3 16 , 44 6 ; o n a n so er m i th ic ti
o n s o f, 3 07 , 30 8 ; li c
nes o f u r va u re , t
sur fa e , 38 9 , c 307 , 3 08 , 3 20 ; a pplic bl
a e , 3 1 9 , 3 38 ;
L ine o f s r i t cti
o n , 2 43 , 2 44 , 2 4 8 , 2 68 , 348 , asso a e to r ci t ight h lic id
e o ,
38 1 ; no r
3 5 1 , 3 52 , 36 9 , 40 1 , 422 c g c
mal to a o n r uen e o f Rib au cou r ,
i l t
L near e emen , o f a u r ve, 4 , 5 ; o f a c ‘

422
c
su r fa e , 4 2 , 7 1 , 1 7 1 ; o f th e s er i a ph c l Mo n sur fa es, a fam y of L a me of,
ldi g c il
p t ti
re resen a on , 1 4 1 , 1 73 , 3 93 ; re u e d cd 46 5
for m, 3 53 ; o f s a e , 447 p c Mo n e (equ a ons o f a su r fa e), 6 4 ;
g ti c
i
L nes of en l gth
z er o See M n ma nes. i i l li ldi g
( mo n su r fa es), 3 02 c
i
L n es of s o r es en h t t l gth 2
, 2 1 , 220
Mo nge, su rfa es o f, 305 —3 08 , 3 1 9
c
i ill
L ou v e ( fo r m o f G auss e u a o n ), 1 87 ; q ti Mo v n i g t ih d l
r e ra fo r a u r ve , 30— 33 ; c
gl
( an e o f eo es g d ic c o n n en e), 2 1 2 ti g c a a o ns o f, 33 —36 , 3 9 , 4 0 64 68
pplic ti .
-

i ill c
L ou v e , su r fa es o f, 2 14 , 2 1 5 , 2 18 , 2 3 2 Mo vi n r e ra for a su r fa e, 1 66 —1 70 ;
g t ih d l c
L o x o ro m d ic c
u r ve, 7 8, 108 , 1 12 , 1 2 0 , 1 3 1 , t ti
ro a ons o f, 1 6 9 ; a a o ns o f 1 71 pplic ti ,

1 40, 209 44 2 -

Mai nar di eq u a tio ns o f 1 56

, , Nor mal , p r i ncip al d efi n iti o n 1 2 ; pa r
, ,

Mal u s and D u pi n th eo r em o f 4 03 , , a ll e l to a pl a ne 16 2 1 , ,

v Mango ld t ( geod es ics o n s ur fa c es

. of N o r mal co ng r u en c e o f li ne ( see C O s 11
positi ve c u r va tu re) 2 1 2 , g r uen ce) ; o f c u r ves ( see C o ng uen c e) r

Mean c u r va tu re 12 3 1 2 6 1 4 5 , , . N o r mal c u r va tu re o f a su r fac e S e . e

Mean evol u te 1 6 5 1 6 6 3 72 , , , C u r va tu re
Mean r ul ed su r faces o f a c o n gr uen ce ,
Nor mal pl ane to a c u r ve 8 15 6 5 , . .

4 22 , 4 2 3 , 42 5 No r ma l se c t i o n o f a su rfac e 1 18 23 4 , ,

Mer c a to r ch ar t , 1 09 No r ma l to a c u r e 12 v ,

Mer idi an , of a su r fa e c of r evo ul ti on ,

No rmal to a su r fa ce 5 7 1 14 1 1 7 1 2 0 , , , ,

1 07 o f a. h eli coid ,
1 46 1 2 1 , 14 1 , 19 5

See foo t t
no e , p 467
. .
4 72 IN D EX
Nor mal s, p r i n cip al w hich ar e p r i n cip al
, i t c i g l
Po n of a su r fa e, s n u ar , 7 1 e lliptic ,

n or mal s o f ano th er c u r ve 4 1 ; w hich h p b lic

1 2 5 , 2 00 ; y e r o p
, 1 2 5 , 2 00 ; ar a
ar e b i n o r mals o f an o th er c u r ve 5 1
,

, c l F c l ddl
b oli c , 1 2 5 ; fo a ( see o a ); mi e

( see M iddl li i t
e); i it
m ( see L m )
Or d e o f c on tact 8
r 21, , l d l p bl
P o ar eve o a e, 64 , 6 5 , 1 1 2 , 2 09
O r th og ona l syste m of c
u r ves, 7 5 , 77, l li c
P o ar ne o f a u r ve, 1 5 , 38 , 46
8 0—8 2 , 9 1 , 1 1 9 , 1 2 9 , 1 77, 1 87 ; par Pr ni cip a l di cti
re on s at a p i t
o n , 12 1 .

t i
ame r e, 75 , 9 3 , 1 2 2 , 1 34 ; g eo d esms, Pr ni cip l l
a n or ma to a u r vec l
See No r ma .

1 87 i th ic
so er m ( see I so er m ) th ic Pr ni cip a l pl c g c
an es o fa o n r u en e, 3 96 , 3 9 7
th g l t j ct i
O r o ona r a e or es, o f a o ne ar am -
p Pr ni cip a ra l dii
of n o r ma lc t
u r va u re , 1 1 9 ,
t il
e er fam y of pl an es, 3 5 , 4 5 1 ; of a 1 2 0, 2 9 1 , 4 5 0
il c
fam y of u r ves, 5 0 , 79 , 9 5 , 1 12 , 14 7, Pr ni cip l c
a su r fa es o f a on ru en e, 3 9 6 c g c
149 , 1 50 ; o f a fam y o f eo es s, il g d ic 3 98 , 408
il
2 1 6 o f a fam y o f su r fa es, 446 , 4 5 1 , c Pr o e j cti t
ve r an sfor m a o n , rese r ves os ti p
452 , 4 56 , 4 5 7, 4 60, 463 , 4 6 4 c u l ati ng pl
an es, 4 9 ; r eser ves asymp p
c l ti g ci cl
Os u a n r e, 1 4 , 2 1 , 6 5 toti c li nes an d on u a e sys ems, 2 02 c j g t t
c l ti g pl
Os u a n d fi iti
an e , e n q
on , 10 ; e u a d ph
Pseu os er e, 2 74 , 2 90
ti
on of, 1 1 t ti t
s a on ar y, 18 ; m ee s th e P seu os d ph ic l c g
er a c on r uen e, 4 15 , 4 16 ,
c p
u r ve, 1 9 ; th gh fi d p i t
asses r ou a x e o n , l
4 64 ; no r ma , 18 4
th g l t j ct i
2 2 ; or o on a r a e or es o f, 3 5 ; o f d ph ic l c d fi iti
P seu os er a su r fa e, e n o n , 2 70
e dg g i
e of r e r ess on , 5 7 ; o f an asymp asym pt tic li
o nes, 1 90 , 2 90, 4 14 ; nes li
li
to ti c ne, 12 8 g d ic
of a eo es , 1 3 3 c t
o f u r va u re, 1 90 , 2 03 , 2 80, 3 2 0 ; g eo
c l ti g pl
Os u a n c p ll l
an es of t w o u r ves ar a e , d esi cs, 2 75—2 77, 2 83 , 3 17, 3 1 8 ; d efor
50 ti
m a o n, 2 77, 3 2 3 ; r ansfor ma ons of t ti
c l ti g Sph
Os u a n er e, 3 7, 3 8 , 47 , 5 1 , 6 5 2 8 0—2 90 , 3 18 , 3 2 0, 3 70, 4 56 ; o f D n i i
2 9 1 , 3 18 ; o f En neper , 3 1 7, 3 2 0 ; evo
P ar a o b lic p i t
o n o n a su r fa e, 1 2 5 c l t i l t
u e, 3 18 ; nvo u e , 3 1 8 ; su r fa es w c ith
P ar a o b lic t p
y e , of seu os p er d ph ic l
a su r th e same s er a ph ic l p
r e re sen a on of t ti
c
fa es, 2 74 ; o f su r fa es o f B an c i chi
, th i li
e r nes of c t
u r va u r e as, 3 2 0 , 3 7 1 ,
3 70, 3 7 1 , 442 , 443 , 4 45 43 7, 4 3 9 , 443 , 444 See Su r fa e o f . c
b l id
P ar a o o , a r ight c id
ono , 56 ; an en t g t c onstan t to tal c ur vatu r e
pl
an e, 1 12 asym o pt tic li
n es, 1 91 , 2 3 3 Pseud osph er ic al su r fac e of revo l u ti on ,

c t l ti
a sur fa e o f rans a o n , 2 03 ; eq u a o f h yp er b o lic t yp e 2 73 ; o f elliptic ,

ti
ons, 2 30, 3 3 0 d
fu n amen a q u an t l ti typ e 2 74 of p ar ab olic typ e 2 74
.
,

ti
es, 23 1 li c t
n es of u r va u r e , 2 3 2 , 2 40 P seud osph er ic al su r fac es a fam il y o f ,

l t
evo u e of, 2 3 4 l
o f n o r ma s to a r u e l d L a me o f, 4 5 2 —4 56 , 4 6 4
c
su r fa e, 24 7 ; li
ne o f s r t icti
on , 2 68 ;
d efor ma on o f, 3 48 , 3 49 , 3 67—
ti 3 69, Quad r atic for m See u nd amen tal . F
3 72 c g
on r u e n e of c t g t
an en s, 40 1 .
Qu ad r ic s, c onfo c al 2 2 6 401 fu nd amen , ,

See Qu a r s d ic tal qu antiti es li nes of cu r vatu r e

,
229 ,

ll l g d ic
P ar a e , eo es , 8 6 , 207 on a su r fa e c 2 33 2 3 9 2 40 asym pt o tic li nes 2 3 3
, , ,

l ti
o f re vo u o n , 107 geod esics 2 34—2 3 6 2 39 240 ; associ ate
, , ,

P ar a e ll lc
u r ves, 44 su r fac es 3 90 39 1 ; n o r mal s to 4 2 2
n
.
, , ,

ll l c
P ar a e su r fa e, d efi n i ti o , 1 77 ; nes li See Ellip so id Hyp er bol oid Par abo l oid
, ,

c t
of u r va u re, 1 78 , fu n amen a q u an d t l
titi c
es, 1 78 ; o f su r fa e o f on s an cu r c t t Rep resen tati on, confor mal ( see C o n
c
vatur e, 1 79 ; o f su r fa e of r evo u o n , l ti fo r mal ); i somet r ic 1 00 1 1 3 ; equ i v , ,

1 85 al e u t 1 13 , 1 8 8 ; G a u ss i a n
, 141 ; ,

ll c
P ar a el su r fa es, a fam y of L ame o f, il c onfor mal c onj ugate 2 2 4 ; geod esic
-

, ,

4 46 2 2 5 3 1 7 ; sph er ic al ( see Sph er ic al )

t d fi iti
P ar ame er , e n on , 1 ; o f s r u on , di t ib ti
,

Revo l u ti on su r fac es o f See Su rfac e

, .

2 4 5 , 2 47 , 2 6 8 , 3 48 , 42 4, 4 2 5 Ri b au co ur (asympt o tic li nes on su r fac es

t ic c
Par ame r u r ves, 54 , 5 5 o f c en ter ) 18 4 ; ( cyclic syst ems o f
,

t ic q ti
P ar ame r e u a ons See E u a ons
. q ti equ al ci r cl es) 2 80 ; ( li m it su r fa c es), ,

l c c diti
P an e u r ve, o n on for , 2 , 1 6 cu r v 3 89 ; ( middl e en ve l op e o f an i so t r opic
t q ti
a u re , 1 5 ; e u a ons, 2 8 , 49 ; n r ns i t i ic c ongr uenc e) 413 ; ( cyclic systems)
, ,

q ti
e u a ons, 3 6 42 6 42 8 43 2 ; ( d efo r mati on of th e
, ,

l c i g
P ane u r ves fo r m n a o n u a e sys c j g t en vel o p e o f th e pl anes of a c yclic
tem , 2 2 4 system) 42 9 430 ; ( cyclic systems
, ,

l li c
P an e nes o f u r va u r e See L nes o f t . i asso ci a ted w ith a t r ip ly or th og onal
c urvatur e system) 4 5 7 ,
 IN D EX
c ongr u enc e of tangen ts 405 ; m i d dl e , ti
T r an sfo r ma on , o f u rv near co or d i c ili
su r fa c e of a W c o n gr u en c e 4 2 2 4 2 4
-

, ,
t
n a es, 53—5 5 , 7 3 74 ; o f r e a n u ar . ct g l
Su r fa c e w ith pl an e li n es o f c u r va tu r e . o or c di t
n a es, 72 ; b y r e ro a ra ,
cip c l dii
See L i n es o f c u rva tu r e 104 , 19 6 , 2 03 ( see I n ver s on ) ; ro e i p j ct
Su r fac e w ith sph er ic al lin es of c u r va tu re . i ve ( see P r o e ve) j cti
See L i n es of c u r vatu re Tr ipl th g l
t
y o r o o na sys em o f su r fa es, c
Su r fac e w ith th e same sph er ic al repr e e n d fi iti
on , 44 7 ; asso ci t d ith
a e w a cyc
sc u t a ti on o f i ts li nes of c u r v atu r e as a lic t
sys em , 446 ; fu n amen a d t l
q u an
p seu d osph er ic al su r fac e See Pseu d o. titi
es, 4 47— 45 1 ; w ith il
one fam y o f
sph er ic a l su r fac e c l ti
su rfa es of rev o u on , 4 5 1 , 4 52 ; o f
Su r face w ith th e same sph er ic al r epr e Rib au cou r , 4 5 2 , 46 3 ; of B an i chi
,
4 52
sen tati on o f i ts li nes o f c u r vatu r e as 4 54 , 464 , 4 6 5 ; of W e n ar en , 4 5 5 ,
i g t
a sph er ic al su r fa c e See Sph er ic a l su r
. 4 56 , 463 , 464 t ti
r a n sfo r ma on o f, 4 6 2 ,
fac e 463 ; w ith il
o ne fam y o f m o nldi g
su r
Su r fac es o f revo l u ti o n a fam il y o f L amé
,
c pi
fa es, 4 6 5 o f c yc li d es of D u n , 4 6 5
o f, 451 o f so er m i th ic c
su r fa es, 46 5

Tan en g t pl c d fi iti
an e to a su r fa e, e n on , Um a bilic l p i t of a su r fac d efi niti on
o n e, ,

ti d l p bl
5 6 , 1 14 ; eq u a on , 5 7 ; eve o a e su r 1 2 0 ; of u a q d r ic s 2 3 0 2 3 2 2 34 23 6 , , , ,

c
fa e, 5 7 ; di t c
s an e to , 1 14 t mee s th e 2 38 , 2 40 , 26 7
su r fac e , 1 2 3 ; ch ct i tic
ar a er s of, 1 2 6 ;
i s th e os u a nc l ti g pl p tic
ane o f asym to i ti
V ar a on o f a fu n on , 8 2 , 8 3 cti
line, 12 8 c
V oss, su rfa e o f, 3 4 1 , 3 90 , 4 1 5 , 44 2 , 4 43
g t c c
Tan en sur fa e o f a u r ve, 4 1—44 , 5 7 ;
a pplic bla pl
e to th e ane , 1 0 1 , 1 56 W congr u enc e 4 1 7—4 2 0 42 2 42 4
-

g t c
Tan en t o a u r ve, 6 , 7, 49 , 5 0, 5 9 ;
’
-

,
fi
,

W su r fa c e d e n iti on 2 91 fun d amen tal ,

, ,

s ph ic l i dic t i
er a n a r x o f, 9 , 1 3 , 50 , 1 77 q u an , 2 9 titi es
1—2 9 3
; ar p tic l
u ar , 2 9 1 ,
g t c
Tan en to a su rfa e, 1 1 2 3 00 , 3 18 , 3 1 9 ; s er ph ic l p
a re resen a on , t ti
g ti l c di t
Tan en a o or n a es, 1 63 , 1 94 , 2 01 292 ; li c t
nes o f u r va u re, 2 93 ; evo u e , l t
t h d l
Te r a e r a c d fi iti
su r fa e, e n o n, 267 ; 2 94 , 2 9 5 , 3 1 8 , 3 19 ; o f W e n ar en, i g t
asym pt tic li
o d
nes, 2 6 7 ; efo r ma on , ti 2 98 , 4 2 4 ; r u e , 2 9 9 , 3 1 9 l d
34 1 We er s r ass (e u a on s o f a m n ma su r
i t q ti i i l
t h d
Te r a e ra l su r fa es, r c t ipl
e sys em o f, t c
fa e), 2 6 0 ; ( a e ra lg b ic i i l
m n ma su r
46 5 fa es), 26 ] c
To r e, 1 2 4 We n ar en ( an en a
i g t t g ti l c i t
o or d n a es ,
)
i g d ic
To r s on , eo es , 1 3 7—1 40, 1 74 , 1 76 1 6 3 ; ( eo es g d ic llip
e ses an d h ype r b o
i c d fi
iti
To r s o n of a u r ve, e n o n , 1 6 ; r ad us i las), 2 1 4 ; ( W sur fa es), 2 9 1 , 2 92 , 294
c -

o f, 1 6 , 1 7, 2 1 ; o f a pl
an e c
u r ve , 1 6 ; i fi it i l d ti
( n n es ma efo r ma on ), 3 74 , 3 8 7 ,
ig
s n of, 1 9 ; c t t
ons an , 50 ; of asymp li c t i th ic
( nes of u r va u re o n an so er m
to ti c li
n e, 1 40 su r fa e), 3 89c
ct i q ti
Tra r x , e u a ons, 3 5 ; su r fa e o f revo c W e n ar en , su r fa e of, 2 98 , 42 4 me o
i g t c th d
lu tio n o f, 2 74 , 2 90 ; e o h lic id
w ose h of, 3 53—3 72 ; r t ipl t
e sys e m of, 4 55 , 4 56 ,
idi
mer an is a, 29 1 4 63 , 464

Fo r r efer e nc e s su c h as Tr an sfor ma t i on of B ac k l d
un , see B ac k l d un .