GEOG 1290 – The Lithosphere – Study Sheet

1. Finish the sentence: The lithosphere …weathering and erosion.

is largely independent of solar
radiation, with the two exceptions of…
2. State the three parts of the Oceanic crust Continental crust
lithosphere. Lithospheric mantle
3. The temperature of Earth’s interior increases; geothermal
_____ with depth, a pattern that is
called the _____ gradient.
4. What are the two main factors that Radioactivity
create the heat of the Earth’s interior. Friction
5. Most of what is known about Earth’s seismic wave
deep interior comes from the analysis
of ____ ____ behaviour.
6. State the three principal layers of Lithosphere
Earth’s interior from top to bottom. Mantle
Core
7. As seismic waves pass through densities; refraction
material of differing ____ in Earth’s
interior, they change speed and are bent
in a process called _____.
8. Like the lithosphere, Earth’s ____ atmosphere
and oceans decrease in density at
further distances from Earth’s centre.
9. State what the inner core and outer Inner core: solid iron and nickel
core of the Earth are made of, Outer core: liquid iron and nickel
respectively.
10. State the range of the inner and Inner core: centre of Earth to 5150 km
outer cores of the Earth. below Earth’s surface
Outer core: 5150-2900 km below
Earth’s surface
11. What creates Earth’s magnetic Circulating liquid metal in Earth’s
field? outer core
12. Earth’s magnetic field forms the magnetosphere; solar wind
______, which shield’s Earth from
____ ____, which is a stream of
electrically-charged particles emitted
by the sun.

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13. What is the magnetic North Pole? North: Where the magnetic field enters
The Magnetic South Pole? the Earth
South: Where Earth’s magnetic field
comes out of
14. Since the nineteenth century, has Closer
the Magnetic North Pole moved closer
or farther away from the geographic
North Pole?
15. Name, briefly describe, and state Asthenosphere (100-200 km deep) – a
the vertical boundaries of the two softer and weaker layer with a similar
layers of Earth’s mantle excluding the composition to the…
lithospheric mantle. Lower Mantle (200-2900 km deep) –
a layer of heated and slowly deforming
solid rock
16. What type of rock is Earth’s mantle Peridotite
composed of? What is the colour of Green-grey
this rock?
17. TFE: Considerable amounts of INCORRECT! The mantle is primarily
magma is found in Earth’s mantle. solid rock
18. What is the difference between Magma is melted rock found below the
magma and lava? crust, while lava is melted rock that
spills onto Earth’s crust
19. Magma typically hardens into ____ granite; basalt
rock, while lava typically hardens into
____.
20. Approximately how deep into the 100 km
Earth is the lithosphere found on
average?
21. Earth’s crust is its ____ outermost rigid
portion.
22. How are lithospheric plates Cracking/breaking of the lithosphere
formed? [2] due to the moving of the asthenosphere
below
23. TFE: Moving from the lower False, temperature increase spikes in
mantle to the outer core, temperature the transition from the lower mantle to
increase remains linear. the outer core
24. TFE: Moving from the outer core True, temperature increase remains
to the lower core, temperature increase relatively stable in the transition from
remains linear. the outer core to the inner core

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25. The _____ crust makes up Earth’s continental; granite; oceanic; basalt
continents, and is mainly composed of
_____. The ____ crust makes up the
crust beneath the ____, and is
composed mainly of basalt.
26. TFE: Granite is coarse-grained, True, and accordingly, the granitic
while basalt is fine-grained. continental crust is less dense than the
basaltic oceanic crust
27. Which is thicker, oceanic crust or Continental crust
continental crust?
28. What is Mohorovičić discontinuity The boundary that separates crust and
(“Moho”)? lithospheric mantle
29. Multiple Choice: Which of the E) 0.01-1%
following percentage ranges correctly
illustrates the thickness of Earth’s crust
relative to the radius of the planet?
A) 0.001-00.1% B) 0.001-0.1%
C) 0.001-1% D) 0.01-0.1%
E) 0.01-1%
30. Where is Moho deepest? Deepest: under high mountains
Shallowest? Shallowest: under the oceans
31. Multiple Choice: Which of the C) 35 km
following is the correct average Moho
depth?
A) 15 km B) 30 km C) 35 km
D) 70 km E) 350 km
32. Where are the two largest Andes mountains
concentrations of particularly deep Himalayan Plateau
Moho depths on Earth?
33. State the four main concepts - Movement of lithospheric plates
addressed by the theory of plate - Origin of lithospheric plates
tectonics. - Recycling of lithospheric plates
- Landforms resulting from
lithospheric plate dynamics
34. What is the main cause of Mantle convection below
lithospheric plate movement?
35. _____ result from the breaking of Earthquakes
lithospheric plates.
36. The boundary of which two North American Plate

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lithospheric plates crosses right
through the middle of Iceland?
37. Finish the sentence: The North
American Plate mainly consists of
North America, Greenland, and…
38. Name the seven primary plates and
the seven secondary plates. Wherever
it is not directly stated in the name,
state the geographic location of each
plate.
39. ____ activity reveals plate
boundary locations.
40. Name and explain the three main
ways in which tectonic plates move.
41. A ‘slab’ in the context of plate
tectonics is a ______ portion of a
lithospheric plate.
42. Draw distinction between absolute
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Eurasian Plate
…Northeastern Siberia.
Primary:
- African plate
- Antarctic plate
- Eurasian plate
- Indo-Australian plate
- North American plate
- Pacific plate
- South American plate
Secondary:
- Arabian plate
- Caribbean plate
- Cocos plate (off the Pacific coast of
Central America and southern Mexico)
- Juan de Fuca plate (off the Pacific
coast of southern British Columbia,
Washington and Oregon)
- Nazca plate (off the Pacific coast of
South America)
- Philippine plate
- Scotia plate (south of Patagonia)
Earthquake
Ridge push – magma rising along a
mid-ocean ridge lifts the oceanic
lithosphere, forming a slope
Mantle drag – movement of a plate
caused by friction between moving
asthenosphere and the lithosphere
Slab pull – the weight of a ‘slab’
accelerates plate movement by pulling
the plate deeper into the mantle
subducting
Absolute velocity describes the speed of
velocity and relative velocity in the a moving plate in relation to a fixed
context of moving lithospheric plates. point, while relative velocity describes
the speed of a moving plate in relation
to an adjacent moving plate
43. What are the two fastest moving Pacific and Nazca plates near Easter
plates on Earth? What island are these Island
two plates near?
44. The fastest _____ velocity plate relative
movement is 18 centimeters per year.
45. Multiple Choice: Which of the E) All of the above
following are explained by plate
tectonics?
A) Volcanoes
B) Seafloor features
C) Evolution of continents/oceans
D) Mountain belts
E) All of the above
46. ____ plate movement refers to Divergent; convergent
plates moving away from each other,
while ____ plate movement describes
plates moving closer to each other and
colliding.
47. What is a transform fault? Plates sliding past each other
48. Finish the sentence: Island chains …move along with the plate.
found on the edge of lithospheric
plates…
49. The oldest oceanic lithosphere is Mediterranean; Triassic
found under the _____ Sea, and dates
back to the _____ period and earlier.
50. What are the most geographically Mid-ocean ridges
extensive landforms on Earth?
51. New basalt is formed at ____ along volcanoes; decompression melting
mid-ocean ridges through the process
of ____ ____.
52. The main reason mid-ocean ridges magma
are formed is rising ____.
53. Where is the youngest oceanic Mid-ocean ridges
lithosphere found?
54. As rift valleys open an deepen, they inland sea; ocean basin

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may flood with seawater, creating a(n)
_____ ____, and in (lots of) time, a
new _____ ____.
55. How do rifts create volcanoes? [2] Thinning of the crust allows magma
to migrate upwards and surface in the
valley
56. Finish the sentence: Rifts …split into two new plates.
eventually cause a lithospheric plate
to…
57. Name three geographic features - Small volcanoes
associated with divergent boundaries. - Shallow earthquakes
- Rift valleys
58. New plates resulting from rifts each new; old
contain ___ oceanic crust along with
___ continental crust.
59. What is the East African Rift Several areas in East Africa where
System? Earth’s crust is splitting
60. Name three geographic features - Large volcanoes
associated with convergent boundaries. - Tall mountains
- Deep trenches
61. Name the two types of convergent Subduction zones – convergence of
boundaries and state what defines each. two oceanic crusts or an oceanic crust
and a continental crust
Collision zones – convergence of two
continental crusts
62. ____ is the descent of ____ crust Subduction; oceanic
into Earth’s mantle.
63. Oceanic lithosphere is consumed recycled
and _____ in the process of subduction
that the same rate that it forms at mid-
ocean ridges.
64. Multiple Choice: Almost all C) 150 million
oceanic crust is younger than ____
million years due to subduction. Select
the lowest accurate number.
A) 50 million B) 100 million
C) 150 million D) 200 million
E) 250 million
65. What is formed at the point where a Deep ocean trenches

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subducting plate dives down?
66. What is formed along convergent Volcanoes
plat boundaries where subduction is
occurring?
67. TFE: Earthquakes occur in True, and the largest earthquakes are
locations that follow the profile of found at subduction zones
subducting plates.
68. A(n) _____ arc is a long chain of continental arc; continent; subduction;
volcanos that forms on the margins of a oceanic; subducts; continental
____ where ____ is occurring;
specifically, where a(n) _____ plate
____ beneath a(n) _____ plate.
69. A(n) _____ arc is a chain of island arc; islands; oceanic; oceanic
volcanic ___ formed where a(n) _____
plate subducts beneath a(n) _____
plate.
70. Finish the sentence: Flux melting …subduction zones.
occurs only in…
71. A volcanic arc is produced by flux continental crust
melting with some partially melted
____ _____ mixed in.
72. Name at least four geographic - Large volcanoes
features or phenomena associated with - Deep earthquakes
subduction zones. - Island arcs
- Continental arcs
- Volcanic arcs
- Deep-sea trenches
- Accreted terranes
73. What are accreted terrains? Rocks scraped off of subducting plates
74. Why does the collision of two Continental crust is too buoyant to dive
pieces of continental crust not result in into the mantle. Instead, continental-
subduction? What is the result instead? continental crust collisions result in the
major thickening of that portion of
crust, which produces large mountains
75. What is known as the “classic Himalayas/Tibetan Plateau
example” of large mountains created
by continental-continental crust
collisions?
76. TFE: The Appalachian Mountains True, and this mountain range is even

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were created by the collision of two older than the Himalayas/Tibetan
pieces of continental crust. Plateau
77. TFE: Mount Everest was created by True, and it is the highest mountain on
the collision of two pieces of Earth (duh)
continental crust.
78. Summarize the result of The two plates merge to create a single
continental-continental crust collisions. sutured plate, and a new nonvolcanic
[2] mountain belt is formed at the suture
79. What are transform boundaries? Locations where lithospheric plates
slide past one another
80. Few features are associated with shallow
transform boundaries, but some
significant ones include ____
earthquakes and the connection of
portions of mid-ocean ridge.
81. Hot spot ____ are chains of _____ tracks; inactive
volcanoes in ocean basins.
82. Finish the sentence: Before …an area of decompression melting.
entering the lithosphere, a rising mantle
plume passes through…
83. TFE: Like on land, plates in motion True, of which Hawaii is the most
explain underwater volcanic (hot spot) famous example.
island chains as well.
84. A hotspot/mantle plume is one of Yellowstone
the unique features of _____ National
Park.
85. In addition to volcano chains, ____ shallow earthquakes
_____ are another feature associate
with hot spots.
86. The rocks that Earth’s crust is breaking (faulting); bending (folding)
composed of respond to stress by either
____ (____)—as is typical of crust—or
_____ (_____)—as is typical of
asthenosphere.
87. TFE: Sometimes crust and/or True: this occurs in most instances of
asthenosphere breaks and bends. mountain formation.
88. What is the term for mountain Orogenesis
formation?
89. A linear mountain range is known orographic belt

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as a(n) ____ ____.
90. TFE: Most mountain ranges form True, and this typically occurs along
in orographic belts. plate boundaries
91. Anticlinal ____ and synclinal ____ ridges; valleys; valleys; ridges
are typically formed before erosion,
while anticlinal _____ and synclinal
____ are often formed after erosion.
92. Where hard layers of rock persist, synclinal
_____ ridges are formed.
93. _____ crust varies more in age and Continental; oceanic
density than ______ crust.
94. For material to be rock, it must be solid
____, and be composed of one or more
minerals, often along with other
materials.
95. State the five criteria a material - Crystalline structure
must meet to be considered a mineral. - Fixed chemical composition
- Inorganic
- Naturally-occurring
- Solid
96. State at least one reason why coal Made from plant material
is not a mineral. Chemical composition is not fixed
97. TFE: All minerals form through True, the “E” was misdirection.
crystallization.
98. Crystallization can occur in many cooling; evaporated water
environments, including _____ magma,
and ____ ____ leaving crystals behind.
99. State, in order, the two most 1. Oxygen
abundant elements found in Earth’s 2. Silicon
crust.
100. TFE: A majority of Earth’s crust True: oxygen and silicon account for
is made up of oxygen and silicon. roughly 74% of the chemical
composition of Earth’s crust.
101. State the four main rock-forming Carbonates Oxides
groups of minerals. Silicates Sulfides & sulfates
102. Silicate minerals always contain silicon/oxygen; silicon/oxygen
_____ and _____, which combine with
other elements.
103. Multiple Choice: Approximately D) 95%
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what percentage of continental crust is
formed from silicate minerals?
A) 50% B) 75% C) 90%
D) 95% E) 99%
104. State the most common type of Feldspar, a silicate mineral
mineral found in Earth’s crust. Is it a
silicate mineral?
105. Quartz is a silicate mineral, and continental
one of the most abundant minerals of
Earth’s crust, particularly _______
crust.
106. Multiple Choice: To which A) Halides
mineral group does sodium chloride
belong?
A) Halides B) Oxides
C) Sulfides D) Silicates
E) Carbonates
107. Multiple Choice: To which B) Oxides
mineral group does hematite belong?
A) Halides B) Oxides
C) Sulfides D) Silicates
E) Carbonates
108. Match the following minerals with a—II
their characteristic. b—III
a) Pyrite I) “cements” sand grains c—I
together
b) Hematite II) “fool’s gold”
c) Calcite III) makes rocks reddish
109. Multiple Choice: To which E) Carbonates
mineral group does calcite belong?
A) Halides B) Oxides
C) Sulfides D) Silicates
E) Carbonates
110. Multiple Choice: To which C) Sulfides
mineral group does pyrite belong?
A) Halides B) Oxides
C) Sulfides D) Silicates
E) Carbonates
111. Exposed areas of bedrock are “outcrops”

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termed “_____.”
112. Name the three main types of rock Igneous – crystallized directly from
and state how they are formed. lava/magma
Sedimentary – compression and
cementation of eroded fragments of
other rocks
Metamorphic – any rock that
undergoes extreme heat and/or
pressure, causing it to transform into a
new rock
113. Outcrops (exposed areas of mountains; volcanically/tectonically;
bedrock) are most commonly found in volcanically/tectonically
_____, particularly those at ____ and
______ active regions.
114. _____ ______ are often the site of Subduction zones
new metamorphic rock formation, as
they provide great heat and pressure.
115. Finish the sentence: “Recycling” …transport of rock into the mantle via
in the context of rock formation refers subducting plates, and its re-emergence
to the… [2] and cooling, forming igneous rock.
116. What is the first step of igneous Melting of mantle or crust
rock formation? Name and explain the Decompression melting – melting due
two ways in which it can occur. to the release of pressure
Flux melting – melting due to the
introduction of water
117. After a portion of mantle or crust molten rock; crystallizes
is melted, ____ _____ moves upwards,
cools, and _____ into new igneous
rock.
118. TFE: If extrusive, igneous rock is False, this is true of intrusive igneous
exhumed and brought to the surface. rock.
119. TFE: Molten rock will always True, and if it fails to reach the surface,
move towards the surface, but it does it cools much slower.
not always reach the surface.
120. Which cools quicker and why: Extrusive, because it reaches the
extrusive or intrusive igneous rock? surface and intrusive does not
121. _____ igneous rock has large Intrusive; extrusive
mineral crystals, while those of _____
igneous rocks are usually invisible.

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122. Provide another term for fine-
grained igneous rock, and an example.
123. Provide another term for course-
grained igneous rock, and an example.
124. TFE: Basalt has a smaller density
than granite and is darker-coloured.
125. What determines whether igneous
rock is fine-grained or course-grained?
126. For each of the following
locations where igneous rock is
formed, state the type of melting that
leads to its formation:
I) Subduction zones
II) Divergent boundaries
III) Hot spots
127. TFE: One is most likely to see
intrusive igneous rock on beaches.
128. TFE: One is most likely to find
sedimentary rocks in low-lying areas.
129. Name the three types of
sedimentary rock.
130. Rank the following types of
clastic sedimentary rock from smallest
grain size to largest: sandstone, shale,
conglomerate.
131. Sedimentary rock tends to form as
____, in which ____ are often
preserved.
132. Clastic sedimentary rock is
sedimentary rock made from… [2]
133. State the two ways in which a
piece of sedimentary rock can become
classified as organic sedimentary rock.
134. Provide at least one example of
organic sedimentary rock, and at least
one example of chemical sedimentary
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Aphanitic
E.g., basalt, andesite, rhyolite
Phaneritic
E.g., gabbro, diorite, granite
False, basalt is darker-coloured than
granite, but it has a greater density
Where it cools and how quickly:
Slow cooling deep in crust  course
Rapid cooling near surface  fine
I) flux melting
II) decompression melting
III) decompression melting
False, one is most likely to find
intrusive igneous rock in mountainous
regions.
True, typically near where water
accumulates.
Chemical
Clastic
Organic
Sandstone < Shale < Conglomerate
layers; fossils
pieces of other rocks cemented or
compressed together over time.
- Made from dead organisms’ remains
- Deposited with the help of organisms
ORGANIC: chalk, coal
CHEMICAL: limestone, rock salt,
gypsum
rock.
135. TFE: Organic sedimentary rock True, because they can develop
can make minerals, even organic crystalline structures.
sedimentary rock that contains dead
organisms’ remains.
136. How is chemical sedimentary rock As chemicals precipitate out of water,
formed? Provide a general answer, as often when water evaporates
well as a more specific answer that
explains how chemical sedimentary
rock is usually formed.
137. Multiple Choice: In which of the E) Sedimentary rock is regularly found
following locations is sedimentary rock in all of the above locations
rarely found?
A) Ocean basins
B) Rift valleys
C) Basins where crust is bending
downward
D) Bottom of mountain ranges
E) Sedimentary rock is regularly found
in all of the above locations
138. Name and explain the two main - Foliated (found in pressure-created
criteria along which metamorphic rock layers) vs. non-foliated (no layers)
is distinguished and categorized. - Contact (cooking of nearby rock as a
result of igneous intrusion) vs.
regional metamorphism (formed as a
result of heat and pressure associated
with tectonic processes)
139. Metamorphic rock may be formed True, all that is needed for a rock to be
from igneous, sedimentary rock, or categorized as metamorphic is for it to
even other metamorphic rocks. have been formed by extreme heat
and/or pressure.
140. Anywhere where igneous rock is contact metamorphism
found, _____ _____ likely occurred as
well.
141. Finish the sentence: The …a passive margin.
Appalachian Mountains used to be a
collision boundary, but are now…
142. Regional metamorphism most mountain-building; convergent;
often occurs in ____-building events at collision; continental

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____ boundaries, and especially ____
boundaries between two pieces of ____
crust.
143. Plate boundaries often change, but moving hotspots; hotspots
resulting rock remains. One example
of such change is ____ _____, in which
____ volcanoes are moved away from
____ that were once below them.
144. Name two means through which Tectonic collision
sedimentary rock is sometimes buried Subduction
deep in Earth’s crust.
145. Through the ____ ____, rocks rock cycle; sedimentary; metamorphic
may be transformed from igneous rock
to ____ rock, to ____ rock, and back to
igneous rock.
146. Anywhere where there is ____ igneous
activity, metamorphic rock is created.
147. Finish the sentence: All volcanoes …melted into magma.
are found where the mantle is…
148. Name at least three geographic Mid-ocean ridges Continental rifts
features that volcanoes are typically Subduction zones Hot spots
found at/underneath.
149. TFE: Volcanoes are designated as True, although it can be very difficult
one of three different statuses: active, to apply such statuses given the
dormant or extinct. massively variable timescales involved
(10s of years to hundreds of 1000s of
years)
150. Volcanoes are driven by ____, magma; lava; extrusive
erupt ____, and form ____ igneous
rock.
151. _____ content determines the Silica
type, density and colour of igneous
rock.
152. Provide the following information Low silica content:
about low-silica, medium-silica, and I) Mafic
high-silica lava. II) Basalt
I) Name for the lava III) Low viscosity
II) Igneous rock it forms IV) Traps few gases
III) Viscosity V) Frequent gentle eruptions

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IV) Ability to trap gases Medium silica content:
V) Frequency and intensity of volcanic I) Intermediate
eruptions II) Andesite
III) Medium viscosity
IV) Traps some gases
V) Relatively infrequent explosive
eruptions
High silica content:
I) Felsic
II) Rhyolite
III) High viscosity
IV) Traps many gases
V) Rare but incredibly explosive
eruptions
153. Unlike the move c4, _____ effusive; lava
eruptions are nonexplosive eruptions
caused by mafic lava that produce
mostly ____.
154. Unlike effusive eruptions, gases/ash; gases/ash
explosive eruptions send many other
materials into the atmosphere in
addition to lava, such as volcanic ___,
rock and ___.
155. What is the highest layer of the Stratosphere
atmosphere that explosive volcanic
have been known to send material
directly into?
156. Why is it the case that the larger Larger eruptions require a longer
the volcanic eruption, the rarer it is period of pressure buildup
observed?
157. State the three most important Water vapour (H2O)
gases involved in the process of Carbon dioxide (CO2)
volcanic eruptions. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
158. Explain the process that leads to 1. Magma is pushed upward through
magma rising in volcanoes in four two- the vent, reducing pressure
point steps. 2. Reduced pressure  gases escape
the solution and form bubbles
3. Presence of gas bubbles increase the
buoyancy of the magma, causing it to

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 rise faster
4. Faster rising constitutes an
enhancement of the initial change
(positive feedback)
159. What is the main reason why Silica-rich magma traps more gases
silica-rich magma causes more violent
volcanic eruptions?
160. Name the three main determinants - Type of lava found within it
of a volcano’s size and shape? - Length of eruptions
- Number of eruptions
161. Name the three main types of Shield volcanoes
volcanoes, and provide the following I) Mafic lava – flowing
information about them: II) Largest volcanoes by volume
I) Lava type and behaviour III) Areas where lots of lava goes
II) Relative size (and shape, where through oceanic crust (hot spots)
applicable) IV) Many gentle eruptions over a very
III) Where they are typically found long timeframe
IV) The volcanic eruptions that build Cinder cones
them I) Mafic lava – splattering
II) Small, steep volcanoes
III) Inside shield volcanoes, or by
themselves around hotspots or
continental rifts
IV) One or a few relatively gentle
eruptions
Stratovolcanoes
I) Intermediate or felsic lava – erupting
explosively
II) Very high volcanoes
III) On the overriding plat at
subduction zones
162. Volcanoes that form within other “parasitic”
volcanoes are termed “____.”
163. Provide at least one synonym for Composite cone
stratovolcano. Stratocone
164. Name and explain the two main Lahar – a thick slurry of mud, ash and
geohazards that stratovolcanoes other debris that moves rapidly down a
produce. volcano’s flank
Pyroclastic flow – rapidly-moving

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 avalanche of gas and ash
165. Pyroclastic flow can travel at 700 km/h; 500o C
speeds up to ___ km/h and be as hot as
____o C.
166. Multiple Choice: Which of the A) Pyroclastic flow
following volcanic geohazards was the
main cause of the Pompeii disaster?
A) Pyroclastic flow
B) Lahar
C) Cloud cover as a result of explosive
eruption
D) All of the above
167. Particularly viscous lava known as felsic; lava dome
____ lava can sometimes plug a
volcano’s conduit, and well into a(n)
___ ____.
168. Name three early signs that - More gas venting from volcano
indicate that a volcano may soon erupt. - Lava domes
- Seismic waves (moving magma
recorded as earthquakes by seismic
stations)
169. Multiple Choice: Large eruptions D) Months
tend to give warning signs as early as
____ in advance. Select the longest
accurate time increment.
A) Hours B) Days
C) Weeks D) Months
E) Decades
170. ____ result when stress builds up Earthquakes; friction; slip; fault
in the crust to the point where it
exceeds ___, causing the crust to
suddenly ____ or break along either a
new or pre-existing ____.
171. TFE: Earthquakes sometimes True, liquefaction is another potential
cause landslides and other extreme result of earthquakes.
events.
172. TFE: The size of faults varies False: all parts true except that very
wildly, including very large faults on small faults typically occur away from
plate boundaries, and very small faults plate boundaries—plate boundaries are

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of only a few centimeters, typically associated with lots of small faults.
occurring away from plate boundaries.
173. TFE: Intact faults occur along False: faults occur along planes, not
lines separating two fault blocks: a lines (but all other parts are true).
footwall at higher elevation and a
hanging wall at lower elevation.
174. Multiple Choice: Which of the C) Strike-slip fault
following types of faults involves
lateral crust movement rather than
vertical crust movement?
A) Normal fault B) Reverse fault
C) Strike-slip fault D) All of the above
E) None of the above
175. What fault type that results from (a) Reverse fault
(a) compressional force, (b) shearing (b) Strike-slip fault
force, and (c) tensional [pulling] force? (c) Normal fault
176. ____ ____ are the form in which Seismic waves
the built-up energy from geologic
stress is released in an earthquake.
177. Earthquake intensity is usually epicenter; focus
greatest at the ____, which is the
ground surface location immediately
above the _____ of the earthquake.
176. A(n) __ is a small earthquake that foreshock; aftershock
precedes a larger earthquake, and a(n)
____ is a small earthquake that may
succeed a larger earthquake.
177. Multiple Choice: Where are A) Divergent boundaries
normal faults typically found?
A) Divergent boundaries
B) Convergent boundaries
C) Both A and B
D) Neither A nor B
178. Multiple Choice: Where are B) Convergent boundaries
reverse faults typically found?
A) Divergent boundaries
B) Convergent boundaries
C) Both A and B
D) Neither A nor B

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179. Provide another name for reverse Thrust faults
faults.
180. Reverse faults are relatively collision (continental-continental)
shallow at _____ (_____-_____) boundaries; subduction zones
boundaries, but very deep at _____
_____, which are themselves, in effect,
very large reverse faults.
181. _____ and ____ _____ represent Cliffs; fault scarps
the offset between fault blocks.
182. Weathering loosens _____, bedrock; erosion
making it potentially mobile, and ____
is the movement of that loosened
material to a new location.
183. TFE: Erosion is facilitated by True, and weathering is likewise
weathering. facilitated by erosion
184. Name at least four erosion - Glacial plucking and abrasion
processes. - Coastal waves/longshore currents
- Mass movements
- Fluvial (stream) processes
- Wind
185. True or False: Weathering rates True
are often measured by measuring the
material being eroded.
186. Finish the sentence: Sediment …have been weathered and eroded.
transport refers to the movement of
rock fragments (sediments) that…
187. Weathered material typically has - Develops into a soil profile
one of two fates. What are they? - Eroded away
188. Where does physical weathering High latitudes and high altitudes due to
occur at the fastest rate? [2] Why large temperature changes
there?
189. What two main factors influence Climate
the rate of weathering? Rock structure
190. As rock masses move towards denudation; confining pressure;
Earth’s surface through uplift and expand/crack; expand/crack
____, they experience increasingly less
____ ____, causing rocks to ___ and
____.
191. ____ is a type of jointing that Exfoliation

19
cracks off sheets of rock like the layers
of an onion.
192. Name four types of physical Pressure release Frost wedging
weathering. Root wedging Salt wedging
193. Frost wedging is driven by the joint; 10%
expansion of water in a ______ in a
rock when it freezes. Liquid water
expands by nearly ___% when it
freezes.
194. What defines locations where Routine temperature drops below 0o C
frost wedging the most important type (freezing)
of physical weathering?
195. In ___ wedging, plant roots root
slowly expand existing cracks in rock,
often creating new cracks in the
process.
196. TFE: Like frost wedging, salt True, and it is also like root wedging in
wedging expands existing cracks and this way.
can form new cracks.
197. Salt wedging is most common in arid
coastal and ____ regions.
198. Explain the process of salt Water flows down into cracks in rocks
wedging.  evaporating saltwater forms crystals
in those cracks
199. _____ are pits in sandstone that Tafoni
may form, in part, due to salt wedging.
200. Unlike physical weathering, mineral structures; water
chemical weathering changes ____
_____ through chemical reactions
involving ____.
201. In what climatic conditions is Moist environments with high
chemical weathering the dominant type temperatures
of weathering? [2]
202. Name and briefly explain three Oxidation – combining oxygen with
major types of chemical weathering. mineral elements
Carbonation – carbonate rock is
dissolved in a carbonic acid solution
and carried away
Hydration – water is added to the

20
 mineral structures of rock or soil,
causing expansion and weakening of
material
203. Carbonic acid is commonly rainwater
formed by carbon dioxide (CO2)
dissolving in _____.
204. Multiple Choice: Which of the B) Carbonation (as limestone is
following chemical weathering carbonate rock)
processes often effects limestone?
A) Oxidation B) Carbonation
C) Hydration D) None of above
205. Multiple Choice: Which of the A) Oxidation
following chemical weathering
processes creates rust?
A) Oxidation B) Carbonation
C) Hydration D) None of above
206. TFE: Many oxidation-prone True, and such minerals are oxidized
minerals form at depths where free when they surface and come into
oxygen is rare. contact with oxygen
207. Multiple Choice: Which of the B) Green
following colours is not typically
associated with oxidation of soils and
rock faces?
A) Yellow B) Green
C) Red D) Black
E) All of the above are characteristic of
oxidation
208. Multiple Choice: Which of the C) Hydration
following chemical weathering
processes is common in clay minerals?
A) Oxidation B) Carbonation
C) Hydration D) None of above
209. Why does physical weathering Chemical weathering acts on the
speed up the rate of chemical surface of rocks, and physical
weathering? weathering breaks rocks into smaller
pieces, creating more surface area
210. Name three roles that biological - Direct stressing of rocks via
organisms play in weathering (physical mechanisms such as root wedging
and chemical). - Add organic acids and other

21
 chemicals that accelerate the rate of
chemical weathering
- Holding of water near bedrock,
accelerating both physical and
chemical weathering
211. Finish the sentence: Differential …different minerals exposed to the
weathering refers to the phenomenon in same weathering processes will
which… respond differently.
212. Explain spheroidal weathering of Cubic formations are turned more
cubic rock formations. spherical by weathering because
corners have three surfaces for
weathering to act on, edges have two,
and faces have just one
214. _____ often form where Arches; cracks
weathering is focussed on contacts
between rock units (____ where water
can seep into).
215. A Devil’s Tower is formed by igneous intrusion; sedimentary
____ ____, and the subsequent eroding
away of less (weathering) resistant
_____ rock that once surrounded it.
216. What substance forms most Sand-sized durable quartz grains
beaches and sand dunes? Be specific.
217. Provide a synonym for mass Mass wasting
movement.
218. What is the name for the process Lithification: quartz grains 
of sand-sized durable quartz grains sandstone
transforming into sandstone? The Erosion: sandstone  quartz grains
reverse process?
219. A slope is ____ when it is unlikely stable; move/fail; unstable; moved
to ____, and _____ when it has ____ in
the past or is likely to do so soon.
220. Slope stability is dependent on the 1. Friction (resistive force) keeps
balance between two factors. Name, material in place
provide a synonym, and state the role 2. Downslope force (gravitational
of each of these factors. force) causes material to slip downhill
221. Name at least four factors that - Slope angle/geometry (undercutting)
influence mass movement. - Strength of rock/soil/snow layers
- Changes in friction between particles

22
 - Degree of saturation
- Vegetation
- Progression of weathering (e.g.,
freeze/thaw cycles)
222. The _____ _____ has two parts, threshold process
stability, then sudden instability.
223. Order the following types of mass 1. Rockfall
movement from fastest to slowest: soil 2. Avalanches
creep, avalanches, rockfall, flows & 3. Flows & landslides
landslides, slumps. 4. Slumps
5. Soil creep
224. TFE: When a slope passes the False, mass movement can occur for as
stability threshold, mass movement years before a given slope is stable
occurs for as short as seconds to as again.
long as days.
225. What are the three most important Physical characteristics
factors in determining how long mass Material
movement will occur on a given slope? Degree of instability
226. _____ refers to chunks of hillslope Slump; curved; head; scarp
moving downslope as a unit, typically
over a _______ failure surface at the
_______ of which ______ is left
behind.
227. Name and briefly describe three Mudflow – fast-moving flow
types of landslides. composed mostly of mud
Debris flow – mud flows with large
rocks or vegetation mixed in
Lahar – debris flow caused by
volcanic eruption
228. What is the term for recurrent Avalanche chutes
avalanches in the same location?
229. In an avalanche, ____ are formed clouds; air
consisting of snow or rock and other
debris mixed with ____ moving
downslope rapidly.
230. Rockfalls are common at ____ roadcuts; mountains
and in ______, and are often triggered
by freeze/thaw processes.
231. Finish the sentence: When …pieces of angular broken rock that

23
Genesis released a song called “Riding
the Scree,” what they meant to express
was the sensation of riding…
232. _____ processes are those
pertaining to ____, which are channels
of water flowing on Earth’s surface.
233. A ____ is a stream that flows into
another stream, and the main stream
that a ____ flows into is a ____ stream.
234. ____ ____ are areas of land
supplying sediment and water to a
complete stream network, and these
____ ____ are separated by ____ ____.
235. Name and explain the six main
drainage patterns and state the types of
bedrock characteristics that lead to
their arising.
236. Finish the sentence: Drainage
patterns depend primarily on the…
237. Finish the sentence: Stream order
increases only when…
238. Draw distinction between first-
order and second-order streams.
239. Multiple Choice: Approximately
24
accumulate at the angle of repose at the
base of a steep slope or cliff.
Fluvial; streams
tributary; tributary; trunk stream
Drainage basins; drainage basins;
drainage divides
Dendritic – resembles tree branches
{forms when rivers cut into a
geologically uniform surface}
Deranged – involves many glacial
lakes connected by disorganized
(“deranged”) rivers {forms in areas
recently covered by ice sheets}
Centripetal – streams flow inward to a
low-lying, closed basin {occurs in
internal drainage basins}
Radial – streamflow radiates outwards
from a central point {occurs on flanks
of volcanoes or conical mountains}
Rectangular – linear, rectangular
patterns follow {linear bedrock joints}
Trellis – resemble garden trellis
{found in areas with tilted layers of
sedimentary rock (e.g., shale)}
…characteristics of the bedrock that
the stream flows over.
…two streams of the same order join.
First-order streams – no tributaries
Second-order streams – formed at the
confluence of two first-order streams
D) 80%
what proportion of all streams on Earth
are third-order or less?
A) 50% B) 60% C) 70%
D) 80% E) 90%
240. The Mississippi River is a ____- tenth-order; Amazon River; twelfth-
order stream, and the ____ ____ is the order
world’s highest-order stream—a ___-
order stream.
241. How do streams begin? Rain from storms begin to incise (erode
into a channel), forming a rill
242. The earliest streams are ____ [unit centimeters
of measurement] wide and deep.
243. Rills expand and/or combine into gullies
_____, which are large enough for
water flow to carry significant
sediment.
244. Where are ephemeral streams Arid regions
most common?
245. What distinguishes an ephemeral Ephemeral streams only carry water
stream from a gully? during and immediately after rainfall
246. ______ streams carry water Intermittent
seasonally, fed by snowmelt or
seasonal changes in precipitation.
247. _____ streams are a type of _____ Exotic; perennial
stream that carries water from a wetter
region into an arid region.
248. What is stream discharge? What Stream discharge is the volume of
instrument is used to measure stream water flowing past a fixed point within
discharge? a stream channel per second
Stream hydrograph
249. Name at least three of the four Climate
main factors that influence stream Season
discharge. Stream order
Surface permeability
250. What is fluvial erosion? Explain Erosion by running water, in which
how it functions. kinetic energy incises into Earth’s crust
and transports sediments
251. Multiple Choice: What is the most C) Flowing water
important agent of erosion on Earth?

25
A) Wind
B) Glaciers
C) Flowing water
D) Freezing and thawing
E) Biological organisms
252. Fluvial erosion is very similar to glacial; abrasion/plucking; abrasion/
_____ erosion, with both sharing the plucking
processes of _____ and ____.
253. Name and explain the three types Dissolved load – soluble minerals that
of stream load, and note how they are carried in the stream solution
visibly manifest. (invisible)
Suspended load – small particles
remain suspended in flowing water or
wind (streams appear muddy)
Bed load – material in stream channel
that is too heavy to become suspended
in the current (typically not visible
from the surface)
254. Abrasion in streams _____ rocks rounds
and wears away bedrock by way of
constant collision with particles in the
stream.
255. How is plucking typically The wedging of air and eroded material
accomplished in streams? into cracks by the energy of stream
water
256. What happens to stream capacity Both increase
and stream competence during periods
of peak discharge?
257. Beginning with the ____, streams largest
drop their sediments when they slow.
258. A stream’s ____ ____ is the base level; sea level
lowest point it can reach, which is
usually the same as _____ _____.
259. ____-____ streams drop quickly High-gradient; low-gradient
in elevation, and ____-____ streams
are nearly flat.
260. Multiple Choice: Which of the B) Streambed consists primarily of
following is not a characteristic of low- large rocks
gradient streams relative to high

26
gradient streams?
A) Higher sediment capacity
B) Streambed consists primarily of
large rocks
C) Higher water velocity & discharge
D) Higher stream order
261. Mature streams tend to have ____ high; low
gradients near their source (head) and
___ gradients near their outlet (mouth).
262. Name at least three factors that - Steam gradient
influence the rate of downcutting and - Flow velocity
resulting topography in fluvial erosion. - Stream discharge
- Bedrock structure and hardness
263. Finish the sentence: All waterfalls …at knickpoints.
form…
264. Waterfalls usually form where resistant; upstream
there is a _____ layer of rock which,
over time, is undercut by the waterfall,
resulting in _____ migration.
265. How are V-shaped valleys Stream incises uniform bedrock 
formed? [2] valley walls formed as rock & soil slide
into the stream via mass movements
266. Where and how do stair-step Fluvial erosion in areas where the
canyons form? vertical pattern of hard and soft layers
of bedrock alternate
267. Slot canyons form when streams vertical joints; soft sedimentary
incise bedrock with ____ ____, often
undercut by the earlier erosion of ____
_____ layers beneath, causing large
blocks to collapse.
268. Slot canyons are often formed in Sandstone
what type of sedimentary rock?
269. During movement down a stream, abrasion
large rocks are broken into smaller,
more rounded rocks through a process
called ____.
270. Chemical reactions (such as ____) hydrolysis; dissolved load
between water and minerals in rocks
also contribute to rock breakdown, as

27
part of the rock is dissolved, creating a
____ ____.
271. When dissolved load is deposited Very small particles of sand, silt and
in coastal estuaries, bays and beaches clay.
into the ocean, what form is it in?
272. TFE: Typically, boulders break False, only smaller materials can be
down into smaller rocks, but not all the moved near the mouth where the
way into sand, silt and clay particles by gradient is low.
the time they reach the ocean.
273. _____ create conditions especially Floods; stream competency.
suited for the movement of boulders in
streams, as they promote higher stream
_____.
274. True or False: Streams sort True
sediments by size.
275. Finish the sentence: In braided …competency, and consequently, lots
streams, high gradient in the upper of large sediments.
reaches of channels where there is
high… [2]
276. Braided streams are common in mountainous
_____ regions.
277. Opposite to braided streams are meandering; low; lower
_____ streams, which have very low
competency, ____ gradient and small
sediments, and are typically found in
the ____ points of drainage basins.
278. TFE: The Assiniboine River is a False, both the Red and Assiniboine
meandering stream, while the Red Rivers are meandering streams.
River is a braided stream.
279. What are the “meanders” of Very drastic bends
meandering streams?
280. How do meanders form? When a stream’s thalweg (fastest-
flowing portion) erodes one bank more
than the other
281. The ____ ____ is the side of the cut bank; erosion exceeds deposition;
stream where ____ exceeds ____, point bar; deposition exceeds erosion
becoming the outside edge of a
meander. The ____ ___ is the side of
the stream where ____ exceeds ____,

28
becoming the inside edge of a meander.
282. Where an oxbow lake dries up, a meander scar
____ ____ results.
283. Meandering streams usually have alluvium
a(n) _____, a large flat plain of river
sediments, that periodically floods and
gains new (very fine) sediments via
deposition.

29