Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

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Case Studies in Construction Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/cscm

Production of geopolymer concrete by utilizing volcanic

pumice dust
Abdullah M. Zeyad a, b, *, Hassan M. Magbool a, Bassam A. Tayeh c, **,
Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo d, Ahmed Abutaleb e, Qudeer Hussain f
a
Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
b
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Science and Technology, Aden, Yemen
c
Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza, P.O. Box 108, Gaza, Palestine
d
UENF-State University of the Northern Rio de Janeiro, LECIV-Civil Engineering Laboratory, Av. AlbertoLamego, 2000, Campos dos Goytacazes, Rio
De Janeiro 28013-602, Brazil
e
Chemical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia
f
Center of Excellence in Earthquake Engineering and Vibration, Department of Civil Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The urgent need to find green alternatives to cement concrete in order to reduce the consumption
Volcanic pumice dust of fossil fuels and non-renewable resources that are used to produce cement. This research aims to
Hybrid alkali-activated concrete study the possibility of using volcanic pumice dust (VPD) waste with cement kiln dust (CKD) or
Alkaline activator solution
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) to produce alkaline activated green concrete (HAC). VPD was
Cement kiln dust
Engineering properties
used to improve the mechanical performance, strength, and engineering properties of HAC. CKD
and OPC were used as a partial replacement for VPD in different proportions of 0, 5%, 10%, 20%,
and 30% by weight. Na2SiO3 and NaOH were used as alkaline activator solutions to realize the
alkaline reaction process in geopolymer paste. Workability, compressive strength, and engi­
neering properties, such as bulk density, porosity, and water absorption, were studied. Results of
this research indicated that increasing the replacement rates of CKD or OPC decreased slump flow
but increased the strength of HAC and enhanced the values of its engineering properties. Geo­
polymer concrete with OPC and CKD as partial replacement of 30% by weight of VPD achieved an
increase of 23% and 8%, respectively, in compressive strength at a test age of 90 days. Mean­
while, 20% VPD replacement by CKD achieved 11% higher compressive strength for the
VPD–CKD samples compared with the control mixture. In addition, water absorption rate
decreased by 25% and 20%, respectively, compared with the control samples.

1. Introduction

Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is the most commonly used binder in the construction sector [1]. However, the production of OPC
requires high energy and causes air pollution in addition to emitting carbon dioxide, which causes climate change due to global
warming [2,3]. Many researchers are involved in effort to reduce total cement production by providing total or partial alternatives or
by blending OPC with supplemental cementing materials (SCMs) [4–11]. There are many modern building materials that aim to reduce

* Corresponding author at: Civil Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Jazan University, Jazan, Saudi Arabia.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: azmohsen@jazanu.edu.sa (A.M. Zeyad), btayeh@iugaza.edu.ps (B.A. Tayeh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2021.e00802
Received 5 September 2021; Received in revised form 12 November 2021; Accepted 19 November 2021
Available online 23 November 2021
2214-5095/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
A.M. Zeyad et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

dependence on cement by finding alternatives or raising its efficiency[12,13]. The most common by-products from industrial waste are
ground blast furnace slag (GBFS) [14], fly ash (FA) [15], silica fume [16,17], and cement kiln dust (CKD) [18]. Meanwhile, those from
natural sources include volcanic pumice dust (VPD) [19–22], metakaolin [23–25], and palm oil fuel ash [26–31]. These materials are
used to reduce the effects of landfills, which may contain hazardous waste with a high percentage of heavy metals. One of the solutions
devised by researchers is the development of a new bonding technology and environmental cement binders, such as geopolymer and
hybrid alkali-activated concrete (HAC). HAC is prepared using hybrid alkali-activated materials; its primary chemical composition
should include Na2O-CaO-SiO2-Al2O3-H2O [32]. HAC is mostly based on the use of two or more types of materials to produce geo­
polymer concrete. Similar to other innovative mixtures, SCMs, such as FA or cement, can be used with alkali-activated materials by up
to 70% by weight without compromising the initial mechanical strength. In general, the treatment of this type of mixture is not higher
than the ambient temperature at which the alkali activates the mixture [32]. The most commonly used SCMs in HAC synthesis include
a mixture of OPC or clinker, GBFS, and FA [33]. However, these materials may pose difficulties in terms of availability and consistency.
Such difficulties can be solved if other more consistent sources, such as pumice powder or waste products from the volcanic aggregate
industry, are used. These materials have not yet been adequately studied. To date, investigations have been conducted in the absence of
alkaline activators in HAC, and initial reports have indicated that SCMs have failed to develop sufficient compressive strength. By
contrast, research on the types and concentrations of these activators and the heat released during the hydration of early cements has
significantly accelerated SCM setting time [34,35]. However, the use of alkaline activators in HAC to accelerate the initial reaction
faces challenges; the primary problem posed by the use of a high SCM content is that it prolongs setting time, which, in turn, affects
early mechanical strength [36,37]. The acceleration of early HAC reactions can be realized by using processing temperatures ranging
from 60 ◦ C to 90 ◦ C, which affect early hydration reaction while producing a 1-day compressive strength of up to 30 MPa [38].
Geopolymerization technology is presented as an alternative method for producing cement concrete from various waste products
composed of rich aluminum-silicate materials, such as industrial by-products, due to the environmental and economic benefits of waste
recycling [39–41]. This process involves the chemical reaction between aluminosilicate materials from industrial by-products and
highly concentrated aqueous solutions of alkali hydroxide or silicate, producing a highly stable material with an amorphous polymeric
structure [23,32,33,38,42]. During the reaction, a geopolymer gel network forms a sodium aluminosilicate hydrate gel. This gel has a
tetrahedral network of SiO4 and AlO4 with shared oxygen atoms, producing a 3D structure [40]. Accordingly, the suitable
silica-to-alumina ratio should be maintained to produce geopolymers. A wide range of geopolymer starting materials are deficient in
aluminosilicate; thus, additional materials are required to improve the physical and mechanical properties of geopolymers or to
prepare geopolymer paste with low SiO2/Al2O3 molar ratio [43]. Such ratio produces geopolymers with a large surface area, which is
beneficial for adsorption capacity [44,45]. Suchanya Apithanyasai et al. [40] fabricated geopolymer bricks for pavement application
by using a mixture of FA, GBFS, and waste foundry sand. The primary material was waste foundry sand. However, this type of sand
contained low amounts of alumina and calcium; thus, the addition of different percentages of FA and GBFS to waste foundry sand
improved the alumina and calcium ratios. Consequently, compressive strength was improved. Similarly, VPD from industrial waste
was used as a source of SiO2/Al2O3 to prepare VPD-based geopolymer concrete [46–51]. Meanwhile, OPC or CKD can be used to
compensate for the shortcoming in calcium sources of SCMs [48,49]. In addition to the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H),
calcium aluminosilicate hydrate (C-A-S-H), sodium aluminosilicate hydrate (N-A-S-H), or geopolymer gel in the alkali-activated
matrix, mechanical properties are improved during the initial reaction. Thus, the addition of alumina to low-alumina materials is
necessary [52]. The objective of the current research is to explore the possibility of producing hybrid geopolymer concrete from
mixtures of VPD with CKD (VPD–CKD) and compare it with mixtures of VPD with OPC (VPD–OPC) with low replacement contents of 0,
5%, 10% 20%, and 30% VPD block. The geometric properties of the produced concrete are also studied. This research also aims to
increase the methods for producing environment-friendly buildings by using industrial waste to produce safe and sustainable geo­
polymer concrete. The results of this research indicate that increasing the replacement rates of CKD or OPC led to a decrease in slump
flow, while increasing strength and enhancing the values of engineering properties. Geopolymer concrete with CKD and OPC as partial
replacement of 30% by weight of VPD respectively achieved 23% and 8% increase in compressive strength at a test age of 90 days.
Meanwhile, 20% VPD replacement by CKD achieved 11% higher compressive strength in the VPD–CKD samples compared with that in
the control mixture. In addition, water absorption rate decreased by 25% and 20%, respectively, compared with that of the control
samples.

Table 1
Chemical composition of VPD, CKD and OPC (%).
Oxide VPD CKD OPC

SiO2 44.50 16.87 21.01

Al2O3 17.59 5.91 4.68
Fe2O3 4.33 2.68 3.2
Ca2O 12.52 55.98 64.89
MgO 6.94 0.93 0.81
Na2O 2.58 0.14 0.09
TiO2 1.62 – 0.22
K2O 1.07 1.79 1.17
P2O5 0.64 – 0.08
SO3 0.34 9.23 3.66
LOI 1.61 ↱3.70↱ 0.48

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2. Experimental

2.1. Materials

In this investigation, materials were selected in accordance with the specifications of the ASTM guidelines [53]. The chemical
composition presented in Table 1 was analyzed via X-ray fluorescence (XRF). Tables 1 and 2 provide the chemical composition and
physical properties of VPD, CKD and OPC, respectively. The CKD was obtained from flying dust during the cement production process.
To study the effect of CKD on VPD-based geopolymer concrete, CKD was passed through a 150 µm sieve. The VPD used in this
investigation was obtained from a quarry of lightweight aggregates. The VPD was collected from flying dust through the process of
crushing volcanic pumice. To study the effect of the major particle size of VPD on cement mortar properties, VPD was passed through a
150 µm sieve, and a portion of VPD was ground using a ball milling machine to produce a very fine powder. The CKD and VPD were
collected from a factory in the Jazan region of southern Saudi Arabia[54]. The desert sand was used to produce the mortar mixtures.
The fineness modulus and specific gravity of the river sand were 2.8 and of 2.65, respectively, which complied with the requirements of
ASTM 2000.

2.2. Characterization of raw materials

2.2.1. Morphological
Fig. 1 presents the VPD and CKD raw materials used in this research. In this study, the VPD and CKD morphology imaging by
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) as shown in the Fig. 2. While, chemical composition analysis by energy-dispersive X-ray spec­
troscopy (EDX) were showed Fig. 3.

2.2.2. Mineralogical analysis

Mineralogical analysis was conducted via X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis (X′ Pert High Score Plus software package). The results
were used to identify compounds and phases in VPD and CKD, as shown in Fig. 4.

2.3. Alkaline activators

An alkaline activator is typically in the form of a concentrated aqueous solution of Na2SiO3 and NaOH with a certain amount of
water. Analytical grade NaOH was obtained in pellet form with 98% purity and a specific gravity of 2.13. Sodium silicate (Na2SiO3,
30.1% SiO2, 9.4% Na2O, and 60.5% H2O, silicate modules SiO2/Na2O=2.5, and specific gravity=1.5 g/mL at 20 ◦ C) solution was
purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific. NaOH pellets (99% purity) were dissolved in distilled water to prepare a 10 M aqueous
NaOH solution. The prepared solution was allowed to cool to room temperature. The used alkaline solution was an aqueous solution
composed of NaOH and Na2SiO3. Different concentrations of aqueous NaOH solution were mixed separately with Na2SiO3 solution to
obtain an alkaline activator (Na2SiO3/NaOH) ratio of 2.5. This ratio was kept constant for all the experiments. The solution was
prepared 24 h before use.

2.4. Sample preparation

The current study adopted a dry homogenization method with (VPD–CKD) and (VPD–OPC) as source materials. Powder was
premixed for 10 min in accordance with the proportions given in Table 3. Then, the alkaline solution was gradually added to the
powder mixture. The geopolymer samples were mixed with 10 M alkaline solution with different NaOH concentrations. The solid/
liquid ratio should be 4:1 to obtain good workability. Fresh geopolymer slurries were rapidly cast in polyvinyl chloride cube molds
(50 m × 50 m × 50 m) and left for 24 h at room temperature. Then, the slurries were placed in an oven at 65 ◦ C for 24 h before being
demolded. After the heat treatment process, the samples were kept in the laboratory until the time of testing (25 ± 2 ◦ C, 70% ± 5%
relative humidity).

2.5. Testing procedures

2.5.1. Workability
After preparing the homogeneous geopolymer concrete mixture, flow table tests were conducted in accordance with the test
procedures in ASTM C230/C230M on the fresh geopolymer concrete to measure workability. Compressive strength at ages 7, 14, 28,

Table 2
Physical Properties of OPC, CKD and VPD.
Material Specific gravity Average Surface area (m2/kg)
Diameter (µm)

OPC 3.16 6.79 341

CKD 2.86 7.19 327
VPD 2.61 4.96 429

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A.M. Zeyad et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

Fig. 1. Raw materials of industrial waste.

Fig. 2. SEM micrographs of CKD and VPD.

and 91 days was determined using cubic samples with a dimension of 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm in accordance with the test pro­
cedures in BS EN 12390–3. Porosity (p) and water absorption (A) tests were performed using a vacuum saturation apparatus on
50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm cubic samples at curing ages of 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. Porosity (p) was calculated using Eqs. (1) and (2), as
follows:
( )
W2 − W4
P= ∗ 100 (1)
W2 − W3
( )
W2 − W4
A= ∗ 100 (2)
W4

where W2 is the weight of the specimen under saturated and dry surface conditions in air (g), W3 is the weight of the specimen
saturated in water (g), and W4 is the weight of the oven-dried specimen in air (g).
Bulk density (unit weight) was determined in accordance with BS 1881: Part 114 by using 50 mm × 50 mm × 50 mm cubic
samples at curing ages of 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. Bulk density was calculated using Eqs. (3) and (4), as follows:
(m − m )
(3)
a w
Ѵ=
ρ
(m )
(4)
a
ρ=
Ѵ

whereby Ѵ is the specimen’s volume (m3), ma is the specimen’s mass in air under a saturated condition (kg), mw is the apparent mass of
the specimen immersed in water (kg), and ρ is the specimen’s density.

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Fig. 3. EDX analysis of CKD and VPD.

3. Results

3.1. Workability

The results of the slum flow table tests for the VPD-based geopolymer concrete are presented in Fig. 5. Fig. 5a shows the effect of
adding OPC at different rates on the flow table of the geopolymer mixture. When the rate of VPD replacement by OPC was higher, the
flow table diameter was smaller. The VPD-based geopolymer concrete achieved a flow diameter of 270 mm, while the replacement of
VPD by 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% by weight reduced the flow diameter to 260, 245, 220, and 204 mm, respectively. The decline in
slump flow diameter may be attributed to the direct reaction of OPC in the presence of high calcium content. When the replacement
rate is higher, the calcium content in the chemical formulas of OPC (C3S, C3A, and C4AF) is also higher. In addition to OPC having SO3
up to 3% by weight, SO3 plays an important role in the process of activating the early reaction of cement [55]. Fig. 5b shows the effect
of adding CKD at different rates on the flow table of the geopolymer mixture. A higher rate of VPD replacement by CKD decreased the
flow table diameter. The VPD-based geopolymer concrete achieved a flow diameter of 270 mm, while the replacement of VPD weight
by 5%, 10%, 20%, and 30% reduced the flow diameter to 240, 220, 190, and 165 mm, respectively. The decline in the flow table may
be ascribed to the high calcium content (up to 55.98%) of CKD by weight. In addition, CKD contains a high percentage of SO3 (up to
9.23%) by weight, and thus, SO3 plays an important role in stimulating early reactions [56]. This finding is consistent with previous
report by Pradip and Prabir that the addition of OPC to the geopolymer mixture accelerates geopolymerization reaction and reduces
workability and setting time due to the high calcium content. This explanation also applies to the addition of CKD [57,58].

3.2. Compressive strength

Fig. 6a presents the results of the compressive strength of all the specimens at different curing ages of 7, 28, and 90 days. The effect
of OPC content up to ≤ 30 wt% on the compressive strength development of alkaline-activated VPD was studied on the mixtures VPD,
VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30. A remarkable increase in compressive strength was 22.4, 23.5, 25.7, 26.6, and 28.8 MPa for the mixtures
VPD, VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively, at test age of 7 days. A noteworthy development in compressive strength can be

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A.M. Zeyad et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

1800
1600
1400

Intensity (a.u.)
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
2θ (degree)

a- XRD of VPD
8000

7000

6000
Intensity (a.u.)

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70

2θ (degree)

b- XRD of CKD

Fig. 4. XRD analysis of VPD and CKD.

Table 3
Mixture proportions of geopolymer concrete.
Mix VPD OPC CKD Sand Na2SiO3 NaOH
Kg/m3

VPD 736.11 – – 1140.17 273.41 109.37

VC5 699.3 36.81 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VC10 662.49 73.61 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VC20 588.88 147.22 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VC30 515.27 220.83 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VK5 699.3 36.81 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VK10 662.49 73.61 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VK20 588.88 147.22 1140.17 273.41 109.37
VK30 515.27 220.83 1140.17 273.41 109.37

observed with an increase in OPC content along with curing time from 22.4 MPa to 30.1 MPa at 28 days. The compressive strength at
the test age of 90 days increased to 26.3, 28.1, 28.7, 30.2, and 32.4 MPa for VPD, VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively. This result
may likely be attributed to the pozzolanic reactions of VPD with OPC, i.e., the higher the OPC content, the faster the reaction rate. In
particular, a high content of VPD (≥70 wt%) on blended VPD–OPC reaction rate is typically more sensitive to temperature, reacting
more slowly than OPC at low temperatures. This condition frequently limits their performance for a high level of cement replacement.
Higher temperatures (≥60 ◦ C) considerably accelerated the reaction rate in the current HAC in VPD–OPC. Hence, high alkalinity was
provided via alkaline hydroxide (NaOH) and Ca(OH)2 derived from the OPC content, justifying the reduction in alkali content during
the initial hydration reaction. Their concentrations gradually increased over time as observed through the increase in compressive
strength over time due to the formation of C-A-S-H. [4]. Fig. 6b shows the results of the compressive strength of all the specimens at
different curing ages of 7, 28, and 90 days. The effect of CKD content of up to ≤ 30 wt% on the compressive strength development of
alkaline-activated VPD was studied on mixtures VPD, VK5, VK10, VK20, and VK30. A remarkable development in compressive

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A.M. Zeyad et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

Fig. 5. Slump flow of HAC.

Fig. 6. Compressive strength of HAC specimens at different curing ages.

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A.M. Zeyad et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

strength was 22.4, 23.2, 25.5, 24.4, and 23.3 MPa for mixtures VPD, VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively, at a test age of 7 days.
A remarkable development in compressive strength can be observed with an increase in CKD content along with curing time from
22.4 MPa to 27.9 MPa at 28 days. Compressive strength at a test age of 90 days increased to 26.3, 27.1, 29.1, 29.4, and 28.4 MPa for
VPD, VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively. This result provides a clear explanation for the low flow table diameter that negatively
affected workability. The workability of the geopolymer concrete slightly decreased with increased replacement rates of 20% and 30%
by CKD, reducing compressive strength. This finding may likely be a result of the reactions of VPD with CKD, i.e., the higher the CKD
content, the faster the reaction rate. In particular, a high content of VPD (≥70 wt%) on blended VPD–CKD reaction rate is typically
more sensitive to temperature, reacting more slowly than CKD at low temperatures. This condition frequently limits their performance
for a high level of cement replacement. Higher temperatures (≥60 ◦ C) considerably accelerated the rate of reaction in the current HAC
in VPD–CKD. Hence, high alkalinity was provided via alkaline hydroxide (NaOH) and Ca(OH)2 derived from the OPC content,
justifying the reduction in alkali content during the initial hydration reaction. Their concentrations gradually increased over time as
observed through the increase in compressive strength over time due to the formation of C-A-S-H [56,59]. This finding is consistent
with the report of some researchers that adding OPC to the geopolymer mixture accelerates the geopolymerization reaction, accel­
erating the early hardening of the geopolymer concrete; the higher the application rates, the higher the early resistivity; this condition
also applies to the addition of CKD, which has a high calcium content [57,60,61].

3.3. Bulk density

Fig. 7a presents the unit weight results of all the geopolymer concrete specimens at 28 days. The results of the control specimens
recorded an extremely small increase in bulk density with an increase in OPC content. Increasing the OPC content by up to 30 wt%
increased bulk density from 2164, 2171, 2198, 2210, and 2232 kg/m3 for VPD, VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively, at 28 days.
The result is related to the fact that the bulk density of OPC (3.15 kg/m3) is higher than that of VPD (2.61 kg/m3), which cannot be the
primary reason because the hydration reaction of the binder with an alkaline activator solution affects the structure and properties of
the gel binder formed in the system. The activator used in the current study combined with OPC content at 30 wt% enhanced the
formation of a more compact cementitious structure of (C, N)-A-S-H gel binder, as reflected by the increase in bulk density. The
presence of Na2SiO3 in the alkaline activator solution played a decisive role in the compressive strength results and yielded a denser
matrix of gel that was rich in silicon.
Fig. 7b presents the unit weight results of all the geopolymer concrete specimens at 28 days. The results of the control specimens
recorded an extremely small increase in bulk density with an increase in CKD content. Increasing CKD content by up to 30 wt%
increased bulk density from 2164, 2172, 2186, 2198 and 2212 kg/m3 for VPD, VK5, VK10, VK20, and VK30, respectively, at 28 days.
The result is related to the fact that the bulk density of CKD (2.86 kg/m3) is higher than that of VPD (2.61 kg/m3), which cannot be the

Fig. 7. Unit weight of HAC specimens at a curing age of 28 days.

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A.M. Zeyad et al. Case Studies in Construction Materials 16 (2022) e00802

primary reason because the hydration reaction of the binder with an alkaline activator solution affects the structure and properties of
the gel binder formed in the system. The activator used in the current study combined with the CKD content at 30 wt% enhanced the
formation of a more compact cementitious structure of (C, N)-A-S-H gel binder, as reflected by the increase in bulk density. This finding
is consistent with the report of previous researchers that indicates that adding OPC or CKD to a geopolymer mixture improves the
properties of geopolymer concrete by increasing its density compared with reference mixtures; the higher the addition rates, the higher
the density [62,63].

3.4. Porosity

Fig. 8a present the porosity test results at a test age of 28 days. The results of the porosity test of all the specimens reflected a
reduction with an increase in the replacement rate by OPC. The porosity of the control specimens improved at a replacement level of up
to 30 wt%. Increasing the content of OPC by up to 30 wt% decreased porosity from 17.8%, 16.5%, 16.1%, 15.4%, and 14.7% for VPD,
VC5, VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively, at 28 days. This behavior was attributed to the high OPC reaction and filling effects that
occurred between the blended VPD and OPC, resulting in a dense microstructure.
Fig. 8b presents the porosity test results at a test age of 28 days. The results of all the specimens reflected a reduction with an
increase in replacement rate by CKD. The porosity of the control specimens improved at the replacement level of up to 30 wt%.
Increasing the content of OPC by up to 30 wt% decreased the porosity results from 17.8%, 16.7, % 16.1%, 15.6%, and 14.9% for VPD,
VK5, VK10, VK20, and VK30, respectively, at 28 days. This behavior was attributed to the high OPC reaction and filling effects that
occurred between blended VPD and CKD, resulting in a dense microstructure. This finding supports previous researchers who reported
that adding OPC or CKD to the geopolymer mixture improves the properties of geopolymer concrete by reducing permeability and
sorption compared with those of reference mixtures; the higher the addition rates, the lower the sorption and porosity [60,64].

3.5. Water absorption

Fig. 9a presents the water absorption test results at a test age of 28 days. The results of all the specimens reflected a reduction with
increased replacement rate by OPC. The porosity of the control specimens improved at the replacement level of up to 30 wt%.
Increasing the content of OPC by up to 30 wt% decreased the porosity results from 8.7%, 8.2,% 7.6%, 7.1%, and 6.5% for VPD, VC5,
VC10, VC20, and VC30, respectively, at 28 days. This behavior was attributed to the high OPC reaction and filling effects that occurred
between blended VPD and OPC, resulting in a dense microstructure.
Fig. 9b presents the porosity test results at a test age of 28 days. The porosity of all the specimens reflected a reduction with
increased replacement rate by CKD. The porosity of the control specimens improved at a replacement level of up to 30 wt%. Increasing
the content of OPC by up to 30 wt% decreased the porosity results from 8.7%, 8.6, % 8.2%, 7.6%, and 6.9% for VPD, VK5, VK10, VK20,
and VK30, respectively, at 28 days. This behavior was attributed to the high OPC reaction and filling effects that occurred between
blended VPD and CKD, resulting in a dense microstructure. These findings are in agreement with a number of researchers who
indicated that adding OPC or CKD to geopolymer mixture improves the properties of geopolymer concrete by reducing permeability
and sorption compared with reference mixtures; the higher the addition rates, the lower the sorption and porosity [60,64].

4. Conclusions

1. The present results showed that a binder formed by hybrid alkali-activated (hybrid of VPD-CKD and VPD-OPC) can be synthesized
with low (5–30%) content of CKD or OPC and high (70–95%) of VPD when activated with alkaline activators.
2. Replacing VPD with OPC or CKD reduced the workability of geopolymer concrete by decreasing the diameter of the slump flow
table. The regression of the slump flow diameter increased with an increase in replacement rate. A 30% VPD replacement rate by
OPC and CKD reduced slump flow diameter to 165 mm and 205 mm, respectively, for geopolymer concrete compared with
270 mm for the control mixture
3. From the results, the compressive strength of geopolymer concrete with CKD and OPC as partial substitution by 30% weight of VPD
achieved an increase of 23% and 8% at a test age of 90 days compared with the control samples.
4. Hybrid geopolymer concrete at the substitution rate of up to 30% of VPD by OPC or CKD decreased water absorption rate by 25%
and 20%, respectively, compared with the control samples.
5. The use of VPD with low percentages of OPC or CKD helped produce environment-friendly geopolymer concrete and developed an
environmentally efficient building by absorbing industrial waste.
6. The optimum content for the production of hybrid geopolymer concrete produced from VPD–CKD was at a replacement of VPD by
20% of CKD by weight, which achieved the highest compressive strength.
7. Through the results obtained from this research, it can be concluded that VPD with (CKD or OPC) can be used to produce geo­
polymer concrete, as an environmentally friendly concrete.

Declaration of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to
influence the work reported in this paper.

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Fig. 8. Porosity of HAC specimens at a curing age of 28 days.

Fig. 9. Water absorption of HAC specimens at a curing age of 28 days.

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