New Ideas in Psychology 63 (2021) 100878

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New Ideas in Psychology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/newideapsych

Passion, grit and mindset: Exploring gender differences

Hermundur Sigmundsson a, b, *, Stéfan Guðnason c, Sigurrós Jóhannsdóttir d
a
Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway
b
Education and Mindset Research Center, University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland
c
University of Akureyri, Akureyri, Iceland
d
State Diagnostic and Counselling Centre (SDCC), Iceland

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The main aim of the study was to explore the gender differences in passion, grit and mindset in a large sample.
Passion The sample consisted of 917 participants in the age range 14–77. The eight item Passion Scale was used to assess
Grit passion, and the Grit-S scale was used to assess grit. Mindset was measured with the Theories of Intelligence Scale
Mindset
(TIS). The scale has 8-items. The results show significant difference between female and male in the passion
Achievement
Performance
factor only, in favor of males. The difference was significant in 6 of 8 questions. In addition, we computed a
Gender differences score, PGM total score, from the averages of z-scores for the three factors, passion score total, grit score total and
growth mindset score total. Here it was a significant difference between the genders in favor of the males. The
results are discussed in relation to more active dopamine system in males.

1. Introduction grade point average in undergraduates and middle school students

Growth mindset, passion and grit are constructs that are positively
related to learning, achievement, well-being and life satisfaction (Park
et al., 2020; Frontini et al., 2021; Duckworth, 2016; Dweck, 2017;
Ericsson et al., 2007; Ericsson & Charness, 1994; Ericsson & Pool, 2016;
Sala & Gobet, 2017; Sigmundsson et al., 2020a,b,c). Growth mindset
have been defined as “the belief that your basic qualities are things you can
cultivate through your efforts” (Dweck, 2017, p. 7). It involves taking risks
knowing that it can lead to failure and being willing to rebound and
learn from that failure. Those who consistently develop and maintain a
growth mindset embrace challenges and see effort as the path to
mastery. They learn from criticism and find lessons and inspiration in
the success of others (Dweck, 2016). Growth mindset is likely an
important underlying factor for both grit and passion (Dweck, 2017). A
meta-analysis demonstrated that growth mindset positively predicted
many aspects of self-regulation, which, in turn predicted goal achieve­
ments (Burnette et al., 2013).
Grit is defined as a “perseverance and passion for long-term goals”
(Duckworth et al., 2007, p. 1087), including stamina and willingness to
work hard to achieve long-term goals. Grit is having passion and
showing effort for a goal even when struggle or failure has occurred
(Duckworth et al., 2007). Converging evidence has suggested that grit
can reliably predict high achievement, such as exam performance or
(Duckworth et al., 2007, 2011; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009). Evidence
from several studies has revealed a positive and moderate association
between growth mindset and grit in adolescents (Park et al., 2020;
Yeager et al., 2019).
Passion can be explained as an intense desire or enthusiasm for
something (Oxford University Press, 2019), or a strong feeling toward an
important value/preference that motivates intentions and behaviors to
express that value/preference (Jachimowicz et al., 2019; Sigmundsson
et al., 2020a). Vallerand et al. (2003, p. 757) define passion “as a strong
inclination toward a self-defining activity that one likes (or even loves), finds
important, and in which one invests time and energy”. These activities come
to be so self-defining that they represent central features of one’s iden­
tity. According to Vallerand (2008, 2010) passion can be either
harmonious or obsessive. Harmonious passion is considered to be
controllable and motivational for the individual. In contrast, obsessive
passion can be uncontrollable and associated with conflicts and negative
emotions (Vallerand, 2010). Passion can be domain specific, such as
passion for work or hobbies (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2011). Moreover,
passion can be important for achievement (Sigmundsson et al., 2020a).
Passion provides the psychological energy in targeted activities
(Curran et al., 2015). Grit is necessary for the effort and struggle that is
important to achieve valued goals (Duckworth, 2016; Park et al., 2020).
Growth mindset might be an important cognitive factor for the

* Corresponding author. Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology.

E-mail address: Hermundur.sigmundsson@ntnu.no (H. Sigmundsson).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2021.100878
Received 20 October 2020; Received in revised form 30 April 2021; Accepted 18 May 2021
Available online 3 June 2021
0732-118X/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
H. Sigmundsson et al.
development of grit (Dweck, 2017).
The relationship between passion, grit and mindset seems to be
significant and the strongest association is between passion and grit, as
both attributes are connected to achievement (Sigmundsson et al.,
2020c). Passion can be seen as a factor that gives direction to the area of
interest while grit controls the effort one puts into that interest (see
Fig. 1). All three factors may be essential for achievement, but how they
relate to each other can vary between genders. For females there appears
to be a significant relationship between all the three variables (Sig­
mundsson et al., 2020a,b; Sigmundsson, 2021). Males have been found
to have high significant correlation between passion and grit which may
indicate that passion plays a greater role for men in achieving their goals
compared to women (Sigmundsson et al., 2020b). Sigmundsson et al.
(2020b) found in a small sample of young adults in Iceland (N = 146)
significant difference between genders for passion only, in favor of
males, not for grit and mindset. Studies have indicated that females
scored higher in grit than males (Christensen & Knezek, 2014; Kan­
nangara et al., 2018).
The main aim of this study was to investigate possible gender dif­
ferences in passion, grit and mindset; attributes that all seems critical for
high attainment and performance across age-groups.
2. Method
Total of 917 participants between 14 and 77 years completed
assessment of passion, grit and mindset. Adolescents from 14 to 19 years
(N = 141) were randomly recruited from mainstream secondary schools
and high schools. The entire sample reflected the population of ado­
lescents attending schools in these areas and included adolescents in a
wide range of socio-economic backgrounds. The adults from 20 to 77
years (N = 776) were randomly selected from: a university student
population (tested at university campus in a normal school hours);
sports clubs (football players, female and males on different levels,
tested in the club house) and group of visitors to a public building.The
mean age for females (N = 502) was 26.54 (SD 12.24); for males (N =
415) it was 26.15 (SD 12.38). The information registered about the
participants were anonymous (age and gender). Recruitment was con­
ducted among randomly selected adolescents and adults in Norway.
2.1. Measurements
2.1.1. Demographics
Participants indicated their age, gender and educational level.
2.1.2. Passion
The Passion scale (Sigmundsson et al., 2020a) was used to assess
participant’s level of passion. The participants rated eight items, using
Fig. 1. Passion, grit and mindset are intertwined constructs that are needed for
high achievement. Passion is the direction of the arrow to an area/theme/skill,
grit is the size and strength of the arrow and mindset is an important underlying
factor for both grit and passion.
2
New Ideas in Psychology 63 (2021) 100878
the scale of 1 = not like me at all to 5 = very much like me. For overview
of the 8-items see Table 1. The maximum score on this scale is 5
(extremely passionate) and the lowest is 1 (not at all passionate). The
passion scale is found to have a good internal consistency with a Cron­
bach’s alpha value .86 and a good test-retest reliability. ICCs between
test and retest total scores was 0.92 (N = 21, mean age 23.67, SD =
2.41). Construct validity: Pearson correlation coefficient between total
score Passion and Grit S Scale were 0.39 for adults, mean age 21.23 (SD
= 3.45) (N = 107) (Sigmundsson et al., 2020a).
2.1.3. Grit
Grit S; short grit scale (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009; Norwegian
version,; Sending, 2014) was used to assess participant’s level of grit.
Participants rated eight items, using a 5-point Likert scale with items
rated in terms of how much the item is “true” for the respondent (1 = not
like me at all and 5 = very much like me). The measure includes two
subscales of four items each; Consistency of Interest (COI) and Perse­
verance of Effort (POE). A sample item for COI is ‘I often set a goal but
later choose to pursue a different one’ (reverse-scored) and for POE is ‘I
finish whatever I begin’. The maximum score on this scale is 5
(extremely gritty), and the lowest score is 1 (not at all gritty). Grit-S
showed good internal consistency, α = 0.82 and α = 0.84 and pro­
vided evidence for the predictive validity, consensual validity, and
test-retest stability of the Grit-S (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009, p. 170).
2.1.4. Mindset
A Norwegian version of Dwecks (1999) Theories of intelligence scale
(TIS) was used to assess students’ entity and incremental conceptions of
intelligence (Bråten & Strømsø, 2004). The self-form for adults of this
measure was used to ensure that the students focused on their ideas
about their own intelligence (and not their ideas about people in gen­
eral). This scale consists of several subscales with items rated on a
6-point Likert-type scale, from 1 (Strongly Agree) to 6 (Strongly Disagree).
The items included, differ between those associated with an entity the­
ory (i.e., fixed mindset) and those associated with an incremental theory
(i.e., growth mindset). For instance, an entity theory item can be “You
have a certain amount of intelligence and you really can’t do much to change
it”, whereas an incremental theory item can be “You can always sub­
stantially change how intelligent you are”. To get a meaningful score that
indicates which mindset the participant holds, the incremental scale
items are reversed. As a result, when all items are summed, the higher
average scores indicate a greater amount of incremental beliefs about
intelligence i.e. growth mindset. The reliability data for the scale comes
from Dweck et al. (1995) and is based on the 8-item scale. The scale
shows good internal consistency (α = 0.85) and test-retest reliability at
2-weeks (r = 0.80). The scale also shows a good construct validity with
scores predicting meaningful relationship with several variables (Dweck
et al., 1995). The Norwegian version of TIS has also shown to be reliable,
with Cronbach’s α of 0.86 for entity items and 0.88 for the incremental
items (Bråten & Strømsø, 2004).
2.1.5. Procedure
According to the Data Protection Authority, passive consent was
sufficient for participants, as no sensitive personal data were collected.
The information registered about the participants was anonymous. A
Table 1
The eight Passion for achievement Scale Questions.
1. I have an area/theme/skill I am really passionate for
2. I would like to use much time to become good in that area/theme/skill
3. I think I could be an expert in one area/theme/skill
4. I have a passion enough to become very good in the area/theme/skill I like
5. I work hard enough to fulfill my goals
6. I have burning passion for some areas/theme/skills
7. I use lot of time on the projects I like
8. My passion is important for me
H. Sigmundsson et al. New Ideas in Psychology 63 (2021) 100878

trained experimenter explained the procedure and was present when the
questionnaires were conducted.

2.1.6. Data reduction and analysis

For the statistical analysis, SPSS Version 25 for Windows was used
(SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). To analyze the differences between the
factors related to gender Mann-Whitney U test was used. A z-score for
the variable’s passion score total, grit score total and growth mindset
score total was calculated to be able to compute a PGM score.

3. Results

Mann-Whitney U test was used to investigate if there was a difference

between female and male group on passion, grit and growth mindset.
Passion total score for the male group was significantly higher than for
the female group (p < .001). Grit and growth mindset score were not
significantly different between females and males. The descriptive sta­
tistics in Table 2 and Fig. 2 a,b and c show that females on average
scored higher on both the grit total score and growth mindset total score.

3.1. Passion scale: 8 questions

Further analyses focusing on passion and the 8 different question is

presented in Table 3.
The results indicated that there was significant difference in 6 of 8
questions. Questions 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 and 7. There was not significant dif­
ferences between the groups in question 5: ‘I work hard enough to fulfill
my goals’ and question 8: ‘My passion is important for me’.

3.2. PGM scores

In addition, we computed a score from the averages of z-scores for

the three factors, passion score total, grit score total and growth mindset
score total, we called it PGM total score.
Males had a PGM total score on 0.1740 (SD 2.1) and females
− 0.1447 (SD 2.1), there was a significant gender difference in favor of
the males (p = .02; Mann-Whitney U test, two-tailed) (see Fig. 3).

4. Discussion

The main aim of this paper was to explore the possible gender dif­
ferences in passion, grit and growth mindset. 917 participants between
14 and 77 years completed assessment of passion, grit and mindset. The
main results from this study are that significant gender differences are
only found for the variable passion.

4.1. Passion
Fig. 2. Box plots depicting the Female group (n = 502) and Male group (n =
The significant difference in score between females and males (3.86
415) performance on (A) Passion (p < .001). (B) Grit (p = ns). C. Mindset
vs. 4.12) indicates that there is a notable difference between males and Growth (p = ns.). Horizontal lines within boxes represent the group medians.
females in terms of levels of passion. That is supported by Sigmundsson Box edges define the first and third quartiles, whiskers define the 10th and
et al. (2020b), reporting significant gender differences in the passion 90th percentile.
factor only in a sample of 146 young adults (mean age 22.01 years, SD
5.12). This study, with a large sample, confirmed that findings. There is score is interesting and possible important. These findings could be
a significant difference between genders in 6 of 8 questions of the pas­ related to the dopamine system which has been considered as central in
sion scale in favor of males. The significant gender difference in passion learning, attention, goal-directed behaviors, and rewards, that is, it is
vital for the ‘stamping in’ of stimulus-reward and response-reward as­
Table 2 sociations (Lee et al., 2018; Wise, 2004; Balleine et al., 2007; Yin &
Mean score for passion, grit and mindset in relation to gender. Knowlton, 2006; Koepp et al., 1998). Studies indicate higher level of
Groups Female (N = 502) Male (N = 415) pa dopamine in males compared to females (Munro et al., 2006; Tang &
Mean (SD) Min-Max Mean (SD) Min-Max Dani, 2009), indeed, male exhibited greater dopamine release than fe­
Passion 3.86 (.64) 1.5–5.0 4.12 (.61) 1.6–5.0 <.001 male in the ventral striatum, anterior putamen, and anterior and pos­
Grit 3.45 (.61) 1.6–4.7 3.44 (.61) 1.3–5.0 .472
Mindset (growth) 4.23 (.89) 1.0–6.0 4.15 (1.02) 1.1–6.0 .266
terior caudate nuclei (Munro et al., 2006). The authors further argue
that their findings have implications for observed sex differences in a
a
Mann Whitney U test (one – tailed). wide variety of neuropsychiatric illnesses involving the striatum (Munro

3
H. Sigmundsson et al. New Ideas in Psychology 63 (2021) 100878

Table 3 research supports findings by Sigmundsson et al. (2020b) that in relation

Mean score for the eight questions of passion scale in relation to gender. to grit there might be no difference between males and females. Other
Groups Female (N = 502) Male (N = 415) pa research’s in the same subject show similar results. In a study on the role
Grit played in engagement and academic outcomes for University stu­
Mean (SD) Mean (SD)
dents, the conclusion was that there was no difference between males
Passion q1 3.32 (1.1) 3.51 (1.2) .002 and females (Hodge, Wright, & Bennett, 2018). This was supported in a
Passion q2 3.44 (1.1) 3.60 (1.3) .004
Passion q3 3.51 (1.0) 3.65 (1.2) .008
study on gender differences in interpersonal and intrapersonal
Passion q4 3.58 (1.0) 3.69 (1.2) .015 competitive behavior, where the difference in Grit between males and
Passion q5 3.42 (1.1) 3.51 (1.1) .155 females was not significant Carpenter et al. (2018). However, research
Passion q6 3.51 (1.0) 3.60 (1.2) .024 have shown female to score higher in grit than male (Christensen &
Passion q7 3.57 (1.1) 3.72 (1.3) .003
Knezek, 2014; Kannangara et al., 2018). Christensen and Knezek (2014)
Passion q8 3.78 (1.2) 3.77 (1.3) .417
using the original Grit scale with 12-items found significant differences
a
Mann Whitney U test (one – tailed). (p = .011) between females and males in favor of females, involving 151
upper secondary school students from USA.

et al., 2006). Moreover, it is argued that passion for an area/theme/skill

will effect on the activity performed, which will create more dopamine, 4.3. Mindset (growth)
and have effect on the achievement or reward, and which reciprocally
will strengthen the passion for that area/theme/skill (Sigmundsson The difference between the groups in growth mindset score is not
et al., 2020b) (see Fig. 4 Passion circle). This is further supported by significant. Although females score 4.23 while males score 4.15. The
studies which report increases in dopamine release in the dorsal striatum results by Sigmundsson et al. (2020b) shows that the females mean score
when participants are presented with potential rewards (Koepp et al., was 4.40 and male mean score was 4.28, the females tend to be a little
1998; Zald et al., 2004). higher. Series of studies into that subject, by Macnamara and Rupani
Interesting in this respect is that research have also indicated that the (2017) concluded that there seems to be no difference between the
dopamine system is closely associated with certain symptoms of Autism genders in growth mindset.
spectrum disorder (ASD) (Lee et al., 2018). Passion or strong interest
drives many children with ASD towards focused attention to car models, 4.3.1. PGM scores
geography, computers and many other topics and pursuits (Iyama-­ It is interesting to note that when we add the score for the three
Kurtycz, 2020). A strong male bias has been found in ASD, or 4:1 factors together in one score; PGM score; we find significant difference
(Werling & Geschwind, 2013).
It is interesting to consider whether this difference may explain the
fact that we have more males in groups as Autism spectrum disorder. It is
also fascinating to reflect whether combination of males more active
dopamine system together with less social stimuli; mothers tend to talk
more with girls than boys from birth (Cherry & Lewis, 1978; Halverson
& Waldrop, 1970); may explain such a difference in focus capacity.
Boys have more possibility to focus on area/theme/skill they are
interested in and come into the passion circle.

4.2. Grit

There is no significant difference between the groups in grit score.

Fig. 4. Passion circle.
Females are only marginal higher (3.45) than males (3.44). This

Fig. 3. Box plots depicting the Female group (n = 502) and Male group (n = 415) PGM total score (averages of z-scores for the three factors, passion, grit and
mindset) (p = .02). Horizontal lines within boxes represent the group medians. Box edges define the first and third quartiles, whiskers define the 10th and
90th percentile.

4
H. Sigmundsson et al. New Ideas in Psychology 63 (2021) 100878

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