PALEONTOLOGY II GTP 413 HNDII

COURSE CONTENT

General objectives

Know Classification of fossils

Know presentation of fossils

Know fossils as indices of environment

1.0 Fossil classification

1.1 Explain the occurrence of fossil

1.2 Explain the various fossil groups

1.3 Classification of macro and micro fossils according to phyla

1.4 Identify animal fossil groups (Trilobites, Graptolites, Corals, Brachiopods, Mollusca,

Echinoderms, Sponges and Vertebrates

1.5 Identify plant fossil groups (Multicellular plants, non-vascular plants and vascular parts)

1.6 Describe micro fossils (Foraminefera, Protozoans, Ostracods) and Radiolana.)

1.7 Explain mode of life of foraminifera

1.8 Describe the geologic distribution of forams

1.9 Draw fossil specimens

1.10 Mould or cast fossil specimen

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Palentology is the scientific study of life of the Geologic past that involves the analysis of plant

and animals fossils, including those of microscopic size preserved in rocks as fossils. They are

the remains of plant and animals of past ages preserved in rocks.

Paleontology is also defined as the study of past life of plants and animals, (flora and fauna)

based on fossil records. The study includes scientific collection of field sample and proper study

and classification of the samples. Paleontologists study various fossils individually, as well as in

relation to one another (Ecology). The term fossil refers to the remains of an organism. It has a

very wide scope in its application to stratigraphy and economic geology and it is intermediately

related to biological sciences.

Relationship of Paleontology with Biology

Botany
(Study of living plant)
Neontology
(Study of living plant & animal)

Zoology
(Study of living animal)
Biology

Paleobot
(Study of dead or ancient plant)

Paleontology
(Study of ancient plant &
animal)

Paleozoo
(Study of dead or ancient animal)

Macro
(Study of mega fossils)

Paleontology

Micro
(Study of micro fossils)

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Palynology is the study of pollen grains, pores and dinoflagellates, referred to as palynomorphs

CONDITION NECESSARY FOR FOSSILIZATION

(i) Abundance of organism

(ii) Rapid Burial

(iii) Absence of scavengers and predators

(iv) Presence of hard parts

UNALTERED HARD PART AND UNALTERED SOFT PART

Unaltered hard part: occasionally an organism skeleton is preserved intact without any

chemical alteration of the original mineralogy. This mode of preservation becomes increasingly

rare for fossils of older ages. Unaltered hard parts occur when some portion of the organism is

preserved just as it was in life. Some examples would be Aragonite or Calcite in marine

vertebrate shells, silica in some marine corals, hydroxyl apatite in vertebrate bones and chitin of

insect.

Unaltered Soft part: The rarest type of fossil preservation is where altered soft part is

preserved. The preservation of soft part is very rare because of how easily these type of materials

decay. In order to preserve fossils in this way, the dead organism must be mummified in one way

or the other. That is, the organism must be entirely removed from any exposure to oxygen, wind,

air, water etc almost immediately after its death. Some example of mummification include, the

preservation of organism in Ice, Amber, Peat, Tar etc in which the organism is completely

surrounded by a seal of preserving agent and restricted from decay. In very rare cases, an

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organism may desiccate (i.e completely dry out) in a desert and fail to undergo any decay

process.

MODES (TYPES) OF PRESERVATION

The fossil record consists of a number of different organisms that has been preserved for our

analysis in many different ways. We will examine some of these modes of preservation, more

often, we preserve fossils by altering the remnant in some fashion, when this occurs, we preserve

as “altered hard or soft part”. This can occur in several different ways.

(a) Unaltered Remains: Both soft and hard part of the organism are fully preserved, they are

also call it natural preservation. The process happens in cold or arid environment. It is an unusual

mode of preservation which involves preservation of both soft and hard part of the organisms,

occurs only in area of extreme climatic condition (extreme cold or extreme dry

environment).Here organisms are preserved in toto. Dry: Arid and Desert, Cold: Artic & Antartic

Region. Example of natural preservation is in Cold area or Siberian where a large animal called

mammoth have being found to be wholly preserved in ice. Insect in Amber (Dehydrated only)

(b) Altered Remains

Many fossils are preserved in this form.

(1) Re-crystallization (Altered Hard Part): In this type of preservation, the mineral

composition of original hard part is re - crystallized. No change in chemistry occurs; there is

simply a change in atomic structure of the element. During this process, microscopic crystal

structure and internal details of the fossils is lost. However external details may be preserved. A

good example is a shell that has been altered from aragonite into calcite. Re-crystalization is

when a skeleton made up of calcite is recrystallized into Aragonite, giving rise to a different

mineral and sometimes different morphology.

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(2) Replacement (Altered Hard Part): In this type of preservation, the mineral composition of

the fossil is replaced by another mineral, this process sometimes maintain the internal structure

of the fossil. A good example is replacement of wood by silica (in petrified wood) prior to the

wood; pore space being filled, this process is called silicification. Another example is the

complete replacement of calcite or apatite by pyrite in some shells and bones, this process is

called pyritization. Also when a tree trunk has its cellulose replaced by silica (SiO 2) given rise to

what is called petrified wood (mineralized wood). In such a case, the external morphology of the

tree trunk is still preserved, but the whole material is silica. Petrification is similar to

replacement; but there is no preference change, the entire fossil changed to rock.

(3) Per-Mineralization (Altered Hard Part): This process which is quite similar to

cementation in sedimentary rocks occurs when the empty spaces (pore spaces) within bones and

shells are filled with minerals to make it harder and more resistant. As with rocks, the most

common per- mineralizing agent are Silica (SiO 2) and Calcite (CaCO3). In this case, per-

mineralization can occur where original material still exists and only the pore spaces is filled,

like when vertebrate bones are filled with silica, or it can occur where the original hard part has

already being re-crystallized or replaced, like when empty pore spaces within replaced wood is

filled. Per-mineralization occurs when some skeleton with pore spaces, have minerals like silica,

calcite and pyrites in solution which eventually fills up their pore spaces. Minerals are formed,

thereby making the skeleton thicker and heavier. Example of this has been found in Ewekoro

(Western Nigeria), where a Big Gastropod has shown example of per-mineralization.

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(4) Carbonization (Altered Soft Part): Occurs when majority of the organism breaks down and

only a thin film of dark black carbon or organic residue is left behind, leaving carbonize traces or

outline of the organisms on the faces of shale beds. This process occurs most frequently with

leaves and fishes. Coal is an example of carbonized plant debris.The tissues of an organism may

be converted into thin film of carbon; this is particularly common among the graptolites. Also fin

membrane of fishes is commonly preserved thus.

(5) Mould and Cast: When an organism dies, it is buried, the soft part immediately disintegrate.

The skeleton if pressed against soft sediments (likely clay/mud) will give an opposite impression

of the original, this is the mould. If for some reason, this skeletons dissolve away, and fresh

sediments fills the mould, the resultant is the cast. Cast is a replica of the original fossil.

(6) Trace fossils: These are footprints, burrows, borings and marks made by once living

organism. This is the most important fossil types in terms of paleo-environmental

reconstruction, this is because, all trace-fossils are formed in-situ. The study of trace fassils is

called Ichnology, it is divided in to Paleoichnology (Study of trace fossils) and Neoichnology

(study of modern traces).

PLANT FOSSILS

Plant typically consists of chlorophyll, which is a green pigment that absorbs energy from

sunlight and thus made possible the synthesis of carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water.

This process is known as photosynthesis. The carbohydrate along with simple inorganic

materials is then built up into a more complex substance from which the plant protoplasm and

tissues are formed. Certain plant like fungi, lack chlorophyll and depend for their food on other

organisms which may be living or dead. Most plants are anchored to the soil or, if aquatic, are

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non-motile. Although a number of active unicellular organisms are classified as plants because

they contain chlorophyll and cellulose. Cellulose, a complex carbohydrate is a basic constituent

of the cell wall in the plants. In higher plants i.e. more complex plants, the cell walls in some

tissue (vascular tissue) are thickened, consisting of a mixture of cellulose and lignin and this is a

complex aromatic compound which makes then strong and rigid. In the higher plant the outer

surface is covered by an almost unbroken layer called a cuticle consisting of an impervious waxy

substance called cutin (Waxy polymer in the plant cuticle) which reduces water loss.

Preservation of dead plant remains (plants fossils)

Dead plant tissues decay rapidly under normal sub aerial (Natural exposure of material on

ground) condition and since in general there is no mineral matter to strengthen the structure

fossil plants. Fossil plants occur rather sporadically and tend to be poorly preserved. In

circumstances, however which exclude oxygen, aerobic bacteria, plant material can be well

preserved and very fine details may be found. The accumulation of plant material in stagnant

oxygen deficient water is quite favourable for preservation and such condition occurred

extensively throughout the northern hemisphere during parts of the carboniferous. The coals

formed then consist of partly carbonized vegetable matter, some of which was macerated

(macerals are the mineral constituents of Coal) so that cuticles and spore cases are the only

identifiable structure, whereas other material preserved can still be observed under the

microscopic, and this will give the original structure of the woody tissue.

CLASSIFICATION OF PLANT FOSSILS

Plants are classified according to details of their structure, and their mode of reproduction. With

advances in knowledge, new names have been introduced to the main division of plants, but

many of the categories have common names, that are familiar through long usage.

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(1) Thallophytes: They are the simplest plants e.g Algae, Bacteria, Sponges and Fungi; they

consist of soft tissues showing no differentiation into roots, stem or leaves. They range from

microscopic unicellular form to more complex many cell plants which are mainly filamentous or

have a flattened body e.g sponges, they may reproduce asexually by single cell spores which

develop directly into a new plant, but they may reproduce also sexually producing garmates

which conjugate to form zygote.

Algae: Essentially aquatic plants, which absorb their nutrients and CO 2 from the surrounding

waters, they include microscopic one cell (unicellular) form like; Diatoms and coccolithophores

and sea weeds. The marine form; include benthonic sea weeds and planktonic forms which are

phytoplankton (Found in upper surface layer of ocean). These phytoplanktons are of great

importance in marine ecology. Since they provide food directly or indirectly for all aquatic

animals, and by their photosynthesis they oxygenate their environment. Most leaves little or no

fossil trace, however a number that secrete calcium carbonate or silicate may be preserved and

their record pre-date Precambrian time.

Bacteria: They are ubiquitous (found everywhere) microscopic organisms which occur as single

cell or aggregate of cells that lack chlorophyll. The cell may be as little as 0.5µ microns and are

spherical or rod shape. They multiply by simple fission and may produces spores which are

highly resistant to temperature and desiccation. Most bacteria live on organic matter, whether

alive or dead. Some are of considerable interest because they derive their energy from chemical

reaction of inorganic materials e.g. the sulphur and iron bacteria. Also, a number are anaerobic

(environment that lacks oxygen). For instance some forms of bacteria liberate methane, by

breaking down organic matter and other liberate hydrogen sulphide by decomposing organic

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matter. They lack hard part and evidence of their existence in earlier geologic time is largely

circumstantial. Since, at the present time, they play a major role in the breakdown of organic

matter presumably that has been done in past time. Their occurrence can be said to be from

Precambrian to recent. Benthonic fossils: Dwell at the bottom of the sea. Planktonic: Surface of

water.

Fungi: Fungi such as moulds and toadstools are unicellular of filamentous and these filaments

are refers to as hyphae. They lack chlorophyll and feed on organic matter. They have no resistant

tissue and are only exceptionally preserved as fossil. They occur within Devonian to Recent.

(2) Bryophytes: These are mosses or moss plants, they are the simplest land plants, they lack the

vascular tissue i.e. water and food conducting materials which strengthen higher plant, they show

a primitive life cycle involving a distinct alternation of sexual and asexual generation which

depends on water for its completion. Thus they occur in dam places. The moss plant with which

most people are familiar represent the sexual gametophyte where males and females gametes

unite to form zygotes from which the asexual sporophytes develop.

The gametophyte consists of aerial shoot that can be seen with living structure and its anchored

in the soil by horn like processes called Rhizoids; absorb water and nutrients. The male gamete is

motile and can only fertilize the female gamete only if water is present. The sporophyte is a stalk

capsule and remains attached to the gametophyte. Numerous spores develop on the sporophyte

and when ripe are dispersed by wind and germinate in damp soil and grow into a gametophyte.

Most plant appear first in the upper Devonian, they are generally rare as fossil except in the

quaternary where they are very abundant.

(3) Vascular plant: In higher land plants the body is differentiated into aerial shoot, stems with

leaves in which photosynthesis occur and underground anchoring roots which absorbs water and

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nutrients. Water and food moves through the vascular tissue whose cells wall are woody, being

thicken by lignin and cellulose. The woody vascular tissue give mechanical support so that these

plants are not restricted in size as most primitive moss plants/mosses. Water is conserved in the

vascular plants by an impervious waxy layer called cuticle covering the surface of stems and

leaves. Interchange of gases (carbon dioxide and oxygen) with the atmosphere takes place

through breeding pores called stomata in the cuticle, this also control the escape of water vapour

from the plant. As in the mosses, the life cycle of vascular plant involve an alternation of

generation but contrast to mosses the saprophyte phases is dominated and the gametophytes is

inconspicuous. There are two major sub-divisions

i. The spore bearing vascular plants (pteridophyte and the

ii. Seed bearing vascular plants (gymnosperm and angiosperm)

(i) SPORE BEARING PLANT

Pteridophytes embraces the spore bearing vascular plants, those with fossil record include

psiophytes, clubmosses, horsetails and ferns.

Ferns: Ferns has an underground stem from which root grow down into the soil and above

ground grow large leaves called fronds which typically are divided and sub-divided into smaller

leaflets called pinnae. The veins in each pinnae are forked. They are abundant in the

carboniferous, some reaching a height of 15meters, they remain important until the Jurassic, the

dominant living families of ferns date from the end of the Messozoic and are widely distributed

occurring more commonly in the tropical areas.

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(ii) The seed bearing vascular plant

These are the gymnosperm and angiosperm. The higher plants reproduced by seed i.e. embryo

plants with bud, roots, seed and leaves covered by a protective coat. The male gametes is no-

motile (cannot move) and so a film of water is not required for its union with the eggs. This

occurs in the plant since the megaspore is retained in its megasporagium. The latter that is the

megasporangium is covered by external layer of tissues and it is called the ovule. The

microspores are referred to as pollen grains and they are transferred to the ovule either by wind

or by insect, it may be noted that the wall of the pollen grains are sculptured with distinctive

markings which are characteristics of different species thus, pollen grains extracted from

sedimentary rocks are of valuable means of identifying past floras (Palynology).

Gymnosperm: Kingdom: Plantae, Subkingdom: embryophyta (flowerless,seed-producing

plants, “naked plants”). They include seed ferns (pteridosperm) cycadophytes and coniferns.

They are wood plants which increase in size by annual growth of secondary wood. The basic

pattern of reproduction is similar throughout the reproduction but in each group there is

characteristic variation in details. The pollen grains that are the microspores each contain a

miniature male gametophyte which are released in enormous number into the air and are trans-

ported by wind to the ovules. When a pollen grain makes contact, an ovule male gametes are

released, one of which fertilizes the egg cell. There resultant zygote develops within the ovule

into an embryo sporophyte plant i.e. the seed. The seed may remain dormant for a period until

conditions are suitable or favourable for its germination.

Angiosperm: They are fruits, grains, vegetables, trees, shrubs; grasses and flowers.Most of the

plants people eat today are angiosperms. The angiosperm or flowering plants are the dominant

plant today. They include woody and herbaceous members which show an enormous range in

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structure and habit, typically the male and female organs occur on the same plant and even on the

same flower. The classes are distinguished into two: Monocotyledon: Which have one seed leaf.

Dicotyledon: Which have two seed leaves. Example of monocotyledon includes palms, grasses

and tulips; they are plants which do not grow secondary wood. The leaves have parallel veins

and the flower parts are grouped in three. The dicotyledon includes most of the flowering plants

and all the forest trees in which the secondary wood is formed each season. The leaves have

branching (reticulate) veining and the flower parts are in fives or fours.

The angiosperms appear in small numbers in the Cretaceous by the end of which they were

widespread richly diversified and they have displayed the gymnosperm to become the

predominant land plant. Tertiary groups are abundantly preserved in many part of the world,

since they include an increasing proportion of modern species; they have provided valuable

information about climatic changes.

The key difference between gymnosperms and angiosperms is how their seeds are developed.

The seeds of gymnosperms are usually formed in unisexual cones known as strobili, and the

plants lack fruits and flowers while the seeds of angiosperms develop in the ovaries of flowers

and are surrounded by a protective fruit.

MAJOR FOSSILS GROUP

Principal plant and animal fossil in the geology record

Phylum /Geologic Range Examples and summary of characteristics

1 ANIMAL They are single cell animals; Foraminifera with

KINGDOM: calcareous shells Radiolaria (siliceous shells)
PROTOZOA,
Cambrian-recent

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2 PORIFERA Sponges, many-celled, sessile aquatic animal lack
Cambrian-recent definite tissues and organs (calcareous or siliceous)
3 COELENTERATA Corals and jelly fishes, simple form with body
Pre-cambrian -recent cavity, with single opening; Corals with calcareous
skeleton; jelly fish lack skeleton and rare as fossils.
4 BRYOZOA Sea-mosses-small colonial forms; they are more
Ordovician-recent complex than the coelenterate skeleton
(calcareous)
5 BRACHIOPODA Lamp shells, sessile, marine shell fish. They have
Cambrian-recent two dissimilar valves (Bivalves calcareous )
6 MOLLUSCA Gastropod, pelecepods e.g. ammonites,
Cambrian-recent cephalopods. They are diverse, aquatics, mobile
animals with soft body which are highly organized
and enclosed by calcareous shell.
7 ANNELIDA Segmented worms which may build calcareous

Precambrian -recent tubes, or may leave tracts or burrows.

8 ANTHROPODA They are Trilobite Crustaceans Crabs, Insects, they

are animals with jointed limb covered by chitinous
Cambrian-recent
skeleton
9 ECHINODERMATA They are Echinoids which are Sea Urchins,
Crinoids, and Star Fish. They are exclusively
Cambrian to recent
marine with mainly five ranged symmetry. They
have water circulatory system used in feeding,
breeding and moving. Skeleton (exo-) is of calcite
plates.
10 HEMICHORDATA Worm like forms and some colony forms with
Ordovician-recent scleroproteinic skeleton.
Graptolites, colonial marine forms with
Upper Cambrian - Carboniferous scleroproteinic skeleton.

11 CHORDATE Fish, Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals

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 Ordovician-Recent i.e. the vertebrate. They have internal body
skeleton. A backbone and gill (slits).
PLANT

KINGDOM

12 ALGAE Aquatic unicellular and many cell plant, some of

Pre Cambrian recent which have calcerous or siliceous skeleton

13 BACTERIA They are simple microscopic plant which lack

Pre-Cambrian recent chlorophyll and live mainly organic matter
14 FUNGI Example: Filamentous plants which lack
Devonian-recent chlorophyll and live mainly on organic matter.
15 BRYOPHYTES Mosses plants, simplest of land growing plants.
Upper Pre Devonian recent
16 PTERIDOPHYTES Psilophytes, ferns, horse tails club mosses,
Silurian-recent vascular plants which produces spores and
reproduce
17 GYMNOSPERMS Pteridosperms (i.e seed ferns, conifers (primitive
Devonian-recent seed plants)
18 ANGIOSPERM Flowering seed plants
Cambrian recent

Macro and Micro Fossils

Macro Fossils: They are also known as mega fossils. They are preserved organic remains large

enough to be visible without microscope. Animal macro fossils are predominantly shell, bones,

teeth (chitinous) skeleton, fish scales sometime eggs or impression of soft part, leaves, seeds or

fruits these are macro fossils.

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Micro Fossils: They are fossils that can only be seen on details only with the use of microscope.

They are generally smaller than 1mm. animal micro fossil include small-fish teeth, fish air bones,

warms jaws and spines of sea urchin and internal or external – skeleton of small animals like

water flea. Most common however are the hand part of marine protozoan (single celled

organism) called Foraminifera and Radiolaria, the minute skeleton fall to the ocean floor when

they die and are well preserved as fossils contributing hundreds of tonnes of sediments to the

modern sea floor each year. Plants microfossils include, polles, spores, marine algae and are

together with protozoan the most abundant fossils to be found in rock.

Trace-Fossils

These are left by moving animals, and may include the back filled burrows by active sediments

heaters such as worms or shelter burrows used for retreat by Crabs or shrumbs. They also record

the impression of organisms on sediments

Transitional or Intermediate fossils.

According to Darwin in 1859 “the origin of species” one major indicator of a single common

ancestor is the fact that all life forms share common mechanism for transmitting inherited

information called the (DNA) and using the information to control cellular processes which is

called (RNA and Ribosome whereby genetic instructions carried in the DNA are transplanted

into proteins). The two major lines of evidence available to Darwin were, Transitional Fossils i.e.

so called missing links and the presence of Shared Derived Characteristics or Homologous

features i.e. similar features (where DERIVED means altered form ancestral forms “not present

in parent” people argue that if all of life is related through a single family tree extending from the

present day back to hundred million years (100,000,000),there should have been a mid way

fossils between the two established fossil, this is called a Transitional Fossils. It’s a fossil with

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both Avian (bird) and Reptilian characteristics. The first specimen of Archaopteryx was

discovered in a limestone quarry in Southern Germany in 1861. It has feather and wings but also

a long bony tails, fingers with claws on the fore limbs and teeth in a heavy Jaws.

Micropaleontology is the studies microfossils or fossils that require the use of microscope to see

the organism, its morphology and its characteristic details. Microfossils are fossils that are

generally between or 001mm (1N) and 1mm in size, the use of light or electron microscope aid

their study. Examples are; Diatom, Faraminifera, Radiolana e.t.c.

CLASSIFICATION OF MICRO FOSSILS

Groups Species Description Size Comp Hab Age

Autotropic Achritachs Hollow <100m Organic Marine Proterozoi

protists vesicles algae m c – Recent

cysts

Dinoflagellate Organic Aquatic Silurian–

Algae with 5 – Recent

organic 150mm

walled crysts

Coccolithopores Algae with <50mm Calcite Marine Triassic to

spherical Recent

shell

Diatoms Algae contain <200m Silica Aquatic Juressic to

in elongate or m Recent

circular

valves
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Heterotroph Radiolana Protist with 0.03- Silica Marine Cambrian

ic Protists delicate exo- 1.5mm to Recent

skeleton in

the form of

spherical or

conical mesh

Foraminifera Test protists 0.01- Organic Marine Cambrian

with single 100mm to Recent

chamber or

complex

multichamber

tests Agglutinate Marine

Calcareous

Micro Ostracodes Crustaceans, 1 - Calcareous Aquatic

invertebrate Arthropods 100mm

with bivalves

Macro Cocodonts Tooth-like 0.15m Phosphate Marine Canbrian-

Vertebrate elements or m Triassic

jarless

vertebrate

Plants Spores Resistant part 4.5mm Organic Terrestria Devonian-

of plant l Recent

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 Pollen 5- Organic Terrestria Devonian-

200mm l Recent

Phylum: Protozoa

They are unicellular, acquatic, terrestrial or parasitic animals which live singly or in a few cases

as colonial aggregations. Certain protozoans build external tests and internal skeleton. The tests

are composed of discreet inorganic particules of calcareous and siliceous substances the internal

skeleton are generally siliceous.

We have classes of protozoa

Phylum: Protozoa

Class 1: Mastigophora (10 orders)

Class 2: Sarcodina (7 orders)

Order 1: Proteomyxa

Order 2: Mycetozoa

Order 3: Amoebina

Order 4: Testacea

Order 5: Foraminifera

Order 6: Heliozoa

Order 7: Radiolaria

Order 5: Foraminifera:

Comparatively large, compares to others almost exclusively marine protozoans with reticulose or

filose pseudopodia and with tests of chitineous, calcareous or siliceous material or agglutinated

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foreign particles.Most foraminifera lives on the ocean bottom, moving slowly over the mud and

ooze by means of the pseudopodia. A few are attached to the abject of the bottom of the sea and

some are pelagic. More than 300 general of living and extinct foraminifera are known and

several thousands of fossil species have been described from many part of the world.

Order 7: Radiolaria

They are marine protozoan characterized by a central, perforated membraneous capsule which

varies in shape according to the form of the organism. Most radiolarians are spherical, but few

are hemispherical or tabular. Skeleton are composed of silica or strontium sulphate and show

great range in structure. Enormous number of living radiolanian are known but relatively few

fossil species have been described.

Origin of radiolarian have been traced to the Paleozoic sedimentary beds and even Precambrians

rocks.

Foraminifera showing relationship of organism to test, Nature of pseudopodia, Diatoms in the

process of eaten

Diagram

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NATURE OF THE ORGANISM

The individual foraminifera is a single cell of cytoplasm with one or more nuclei. The cytoplasm

differentiated into endoplasm, which contains the nuclei and occupy the tests and the ectoplasm

which constitute the other part either filling the aperture or forming them coating on both the

inner and outer surfaces of the test. Foraminifera test is both internal and external though most of

the animals generally lies inside the tests wall.

GLAESSNERS CLASSIFICATION (1948) FAMILY

Astrorhizidea

Saccamminidae

Ammodi sadae

2. Lituolida Reophacidae

Lituolidae

Orbitolinidae

Textularidae

Trochamminidae

Verneuilinidae

3. Endotayridea Endothyridae

Fusulinidae

4. Milionidae Milionidae

Ophthalminidae

Peneroplidae

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 Alveolinidae

5. Langenidea Langenidae

Polymorphinidae

6. Bulimunidea Buliminidae

Cassidulinidae

Ollipsoidinidae

Chilostromellidae

7. Rotallidae Spullinidae

Discorbidae

Globigerinidae

Globorotallidae

Gumbelinidae

Planorbulinidae

Cymbaloporide

Noionidae

Ceratobulininidae

Amplusteginidae

Rotallidae

Calcarinidae

Micgypsinidae

Orbitoididae

Discocyclinidae

Camerinidae

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GROWTH AND REPRODUCTION IN FORAMINIFERA

The first form chamber of the foraminifera tests in the proloculus it is a tiny sphere with a small

aperture in simple foraminifera but becomes double and more complicated in advance forms

such as the orbitoides and fusulinids- It is one of the most important feature of foraminifera cell

because of the fact that each species has two form of test one with a large and one with a small

proloculus. These dual natures of the test is known as Dimorphism an it is the result of a

complicated reproductive cycles.

Diagram showing reproduction in foraminifera

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24
A – A young agamont with proloculus and one chamber

B – An adult agamont in the process of asexual reproduction. Two flagellated offspring are

leaving the parent test

C – A young gamonts just after leaving the test before secreting a proloculus

D – E – Young gamonts with their megalospheric proloculus

F – Gamonts with a proloculus and one chamber. The individual has single nucleus until it start

production

G – When the single nucleus break into many minute nuclei, it is also adult gamonts given off

gametes which will combine with gametes from other megalospheric individual of the same

species (H - I) to form zygote (J - K) each of which develop into a young agamonts (L – A1)

L - Young agamont with small micropheric proloculus

A - Young agamonts with proloculus and one (1) chamber

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