UNIT 2

PROCESSES IN ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURE: Microchip fabrication – overview,

photoresists – chemistry, types. Fabrication facilities – clean rooms - maintenance, ultrapure
water– specification, production processes – ion exchange, reverse osmosis, continuous
electrodeionisation. PCB fabrication – electroless and electroplating of copper – principle,
bath chemistries and process parameters, formation of copper track on plastic board.
INTEGRATED CIRCUIT
An integrated circuit (IC), sometimes called chip or microchip, is a semiconductor wafer on
which thousands or millions of tiny resistors, capacitors and transistors are fabricated.
In today’s technology, the most popular transistor is the metaloxide-semiconductor
(MOS) structure. The controlling part is called the gate. Smaller gate widths drive the
industry by producing smaller and faster transistors and more dense circuits. Currently, the
gate width is less than 20nm.
Due to reduction in gate width, the circuit density or the integration level, which is the
number of components in a circuit, has increased. Integration levels range from small scale
integration (SSI) to ultra large scale integration (ULSI). ULSI chips are sometimes referred to
as very very large scale integration (VVLSI).

The advancement of chip density from the SSI level to ULSI chips has driven larger
chip sizes. Discrete and SSI chips average about 100 mils (0.1 in) on a side. ULSI chips are
in the 500 to 1000 mil (0.5 to 1.0 in) per side, or larger, range. ICs are manufactured on thin
disks of silicon called wafers.

STAGES OF SEMICONDUCTOR PROCESSING ( MICROCHIP FABRICATION):

Semiconductor manufacturing involves the following stages:
1. Material preparation – sand is converted in to polycrystalline silicon
2. Crystal growth and wafer preparation – polycrystalline silicon is then melted and crystal
growth is allowed to form silicon ingots. These ingots are then sliced into silicon wafers.
3. Wafer fabrication and sort – circuits or devices are formed on the wafer i.e., thousands of
microchips are formed in the silicon wafer.
4. Packaging
5. Final and electrical test
MICROCHIP FABRICATION

1. Layering Operation. The substrate is p-doped silicon. The building starts with an
oxidation of the wafer surface to form a thin protective layer and to serve as a doping
barrier.

2. Patterning Operation. Patterning is the series of steps that results in the removal of
selected portions of the added surface layers. The patterning process leaves a hole
in the SiO2 that defines the location of the source, gate, and drain areas of the
transistor. This operation involves the following steps and is called photolithography.
 Photolithography
(a) A layer of positive photoresist is applied to the wafer by spin coating. The
resist is soft baked to evaporate the solvent and set the edges.

(b) A photo mask is aligned upon the wafer and exposed with light of the
appropriate wavelength.

(c) The nature of the resist is such that exposed areas become more soluble
in the presence of an alkaline developing solution. The wafer is
developed so as to remove soluble resists. A second bake sets the
pattern into the resist.

(d) An etching agent is used to remove the SiO2 in the required areas (where
the drain and source of the transistor are to be formed.

(e) Then the remaining photoresist is removed.

3. This is followed by ion implantation of pentavalent phosphorous atoms so as to

create the n doped region and second layer of oxide is grown so as to insulate the
drain / source regions.
 4. Patterning and etching ( steps 2, 3, 4 and 5 repeated) removes oxide in gate region:
The gate material is then grown. Contact holes for metal contacts are patterned into
source, drain and gate regions.

5. Conducting metal is deposited on wafer. Metal is patterned and alloyed to wafer in

order to make interconnections on the chip

6. These sequence of steps are repeated to grow another layer of circuits.

CHALLENGES ENCOUNTERED IN ELECTRONICS MANUFACTURE:

(A) CHALLENGES IN FABRICATION OF ICs:

1. Defects during fabrication:

As feature sizes have decreased, the need for reduced defect density and defect size on the
chips during manufacturing process has become critical.
Defects can arise due to particulate matter. For e.g., a 1-micron piece of dirt on a
one-micron sized transistor, can become a killer defect, that can render the component
inoperable. Contamination control by clean room technologies is one of the major
contributors in driving the cost of building an IC manufacturing facility into the multibillion
dollar range.

Patterning is another source of defect formation and is the most critical of the four
basic operations in microchip fabrication. This operation sets the critical dimensions of the
devices. Errors in the patterning process can cause distorted or misplaced patterns that
result in changes in the electrical functioning of the device/circuit. The properties and
selection of photoresists pay a major role in controlling these defects.

2. Contamination:
Small amount of certain electrically active contaminants in the wafer can alter device
electrical characteristics. The contaminants causing these types of problems are known as
mobile ionic contaminants (MICs). They are metal ions like Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Fe2+ etc.
Unfortunately, these metals ions are present in most chemicals and water.
 A modern wafer fabrication facility may use up to several million gallons of water per day,
representing a substantial investment in water processing, delivery to the process areas, and
treatment and discharge of waste water. Since semiconductor devices are vulnerable to
contamination, ultrapure water or electronic grade water should be used i.e., water that
meets requirements as specified in The American Standards for Testing Materials(ASTM).
The acids, bases, and solvents used to etch and clean wafers and equipment have to be
of the highest purity for use in a fabrication area. Electronic grade and semiconductor grade
chemicals are used. Most firms purchase clean process chemicals in bulk quantities. They
are decanted into smaller vessels and are distributed to the process stations from a central
location by pipes or distributed directly to the process station from a mini-unit.
Special care must be maintained to ensure that piping and transfer vessels are cleaned
regularly to prevent contamination.
A semiconductor wafer is also processed with many gases. For eg., gases are such as
arsine and carbon tetrafluoride. Like the wet chemicals, they have to be delivered clean to
the process stations and tools. Gas quality is measured in four categories:
1. Percentage of purity
2. Water vapor content
3. Particulates
4. Metallic ions
Extremely high purity is required for all process gases.

3. Increased levels of interconnections:

Miniaturization results in increasing the number of electronic elements in a volume unit i.e.,
more number of components have to be connected while at the same time they are more
closely spaced. With decreasing device dimensions the number of interconnection levels
have to be increased. The current 22nm technology chips have 11 levels of interconnects.

4. Material challenges:
Decreased device dimensions also lead to material challenges. The dielectric required is
made by growing SiO2. But there may be leakage of current in the SiO2 layer due to small
dimensions. Therefore Hafnium oxide based materials are used which lead to complexities
in fabrication.

(B) CHALLENGES IN ELECTRONIC PACKAGING

1. Thermal Management:
All electronic devices require a source of power which is partially converted into heat. This
heat has to be transferred by the surrounding structures to the ambient air outside the
system and/or to a heat sink. Generally, a rise in temperature from 75 °C to 125 °C can
result in a five-fold increase in failure rate of a device. Thus, the heat dissipation problem is
becoming a crucial barrier in miniaturization processes, and successful thermal packaging
depends on a combination of proper materials and heat transfer mechanisms to stabilize the
component temperature at an acceptable level.

2. Need to replace hazardous substances:

E-Waste is of major health and environmental concern due to the toxicity of some of the
materials present in the waste stream. For eg., lead present in solder. Solder is used for
joining various components in a PCB.
Lead in Electrical and Electronic Equipment (EEE) is of a major concern to the public
due its ability to leach from landfills and contaminate the human food chain causing serious
health hazards. To address this issue, European Union and countries such as China, Japan
and Korea have passed legislation to remove lead from EEE which is commonly known as
‘Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS)' directive.
 Lead-free soldering in EEE is one of the major drivers of the legislation forcing
researchers and manufacturers to find suitable lead-free substitutes for the traditional leaded
solders. Despite significant investments being made on research and development of lead-
free solders, to date, no perfect substitutes for lead based solders have been found..
Although, few lead-free alloys have emerged as strong candidates there are various issues
such as durability and reliability surrounding these candidates and the research is on-going.

CLEAN ROOMS FOR MICROCHIP FABRICATION:

The ambient air outside in a typical urban environment might contain as many as
35,000,000 particles per cubic meter which are 0.5 um and larger in diameter.
The following figure gives an idea about the sizes of various air contaminants in the
atomosphere.

CLEAN ROOMS:
Cleanrooms are specially constructed, environmentally controlled enclosed spaces where
the concentration of airborne particles (contaminants) is kept within specified limits. In
industry, cleanrooms are used in the manufacturing of electronic hardware such as
integrated circuits (ICs) and hard drives.
According to ISO 14644-1, a cleanroom is “a room in which the concentration of
airborne particles is controlled, and which is constructed and used in a manner to minimize
the introduction, generation, and retention of particles inside the room and in which other
relevant parameters, e.g. temperature, humidity, and pressure, are controlled as
necessary."
Cleanrooms are classified in terms of the number and sizes of particles suspended in
its atmosphere. A particle is defined as a solid or liquid object between 0.001 and 1000
microns in size. Table 1 shows the various cleanroom classes and their corresponding
statistically allowable number of particles per cubic foot of air, as defined by Federal
Standards 209E. To illustrate, in a Class 100 cleanroom, a cubic foot of air is only allowed
to have 100 particles whose size is 0.5 micron.
Table 1. Cleanroom Classes
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5
Class Name 5 micron
micron micron micron micron
1 35 7.5 3 1 N/A
10 350 75 30 10 N/A
100 N/A 750 300 100 N/A
1000 N/A N/A N/A 1000 7
10000 N/A N/A N/A 10000 70
100000 N/A N/A N/A 100000 700
In semiconductor manufacturing, wafer fab processes usually require a sub-Class 1 to Class
10 cleanroom, while assembly processes prior to encapsulation of the die require a Class
10K cleanroom. A class 100K cleanroom is all that post-encapsulation assembly and test
processes typically require.

Air Filters used in the maintaining clean rooms

All air entering a cleanroom must be treated by one or more filters. High-efficiency
particulate air (HEPA) and ultra-low penetration air (ULPA) filters are the most common
filters used in cleanroom applications. They trap particulate matter when air is passed
through them. In a microchip fabrication facility almost 5 million cubic meters of air are
exchanged per hour to maintain clean rooms.

For a filter to be classified as a HEPA (High Efficiency Particulate Air) filter, it should remove
99.97% of particulates of size greater than or equal to 0.3 µm.

A ULPA (Ultra Low Particulate Air (filter) is a step further than HEPA. For a filter to be
classified as ULPA it should remove 99.999% of particulates which are greater than or equal
to 0.1 µm.

Both HEPA and ULPA filters are designed to trap very small particulate contaminants from
an air stream by forcing air through a fine mesh.

Filter media in an air filter

Filter media - The filters are made out of very fine borosilicate glass fibres with a diameter of
less than 1 micron. The fine glass fibres are tangled together and compressed to form a filter
mat. The open spaces in the mat are very small, generally less than 0.5 micron. HEPA filters
will collect particles down to 0.3 microns in diameter. The filter may only be 0.10 in (2.5 mm)
wide, it would consist of 2,500 layers of glass fibres.
 Sem image of glass fibres in air filters

Activated carbon in air filtration:

Air filters do not remove gases or odours: For this reason, most air purifiers are equipped
with a pre- or post-filter composed of activated carbon.
Activated carbon is produced by heating a carbon source (coconut shells, old tires,
bones, etc.) at very high temperatures in the absence of oxygen, a process also known as
pyrolysis or destructive distillation. Pyrolysis separates the pure carbon from the other
materials contained in the raw material. The pure carbon is then exposed to steam at
1,500°F(800°C). The high temperature steam activates the carbon. The activation process
provides the carbon with an enormous surface area per weight—about 1,000 m 2 /g..
Activated carbon is very effective at adsorbing odour producing compounds.
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STEP VI
CONTINUOUS ELECTRODEIONIZATION (CEDI):
Continuous electrodeionization is often used as a key part of a larger ultrapure water system.
Ultrapure water systems typically utilize reverse osmosis in combination with electrodeionization,
which provides a completely chemical-free solution for water treatment that is ideal for a number of
applications including: power generation; boiler feed water; semiconductors; electronics; food and
beverage; and pharmaceuticals.

EDI technology is a modification of the electrodialysis technique.

The EDI technology effectively removes impurities from water using a unique combination of ion
selective- membranes, ion exchange resins and a direct electric field. The ion exchange resins are
continuously regenerated without the need of regenerating chemicals.
A TYPICAL WATER TREATMENT PLANT FOR ULTRAPURE WATER PRODUCTION IS SHOWN BELOW:

The incoming water is the clarified water (after removal of suspended solids)
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CONTINUOUS ELECTRODEIONIZATION (CEDI):
Continuous electrodeionization is often used as a key part of a larger ultrapure water system.
Ultrapure water systems typically utilize reverse osmosis in combination with electrodeionization,
which provides a completely chemical-free solution for water treatment that is ideal for a number of
applications including: power generation; boiler feed water; semiconductors; electronics; food and
beverage; and pharmaceuticals.
EDI technology is a modification of the electrodialysis technique. The electrodialysis process
is limited by the slow speed at which ions move through water. As the product compartment water
becomes more and more pure, the electrical resistance of this water increases and impedes ion
removal.
The EDI technology effectively removes impurities from water using a unique combination of
ion selective- membranes, ion exchange resins and a direct electric field. The ion exchange resins are
continuously regenerated without the need of regenerating chemicals.

WORKING PRINCIPLE:
 The EDI module consists of a pair of electrodes, several anion and cation selective
membranes inserted alternatively between the electrodes and mixed bed ion-exchange
resin beads sandwiched between the cation and anion selective membranes.

 When DC potential is applied to the electrodes, the ions in water migrate towards the
opposite electrodes under the influence of the electric field.
 The cation selective membranes, block the flow of anions and allow only cations to pass
through to the other side. The anion selective membranes block the flow of cations and
allow only anions to pass through.
 The ion-exchange resin beads (cation and anion exchange resins) placed between the
membranes attract the ions in water, decreases the resistance for ion-diffusion and provide
a large surface area for the ions to move freely under the electric field. Even in ultrapure
water solution, the surface of the resin beads acts as a conductive path, and allow the ions
to migrate faster towards the membrane surface.
 Thus, the EDI module contains a series of water purification compartments alternating with
compartments where the ions are concentrated.
  As feed water is pumped into the system, it is diverted into separate compartments, namely
the concentrating compartment and the purification or dilute compartment. Ions migrate
and accumulate in the concentrating compartments where they are washed away into the
reject stream. The water leaving this compartment contains a concentration of ions
approximately 10-20 times higher than the original feedwater. This water may be drained or
reclaimed for further treatment.
 At the top of the purification compartments, the ion concentration is at its highest. Here the
surface of the resin beads acts as a conductive path effectively moving the ions to the
membrane. At the lower end of the purification compartments, where the ion concentration
has been reduced to the ppt level, the electric field becomes concentrated between the
resin beads and the surrounding water.
 Due to this localized potential water gets split in to H+ and OH– ions. The H+ and OH- ions
regenerate the cation and anion exchange resin beads, respectively, by replacing other trace
ions remaining attached to them.
This is exactly what happens to resin beads when acid and alkali solutions are used
for regeneration in conventional deionization systems.
 As a result, an EDI system does not need chemicals for regeneration. The electric potential
does all the work.
 An EDI system can consistently remove dissolved materials such as salts, weakly ionized
materials such as low molecular organics, carbon dioxide, silica, and boron. The continuous
regeneration process also eliminates pH shock and greatly extends the life of the resins.

Benefits
 Removes dissolved inorganics/low molecular organics effectively and gives reliable and
consistent water quality. A constant flow of Type II with water Resistivity: >15MΩ • cm at 25
°C and TOC < 30 ppb is obtained.
 It is environmentally friendly with no chemical regeneration, no chemical disposal, no resin
disposal, and low energy consumption.
 Inexpensive Operation Cost:
  Low Maintenance - long life-cycle because of continuous regeneration of the ion exchange
resins inside the module (little exhaustion)

Limitations
Feed water requires good quality water of feed water for economical operation. A prior RO
treatment is essential.
Hence its application is in the production of ultrapure water.
 DEIONISER - ION EXCHANGE RESINS

Cation exchanger followed by anion exchanger:

REVERSE OSMOSIS PLANT

ELECTRODEIONISER
 ELECTROPLATING

Electrolytic deposition of a metal on a conducting surface.

OBJECTIVES OF ELECTROPLATING
REQUIREMENTS FOR ELECTROPLATING:

DC power Rectifier which is a low voltage, high current system which provides
supply Maximum voltage - 12 V; current – upto 1500 A

Plating Alkaline electrolyte – mild steel tank

Tank Acidic electrolyte – Mild steel lined with PVC or fibre reinforced plastic.
Electrodes Cathode – substrate (called as job)
Anode
Soluble anodes: In most cases, the metal to be deposited is used as anode
and is called soluble anode. The metal dissolves from the anode in to the
bath solution and gets deposited from the bath at the cathode. In this case,
metal ion concentration in the bath does not change.

Insoluble anodes – When there are practical difficulties in using soluble

anodes, an inert metal is used as the anode. In this case, the metal ion
concentration in the bath decreases and hence periodic addition of
electrolyte, called as replenishing is essential.
Eg., lead – antimony alloy is used as anode in chromium plating.
Electrolyte Main components:
 Simple salt of metal ion to be deposited. Usually sulphates give
good deposits. Chlorides give coarse deposits when used alone.
When used in combination with sulphates, they give good deposits.
 Some electrolytes – they do not participate in the electrode
reaction; but are used in high concentrations to increase the
conductivity of the solution and also control the pH.
Other components added
 Complexing agents like cyanide or pyrophosphate - metal ion is
complexed and its reduction potential becomes more negative and
hence prevents immersion plating. They aid in formation of fine
grained and more adherent deposits.
 Organic additives –
 Levellers – for obtaining deposits of even thickness
 Brighteners – Eg., thiourea. They cause brightening by
promoting the deposition with small grain size.
 Wetting agents – In most electroplating processes, H2 gas is
evolved at cathode. If the gas gets entrapped in the deposit,
it will lead to hydrogen embrittlement i.e., formation of
blisters on the deposit when the gas escapes out.
In order to release the gas from the surface, wetting
agents are used e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate.

Other Metallic wires or metal plates called bus bars to which the electrodes are
accessories attached through fixers called jigs.
PRETREATMENT OF SUBSTRATES:

1. Acid Pickling ( to remove oxide scales on the surface of the substrate)

Treated with 40-50 % HCl or
10-30% H2SO4 acids
2. Mechanical Polishing of the substrate using a mild abrasive wheel:
During polishing, buffing soap is used to improve the efficiency of polishing. The
buffing soap contains waxy substances and lubricating oil.
3. Degreasing (to remove the oily or waxy particles picked up by the metal during
polishing). The substrate is treated with hot (80℃) alkaline solution containing,
sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and sodium orthophosphate.

REACTIONS OCCURRING DURING ELECTROPLATING:

At anode - oxidation occurs
If soluble anode is used : M →Mn+ + ne (dissolution of the metal into the electrolyte)
If insoluble anode is used : H2O →1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e (oxygen evolution occurs)

At cathode( substrate) – reduction occurs : Mn+ + ne → M

Steps involved during electrodeposition:

1. Mass transport in the solution i.e., diffusion of metal ions to the cathode surface.
2. Formation of metal atoms by electron transfer between the substrate and metal ion in
the electrolyte.
3. Diffusion of metal atoms on the surface of the cathode to the most favourable sites.

The rates of the above three processes decide the overall rate of electroplating.

EFFICIENCY OF ELECTROPLATING:

The efficiency of an electroplating process can be determined and reported as current or

cathode efficiency and as energy efficiency.

(A) Current or Cathode Efficiency of Electroplating:

The current efficiency of an electroplating process is defined as the ratio of the actual mass of
metal deposited to the theoretical mass computed using Faraday’s laws.

The current efficiency (%) of the electroplating process = X 100

The actual mass deposited can be determined by weighing the substrate before plating
and after plating. The difference between the weights gives the actual mass of metal
deposited.
The theoretical mass of metal electrodeposited on a cathode when a current of I
Amperes is passed for t seconds is
m=ZIt (in g)
Z is the electrochemical equivalent of the metal = g/C
Equivalent weight =
Reasons for reduced current efficiency:
The current efficiency of any plating process is always less than 100%, even when carried out
under optimised conditions. The reasons are:
(i) Wastage of current due to undesired reactions like hydrogen evolution.
(ii) Entry of impurities from the anode into the bath. These impurities may utilise some
current but not get deposited at the cathode.
(iii)Organic additives added to improve the quality of the deposit may consume current to
undergo some transformation.
(iv) Current can be utilised to electrically heat the bath to carry out the plating at elevated
temperature.

(B) Energy Efficiency of electroplating:

It is the ratio of power required for electroplating to the actual power spent on electroplating.
In other words, it is the ratio of minimum required voltage to the actual voltage applied.

Energy efficiency(%) = X 100

The actual voltage applied is always higher than the minimum required voltage.

PLATING PARAMETERS:

In order to achieve maximum efficiency and to get a good quality deposit, plating parameters
like applied potential, current density, temperature, pH, additives required and their
concentrations are optimised by trial experiments using Hull Cell, which is miniature
electroplating unit.

I. APPLIED POTENTIAL:

The potential to be applied for continuous electrodeposition to occur is determined by

applying increasing potentials between electrodes in the electrolytic cell and measuring the
current passing through the cell.

Initially, there is no significant increase in current as the potential is increased. At a certain

potential, the current increases sharply indicating continuous electrolysis. This potential is the
decomposition potential and is defined as the minimum potential required for the continuous
decomposition of the electrolyte.
The potential applied for electroplating should be at least slightly higher than the
decomposition potential. At very high potentials hydrogen evolution occurs which is
undesirable and hence the operating limit for potential is hydrogen evolution.

Decomposition potentials of metals like Zn, Fe etc., are very high because they
possess high solution pressures i.e., they have a greater tendendy to pass into the solution as
ions.

Decomposition potentials of metals like Cu and Ni because they possess low solution
pressures.

Note: The practical decomposition potentials of electrolytes are found to be

considerably higher than their equilibrium or theoretical values, the reason being
polarisation of electrodes. This reduces the energy efficiency of the electroplating.

Polarisation:

The deviation of decomposition potentials from their equilibrium values is due to

polarisation of electrodes (deviation of electrode potentials from their theoretical values).

Overpotential(η):

It is defined as the potential over and above the equilibrium potential that has to be applied
for continuous electrolysis to occur. In other words the magnitude of polarisation is called as
overpotential.

Causes of polarisation or types of polarisation and methods to minimise them:

(a) Activation polarisation: slow kinetics of electrode reactions::

Activation polarisation is significant and occurs due to high activation energies
required for electrode reactions. Electrode reactions involve transfer of electrons
between the electrode and a species in the electrolyte and subsequent formation of the
products of electrolysis. The product formation at electrodes may be single step or
multi-step process.
If any of the steps involved in the electrode reactions is slow it causes
polarisation of the electrodes. Thus, the polarisation caused by the reduced rate of
electrode reactions due to involvement of higher activation energies is called as
activation polarisation and the over potential associated with it is called as activation
overpotential.
Activation polarisation depends on the nature of the reaction and nature of substrate.
(i) Nature of reaction:
Polarisation and hence the overvoltage is higher in gas discharge reactions,
compared to metal ion discharge reactions. For example, higher potentials are
required for the evolution of H2 and O2 on substrates. The overpotentials are
called hydrogen or oxygen overvoltage.
Hydrogen evolution occurs in two steps:
H+ +e →H (fast)
 H + H → H2 (slow) hence voltage higher than theoretical value is required
for its evolution.
Significance: It would not be possible to electroplate metals having low
reduction potentials from their acidic solutions if hydrogen overvoltage
was not high.
(ii) Nature of the substrate:
The overpotential required to carry out the same reaction on different
substrates is different.
For e.g., the overpotential required to deposit silver on mild steel is
different from that required to deposit it over brass or copper. This may be due
to the difference in the rates of electron transfer from the substrates to Ag+
ions.
Similarly, the hydrogen overvoltage on lead is different from that on
Platinum.
The surface characteristics of the substrates also play a vital role in
deciding the overpotential. For eg., Hydrogen overpotential on smooth
graphite is different from that on coarse or porous graphite.

Minimisation: Activation overpotential can be reduced by increasing the temperature.

Rates of electrode reactions are increased as temperature increases.

(b) Concentration Polarisation: concentration gradients set up in the electrolytes:

During electroplating, as electrolysis proceeds, the concentration of metal ions near

the cathode decreases and that near the anode increases. If the diffusion of metal ions
is slow, a concentration gradient is formed in the electrolyte, with progressively
decreasing metal ion concentration in the vicinity of the cathode surface. This opposes
the applied potential and hence the applied potential has to be increased for
continuous electrolysis to take place.

This deviation in decomposition potential of the electrolyte from its theoretical

value, caused due to the setup of a concentration gradient in the electrolyte is called
concentration polarisation and the overpotential applied is called concentration
overpotential.

Minimisation: Concentration polarisation can be greatly reduced by efficient

agitation of the electrolyte – air agitation is used.

(c) Internal resistance polarisation:

The polarisation caused due to called internal resistance in the electroplating system
(resistance offered by the connectors and other accessories, the electrolytes) is called
internal resistance overpotential. Internal resistance is the major factor causing
polarisation.
Minimisation:
 By using proper materials with proper dimensions for the connecting lines.
 By using highly conducting electrolytes and at high concentrations.
 By positioning the anode and cathode at optimum distance. If they are far
apart, resistance will be high. If they are too close concentration polarisation
will increase.
(d) Accumulation of products of electrolysis on the electrode surface:
Accumulation of products of electrolysis on electrodes also causes polarisation in
them.
For e.g., If there is hydrogen evolution along with electrodeposition of metal,
hydrogen gas may get adsorbed on the substrate surface. The hydrogen film formed
on the cathode increases its resistance.
In some cases, the accumulated products on the two electrodes of the electrolytic
cell (for e.g., H2 adsorption on cathode and O2 adsorption on anode) may force the
electrodes to behave as a galvanic cell, producing an emf which opposes the applied
potential. This emf is also called back emf and it leads to increased overpotential.

II. CURRENT OR CURRENT DENSITY:

The practical parameter that is directly linked to the rate of deposition is the
applied current. For the same rate of deposition, the current applied for substrates
with different areas must be different. Hence, instead of optimising current for
different areas, the current density is optimised. The current density relates the
current required for maintaining a particular rate of deposition and the surface area
of the substrate. It is the current per unit area, usually expressed in A/dm2.
Current passed = Current density X Area
The optimum current density required to obtain a good quality deposit is
determined using the hull cell.

Other important parameters that are optimised are the pH, temperature and
additives required and their concentration. Usually additives are taken in small
quantities.
 COPPER ELECTROPLATING
Application:
 Stainless steel vessels(copper bottom) and boilers are electroplated with copper for
imparting better thermal conductivity.
 Epoxy boards are coated with copper in the production of PCBs – electrical
conductivity
 Copper electrodeposition is done to serve as an undercoat for automobile parts – steel
is first given a coating of Cu, followed by Ni and then Cr.

Copper electroplating bath used in electronics industry:

Copper pyrophosphate bath

Copper pyrophosphate
Potassium pyrophosphate
Both combine to form the complex [Cu(P2O7)2]6-

Potassium nitrate – cathodic depolariser i.e., prevents H2 evolution.

NO3- +10H+ + 8e →NH4+ +3H2O

Ammonia – to maintain pH

Anode - Copper
Voltage - 3V
Current density - 3-6 A/dm2
pH - 8
Temperature ≈60℃

Has high throwing power – tendency to give uniform deposits.

Hence used in the electronics industry

ELECTROLESS PLATING:

Electroless plating is the deposition of metal on a substrate using a reducing agent.

Advantages:

1. Metal deposition on insulators is possible.

2. Good throwing power. Substrates having irregular shapes can be plated uniformly.
3. Deposit has good wear resistance.
4. Deposit has low porosity and hence high corrosion resistance compared to
electroplated deposits.

Disadvantages:

1. Chemicals used are expensive.

2. Slow rate of deposition( deposition occurs at only 2µm per hour). Only thin deposits
can be obtained.
3. Periodic replenishing of bath components and careful control of bath composition is
essential
General bath components and their roles:

1. Soluble salt of metal to be deposited (chlorides or sulphates).

2. Reducing agent like formaldehyde and hypophosphate.
3. Complexing agent like tartarate, citrate, succinate. These form complexes with metal
ion, thus decreasing the concentration of free metal ions to be reduced. Without
complexing agents, bulk reduction and deposition of the metal will take place.
Because of decrease in metal ion concentration the rate of plating is also
decreased.
4. Exaltant like succinate, fluoride, glycinate. This enhances the plating rate by
increasing the rate of the oxidation reaction.
5. Stabilizers like thiourea to prevent decomposition of the bath solution.
6. Buffers like sodium acetate to control pH which is very critical factor affecting the
quality of the deposit.

Pretreatment or Activation of substrates:

1. Metallic substrates:
 Degreasing using organic solvents followed by etching in acids. Etching
activates the metal surfaces.
 Some metal or alloy surfaces are activated by coating another metal on them,
which is usually done by electroplating.
2. Non-metallic substrates (non-conductors):
Plastic substrates are activated using the following treatments in sequence:
 Microetching in con.H2SO4.
 Sensitisation in a solution containing con.HCl and 10% SnCl2. Sn atoms are
adsorbed on the surface forming active centres.
 Activation in PdCl2 solution. Pd atoms are adsorbed on the active centres.

COPPER ELECTROLESS PLATING:

Copper electroless plating

Copper sulphate – Main electrolyte

Formaldehyde – reducing agent

EDTA – complexing agent cum exhaltant

NaOH + Roschelle’s salt - Buffer

pH - 11

Temperature - 25℃
Redn: Cu2+ + 2e → Cu
Oxdn:2HCHO+4OH- →2HCOO-+2H2O+ H2 + 2e
Cu2++2HCHO+4OH- → 2HCOO-+H2O +H2 + Cu

The consumption of OH- ions during the reaction leads to decrease in pH and hence buffer
is required.

Used in the production of PCBs and for EMI shielding in electronics.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROPLATING AND ELECTROLESS PLATING:

(i) Production of Plated Through Hole Printed circuit boards

(ii) Electroforming and Production of CD stampers.

THROUGH HOLE ASSEMBLY OF PCBs:

In this type of assembly, holes are provided on the board for assembling the different
components.

Advantages of the method:

 simple
 can be done manually
 cost effective
 rework is easy.
Disadvantages:

In this method, double sided assembly is rare and the device density(number of components
in a given area of a microchip) is less.

The modern assembling method is the surface mount technology (SMT) where the
leads of different components are attached to the PCB surface only. The advantages of SMT
are: the assembling is automated, double sided assemby is possible and device density is
high. But, rework on a pcb is difficult and the method is expensive since it requires
automation.

Even though SMT is advantageous, the through hole technology is still used by small
scale industries, and for making prototype pcbs for evaluation of a circuit layout before using
SMT, and by individuals interested in working on electronics.
STEPS INVOVED IN MANUFACTURE OF PCBs BY THROUGH-HOLE-PLATING
TECHNOLOGY

Epoxy Plastic board

Holes are drilled wherever required

Holes

1. Metallisation
(a) Activation of the surface
(i) Etched in con.H2SO4
(ii) Sensitised in a solution containing con.HCl and 10% SnCl2. Sn atoms
are adsorbed on the surface forming active centres.
(iii) Activated in PdCl2 solution. Pd atoms are adsorbed on the active
centres.
(b) Electroless plating of Cu :
The activated board is treated with a solution containing CuSO4 + HCHO +
EDTA + alkaline roschelles salt.
2. Electroplating of copper:
The board having the thin Cu coating becomes conducting and is subjected to Cu
electroplating from a copper pyrophosphate bath and Cu is plated through Hole.

Cu coating (25 to 50µm thickness) ( only one side shown for

illustration)
1. A negative photoresist is coated on the board by spin coating.
2. UV light is allowed to strike the photoresist layer through a mask having the
required circuit pattern. The photoresist gets hardened at the portions exposed to
light.

Photomask having the required circuit pattern

Photoresist coating

Hardened photoresist
Photoresist from unexposed areas are removed
using organic solvents called developers
 The board is left with the Cu coating protected with hardened
Photoresist in the circuit areas

1. The hardened photoresist and the holes are made acid resistant by
sprinkling rosin powder.
2. Cu from the non-circuit areas is removed by chemical etching in a
solution containing acidified FeCl3.
Cu + 2Fe3+ →Cu2+ + 2Fe2+
During the etching process Cu in the circuit areas are protected by the
hardened photoresist.

The hardened resist is then removed using 10% NaOH solution.

PCB Board with the patterned copper track. Further, a thin gold coating is given on the
copper circuit for better electrical conductivity.