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A Model for Tour Guide Performance

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DOI: 10.1080/15256480.2021.1905584

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 International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism
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A Model for Tour Guide Performance

Nour Salah Al-Okaily

To cite this article: Nour Salah Al-Okaily (2021): A Model for Tour Guide
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INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION
https://doi.org/10.1080/15256480.2021.1905584

ARTICLE

A Model for Tour Guide Performance

Nour Salah Al-Okaily
Department of Tourism Management, School of Archaeology and Tourism, The University of Jordan,
Amman, Jordan

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Tourism literature currently lacks a cohesive framework for tour Received 19 September 2020
guide performance. Using qualitative interviews gleaned from Revised 21 January 2021
Jordanian tour guides, this study introduces an integrative Accepted 24 January 2021
model for tour guide performance that expands upon the cur­ KEYWORDS
rent literature in job performance. By focusing on three areas: Tour guides; work
task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance, a variety performance; model; Jordan
of tour-guide specific behaviors were identified and categorized
thematically under these patterned types of work performance.
This study advances the academic understanding of the field
and provides future directions for systematic tourism research.
Practical implications for enhancing tour guides’ professional­
ism are also provided.

Introduction
A review of the literature for tourism highlights the subject of ‘tour guiding’ as
having been a research focus since the 1980s, with a number of studies focused
on examining a variety of research questions (e.g., Alrawadieh et al., 2020; Ap
& Wong, 2001; Christie & Mason, 2003; Cohen, 1985; Geva & Goldman, 1991;
Holloway, 1981; Leshem, 2018; Parsons et al., 2019; Randall & Rollins, 2009;
Weiler & Black, 2015). While this field is receiving increased attention, with
each study focusing on illuminating a particular aspect of tour guiding, further
empirical research from interdisciplinary perspectives aimed at providing
greater understanding about the complexities of tour guides’ work in the
changing tourism industry is required. Okumus et al. (2018) underpinned
this view, suggesting that interdisciplinary tourism research is a nest for
innovation and a worthwhile tool for addressing complex research problems
that would otherwise be misrepresented.
These arguments particularly hold true in relation to studies examining tour
guide performance. While a growing body of research has dealt with this
construct as a means of enhancing the professionalism of tour guides (e.g.,
Cetin & Yarcan, 2017; Chang, 2014; Heung, 2008; Huang, 2010; Huang et al.,
2010; Hwang & Lee, 2019; Seyitoğlu, 2020; Zhang & Chow, 2004), there have
been few, if any, research attempts to define and frame the key dimensions that

CONTACT Nour Salah Al-Okaily n.okaily@ju.edu.jo Department of Tourism Management, School of

Archaeology and Tourism, The University of Jordan, Amman 11942, Jordan.
© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 N. S. AL-OKAILY

make up the construct based on job performance theories. This omission has
resulted in certain flaws in operationalizing tour guide performance that can
be described as being at best unsystematic and partly inaccurate (see Table 1).
The lack of a systematic treatment for ‘tour guide performance’ as a con­
struct is a major focus of this study. This is perhaps due to the overreliance on
hypothesized measures of prior researchers’ propositions, one in which tour
guide performance was treated either as being attributes-based (e.g., Huang,
2010; Zhang & Chow, 2004), or as being multidimensional (e.g., Heung, 2008;
Hwang & Lee, 2019). Each research strand examined has also lacked any
agreed upon structure. This has resulted in numerous attributes for examining
tour guide performance. This synthesizing approach contrasts with the orga­
nizational psychological perspective, in which job performance is viewed as
being a latent abstract notion explicated through defined dimensions and
operationalized through interrelated indicators (Campbell, 1990;
Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000).
Another limitation observed in these studies is the selection of inappropri­
ate guiding attributes employed for performance measurement. In other
words, previous studies do not uniformly represent performance attributes
(e.g., Hwang & Lee, 2019; Zhang & Chow, 2004). Some traits represented
necessary guiding qualities (e.g., communication), and others confused per­
formance concepts with such indicators as personality traits (e.g., whether
guides were polite and friendly), performance determinants (e.g., training),
and emotional intelligence (e.g., dealing with self-emotions). Job performance
studies perceived the latter indicators as being predictors of performance, but
not attributes with which to evaluate the construct (see Barrick & Mount,
1991; Hogan & Holland, 2003). This lack of accuracy also appears to extend to
the inclusion of attributes inconsistent with the associated dimension (e.g.,
Chang, 2014; Heung, 2008; Huang et al., 2010). For example, Huang et al.
(2010) identified ‘problem-solving’ as a dimension contributing to English-
speaking tour guide performance in Shanghai, which comprised conflict-
solving and knowledge of the history of the destination.
This stream of research, therefore, could be said to exist in a pre-paradig­
matic state of development. This state is particularly unfortunate because tour
guides often help to mediate understanding between the host and guest over
sustained periods of time. Tour guide performance therefore is typically
conceived as being considerably influential on both sides of the industry. In
this context, tourism authors agree that tour guides’ performance goes well
beyond the role of merely impacting tourist satisfaction and worldviews, to
making or breaking their overall actual experience (Alrawadieh et al., 2020;
Christie & Mason, 2003). The guides’ performance can also influence the
construction of a destination image along with the sustainability of tourism
resources through their interpretations and practices during their tours
(Randall & Rollins, 2009). From a micro-level perspective, in a destination, a
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 3

qualified guide can increase the revenues of tourism businesses by increasing

tourists’ satisfaction, and engendering sustained loyalty (Lin et al., 2014).
This study therefore aims, first, to address this gap in knowledge by
examining the applicability of theories observed in the job performance
literature, intending to lay foundations for further development of the model
of tour guide performance. Such a model would help advance academics’
understanding and pave the way for future studies in this growing body of
research. It can also serve as a basis for improving tour guide professionalism
and thereby enhance their unique contributions to successful tourism.

Literature Review
Research on Tour Guides

Early tourism studies have explored the roles of tour guides. Holloway (1981)
suggested that the main role of the tour guide is to serve as an ‘information
giver’ and a ‘mediator’. Later, Cohen (1985) emphasized that the tour guide’s
roles included acting as a ‘pathfinder’ and ‘mentor’. A pathfinder is a geo­
graphic guide who helps navigate through unfamiliar settings, whereas the role
of the mentor involves giving interpretations of the places visited. The label of
‘organizer’ has also been applied (Weiler et al., 1992). Pond (1993) also
suggested four main roles of the tour guide: as a leader who assumes respon­
sibilities; an educator who enhances tourists’ understanding of the visited
social environment; an ambassador who represents the destination visited;
and finally, as a host who accommodates the guests in every possible way.
More recently, Weiler and Yu (2007) emphasized the role of the tour guide as a
cultural broker through which they mediate three tour-related issues: physical
access, social encounters, and meaningful understanding of the places visited.
Another strand of research examined the influence of tour guides’ perfor­
mance on tourists’ satisfaction with different aspects of their destination
experience. The results of such studies have been mixed. Some research
found that tour guides’ performance impacted on tourists’ satisfaction with
the tour, and subsequently, their loyalty in terms of recommendations and
return intentions (e.g., Çetı̇ nkaya & Öter, 2016; Chan et al., 2015). A contrast­
ing strand of research indicated that tour guides’ services had limited direct
impact on tourist satisfaction with the tour operators and with the overall
tourist experience (e.g., Geva & Goldman, 1991; Huang et al., 2010). A possible
explanation for this is that a tour guide functions as a meditator who stimu­
lates relationships and understanding between tourists, various service provi­
ders, and the local community in a host destination (Alrawadieh et al., 2020;
Dahles, 2002; Pond, 1993). However, the relationships between these parties
might be in conflict or they may have divergent interests, as for instance where
the desire to delight a group may be frustrated by the interest of tour operators
4 N. S. AL-OKAILY

and/or travel agencies (Holloway, 1981; Yu et al., 2002). Tour guides therefore
might change their performance style to better meet the demands of each
group with varying potential outcomes on tourists’ satisfaction.
In dealing with tour guide performance, however, authors have proposed
various measures with different levels of breadth and generality. The develop­
mental context of these measures can be classified as being either attribute-
based or multidimensional. The attribute-based stream involved studies that
treated tour guide performance in terms of specific traits that were assessed
directly (e.g., Ap & Wong, 2001; Cetin & Yarcan, 2017; Chan et al., 2015;
Huang, 2010; Pereira, 2015; Wong, 2001; Zhang & Chow, 2004). On the other
hand, the multidimensional approach focused on proposing higher-order
categories, each of which comprised sets of attributes that were examined
directly (e.g., Chang, 2014; Heung, 2008; Huang et al., 2010; Hwang & Lee,
2019; Leclerc & Martin, 2004; Seyitoğlu, 2020). Table 1 summarizes the
seminal studies that deal with tour guide performance.

Table 1. Summary of Key Published Studies Related to Tour Guide Performance.

Study Dimensions Attributes
Zhang and - Punctual, problems-solving, knowledge of the destination,
Chow honest and trustworthy, inform safety regulations, deliver
(2004) promised services, polite, presentation skills, well-trained,
itinerary briefing, respect customers, communicate well in
Mandarin, friendly, generate friendly atmosphere, be neat and
tidy, available for help, pay attention to details, information
about destination’s customs, introduce reliable shops, sense of
humor.
Heung (2008) Presentation and Punctual, presentation on safety, itinerary briefing, friendly,
communication respectful, communication skills.
Professional attitude and Sense of humor, attention to details, helpful, problem solving,
ability well-trained.
Professional knowledge Being neat and tidy, knowledge about the destination, arranged
services as promised.
Personal integrity Honest and trustworthy, polite and courteous.
Huang (2010) - Code of ethics, interpersonal communication, punctuality, sense
of responsibility, sound judgment, politeness, commentary
skills, passion for work, following itinerary, information of
safety issues, knowledge of history, knowledge of attractions,
honesty and trustworthiness, good health, knowledge of
culture, corporation with other staff, coping, good personality,
neat and appropriate appearance, proficiency of language,
problem solving, friendliness, generating rapport in the group,
caring, accessible, time management, meeting customers
psychological needs, standing in the shoes of a customer,
knowledge of tourists culture, helpful, knowledge of local
lifestyle, organizing tour activities, complaints handling skills,
sense of humor, introducing reliable shops.
(Continued)
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 5

Table 1. (Continued).
Study Dimensions
Huang et al. Chinese-speaking guide
(2010) Intrapersonal servability
Interpersonal servability
English-speaking guide
Professional competence
Interpersonal skills and
organization
Empathy
Problem-solving
Chang (2014) Presentation and
communication
Professional attitude and
ability
Personal appearance/manners
and integrity/knowledge
Pereira - Knowledge of history, knowledge of geography, knowledge of
(2015)
Hwang and Professional knowledge
Lee (2019)
Professional skills
Professional attitude
Attributes
Knowledge of the destination, empathy, health conditions,
passion toward work, service attitude.
Self-presentation and communication skills.
Knowledge of the local culture, knowledge of attractions and
people lifestyle, sense of humor, customer needs awareness,
commentary and communication skills.
Complaints-handling skills, good grooming and appearance,
ability to cooperate with staff, time management, organization
of tour activities, good health.
Making sound judgment, meeting tourists’ needs, passion for
work.
Conflicts solving and knowledge of a destination history.
Information of safety and security, communication and
presentation skill, itinerary briefing, punctual, friendly,
respected tour members.
Paid attention to details, well-trained, problem-solving, sense of
humor, helpful.
Knowledge of the destination, polite and courteous, arranged all
the services on the itinerary, being neat and tidy, honest and
trustworthy.
popular culture, etiquette, first aid, leader, empathetic and
expressive in communication, articulated, ethical, quiet, leisure
techniques, problem solving, group techniques.
Knowledge of attractions, preparing-well, explanations of
presentations, broad tourism knowledge, knowledge of the
local culture.
Communication skills, understanding tourists’ thoughts,
satisfying tourists’ needs, language fluency.
Honest, dealing with self-emotions, optimistic, humorous.

A synthesis of the above table suggests that although tour guide perfor­
mance is receiving increased attention, with the focus of each study outlining
particular aspects of this construct, none is entirely sufficient in offering
meaningful understanding of tour guides’ performance. That is, both research
streams were frequently fragmented, lacking a unifying structure, and includ­
ing guiding items other than performance. This paper aims to rectify this by
identifying latent dimensions of tour guide performance. A review of studies
on job performance suggests its importance.

Research on Job Performance

Some key authors have defined job performance in terms of behaviors
involved in accomplishing a given task in a work situation, rather than as
the outcomes or consequences of such behaviors (Campbell, 1990; Rotundo &
Sackett, 2002). Emphasis is also placed on behaviors that impact on the
fulfillment of an organization’s goals which can be evaluated in terms of
each person’s proficiency. A contrasting strand of research has defined
6 N. S. AL-OKAILY

performance as including both behaviors and the resultant outcomes linked

with the organizational goals (Bernardin & Beatty, 1984; Viswesvaran & Ones,
2000). This paper concerns tour guide behavioral performance, since the
outcomes for which the profession exists depend upon a variety of factors
outside the control of the tour guides.
A spectrum of behaviors falls under this general conception of job perfor­
mance. Various models have been proposed to explain the underlying structure
of the construct over time, either for specific occupations (e.g., Borman & Brush,
1993; Conway, 1999), or cross-occupations (e.g., Borman & Motowidlo, 1993;
Campbell, 1990). However, authors observed three broad key dimensions across
domains: task, citizenship, and counterproductive work performance
(Koopmans et al., 2013; Rotundo & Sackett, 2002; Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000).
Task performance is included as a fundamental dimension of job perfor­
mance in most studies of organizational psychology. A variety of labels are
used to describe this component, such as job-specific task proficiency
(Campbell, 1990), technical proficiency (Borman & Brush, 1993), and in-role
performance (Bakker et al., 2004). These authors in essence defined task
performance as the extent to which one performs key duties and responsibil­
ities as typically described in the job description. From this definitional
perspective, task performance differs from other patterns of behaviors in two
ways: its capacity to contribute to the technical functions of the organization
and its being formally identified as a fundamental part of the job (Borman et
al., 2010; Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Rotundo & Sackett, 2002). This implies
that core tasks vary from one job to another, depending on the special
requirements of each profession.
Citizenship performance refers to discretionary behaviors that are not
recognized in the reward system, but which contribute to the effective opera­
tion of the organization (Organ, 1988). Different labels are used to describe
these types of behavior, such as contextual performance (Borman &
Motowidlo, 1993), extra-role behaviors (Bakker et al., 2004), and non-job-
specific task proficiency (Campbell, 1990). Irrespective of the labels, emphasis
is placed on three main premises of citizenship performance: that they are
voluntary behaviors that exceed formal job requirements; that they are not
directly rewarded; and that they support the social and psychological environ­
ment in which organizational goals are pursued (Borman & Motowidlo, 1993;
Trivellas et al., 2019). As such, scholars have proposed different dimensions to
describe citizenship behaviors. For example, Borman and Motowidlo (1993)
five-dimensional model comprised: adhering to rules, helping coworkers,
persisting with enthusiasm, volunteering, and supporting organizational
objectives. Subsequently, Podsakoff et al. (2000) identified seven themes com­
monly used to describe citizenship in this extent literature: compliance, sports­
manship, civic virtue, organizational loyalty, helping, initiative and self-
development.
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 7

By contrast, counterproductive work behaviors describe actions that impact

harmfully on the wellbeing of the organization (Murphy, 1992; Rotundo &
Sackett, 2002). A number of dimensions have been proposed to explain such
behaviors that detract from organizational goals. For instance, Murphy’s
(1992) proposition included downtime behaviors like work-avoidance, and
destructive behaviors that lead to a clear risk to productivity and damage.
Robinson and Bennett (1995) explained that deviant behavior in organizations
is directed either at the organization or at its members. They also noted that
the severity of this deviance may vary from minor to more serious forms of
each type. More recent researchers have reported other forms of workplace
misconduct such as property damage, violation of regulations, theft, decep­
tion, tardiness, abuse against others, misuse of information, sexual harassment
and substance abuse (Bennett & Robinson, 2000; Furnham & Taylor, 2004;
Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000).
This literature review generally reflects the relativistic nature of the perfor­
mance concept, stemming from the fact that while these key categories can be
sufficient to describe the latent structure of the construct at a general level, the
underlying sub-dimensions can vary in their importance and scope across
jobs, depending on the unique requirements of each job (Campbell, 1990;
Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). These observations provide further justification
for undertaking this study. While employing job performance theories may be
useful in laying the foundations of a performance model for a given job, a
specific study in a tour-guiding context aiming at providing a relevant script
for their work behaviors is needed.

Methodology
Background of the Researched Subjects
Tour guiding is one of the main professions found in the Jordanian tourist
industry, with 1,229 individuals currently registered as guides (MOTA, 2020).
Tour guide education and accreditation in Jordan is administered by the
Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities (MOTA). It is a multiphase process
that begins with applicants being assessed for their language proficiency
through written and oral language exams. Once this is verified, applicants
are then personally interviewed to determine whether or not they possess the
necessary qualities, such as overall communication skills. Assuming that a
minimum standard is achieved, the applicant then attends a number of official
courses on tour guiding that focus on different aspects pertinent to tourism
and Jordanian society. According to MOTA’s regulations (1998), the success­
ful applicant can be awarded one of two licenses. The first is a regional one for
tour guides who plan on working in defined localized areas, and the second is a
national-level license that allows guides to work anywhere in the country. This
8 N. S. AL-OKAILY

study is important to tourism growth in Jordan as it may serve as a baseline to

enhance the professionalism of tour guides.
Method
Fieldwork was carried out to check for the applicability of theories related to
task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance in a tour guiding con­
text. It also aimed to identify the real-world factors rooted in tour guide
practices that might fall under each of these meta-categories. The researcher
assumed two philosophical stances in order to address the current research
questions: an ontological view that the social world consists of multi-con­
structed realties, and epistemology where the researcher is an active partici­
pant in the process of understanding and interpreting the phenomenon under
investigation (Dowling, 2007; Pernecky & Jamal, 2010). That is, the study
adopted interpretive qualitative paradigms and followed Heidegger’s (1996)
conceptualizations on hermeneutic phenomenology. This approach offered a
rich opportunity for illuminating details related to the lived experiences of
tour guides, with a view to creating meanings and achieving understanding of
their behavioral performance (Pernecky & Jamal, 2010; Van Manen, 1997).
The empirical data were collected through semi-structured interviews with a
number of local tour guides. Interview questions, driven by the literature, were
used to define the study scope in order to ensure openness to empirical data
(Goulding, 2005). This consisted of question-sets focusing on three main
themes: core guiding responsibilities necessary for completion of a guided
tour; discretionary guiding behaviors that are not directly remunerated, but
are nonetheless important, as they contribute toward successful tourism; and
finally misconduct or unprofessional behaviors that may have been exhibited by
tour guides. Probing questions were also posed as appropriate during the inter­
views to obtain further insights into tour guides’ work practices and behaviors.
The interviews were conducted from November to December of 2019 in the
Jordanian capital, Amman. The Jordanian Tour Guide Association (JTGA) was
first approached to obtain a list of contact details for their tour guides. A guide
who was already familiar with the author further helped by acting as a gatekeeper
to other guides from this list. Potential respondents were selected based on a
snowball purposive sampling technique (Patton, 2014), such as work experience
in the field and thus a potential source of valuable data. The total sample size
built up to 21 tour guides, who were recruited from diverse backgrounds and
work experience (18 were national guides, and three were site-specific local
guides from Petra). This was done to ensure capturing the multi-contextual
realities of the subjects’ lived experience (Patton, 2014). The total sample size
was sufficient to gain insight into various patterns of occupational behaviors
through the qualitative interview method (Creswell, 2007).
Each interview lasted on average 30–45 minutes and took place in public spaces
such as local cafés. Each interviewee was informed about the study’s purpose,
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 9

followed by assurance of their confidentiality and the voluntary nature of taking

part in the study. The empirical materials were captured via digital recording, with
the permission of the respondents. Following each interview, further supplemen­
tary field notes were recorded to facilitate meaningful understanding of the
phenomenon under investigation (Pernecky & Jamal, 2010). Field interviews
ended when it became clear that the data collected were becoming repetitive,
indicating that they had reached a point of saturation (Patton, 2014). All interviews
were done in Arabic, transcribed verbatim and translated into English by the
author.
The analytical steps for phenomenological data used and described by other
authors were adapted (e.g., Cavender et al., 2020; Goulding, 2005; Hamill &
Sinclair, 2010; Kalfe, 2011; van Manen, 1997). Interview transcripts and field
notes were first organized and examined to glean a sense of the whole, followed
by a more attentive cycle of re-readings to gain further meaningful insight into the
respondents’ practices and stories. The next analytic step focused on extracting
from the transcripts all statements describing tour guide practices as associated
with each of the meta-categories of job performance, followed by highlighting the
significant statements in the respondents’ accounts, and deleting duplicated state­
ments (Cavender et al., 2020; Goulding, 2005). This process proved particularly
useful in developing a detailed list of statements reflecting tour guide work
behaviors.
The data analysis process then focused on integrating or contextualizing con­
nections between an identified statement under a given category (Creswell, 2007).
For instance, statements related to ‘adaptability’, a category identified in the
‘citizenship’ empirical data, included examples such as handling physical work
pressure and social coping. As suggested by Creswell (2007), the process of naming
a category was based on ‘in vivo coding’, in which the term was selected from the
words of the respondents themselves; otherwise the author reflected on a list of
words and chose a name that best captured the category’s meaning. Categories
were further refined, with the empirical data revisited to ensure that parts were
integrated and comprehended as a whole, and to develop possible interpretations
as to a specific pattern of behavior (Creswell, 2007; Goulding, 2005).
The trustworthiness of this study was established through different forms of
triangulation, including data sources and theories (Creswell & Miller, 2000).
That is, various data from secondary and primary sources were collected, and
relevant scholarly literature on tourism and job performance was incorpo­
rated. The integrity of the data was also checked through member validation
(verification of the transcriptions with each respondent via e-mail).

Results
Analysis of the empirical evidence indicated that existing literature streams
relating to task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance were
10 N. S. AL-OKAILY

appropriate to establish meaningful understanding of patterns regarding tour

guides’ occupational behaviors. These three notions stand as theoretical grounds
for much of the research in the job performance literature (Koopmans et al.,
2013; Rotundo & Sackett, 2002; Viswesvaran & Ones, 2000). The relevance of
each of these meta-categories as building blocks for developing a performance
model specific to tour guides is illustrated in Table 2. and addressed below.

Table 2. Model of Tour Guide Performance.

Meta-category Sub-category Factors
Task performance Professional knowledge Knowledge mastering
Knowledge sharing
Knowledge application
Leadership Rapport building
Problem solving
Decision making
Instruction giving
Communication Verbal communication
Non-verbal communication
Management Planning tour activities
Organizing tourist experiences
Coordinating tour arrangements
Mentoring tour progress
Citizenship performance Helping Helping tourist beyond a guide’s group
Supporting local people
Assisting coworkers
Self-development Improving physical fitness
Expanding intellectual horizons
Enhancing social skills
Initiative Taking on extra responsibilities
Handling anticipated barriers to
performance
Compliance Promoting positive destination image
Dealing fairly with all coworkers
Maintaining a valid guiding license
Delivering professional services as
promised
Presenting clear and accurate information
Adaptability Handling work stress
Dealing with unpredictable work
situations
Embracing social adaptability
Demonstrating physical adaptability
Counterproductive work Deviance directed at the Violation of intra-profession policies
behaviors destination Delivery of falsified presentations
Abuse of certain tourism businesses
Deviance directed at the tour Discrimination
group Deception
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 11

Tour Guide Task Performance

Four salient empirical sub-categories comprised the central guiding responsi­

bilities: professional knowledge; leadership; interpersonal communication;
and management. This series of tasks was reported by almost all respondents
as being necessarily interrelated and essential for successful completion of a
guided tour.

Professional Knowledge
Job knowledge constitutes a central thread of tour guides’ task performance.
Data analysis indicated that the knowledge framework required for the profes­
sion included three main areas: information about the host destination’s
various features (e.g., history, culture, attractions), technical issues (e.g., safety
policies, itinerary, customer service), and tourists (e.g., language, motivations,
culture). For example, one tour guide stated:
Tour guide [sic] should learn about tourists’ culture, lifestyles and popular aspects; such
information contributes to enjoyable discussions . . . tourists commonly ask about the
local culture and religion. Any guide has to present clear and objective information to
address such queries

The findings also imply that these facets of knowledge encompass three main
behavioral aspects. The first, knowledge mastering, reflects the tour guide’s
acquisition of job-related information from different fields that may inform
and lead to enjoyable tour narratives. The second, knowledge sharing, refers to
the tour guide’s willingness to appropriately disseminate and exchange high-
quality information that may help fulfil the tourist’s quest for new knowledge
experiences. Finally, knowledge application focuses on the guide’s capacity to
apply their knowledge in the right temporal and spatial contexts to effectively
perform itinerary assignments.

Leadership
Almost all respondents identified leadership as another primary guiding task,
which crystallized into four interrelated sub-themes related to rapport-build­
ing, problem-solving, decision-making, and instruction-giving. The extract
below exemplifies these findings:
If a tour guide does not assume leadership responsibilities, who would do!! Tour guides
have to act as a leader in order to manage tourists and a tour. I must make sure that
everyone follows the tour rules to avoid any potential hassle; for example, if a tourist
keeps holding up the group this can cause tension within the group members

The empirical findings implied that tour guides assume a leadership role by
virtue of their professional knowledge and skills, as well as tourists’ need for a
catalyst to avoid social and topographical disorientation in a foreign destina­
tion. In other words, tour guides assume a de facto leadership position, one
12 N. S. AL-OKAILY

that confers upon them a certain degree of interpersonal influence in order to

empower desired behaviors in tourists’ concerns, which subsequently support
the efficient delivery of promised tour services. Fulfilling this role therefore
involves performance of a range of duties related to both social cohesion and
the overall tour experience. Relationship-oriented behaviors concern building
a positive social climate to better foster intergroup dynamics, through acts like
rapport-building and problem-solving. On the other hand, experience-
oriented behaviors focus on the immediate tasks that need to be performed
in order to maintain the tour dynamic. Therefore, tour guides within these
scenarios would make decisions and give clear instructions to motivate every­
one to keep up and act in compliance with the tour rules.

Communication
Effective communication was reported as a critical factor to tour guides’
success, manifested through both oral expressions like clear language and
vocabulary, and via body language such as pleasing facial expressions and
maintaining a suitable level of eye contact. One guide said:
[. . .] clear language is a key to successful tour. When speaking Italian fluently with the
tourists, it is like you gave them a chill pill. They feel connected

The empirical data implied that communication can be described as the ability
with which a tour guide conveys information that is clear and understandable.
The nature of the profession brings tour guides into daily face-to-face com­
munication with many different individuals for various purposes such as
presentations, interpretation, persuasion and building relationships. The pro­
ficiency of tour guides, particularly regarding verbal and non-verbal commu­
nication, therefore appeared as a prerequisite for successfully commanding
attention and attaining a variety of guiding purposes.

Managerial Tasks
Analysis of tour guides’ task performance uncovered a set of salient inter­
woven managerial topics, which included planning tour activities, organizing
tourists’ experiences, coordinating tour arrangements, and monitoring tour
progress. For example, one respondent posited:
At the start of every day, I remind tourists about the daily tour activities we would do . . .
practically, literally, we continuously have to follow up all things related to the tour to
handle any unforeseen circumstances

This series of tasks appeared oriented towered administering tour-related

activities, with a view to ensuring the smooth running of the tour with tourists
remaining content. As an example, most respondents said that they scheduled
daily planning exercises within itineraries to accommodate any potential
tourist uncertainties about the tour arrangements. These involved helping
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 13

them create ‘mind maps’ that helped outline the forthcoming encounters. The
extended daily responsibilities that tour guides perform involved organiza­
tional tasks which focused on the flow of tour events and their coordination in
time. This included organizing tourists’ experience within the duration of their
stay in the destinations visited (e.g. sightseeing), as well as coordinating tour
arrangements such as checking in and out of hotels and restaurants.
Monitoring was also reported as a continuous process of observing tour
activities to track a visit’s progress toward reaching a desired destination
experience. The purpose of this was to provide tourists and related service
providers with timely information on the progress or delay of itinerary
schedules so that any unexpected tour shortcomings could be handled
expediently.

Tour Guide Citizenship Performance

Five empirical facets explained tour guides’ constructive, voluntary, but indir­
ectly rewarded behaviors: helping; self-development; initiative; compliance;
and adaptability. This set of extra-role behaviors was flexible, reflecting the
variations in the unique contributions of tour guides from contrasting back­
grounds and work experience toward the multiple environments in which the
destination offerings are consumed.

Helping Behaviors
Helping was stated as being a major component of tour guiding citizenship.
Frequently reported manifestations of such behaviors were: voluntary acts of
kindness toward tourists outside the guide’s group, supporting local people’s
engagement in tourism, and assisting tourism coworkers by removing barriers
which may inhibit their performance. A tour guide articulated:
At times some tourists forget to double-check their belongings before checking out of the
hotel, and only realize that they missed things after arriving at another place. We [tour
guides] share such cases and tour details on our WhatsApp’s group to reach a guide who
can help and collect the tourist’s belongings

Different motivational grounds underpinned tour guides’ pro-social beha­

viors, depending on the concerned party. For example, helping any overseas
tourists, as strangers worried about their monetary and other assets, may by
motivated by empathy for their welfare and rights, as well as reaching their
destination and contributing to a remarkable consumption experience.
Cooperative relationships with actors from the host destination might be
driven not only by empathy, but also by the tour guide’s need to obtain
approval and recognition within the social context, retrospectively facilitating
their professional performance of central guiding tasks. This is due to the
nature of the tourism industry itself, which largely depends on countless
14 N. S. AL-OKAILY

interpersonal interactions between various individuals who contribute to the

destination experience.

Self-Development
Self-development emerged as another key dimension contributing to a tour
guide’s sense of citizenship. Three salient sub-attributes were frequently refer­
enced: improving physical fitness with exercise, expanding intellectual hor­
izons by keeping professional knowledge up to date, and enhancing tourism-
related networks by building and maintaining positive relationships. For
example, a respondent voiced:
Self-development is a personal effort. We have to keep abreast of the latest news because
tourists seek to learn more about our society . . . I travelled to Spain for three months to
live their culture and practice their language to effectively carry out Spanish guided tours

The respondents’ special interest in the former aspects might be due to their
relevance in performing different guiding responsibilities competently. That
is, as tourism evolves and as tourists themselves become more experienced,
there is a corresponding increase in tourist sophistication, which perpetuates
evermore demanding tourists who expect their guide to fulfil their various tour
needs. These include: physical exploration of new geographical areas, mean­
ingful cultural understanding of the destination visited, and interactive social
relations with the people encountered. Active tour guides therefore find
themselves engaging in purposeful discretionary behaviors aimed at upgrading
associated skills for excellent performance that matches tourists’ needs, all of
which in turn can positively improve tour guides’ work recognition and
opportunities in the guiding market.

Initiative
Data analysis revealed that some tour guides freely induce proactive actions
directed largely toward follow tourists by carrying out extra-guiding tasks
beyond formal responsibilities and handling anticipated setbacks that might
arise in the process of a tour. A tour guide posited:
Sometimes and for some reason I cannot pick the tourists up from the airport. Non-
English-speaking tourists, particularly the elderly, often have interaction difficulties with
the bus or car driver picking them up. So, I montaged a short video, which I share via
WhatsApp, to introduce myself and welcome tourists to positively manage their first
impressions

As direct participants in the tourists’ consumption experience, guides are held

accountable for the safe and efficient conduct of tour members, from their
arrival until their departure. Therefore, proactive tour guides accomplish
voluntary extra-tour tasks to create a memorable tourist experience (e.g.,
working for extra hours). Guides’ proactive approach extends to anticipating
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 15

potential problems and reflecting on the best tactics to prevent tourists from
encountering difficulties. These acts might also be driven by extrinsic indirect
rewards sought through tips and potential recommendations to others,
through building rapport and the tourists’ sense of appreciation of the guide’s
services.

Compliance
Jordanian law requires a tourist police officer to accompany visiting tourists
for safety reasons (MOTA, 1998). However, the interviewees seemed to indi­
cate that this was unnecessary as their performance itself would comply with
established regulations without this kind of surveillance. Empirically reported
demonstrations of tour guides’ code of conduct included promoting a positive
image of Jordan as a tourism destination, dealing professionally with all cow­
orkers, maintaining a valid guiding license, delivering professional services to
tourists as promised, and presenting clear and accurate information. A tour
guide articulated that:

I do my best to follow the code of conduct by talking objectively and diplomatically

about Jordan . . . Misconduct is firmly disapproved of by all my friends and colleagues, so
even if the designated tourist police were away, I would follow the conduct principles to
maintain a positive work reputation

Three key propositions underpinned tour guides’ self-disciplined behaviors.

First, maintaining compliance was reported as a key to running an assigned
tour professionally and smoothly, avoiding any major barriers to performance
that might result from work misconduct. Second, many of the interviewees
defined themselves as ambassadors, acting within this role as informal repre­
sentatives tasked with constructing meaningful understanding and positive
images of Jordan. Thus, compliance was seen as a key to becoming a successful
role model for this occupational philosophy. Finally, adherence appeared
instrumental to developing the desired social self-image of a tour guide, by
self-reinforcing and sustaining positive recognition and position in the
profession.

Adaptability
Adaptability focuses on the tour guides’ ability to appropriately alter their
occupational behaviors in response to varied changes in tour scenarios and
guiding roles. Most frequently reported forms of adaptability to match such
work changes included: handling work stress (e.g., taking time to recharge),
dealing with unpredictable work situations (e.g., tackling the problem),
embracing socio-cultural adaptability (e.g., flexibility), and demonstrating
physical adaptability (e.g., staying hydrated). The following statement reflects
these findings:
16 N. S. AL-OKAILY

A tour guide’s work demands coping and reincarnation of several characters, because we
deal with different social groups and each requires a certain handling method . . . The
work pressure is high. Following high seasons, therefore, we arrange a holiday that we
call ‘season rush’ to recover. Some guides could not handle the pressure and left guiding

Empirical evidence indicated that tour guides operate in improvised work

environments loaded with a broad range of tour assignments. They are
frequently caught in the middle between the tourists’ quest for a unique
destination experience, local communities’ expectations of tourism, service
providers’ demands and concerns, and the conditions of the wider operational
contexts (i.e. weather, site setting). Performance requirements with and within
these various contexts may therefore conflict, as when the need to lead a group
may be interrupted by the need to deal with locals or street vendors under
unpleasant weather conditions. These variable changes in the work environ­
ment may put tour guides under increasingly high pressure, all of which in
turn require different adaptability methods. As shown above, however, tour
guides vary in their internalization to cope with these work demands. While
some might fail to be adaptable, others apply various coping strategies to meet
the required tour performance.

Counterproductive Tour Guide Performance

Analysis suggests that data related to workplace misconduct by some tour
guides can be categorized into two linked sub-themes: deviance directed at the
destination and deviance directed at the tour group.

Deviance Directed at the Destination

Tour guides’ deviant behaviors directed at the destination appeared to revolve
around violation of intra-professional policies, delivery of falsified presenta­
tions, and abuse of certain aspects of the tourism business. For example, one
tour guide said:
Some tourists may be advised by their guide not to buy from this or that shop, stating
that they sell fake goods. The guide can then get commission when he takes the tour
group to the ‘right’ ventures

The study’s findings uncovered two ways in which undesirable psychological

factors could result in negative behaviors threatening the status of a tourism
destination. First, personality traits such as temperamentally and hostility were
noted as prominent influences on deviance. This factor might lead directly to
violent acts against internal and intra-professional policies and norms.
Reported examples included abuse of alcohol and smoking, noncompliance
of license renewal, and non-usage of licenses. Second, unethical guiding
behaviors appeared to be manipulatively perpetrated for self-serving interests.
Empirical data, for example, indicated that some tour guides would deliver
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 17

biased presentations about Jordan’s economy, as if it is largely poor, with the

intent of triggering tourists’ empathy to encourage more tips. Further, certain
tourism businesses such as bazaars and restaurants might be forced to pay
commissions in return for being recommended by the guide as authentic/
hygienic, or vice versa. These acts can have severe impacts on the perceived
destination image and the work opportunities for tourism businesses, imply­
ing that some tour guides might contravene the intentions of tourism
strategies.

Deviance Directed at the Tourists

Deviant behaviors against tourists was found to revolve around discrimination
and deception. The following quotation exemplifies these findings:

Some inexperienced tour guides may act with hostile attitudes, avoiding common
ground with tourists, in particular when discussing controversial issues such as religion,
which cause tension in the group

Study results revealed the interplay between two undesirable psychological

factors that shape tour guide deviant behaviors and their further unwanted
impacts on tourists. First, inexperienced tour guides with hostile personality
traits appeared to perpetrate direct negative acts against tourists, such as
discrimination on the grounds of religious or political views. Second, tour
guides with a money-oriented mentality appeared to deceive tourists, for
example, by narrowing down a tour experience to certain ‘dressed up’ places
or ventures which would maximize their commission. These findings suggest
that some tour guides might misuse their work roles as mentors and pathfin­
ders, which in turn can demoralize tourists’ wellbeing, and reduce the oppor­
tunities for the diverse experiences that they had anticipated.

Discussion
An integrative model of tour guide performance was built empirically upon
three viable theories identified in the job performance literature. The general
picture in the literature relating to task, citizenship, and counterproductive
performance may explain performance in the service context of tour guides.
Triangulation of the theories and empirical evidence resulted in defining tour
guide performance as a series of occupational behaviors explicitly carried out
by tour guides. This fresh definition embraces the wide spectrum of tour
guides’ behaviors identified in this study, with various expected outcomes on
the tourism industry. These outcomes are states or conditions of tourism
systems that might change positively or negatively depending on tour guides’
behaviors, including both the supply side (i.e., tangible and intangible destina­
tion resources) and the demand side (i.e., tourists’ wellbeing and their
18 N. S. AL-OKAILY

consumption experience). Tour guides’ performance therefore might either

contribute to or detract from successful tourism.
This integrative model advances understanding of the complexity of tour
guide performance based on the above three key thematic areas. First, this
study provides a detailed script of tour guides’ central in-role behaviors
through adaptation of task performance. The study found that tour guides,
as direct contributors to the actual delivery of experience and as mediators
between tourists and various social groups at the host destination (Cetin &
Yarcan, 2017; Seyitoğlu, 2020), bring to the tour a repertoire of key responsi­
bilities to purposefully reconcile different concerns at the supply and demand
levels. These core guiding tasks have four main facets: ‘professional knowl­
edge’, which concerns the expertise of tour guides in performing the itinerary’s
assignments; ‘leadership’, which captures the proficiency with which tour
guides encourage desired behaviors in the tourists; ‘communication’, which
describes tour guides’ ability to deliver clear and organized information; and
‘management’, which focuses on their ability to administer day-to-day tour
activities.
These findings echo the key roles identified in tourism studies, which see
tour guides as not only being responsible for giving tourists meaningful
information about the places visited and people encountered (Holloway,
1981; Hwang & Lee, 2019), but also for leading the way through unfamiliar
territory and for organizing various tour activities for a group (Cohen, 1985;
Pond, 1993; Weiler & Yu, 2007). Despite the existing evidence, however, past
research streams in tour guide performance have often examined such in-role
behaviors unsystematically and incompletely (see Table 1). The findings of this
study accordingly allow a fresh understanding and a structured conceptualiza­
tion of key responsibilities, for which the profession exists, and imply that tour
guides’ performance should be basically addressed based on these elements.
Second, this study offers insights into tour guides’ extra-role behaviors by
employing the concept of citizenship performance. The findings indicated that
tour guides bring to the stage a set of voluntary behaviors driven by intrinsic
and extrinsic indirect benefits that nevertheless support tourism’s interest. The
empirical data, informed by understanding of citizenship patterns (e.g.,
Borman & Motowidlo, 1993; Podsakoff et al., 2000), suggested that this type
of guiding behaviors comprised five key facets: ‘helping’, which refers to tour
guide acts of kindness toward tourism society; ‘self-development’, which
concerns tour guides’ ability to constantly improve their knowledge and skills;
‘initiative’, which describes the extra effort that tour guides freely add to the
assigned tour; ‘compliance,’ which captures the guides’ self-disciplined beha­
viors without any form of monitoring; and ‘adaptability’, which denotes their
ability to alter their behaviors in response to changes in tour scenarios.
These findings imply that the role of a competent tour guide also lies in
creating a wider positive tourism climate that can add value to both tourist
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 19

experiences and destination resources. The tourism literature offers evidence

to support these findings, seeing tour guides’ responsibilities as extending
beyond their tour group members, to include a number of roles directed
toward their coworkers and the local society to support the flow of satisfied
tourists (Lin et al., 2014; Randall & Rollins, 2009; Yamada, 2011). Authors
have also emphasized the desirability of certain guiding qualities in tourism,
such as helping, initiative and adaptability (Cetin & Yarcan, 2017; Huang et al.,
2010; Leshem, 2018; Scherle & Nonnenmann, 2008; Weiler & Black, 2015).
However, these behaviors have received little discussion and assessment in the
literature (see Table 1). Synthesizing citizenship performance was therefore
crucial in introducing the unique factors that contribute to the further success
of tour guides and growth in the tourism sector, and in advancing academic
understanding of the subject matter.
Third, this study draws attention to tour guides’ misconduct by con­
textualizing the notion of counterproductive work performance. The find­
ings indicated that tour guides might exercise intentional negative
behaviors that could undermine a destination’s resources and policies
and/or sabotage tourists’ wellbeing and experiences as a result of psycho­
logical factors. Past studies in tourism support these findings (Ap &
Wong, 2001; Dahles, 2002; Mak et al., 2010; Salazar, 2012). For instance,
Ap and Wong (2001) found that Chinese tour guides had fabricated
harmful representations of China’s overall image, negatively impacting
experiences by forcing tourists to visit too many shops and/or taking
them to shops that offer fake goods for extra money. Previous research
in tour guide performance, however, has ignored systematic assessment of
these dimensions (see Table 1), even though the potential impacts of both
types of deviant behavior on tourism cannot be ignored. For example,
authors suggest that any destination images and experiences that are
formulated are not only long-lasting (Tasci et al., 2007), but can radiate
outward exponentially once the tourists return home and relate their
experiences to their various social groups (Gunn, 1972). Thus, the poten­
tial risks do not remain isolated and can be disseminated. These findings
accordingly serve to deepen academic understanding of this phenomenon
and highlight the importance of including such types of behavior in the
taxonomic structure of tour guide performance. That is, systematic assess­
ment of guides’ undesirable behaviors is needed, if corrective and pre­
ventive actions are to be taken.

Conclusions
This empirical study, grounded in the literature of job performance and tour
guiding, contributes to knowledge of the subject by developing a fresh inte­
grative model for tour guide performance which introduces job performance
20 N. S. AL-OKAILY

theory, related to task, citizenship, and counterproductive performance, to the

tour guiding context. A new definition of tour guide performance is included
in this model, alongside the multiple dimensions that describe tour guides’
unique behaviors, as associated with each of these meta-categories. This study
thus provides empirical evidence about the validity of job performance the­
ories in tour guiding settings, and underlines their significance in obtaining
fresh understanding of their performance as being behavioral, evaluative, and
multidimensional (Campbell, 1990). Further, this model offers insights into a
set of tour guide behaviors which were inadequately covered in previous
studies. It specifically shows that tour guides are unlikely to bring to a tour
only the core guiding duties as widely examined in the field. Instead, they
appear more likely to bring complex, and at times paradoxical, patterns of
behavior related to citizenship and deviant performance. As such, this study
reflects the need for change in the traditional way of examining tour guide
performance from an undifferentiated approach, instead taking a systematic
perspective based on the premises and classifications that define the concept of
performance. It also advances academic understanding of the complexities of
tour guide performance and facilitates understanding about how their beha­
viors could affect the construction of tourists’ experiences and the business
performance of tourism destinations.
This study provides the different parties involved in the tour guiding
business with valuable practical implications and informs further business
practices in fine-tuning their professionalism in the growing tourism industry.
For instance, it allows tour guides to identify potential work areas that require
special attention and improvement, and thus the opportunities for developing
their techniques to skillfully attain the desired performance and defuse any
unwanted practices. Arguably, this group must realize that their performance
plays a role in influencing not only the tourists and the concerned parties in a
tourism destination, but also in themselves. That is, highly performing tour
guides certainly contribute toward the creation of a positive tourism climate
and remarkable destination experiences, which guiding materials and devices
largely fail to offer at the present time. It is therefore important that this group
develop a repertoire of unique guiding techniques within task and citizenship
performance boundaries, if their appeal in the changing industry to be sus­
tained. This can also value-add to tour guides’ being by finding better work
opportunities and/or getting rewarded, by thus having strong feelings of self-
efficiency (Sonnentag & Frese, 2002).
These findings can also be of use for tour guide umbrella organizations such
as the World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations (WFTGA) and the
JTGA, in equipping them with fresh understanding of the multifaceted beha­
viors and roles of this group. Such understanding might prove useful for
outlining sharper educational policies and certification procedures for max­
imizing prospective tour guides’ competencies. For example, the findings
 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF HOSPITALITY & TOURISM ADMINISTRATION 21

related to task and citizenship paradigms might serve as platforms for struc­
turing relevant learning practices and selection criteria that address both
required work behaviors, with a view to leveraging the benefits that tour
guide services bring to tourism. Drawing upon the counterproductive perfor­
mance paradigm might also prove useful for creating appropriate formative
educational plans and/or designing effective personality integrity tests for
recruitment purposes, to proactively control potential workplace misconduct
among tour guides.
The practical value of this study extends to supporting the effective manage­
ment of official tour guides. Organizations involved in the tour guide business
might find it useful to create a work culture that promotes the desired
occupational behaviors. For example, introducing a conducive reward system
encompassing both extrinsic and intrinsic benefits through measures like
annual pay rises, recognition awards and personal development packages
may support these aspirations. Further, counterproductive tour guide beha­
viors might be alleviated through preventive awareness campaigns that clearly
highlight workplace misconduct and their harsh consequences for tourism.
Establishing a clear reporting system that encourages involved parties to
report any major unprofessional behaviors by a tour guide can also prove
useful.
Some limitations and future research avenues have been identified in this
study. First, given the limitations associated with this qualitative study in terms
of its relatively small sample size and the transferability of the findings, further
expanded research aimed at providing nuanced understanding of tour guide
performance cross-cultures is recommended. Second, this study has only
incorporated the perspectives of tour guide participants to attain insight into
their performance. However, this homogeneity of the sample may have
resulted in somewhat standardized responses, reflecting the common observa­
tions of tour guides particularly on issues related to their counterproductive
work behaviors. While certain measures have been used to check the cred­
ibility of such findings, future researchers may wish to focus on the views of
further parties involved in tour guide work, such as travel agencies and/or
tourists themselves to attain a greater understanding of this issue. Third, the
variations in tour guide performance according to their personality character­
istics form a vital area for continued examination to develop a complete list of
desired personality traits in recruiting tour guides. Finally, meaningful under­
standing of the predictive power of tour guides’ task and citizenship perfor­
mances on well-established tourism theories (e.g., tourists’ satisfaction,
tourists’ loyalty, actual destination image), are areas that remain open to
fruitful investigation.
22 N. S. AL-OKAILY

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