Introduction To Engineering

Experimentation 3rd Edition Wheeler

Solutions Manual
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 CHAPTER 8

8.1 We first find the axial stress:

 = F / A = 1000 / (1.0  1 / 16 ) = 16 ,000 psi
Rearranging Eq. 8.1:
E =  / a = 16000 / (1143  10 −6 ) = 1.40  107 psi
Rearranging Eq. 8.6:
 = − t / a = −( −286 ) / 1143 = 0 .25

8.2 We assume that the bridge is initially balanced.

Vs = 2 V
Vo = 12.5 mV
S = 2.09
R2 = 120 
R3i = 120 
From Eq. 8.22, we find that the strain is:
 = Vo ( R2 + R3 i )2 / (VsSR2R3 i )
= (12 .5  10 −3 )(120 + 120 )2 / ( 2  2 .09  120  120 )
= 11960 strain

8.3 We assume that the bridge is initially balanced.

Vs = 3 V
a = 2500 strain
S = 2.00
R2 = 120 
R3i = 120 
From Eq. 8.22, we find that the strain is:
 = Vo (R2 + R3i )2 / ( VsSR2R3i )
2500  10 −6 = V0 (120 + 120 )2 / ( 3  2. 00  120  120 )
Vo = 3. 75 mV

8.1
8.4 Eq. 8.23 can be used to calculate  R1=  R3 and then micro strain can be
calculated:
Vs R 2 R 3 R R1 R 2 R 4
Vo = ( 3 + − − ) Eq 8.23
(R2 + R3 ) R3 R1 R2 R 4
2

R1 = R 3 and R1 = R 3 (Assumed)

2R 2 R 3V3
Vo =
(R 2 + R 3 ) 2
R 3 1 V (R + R 3 )
2

 microstrain = 10 *
6
= 10 6  0 2
R3 S Vs 2R 2 R 3 .S
20  10 −3 (120 + 120 ) 2
= 10 6 * *
5 2 * 120 2 * 2.10
= 3,809 microstrain
Alternatively, we could use Eq. 8.22 and divide the result by 2 since the output is twice
what it would be for a given strain with only one gage.

8.5 Error due to temperature change:

0.5
ΔR = * R * ΔT
100
0.5
= * 120 * ( −40)
100
= -2.4 Ω

Output due to temperature change in R1 and R 3 :

VsR 2R 3  ΔR 3 ΔR1 ΔR 2 ΔR 4 
Vo =  + − −  Eq 8.23
(R 2 + R 3 )2  R 3 R1 R 2 R 4 
R1 = R 3 and R1 = ΔR 3 (Assumed)
2R 2 ΔR 3 Vs
V0 =
(R 2 + R 3 )2
2 * 120 * (- 2.4) * 5
=
(120 + 120 )2
= 0.050 V = 50 mV
The error can be eliminated by exposing unstrained resistances to an equivalent
(−40 0C ) temperature

8.2
8.6 Use of the lead wires will initially cause the bridge to be unbalanced when there is
no strain. This is not the error we are considering since the initial output is subtracted
from the final, strained value. See the discussion at the top of page 229. So what we
want is the error in the change in voltage output due to the strain.
The apparent initial gage resistance will increase from 120  to 124  when the lead
wires are included (2 for each wire. This will affect gages R1 and R3.

For this problem, it is best to use Eq. 8.19 since this equation does not have the
assumption of initial balance:

R3 R1 − R 4 R
Vo = Vs
(R1 + R3 )(R1 + R 4 )

In our case, R1 = R3, R1 = R3 = R and are the active gages. R is the change in
resistance due to the strain, not due to the lead wires. R2 = R4 = 120 are the fixed
resistors. For the case of no lead wires, the output, called Vo1 is:

R3 R1 − R 4 R2 (120 + R1 ) 2 − 120 2 120 2 + 2R1R1 + R12 − 120 2

Vo1 = Vs = Vs = Vs
(R1 + R3 + 2R )(R1 + R 4 ) (240 + 2R )(240 ) (240 + 2R )(240 )

Since R is small, R2 can be neglected compared to R. Furthermore, in the

denominator R is small compared to R, and the result is:
2R1R1
Vo1 = Vs 2
(240 )

For the case with the lead wires, the initial resistance of gages 1 and 3 is 124. Since
we are going to subtract out the initial strain, we need to compute the output twice –
once with gages strained and once without and compute the difference.

(124 + R1 ) 2 − 120 2 124 2 − 120 2 2R  124

Vo 2 = Vs − Vs = Vs
(120 + 124)(120 + 124) (244)(244) 244 2
Taking the ratio:

124
Vo 2 244 2
= = 0.99973
Vo1 120
240 2
If the voltage change without the lead wires is 20 mV, with the lead wires, the output will
be 19.99 mV, a negligible change.

Since the strain is proportional to the output voltage, the strain will appear to be only
0.99973 times as large as it would if there were no lead wire effect – again a negligible
change.

8.3
8.7 We can use Eq. 8.21 to calculate the output voltage due to resistance change of
one of the legs
Vs R1ΔR 3
V0 =
(R 2 + R 3 )(R1 + R 4 )
3 * 120 * (120 - 119.11)
=
(120 + 119.11)(120 + 120 )
= 5.58  10 -3 V = 5.58 mV

This is with no output loading effect. For the Wheatstone bridge

with a 50 k across the output, the circuit looks like the sketch
and we need to find the current through the 50 k resistor (R5).
This topic is covered in introductory circuits courses and is best
done with a computer program. For this case, the current
through the 50 k can be computed to be 1.114x10-7 A and the voltage drop across the
resistor is IR = 1.114x10-7 x 50000 = 5.57 mV, only slightly less than without the loading
resistor. It should be noted that to the power supply, the bridge presents a resistance of
120  which is very small compared to 50 k and so we would not expect a large
loading effect. In practical bridge circuits, the output device will have an input
impedance of 1 M or more.

8.8 We can use Eq. 8.21 to calculate the output voltage due to resistance change of
one of the legs
Vs R 1ΔR 3
V0 =
(R 2 + R 3 )(R 1 + R 4 )
5 *120 * (120 - 120.20)
=
(120 + 120.20)(120 + 120)
= -2.08  10 -3 V = - 2.08 mV

This is with no output loading effect. For the Wheatstone bridge

with a 25 k across the output, the circuit looks like the sketch
and we need to find the current through the 50 k resistor (R5).
This topic is covered in introductory circuits courses and is best
done with a computer program. For this case, the current
through the 50 k can be computed to be 4.1532 x10-8 A and the voltage drop across
the resistor is IR = 4.1532 x10-8 x 50000 = -2.0766 mV, only slightly less than without
the loading resistor. It should be noted that to the power supply, the bridge presents a
resistance of 120  which is very small compared to 50 k and so we would not expect
a large loading effect. In practical bridge circuits, the output device will have an input
impedance of 1 M or more.

8.4
8.9 Considering the definition of gage factor (Eq. 8.10)

1 ΔR
S =
 R
As a result,
S2 R  120 
= 1  S2 = 2 *  
S1 R2  120 + 10 
= 1.85

8.10 Considering the definition of gage factor (Eq. 8.10)

1 ΔR
S =
 R
As a result,
S2 R  120 
= 1  S2 = 2 *  
S1 R2  120 + 5 
= 1.92

8.11 L = 0.3 m
A = 1 mm20 mm = 0.00002 m2
E = 200 GPa
 = 0.27
Fa = 1500 N
R1 = R3 = R2 = R4 =120 
Vs = 2.5 V
S = 2.10
The axial stress is:
a = Fa / A = 15000 / 0 .00002 = 7 .5  10 8 Pa
Rearranging Eq. 8.1:
a = a / E = 7 .5  10 8 / 200  10 9 = 0 .00375
Rearranging Eq. 8.8:
dR / R = aS = 0 .00375  2 .10 = 0 .007875
Using Eq. 8.23:
Vs R 2 R 3  R 3 R1 R 2 R 4 
V0 =  + − − 
(R 2 + R 3 ) 2  R 3 R1 R2 R4 
2.5  120 2
= 0.007875 + 0.007875 
(120 + 120 ) 2
= 0.00984V = 9.84mV

8.5
8.12
(a) Using Eq. 8.23, we can obtain V 0 and then Eq. 8.23 for strain calculation. The
strain of gages will have an opposite sign in upper and lower and upper parts

Vs R 2 R 3 ΔR 3 ΔR 2 ΔR1 ΔR 4
V0 = ( + + + )
(R 3 + R 2 ) R 3
2
R2 R1 R4
Vs R 2 4ΔΔ Vs ΔR
= . =
4R 2 R R

Considering that R1 = R 2 = R 3 = R 4 = 120 Ω

ΔR1 = ΔR 3 = − ΔR 2 = − ΔR 4

Using Eq. 8.10,

ΔR/R = S 

Combining the above two equations :

V0
=
S. VS
60  10 -3
=  10 6
2.00 * 10
= 3,000 μstrain (both upper and lower parts, but with opposite signs)
(b) Temperature changes will not affect the results, because they will cancel each other out (Eq. 8.23)

8.6
8.13
(a) Using Eq. 8.23, we can obtain V 0 and then Eq. 8.23 for strain calculation. The
strain of gages will have an opposite sign in upper and lower and upper parts

Vs R 2 R 3 ΔR 3 ΔR 2 ΔR 1 ΔR 4
V0 = ( + + + )
(R 3 + R 2 ) 2
R3 R2 R1 R4
Vs R 2 4ΔΔ V ΔR
= 2
. = s
4R R R

Considering that R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = R 4 = 120 Ω

ΔR 1 = ΔR 3 = − ΔR 2 = − ΔR 4

Using Eq. 8.10,

ΔR/R = S 

Combining the above two equations :

V0
=
S. VS
40  10 -3
=  10 6
2.05 * 5
= 3,902 μstrain (both upper and lower parts, but with opposite signs)
(b) Temperature changes will not affect the results, because they will cancel each other out (Eq. 8.23)
(c) The same configuration cannot be used for measuremen t of strain due to axial forces, because, all
gases will have the same output and cancel each other out
As sketch of the gage is shown below :

8.7
8.14 The bridge should be arranged as shown.
Ra RC

Voltage
Using Eq. 8.23, the operation can easily be Voltage
Supply
Output

shown.
Rd Rb

Vs R 2 R 3  R 3 R1 R 2 R 4 
Vo =  + − − 
(R 2 + R 3 )2  R 3 R1 R 2 R 4 

If only one active strain gage is used, (assume R 3 )

Vs R 2 R 3 R 3
Vo =
(R 2 + R 3 )2 R 3

If all four gage are used as shown, assuming :

R 1 = R 2 = R 3 = R 4 and R1 = −R 2 = R 3 = −R 4
4R 2 R 3 R 3
Vo = 4
(R 2 + R 3 ) 2
R3
Consequently, the output will be four times as the case of a single gage usage.

8.8
8.15 L = 0.3 m
A = 1 mm20 mm = 0.00002 m2
E = 200 GPa
 = 0.27
Fa = 1500 N
R1 = R3 = R2 = R4 =120 
Vs = 2.5 V
S = 2.10

The axial stress is:

a = Fa / A = 15000 / 0 .00002 = 7 .5  10 8 Pa
Rearranging Eq. 8.1:
a = a / E = 7 .5  10 8 / 200  10 9 = 0 .00375

From Eq. 8.6:

t = − a = −0 .27  0 .00375 = −0 .001013
Rearranging Eq. 8.8 for gages 1 and 3:
dR / R = aS = 0 .00375  2 .10 = 0 .007875
For gages 2 and 4:
dR / R = t S = −0 .001013  2 .10 = −0 .002126
Using Eq. 8.23:
 R 3 R1 R 2 R 4 
Vs R 2 R 3
V0 =  + − − 
(R 2 + R 3 )  R 32
R1 R2 R4 
2.5  120 2
= 0.007875 + 0.007875 + 0.002126 + 0.002126 
(120 + 120 ) 2
= 0.00125V = 12.5mV (neglectstransverse effectson gages )

8.9
8.16 Vs = 2V 0.2%
V0 = 12.5 mV 0.3%
S = 2.09 0.5%
R2 = 120  0.1%
R3i = 120  0.15%

We can use Eq. 8.22 to estimate the strain:

a = Vo ( R2 + R3 i )2 / (VsSR2R3 i )
a = 12 .5  10 −3 (120 + 120 )2 / ( 2  2 .09  120  120 )
a = 11,960 strain
To obtain the uncertainty we will use Eq. 7.4. To use this, we need the partial
derivatives with respect to each of the independent variables:
 (R2 + R3i )2 120 + 120) 2
= = = 0.957V −1
V0 Vs SR 2 R 3i 2  2.09  120  120
 V (R + R 3i ) 12.5  10 −3 (120 + 120 ) 2
2

=− 0 22 =− 2 = −0.00598V −1
Vs Vs SR 2 R 3i 2  2.09  120  120
 V (R + R 3i ) 12.5  10 −3 (120 + 120 ) 2
2

= − 0 22 =− = −0.00572
S Vs S R 2 R 3 i 2  2.09 2  120  120
 V0  2(R 2 + R 3 i ) (R 2 + R 3 i ) 
2

=  − 
R 2 VS S  R 2 R 3 i R 22 R 3 i 

12.5  10 −3  2(120 + 120 ) (120 + 120 ) 

2

=  − 
2  2.09  120  120 120 2  120 

= 0(sincebridgeinitiallybalanced)
R 2
 
= =0
R3 i R2
wR3i = 1200.0015 = 0.18
wR2 = 1200.001 = 0.12
wS = 2.090.005 = 0.0105
wVs = 20.002 = 0.004 V
wV0 = 12.510-30.003 = 0.0000375 V

8.10
 1/ 2
  2
  
2
     
2 2
   
2

w  =  w R3 i  +  w R2  +  w S  +  w Vs  +  w V0  
 R 3 i   R 2   S   Vs   V0  
= [(0  0.18 ) + (0  0.12 ) + (− 0.00572  0.0105 ) + (− 0.00598  0.004 )
2 2 2 2

+ (0.957  0.0000375 ) + (− 0.00598  0.004 ) + (0.957  0.0000375 ) ]1/ 2

2 2 2


= 0 + 0 + 3.6  10 −9 + 0.57  10 −9 + 1.29  10 −9 
1/ 2

= 0.000074 = 74 strain
So:
 = 11,962  74 strain.
note: the uncertainty in the gage factor is the dominant error source.

8.11
8.17 Start with Eq. 8.19 and substitute for R2 and R3:
V (R + R 3t + R 3s )R1 + R 4 (R 2i + R 2t )
V0 = s 3 i
(R 2i + R 2t + R3i + R3t + R3s )(R1 + R 4 )
Noting that all the  terms are small, they can be neglected in the denominator.
V R R + R1R 3t + R1R 3s + R 4 R 2i + R 4 R 2t 
V0 = s 1 3 i
(R 2i + R 3i )(R1 + R 4 )
Using Eq. 8.20, this becomes:
Vs R1R 3t + R1R 3s + R 4 R 2t 
V0 =
(R 2i + R 3i )(R1 + R 4 )
Since R2i = R3i (same gage type) R2i = R3i (same temperature) then , Eq. 8.20
indicates R1 = R4 and our expression for V0 becomes:
Vs (R1R 3s )
V0 =
(R 2i + R 3i )(R1 + R 4 )
which is the same as Eq. 8.21 (with the  term in the denominator already eliminated).
Hence Eq. 8.22 follows.

8.18 S =2.05
R2 = 360 
R3i = 360 
Vs = 3 V
(a) From Figure 8.6 at 300C, apparent = 75 strain and the S variation is +1.25%.
Reaaranging Eq. 8.22:
 V SR 2 R 3 i 
V0 =  a  s 2 
 (R 2 + R 3 i ) 
 3  (2.05  1.0125 )360  360 
= 75  10 −6  
 (360 + 360 )2 
V0 = 0.117mV

(b) If the structure is strained to a value of 500 strain at 300 C, the total strain is 75 +
500 = 575 strain and the gage factor is the same as in part a. Using the above
equation, the voltage output is:
 V SR 2 R 3 i 
V0 =  a  s 2 
 (R 2 + R 3 i ) 
 3  (2.05  1.0125 )360  360 
= 575  10 −6  
 (360 + 360 )2 
V0 = 0.895mV

8.12
8.19 (a) Since the strain gage is connected to the bridge with a pair of 15 meter leads
with a resistance of 0.10 /m, the change in R3 is:
R3 = 2150.10 = 3 
The following information is given:
R2 = R3i = 120 
S = 2.05
Vs = 3.00 V
Also, it is assumed that the bridge is initially balanced so R1 = R4. We will use Eq. 8.21:
V s R1 R3
V0 =
(R2 + R3i + R3 )(R1 + R4 )
3  R1  3
=
(120 + 120 + 3)(R1 + R1 )
V0 = 0.0185V
The apparent strain, εapparent, on the bridge would then be:
V o ( R 2 + R 3i ) 2
 apparent =
V s SR2 R3i
(0.0185)(120 + 120) 2
=
3.00  2.05  120  120
= 12,033strain
(b) Using Eq. 8.8, the change in resistance due to 800 strain is:
R = 2.0580010-6120 = 0.20 
Rtotal = 0.20 + 3 = 3.2 
Using the above equation again:
V s R1 R3
V0 =
(R2 + R3i + R3 )(R1 + R4 )
3  R1  3.2
=
(120 + 120 + 3.2)(R1 + R1 )
V0 = 0.0197V
The change in output due to the strain is then 0.0197 - 0.0185 = 0.0012 V. Better
resolution would have been obtained if the bridge had been initially balanced by
adjusting R2.and changing the scale on the voltmeter.

8.13
8.20 (a) Since the strain gage is connected to the bridge with a pair of 40 foot leads with
a resistance of 0.026 /ft, the change in R3 is:
R3 = 2400.026 = 2.08 
The following information is given:
R2 = R3i = 120 
S = 2.00
Vs = 3.00 V
Also, it is assumed that the bridge is initially balanced so R1 = R4. We will use Eq. 8.21:
Vs R1R 3
V0 =
(R 2 + R 3i + R 3 )(R1 + R 4 )
3  R1  2.08
=
(120 + 120 + 2.08 )(R1 + R1 )
V0 = 0.0129V
The apparent strain, εapparent, on the bridge would then be:
V o ( R 2 + R 3i ) 2
 apparent =
V s SR2 R3i
(0.0129)(120 + 120) 2
=
3.00  2.00  120  120
= 8,600strain
(b) Using Eq. 8.8, the change in resistance due to 1000 strain is:
R = 2.00100010-6120 = 0.24 
Rtotal = 0.24 + 2.08 = 2.32 
Using the above equation again:
Vs R1R 3
V0 =
(R 2 + R 3i + R 3 )(R1 + R 4 )
3  R1  2.32
=
(120 + 120 + 2.32)(R1 + R1 )
V0 = 0.0144V
The change in output due to the strain is then 0.0144 - 0.0129 = 0.0015 V. Better
resolution would have been obtained if the bridge had been initially balanced by
adjusting R2.and changing the scale on the voltmeter.

8.14
8.21 We can evaluate this effect using Equation 8.21. The non-linearity results from the
R3 term in the denominator. For a linear assumption, Equation 8.21 becomes:

VsR1R3
Vout,lin =
(R2 + R3 )(R1 + R4 )

Dividing this equation into Equation 8.21, we obtain:

Vout,nonlin ( R1 + R4 ) 120 + 120

= = = 0.95
Vout,lin ( R1 + R4 + R3 ) 120 + 120 + R3

Solving for R3, the result is 12.6 , or 10% of R3. For a gage factor of 2, this
corresponds to a strain of approximately 50,000 strain (5% elongation). This strain
would beyond the yield point of most metals.

8.22 Potential sources of error:

• Temperature variation
• Lead wires
• Value of strain gage resistance
• Value of gage factor

These errors can be minimized by careful temperature compensation, selection of lead

wires with low resistances and careful determination of gage resistances and gage
factors. Normally, gage manufacturers supply accurate values of gage factor and initial
resistance.

8.23 Considering Eq. 8.22:

V0 (R 2 + R 3 )
2

 =
VsR 2R 3 S
Assuming that the uncertainties are in V0 and VS ,
V
ε =K 0 [K =
(R2 + R3 )
2

]
Vs R 2R 3 S
By using Eq. 7.6
2 2
wε wV   w VS  1/2
= [ 0  +  −  ]

ε  V0   VS 
= [ (0.003 ) + (0.001) ]1/2
2 2

= 3.2  10 -3 0.032%

8.15
8.24
The linear potentiometer circuit is diagrammed below:
Solving for Vo we get:
 
 
90  1 
 1 1 
 + 
 R 2 5000 
Vo =
 
 
1000 − R 2 +  1 
 1 1 
 + 
 R 2 5000 
Substituting results in the following table:

xR2 x/L=R2 Vo
0 0 0
100 0.1 8.841V
200 0.2 17.442V
300 0.3 25.912V
400 0.4 34.351V
500 0.5 42.857V
600 0.6 51.527V
0.7 60.461V
700
0.8 69.767V
800
0.9 79.568V
900 1.0 90.000V
1000
The plot shows the output to be quite non-linear due to loading.

8.16
8.25
When centered the current through R1 is: A

R1 500 
90
I= = 0.094 A
  90 V C
  500  5000 
1 R2
500 +  
 1 1 
 +  B
 500 5000 
VA=90−5000.094 = 43
IR1= (90−43)/500 = 0.094A; PWR = I2R = (0.094)2500 = 4.42W
IR2= 43/500 = 0.086A ; PWR = (0.086)2500 = 3.70W
Total PWR = 3.70+4.42 = 8.12W

Can reduce power by increasing potentiometer resistance. However, output will be

more non-linear.

8.17
8.26 (a) Let R be the output resistance of the potentiometer, Rmax be the maximum
resistance of the potentiometer (500 ), Ri be the input resistance of the measuring
device, and Vs be the supply voltage. The ideal voltage output (with no loading) will be:

Vo = Vs R / Rmax

With the measuring device, the resistances R and Ri will have to be combined.
Rcomb = 1/(1/ R + 1/ R i )

The current flow through the loop is then:

I = Vs /(Rmax − R ) + R comb 

The output voltage into the measuring device is then:

Vo = Vs R comb /(Rmax − R ) + Rcomb  = Vs (1/(1/ R + 1/ R i )) /(Rmax − R ) + 1/(1/ R + 1/ R i )

R is proportional to , the angle of the potentiometer, R = 500 / 300

The systematic error is then:

B = Vs R / Rmax − (1/(1/ R + 1/ R i )) /(Rmax − R ) + 1/(1/ R + 1/ R i )

(b) To determine when the error is a maximum, one could differentiate the above
formula for B. This is rather tedious and it is simpler to simply compute B as a function
of R and examine the results.

B vs R

0.04
0.03
B (V)

0.02
0.01
0
0 200 400 600
R (ohm)

The peak error occurs when R is about 340  which corresponds to  of 204 degrees.

8.18
8.27

Displacement (cm) = x Output (V) = y

0.00 0.10
1.25 0.65
2.50 1.32
3.75 1.95
5.00 2.70

Plotting the above data gives:

Since we have only five points of data, we can simply use the formula:
N  xi yi −  xi yi
m= where m is the slope of the line
N  xi2 − ( xi )
2

c =  y i − m  x i  N where c is the y-intercept.

Substituting,

N =5
 x = 12.5
i

 y = 6.72
i

 x = 46.875
2
i

 x y = 24.925
i i

5( 24.925) − (12.5)(6.72)
m= = 0.52
5(46.875) − (12.5) 2
c = 6.72 − 0.52(12.5) 5 = 0.044

The calibration constant for the curve is thus the slope which is 0.52 V/cm.

For the least squares fit straight line, the data points are:

8.19
 x y Deviation
0.00 0.044 0.056
1.25 0.694 0.044
2.50 1.344 0.024
3.75 1.994 0.006
5.00 2.644 0.056

Therefore, the maximum error is:

0.10−0.044 = 0.056 V

The mean deviation assuming it to be the average of the deviation values is 0.056 V.

8.20
8.28

Displacement (in.) = x Output (V) = y

0.00 0.15
0.50 0.63
1.00 1.30
1.50 1.92
2.00 2.65

Plotting the above data gives:

Since we have only five points of data, we can simply use the formula:
N xi y i −  xi y i
m= where misthe slope.
N  x i2 − ( x i )
2

c=  y i 
− m x i N where c is the y-intercept.
Substituting,

N =5
 x = 5.00
i

 y = 6.65
i

 x = 7.50
2
i

 x y = 9.795
i i

5(9.795) − (5.00)(6.65)
m= = 1.258
5(7.50) − (5.00) 2
c = 6.65 − 1.258(5.00) 5 = 0.072

The calibration constant for the curve is thus the slope which is 1.258 V/in.

For the least squares fit straight line, the data points are:

8.21
 x y Deviation
0.00 0.072 0.078
0.50 0.701 0.071
1.00 1.330 0.03
1.50 1.959 0.039
2.00 2.588 0.062

Therefore, the maximum error is:

0.15−0.072 = 0.078 V

8.29 A = 1 cm2 = 0.0001 m2

d = 0.2 mm = 0.0002 m
K = 1 for air
0 = 8.8510-12 C/N-m2
(a) Using Eq. 8.26:
C = K0A/d = 1(8.8510-12)0.0001/0.0002 = 4.4310-12 F = 4.43 pF
(b) Differentiating Eq. 8.26 wrt d, we obtain:
dC/dd = -K0A/d2 = -1(8.8510-12)0.0001/0.00022 = -22.1 pF/mm

(c) Consider the area to be LW so C = K0LW/d. Consider that the capacitance is
proportional to the overlapping area. If the plates are moved in the W direction, then W
will decrease. The derivative of C wrt to W is then:
dC/dW = K0L/d = -1(8.8510-12)0.01/0.0002 = 0.443 pF/mm. Since movement will
result in a decrease in W, the actual sensitivity is -0.443 pF/mm.

8.22
8.30

(a) For a capacitive displacement sensor,

A
C = K 0
d
Where : K = Dielectric coefficient
 0 = Permitivit y of Vacuum
A = Area of capacitor plates
d = distance between capacitor plates
For the transducer with constant d and variable A, C is a linear function of the variable A

(b) Sensitivity of C with respect to d:

C  A
= - K 02
d d
So sensitivity of C with respect to d can be increased by reducing d and increasing
K and A

C 
(c) = K 0
A d

Sensitivity of C with respect to A can be increased by increasing K and reducing d

8.31 A = .005.005 cm2 = 2.510-5 m2

d = 0.1 mm = 0.0001 m
K = 1 for air
0 = 8.8510-12 C/N-m2
(a) Using Eq. 8.26:
C = K0A/d = 1(8.8510-12)2.510-5/0.0001 = 2.2110-12 F = 2.21 pF
(b) Differentiating Eq. 8.26 wrt d, we obtain:
dC/dd = -K0A/d2 = -1(8.8510-12)2.510-5/0.00012 = -22.1 pF/mm
(c) Consider the area to be LW so C = K0LW/d. Consider that the capacitance is
proportional to the overlapping area. If the plates are moved in the W direction, then W
will decrease. The derivative of C wrt to W is then:
dC/dW = K0L/d = -1(8.8510-12)0.005/0.0001 = 0.443 pF/mm.
Since movement will result in a decrease in the overlapping W, the actual sensitivity is -
0.443 pF/mm.

8.32
An angular digital encoder having 8 bits in each sector will have 256 sectors (2 8).
Thus, the angular- resolution will be 2/256 = 0.0245 rad. or  0.0123 rad.

8.23
8.33 Using Eq. 8.29
30
V (30) = 0 +  a(t )dt
0

using the trapezoidal rule:

30 − 0
30

0 a(t )dt = 2  7 (5 + 2(5  5 + 6  1 + 6  7 + 7  5 + 8  5) + 9  6)

= 178.3m / s
To get the displacement, we need to use the trapezoidal rule to obtain a(t), then
integrate that again.

t 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
r(t) 0 26.25 36.8 65.4 98.2 135.6 178.3

30
Now, x(t ) = x o +  V (t )dt
0

using the trapezoidal rule again

x (30 ) =
30
(0 + 2(26.25 + 36.8 + 65.4 + 98.2 + 135.6) + 178.3 )
27

x (30 ) = 1934 m

8.34

2Vcos 
Using Eq. 8.27 : fD =

For straight line measurement (Vsl ) :  = 0
For actual measurement (Vm ) :  = 10 0
Error in apparent speed, B v = Vmt − Vsl

2  120 cos 0
For the straight line measurement: fD =

2  120 cos 10
For the actual measurement: fD' =

'
f
so D
= cos10 = 0.985
fD
Since he assumes that the angle is zero and the speed is proportional to the doppler shift, he
concludes that the speed is 120x0.985 = 118.18 and the error is 1.82 km/hr.

8.24
8.35
A standard hexagonal nut will have 6 pulses per revolution ( 6pulses/rev.). If the shaft
on which the nut is attached is turning at 50,000 rev/min, the number of positive pulses
can be calculated below:
6 pulses 50,000rev 1min
Positive pulses =  
1rev 1min 60 sec

= 5000 pulses / sec

Rearranging the above equation for positive pulses, we find 10 to be the number by
which the number of counts in a second is multiplied in order to produce a result in rpm.

8.36
A standard hexagonal nut will have 6 pulses per revolution ( 6pulses/rev.). If the shaft
on which the nut is attached is turning at 100 rev/sec or 6,000 rev/min, the number of
positive pulses can be calculated below:
6 pulses 6,000rev 1 min
Positive pulses =  
1rev 1 min 60 sec

= 600 pulses / sec

Rearranging the above equation for positive pulses, we find 10 to be the number by
which the number of counts in a second is multiplied in order to produce a result in rpm.

8.37 We will get 20 pulses/(4div0.5sec/div) or 10 pulses per second.

10 pulses 1rev 60 sec

TheRPM =  
sec 6 pulses min

RPM = 100rpm

8.38 Counts/sec = ( Pulses/ revolution) * (Revolution / sec)

3000
= 12 
60
= 600 pulses/sec

8.25
8.39
1
RPM =

N*
60
Where N = 360/  number of teeth
 = period of individual cycles (sec)
60 = sec/min
 = angle between two consecutive teeth
60
Then : RPM =
 360
Assuming that  is measured accurately, using Eq. 7.6
w RPM w  0 .5
= =
RPM  360
12
= 0.017 or 1.7 %

8.40
1
RPM =

N*
60
Where N = 360/ number of teeth
 = period of individual cycles (sec)
60 = sec/min
 = angle between two consecutive teeth
60
Then : RPM =
 360
Assuming that  is measured accurately, using Eq. 7.6
wRPM w 0.2
= =
RPM  360
6
= 0.0033 or 0.33 %

8.41 (a) With a flashing rate of 3000 per minute, one mark will be visible.

(b) For flashing rates of 1000 and 1500 per minute, one mark will be visible. However,
for flashing rates of 6000 and 9000 per minute, we will see 2 and 3 marks , respectively.

8.42 There should only be a single mark on the rotating disk. Make the strobe flash at a
rate higher than the expected rpm. Reduce the flashing rate until only a single stationary
mark is visible. This should be the correct rpm. If the flashing rate is now doubled, there
should be two diametrically opposite marks.

8.26
8.43

cycles (reflections) 1 sec

RPM =   60
sec reflection min
rev
1
= 600 *  60
24
= 1500 RPM

8.44 F=100,000 lbf

max = 20,000 psi
E = 9.5E6 psi
 = 0.33
D0 = 6 in
max = F/A; 20000 = 100000/((62 - Di2)/4)
Di = 5.44 in

From Eq. 8.1,

 20,000
a = = = 2105.0strain
E 9.5  106

From Eq. 8.4,

T = −0.33(2105 .0) = −694.7 strain

From Eq. 8.22, for each longitudinal gauge

Vout =  aVs SR1R 4 /(R1 + R 4 ) 2
= (2105.0  10 −6 )(10)(2.1)(350  350 ) /(350 + 350 ) 2
= 11.05mV
Similarly for the transverse gages, Vout = -3.647mV

Noting that the transverse gages will change the bridge output in the direction opposite
from the longitudinal gages, the total output is :

2(11.05)+2(3.647) = 29.4mV

8.27
8.45 F=400,000 N
max = 100,000 kPa
E = 6.55E7 kPa
 = 0.33
D0 = 15 cm
max = F/A; 100,000 = 400,000/((152 - Di2)/4)
Di = 14.8 cm

From Eq. 8.1,

 400,000
a = = = 6106.9 
strain
E 6.55  10 7

From Eq. 8.4,

 T = −0.33(6106 .9) = −2015 .3 
strain

From Eq. 8.22, for each longitudinal gauge

Vout =  aV s SR1 R4 /( R1 + R4 ) 2
= (6106.9  10 − 6 )(10)(2.1)(400  400) /(400 + 400) 2
= 32.06mV
Similarly for the transverse gages, Vout = -10.58mV

Noting that the transverse gages will change the bridge output in the direction opposite
from the longitudinal gages, the total output is :

2(32.06)+2(10.58) = 85.3mV

8.28
8.46 The solution to 8.23 is similar to 8.22 except that each gage will be altered by a
fixed amount of strain dependent on the temperature. Figure 8.6 indicates that at 200C
(a 180 C increase) the apparent microstrain is about -30 microstrain. For Problem 8.22,
the output was found to be 29.4 mV.

F=100,000 lbf
max = 20,000 psi
E = 9.5E6 psi
 = 0.33
D0 = 6 in
max = F/A; 20000 = 100000/((62 - Di2)/4)
Di = 5.44 in

From Eq. 8.1,

 20,000
a = = = 2105.0strain
E 9.5  106
to this we add -30 to get 2075 strain

From Eq. 8.4,

T = −0.33(2105 .0) = −694.7 strain
to this we add -30 to get -724.7 strain

From Eq. 8.22, for each longitudinal gauge

Vout =  aVs SR1R 4 /(R1 + R 4 ) 2
= (2075.0  10 −6 )(10)(2.1)(350  350 ) /(350 + 350 ) 2
= 10.89mV
Similarly for the transverse gages, Vout = -3.804mV

Noting that the transverse gages will change the bridge output in the direction opposite
from the longitudinal gages, the total output is :

2(10.89)+2(3.804) = 29.4mV

The output is unchanged from problem 8.22 because the full bridge is temperature
compensating.

8.29
8.47 The calibration constant can be determined by finding the slope (mV/N) and then
dividing by the supply voltage.

Using least squares method:

N =5
 x i = 185.00
 y i = 2.02
 x i = 13,225.00
2

 x i y i = 144.45

N  x i y i −  x i y i 5(144.45) − (185.00)(2.02)
m= = = 0.0077
N  x i − ( x i ) 5(13,225.00) − (144.45) 2
2 2

Thus, the calibration constant is:

0.0077mV / N
= 0.00128mV / N  V
6V

Vout = F  (calibrationcons tan t )  V s

1.5  10 −3 = F  0.00128  10 −3  12

F = 97.7 N

8.30
8.48 The calibration constant can be determined by finding the slope (mV/lb) and then
dividing by the supply voltage.

Using least squares method:

N =5
 x i = 37.00
 y i = 1.96
 x i = 529
2

 x i y i = 27.8

N  x i y i −  x i y i 5(27.8) − (37)(1.96)
m= = = 0.0521
N  x i − ( x i ) 5(529) − (37) 2
2 2

Thus, the calibration constant is:

0.0521mV / lb
= 0.00868 mV / lb  V
6V

Vout = F  (calibrationcons tan t )  V s

1.5  10 − 3 = F  0.00868  10 − 3  12

F = 14.4lb

8.49 R = 4 inch
I = 0.0045 in4
E = 29106 psi
F = 300 lbs

We substitute into and solve Eq.8.34:

EI
F=
 2 
R3 − 
4  

 (29  10 6 )(0.0045 )
300 =
 2 
( 4) 3  − 
4  

  = 0.02189 inch

8.31
8.50 L = 0.5m
F = 200N
3490rev 1 min 2rad
=   = 365.472rad / sec
min 60 sec 1rev

By definition:

T = FL = 200(0.5) = 100 N  m
P = T = 100(365.472) = 36547.2Watts
= 36.55kW

8.51 L = 0.6m
F = 240N
3620rev 1 min 2rad
=   = 379.086rad / sec
min 60 sec 1rev

By definition:

T = FL = 240(0.6) = 144 N  m
P = T = 144(379.086) = 54588.4Watts
= 54.59kW

8.52 L = 15 in = 1.25 ft
F = 200 lbf
Speed = 1760 rpm
1760rev 1 min 2rad
=   = 184.307rad / sec
min 60 sec 1rev

By definition:

T = FL = 200(1.25) = 250 ft  lbf

P = T = 250(184.307) = 46076.75 ft  lbf / sec

= 83.78hp(or 62.47kW )

8.32
8.53

W (mechanical energy) =  (Torque) •  (Radians/sec)
2 . RPM
= 
60
2 . 2000 1
= 20 (N.m) 
60 sec
= 4,189 Watts
= 4.189 kW
Energy dissipated in 1 hour:
E = Power  time = 4.189  3600 = 15.08 MJ

8.54
Engine Power =  (Torque) •  (Radians/sec)
2 . RPM
= 
60
2 . 5,500 1
= 600 (N.m) 
60 sec
= 345,575 Watts
= 345.6 kW

Considering some safety factors, one suitable dynamometer will be:

  7500  
7500 RPM Safety factor =  − 1 * 100 = 36%
  5500  
  750  
750 N. m  Safety factor =  600 − 1 * 100 = 25%
   
  450  
450 KW Safety factor =  345 − 1 * 100 = 30%
   

Note: The specifications for the dynamometer have been chosen quite arbitrarily, to show that
we always need to allow for some safety factor, beyond the measurement need. Additionally,
what is chosen is just a guide to the selection of equipment that eventually will be chosen from
the available equipment in the market.

8.33
8.55
Engine Power =  (Torque) •  (Radians/sec)
2 . RPM
= 
60
2 . 5,000 1 1
= 450 (ft.lbf)  
60 sec 550 ft  lbf / hp
= 428.399 hp (or 319.586 kW)

Considering some safety factors, one suitable dynamometer will be:

  7500  
7500 RPM Safety factor =  − 1 * 100 = 50% 
  5000  
  750  
750 ft.lbf  Safety factor =  450 − 1 * 100 = 67% 

  450  
450 KW Safety factor =  320 − 1 * 100 = 41% 

Note: The specifications for the dynamometer have been chosen quite arbitrarily, to show that
we always need to allow for some safety factor, beyond the measurement need. Additionally,
what is chosen is just a guide to the selection of equipment that eventually will be chosen from
the available equipment in the market that will also fit the testing conditions and constraints.

8.56 Because in part of the cycle, the engine absorbs power (coasting down a hill for
example). The eddy current dynamometer (and the hydraulic dynamometer) cannot
power the engine. The electric dynamometer is normally used.

8.34