2.

0– Fluid Basics
2.1 – Dimensions and Units
A dimension is the measure by which a physical variable is expressed quantitatively.

A unit is a particular way of attaching a number to the quantitative dimension.

Length is a dimension associated with such variables as distance, displacement, width,

deflection, and height

Centimetres, metres and inches are numerical units for expressing length

International System of Units

This is a brief summary of the SI, the modern metric system of measurement, which has
become the dominant language of international science, commerce and trade.

The SI is founded on seven SI base units for seven base quantities assumed to be actually
independent, as given in Table 1.

Table 1 – SI Base Units

SI base unit

Base quantity Name Symbol

length meter m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd

Table 2. Examples of SI derived units

SI derived unit
Derived quantity Name Symbol

area square meter m2

volume cubic meter m3
speed, velocity meter per second m/s
acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
mass density kilogram per cubic meter kg/m3
specific volume cubic meter per kilogram m3/kg

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.1
Primary Dimensions

In fluid mechanics there are only four primary dimensions from which all other
dimensions cab be derived: mass, length, time and temperature. These dimensions and
their units in the SI system are given below:

Primary Dimension SI unit

Mass [M] Kilogram (kg)

Length [L] Metre (m)
Time [T] Second (s)
Temperature [] Kelvin (K)

Deriving Dimensions for other variables:

All other variables in fluid mechanics can be expressed in terms of M, L, T and .

For example:
Acceleration: LT-2
Force: MLT-2 (Using Newton’s second law: F=ma)

Table 3 – Derived Dimensions in Fluid Mechanics

Quantity Symbol Dimensions

Mass m M
Length l L
Time t T
Temperature T θ
Velocity V LT -1
Acceleration a LT -2
Momentum/Impulse MLT -1
Force F MLT -2
Energy - Work W ML 2T -2
Power P ML 2T -3
Moment of Force M ML 2T -2
Angular momentum H ML 2T -1
Angle η M 0L 0T 0
Angular Velocity ω T -1
Angular acceleration α T -2
Area A L2
Volume V L3
First Moment of Area Ar L3
Second Moment of Area I L4
Density ρ ML -3
Specific heat-Constant Pressure Cp L 2 T -2 θ -1
Viscosity μ ML -1T -1
Kinematic Viscosity  L 3T -1

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.2
The Principle of Dimensional Homogeneity

In science and engineering, all equations must be dimensionally homogenous. This

means that each additive term in an equation must have the same dimensions.

Example: Bernoulli equation for incompressible flow:

1
p V 2  gZ  cons tan t
2

Each and every term in the equation above MUST have dimensions of pressure
[ML-1T-2]

Consistent Units

Note that not only must all (fluid) mechanics equations be dimensionally homogenous,
one must also use consistent units; that is each additive term must have the same units.

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.3
2.2 Properties of a Fluid
The solution to the problem in fluid flow, whether by experiment or theory, is to
determine the properties of a fluid as a function of position and time. The main
requirement is to determine the space-time distribution of the fluid properties.

Eulerian and Lagragian Descriptions

There are two different points of view in analysing problems in mechanics. The first view
at the flow field and is called eulerian method of description. In the eulerian method, we
compute the pressure field p(x,y,z,t) of the flow pattern and not the pressure changes p(t)
that a particle experiences as it moves through the field.

In the second view, known as the lagrangian method, we follow an individual particle
moving through the flow. The lagrangian approach will not be dealt with during this
course. However, in certain cases, it is convenient to apply the lagrangian approach. One
example is the study of isolated moving droplets moving in the atmosphere.

Fluid flow measurements are suited to the eulerian system. This is because a probe (e.g. a
pressure probe) is introduced into a laboratory at a fixed position (x,y,z). Its output thus
contributes to the description of the eulerian pressure field (p (x,y,z,t). To simulate a
lagrangian measurement, the probe would have to move downstream at the fluid particle
speeds.

2.2.1 The Velocity Field

The velocity field is often denoted by V(x,y,z,t).

In general, velocity is a vector function of position and time and thus has three
components u, v, and w, each scalar parameters:

V ( x, y, z, t )  iu( x, y, z, t )  j ( x, y, z, t )  kw( x, y, z, t )

or

V ( x, y, z, t )  iVx  jVy  kVz

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.4
2.2.2 Thermodynamic Properties of Fluid

The velocity field interacts closely with the thermodynamic properties of the fluid. The
three most common properties include:

1. Pressure p

Pressure is the (compression) stress at a point in a static fluid. Next to velocity,

the pressure p is the most dynamic variable in fluid flows. Pressure differences of
gradients often drive the flow (e.g. pressure differences between pipe ends).

Pressure = Force/Area
Units: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)

 Density 

Mass Density, , is defined as the mass of substance per unit volume.

Units: Kilograms per cubic metre, kg/m3 (or kgm-3 )

Typical values:
Water = 1000 kg/m3 , Mercury = 13546 kg/m3 , Air = 1.23 kg/m3, Paraffin Oil =
800 kg/m3 .
(at pressure =1.013 10-5 N m-2 and Temperature = 288.15 K.)


3. Temperature T

Temperature T is related to the internal energy of the fluid.

If temperature differences are large, heat transfer may be important.

4. Specific Weight

The specific weight of a fluid, denoted by , is its weight per unit volume. Just a
mass has a weight W = mg, density and specific weight are simply related by
gravity:
  g

Units: Newton’s per cubic metre, N/m3

Typical values:
Water =9814 N/m3, Mercury = 132943 N/m3, Air =12.07 N/m3, Paraffin Oil =7851
N/m3

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.5
 5. Specific Gravity

The specific gravity, denoted by SG, (sometimes referred relative density) is the
ratio of a fluid density to a standard reference fluid, usually water at 40C (for
liquids) and air (for gases):

 gas  gas
SGgas  
 air 1.025 kg m 3

 liquid  liquid
SGwater  
 water 1000kg m 3

Typical values: Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.

6. Viscosity

A whole section on viscosity is presented in the following section.

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.6
2.3 Viscosity
A fluid may be a liquid, vapour or gas. It has no permanent shape of its own but takes the
shape of any containing vessel or by external forces (e.g. atmosphere). A fluid consists of
atoms or molecules which are in continuous and random motion. They possess energy of
translation and collide with one another and with the walls of any container.

The mobility of atoms and molecules makes the fluid readily deformable and hence flow
may take place.

By contrast, the atoms or molecules of a solid are “frozen” (they possess energy for
vibration but not for translation). Solids therefore offer considerable, and usually
increasing, resistance to change of shape. Figure 6.1 below shows a solid being sheared.

Figure 2.1 – Solid being sheared

When a tangential force FT is applied to the solid there is limited deformation. The force
tends to cause sliding or shearing and is therefore referred as a shear force. On any
particular plane such as XX it induces a stress given by

FT

A
A shear stress can exist in a solid at rest. If force FT is removed the solid returns to its
original shape (as in Fig. 6.1(a)) and there is no permanent deformation provided the
material remains elastic.

However when a shear force is applied to a fluid, continuous deformation occurs, Figure
6.2 illustrates shear being applied to a fluid at rest.

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.7
 Figure 2.2 – Shear force applied to a fluid

If the shear force FT is applied to a fluid, shear stresses act in the fluid. One layer tends to
slide over another and, no matter how small FT may be, movement (deformation of the
fluid) takes place and continues until the force is removed. When FT is removed the
plates and fluid do not tend to return to the original configuration. The greater the shear
stresses the greater the rate of shear deformation.

A solid resists deformation. A fluid resists a change in the rate of deformation. If an

infinitesimal shear stress is applied to a solid, it produces an infinitesimal deformation,
but when applied to a fluid it produces a continuous, infinitesimal rate of deformation
with the possibility of a finite deformation in sufficient time.

Fluid motion takes place whenever a shear stress is imposed – if there is no motion, there
is no shear stress. Hence a fluid at rest cannot resist (support) a shear stress. We could
therefore use the following definitions for a fluid:

A fluid is a substance in which shear stress tends to

produce unlimited deformation

OR

A fluid is a substance which cannot support a shear

stress when at rest

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.8
A fluid offers resistance to motion due to its viscosity or “internal friction”. Viscosity
arises from movement of molecules from one layer to another moving at a different
velocity. Slower layers tend to retard faster layers, hence they offer resistance. In a liquid,
viscosity also depends on the resistance of inter-molecular forces caused y the more
closely packed molecules of a liquid. For example, water flows more readily than oil and
we say that oil has a higher viscosity.

The higher the viscosity of a fluid the greater the resistance to motion
between the fluid layers and, for a given applied shear stress, the lower
the rate of shear deformations between layers

Viscosity can be defined in terms of the rate of shear or velocity gradient. Consider the
straight and parallel flow of a fluid over a fixed, horizontal surface. Fluid in direct contact
with the surface has zero velocity because surface irregularities trap particles of the fluid.
At short distance from the surface, the fluid has a relatively low velocity but in the free-
stream region the velocity is V. This is explained in Figure 6.3 below.

Figure 2.3 – Velocity gradient near a fixed surface

The velocity increases continuously from zero at the fixed surface to V in the main stream
and can usually be represented by a smooth curve, known as the velocity profile.

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.9
At a distance y let the velocity be v and at a distance y+y let the velocity be v+v.
v
The ratio is the average velocity gradient (i.e. the rate of change of velocity with
y
distance) over the distance y.

In the limit as y tends to zero,

v dv

y dy
dv
is the true velocity gradient, or rate of shear at a given point.
dy

For most fluids used in engineering it is found that the shear stress  is directly
proportional to the velocity gradient when straight and parallel flow is involved. Thus,

dv  dv 
 or   const   
dy  dy 

The constant of proportionality is called the dynamic viscosity or often just the viscosity
of the fluid and is denoted by . Hence:
dv
  (1)
dy

This is called Newton’s Law of Viscosity and fluids that obey it are known as Newtonian
fluids. This equation is limited to straight and parallel (laminar) flow. Only if the flow is
of this form does dv represent the time rate of sliding of one layer over another. If angular
velocity is involved, the velocity gradient is not necessarily equal to the rate of shear.

dv
Important note: (i) In the free-stream where =0, =0
dy

dv
(ii) At the fixed surface where is maximum,  is maximum
dy

The value of  depends on the type of fluid. It depends on the molecular motion between
fluid layers and on inter-molecular (cohesive) forces.

The value of  is independent of velocity gradient and shear stress but depends
considerably on fluid temperature and, to a very small extent, on fluid pressure.
For liquids,  decreases as temperature increases due to reduced cohesive forces between
molecules.

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.10
For gases,  increases as temperature due to increased momentum of molecules leading
to greater momentum exchange.
dv
Figure 6.4 shows the relationship between and  for Newtonian and non-Newtonian
dy
fluids.

For a Newtonian fluid there is a linear relationship and the gradient of the line, u, is
constant for each fluid at a given temperature. For fluids, at a given t and a given
dv
temperature, u varies inversely with the velocity gradient. Note that zero implies
dy
zero  and not infinite .

Figure 2.4 – Relationship between velocity gradient and shear stress for Newtonian and
non-Newtonian fluids

Units of  can be found from dimensions of the quantities involved:

 
 
   
  N s 
 2 
m  Pa s 
  dv    m m 
  dy  

 kg m 1 s   kg 
 2 m   
 s m 2 m   m s 

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.11
The unit of dynamic viscosity is the pascal second (Pa s) or kg/ms. Viscosity can also be
expressed in Poise, P, where 1P = 0.1Pa s


Kinematic viscosity, denoted by , is defined as the ratio , where  is the fluid density.


The unit of kinematic viscosity is m2/s

 m3   m 2 
        kg  
   m s kg   s 

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.12
2.4 Flow Definitions

IDEAL FLUID

The actual flow pattern within a fluid is usually complex and difficult to model
mathematically. However, theory can be simplified considerably by the assumption that
the fluid is ideal. In context of Fluid Mechanics “ideal” has a specific meaning.

An ideal fluid (liquid or gas) is one which has the following properties:

- incompressibility (i.e. does not change volume, no matter what pressure is applied,
and thus it has a constant density)
- zero viscosity (i.e. does not experience friction resistance to flow)
- zero surface tension
- does not change phase

Note that gases and vapours are compressible and can only be considered as ideal fluids
when the flow velocity is very low. Gases can be treated as perfect, in which case the
perfect gas equations are applicable.

STEADY FLOW

A steady flow is one in which the properties of the fluid, mass flow rates and heat transfer
rates do not change with respect to time.

Unsteady flow is one in which changes are present with respect to time.

UNIFORM FLOW

Uniform flow takes place such that the properties are the same at all points within the
control volume at any given instant. For example, high velocity flow some way from the
entrance down a long straight pipe may be regarded as uniform.

Figure 2.5 – Uniform Flow

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.13
If Va = Vb = Vc, pa = pb = pc etc, at the same instant, then the flow is uniform. If the
properties vary from place to place within the control volume at a given instant then the
flow is non-uniform.

ONE-DIMENSIONAL FLOW

In one-dimensional (1D) flow it is assumed that all properties are uniform over any plane
perpendicular to the flow direction. Properties thus vary only in one direction of the non-
uniform flow as illustrated below.

Figure 2.6 – 1D Flow

One-dimensional flow is never reproduced exactly in practice; when a fluid flows along a
circular pipe the velocity is zero at the wall and a maximum at the pipe centre.
Nevertheless, the assumption of 1D flow simplifies analysis and often provides
sufficiently accurate results.

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.14
 Figure 2.7 – Actual velocity profile and equivalent 1D profile

2.5 Flow Patterns

Fluid mechanics is a highly visal subject. The patterns of flow can be visualised in a
dozen different ways. Four basic types of line patterns are used to visualise flows:

 A streamline is a line everywhere tangent to the velocity vector at a given instant

of time. (A streamline is an instantaneous pattern.) For example, consider simple
shear flow between parallel plates. At some instant of time, a streamline can be
drawn by connecting the velocity vector lines such that the streamline is
everywhere parallel to the local velocity vector. In this example, streamlines are
simply horizontal lines.

 A streakline is the locus of particles which have earlier passed through a

prescribed point in space. (A streakline is an integrated pattern.) For example,
consider simple shear flow between parallel plates. A streakline is formed by
injecting dye into the fluid at a fixed point in space. As time marches on, the
streakline gets longer and longer, and represents an integrated history of the dye
streak. In this example, streaklines are simply horizontal lines.

 A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given (marked) fluid particle. (A

pathline is an integrated pattern.) For example, consider simple shear flow
between parallel plates. A pathline is the actual path traversed by a given
(marked) fluid particle. A pathline represents an integrated history of where the
fluid particle has been. In this example, pathlines are simply horizontal lines

 A timeline is a set of fluid particles that form a line segment at a given instant of
time. (A timeline is an integrated pattern.) For example, consider simple shear
flow between parallel plates. A timeline follows the location of a line of fluid

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.15
 particles. A timeline represents an integrated flow pattern, since the time line
continually distorts with time, as shown in the sketch. Notice the no-slip condition
in action. The top of the time line moves with the top plate, i.e. at velocity V to
the right. The bottom of the timeline, however, stays in the same location at all
times, because the bottom plate is not moving.

Refer to youtube video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8MUPQbazkLQ

Figure 2.8: Solid blue lines and broken grey lines represent the streamlines. The red
arrows show the direction and magnitude of the flow velocity. These arrows are
tangential to the streamline. The group of streamlines enclose the green curves to form a
streamtube; (source: http://wapedia.mobi)

2.6 Flow Visulisation

Experimentation can produce revealing images of a fluid flow pattern, as shown in
Figures 2.9 – 2.15. or example streak lines are produced by the continuous release of
marked particles (dye, smoke, or bubbles) from a given point. If the flow is steady, eh
streaklines will be identical to the streamlines and pathlines of the flow.

Some methods of flow visualisation include the following:

a. Dye, smoke or bubble discharges

b. Surface powder or flakes on liquid flows
c. Floating or neutral-density particles
d. Tufts of yarn attached to boundary surfaces
e. Evaporative coatings on boundary surfaces
f. Particle image velocimtery
g. To a certain extent: Stall flags

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.16
Figure 2.9: Smoke visualization of flow over an aerofoil at three different angles of
attack (Source: http://history.nasa.gov)

Figure 2.10: Smoke visualization of flow over a car (source: http://www.grc.nasa.gov)

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.17
Figure 2.11: Visualization of the tip vortex trajectory of a marine propellor (source:
www.amc.edu.au)

Figure 2.12: Visualisation of the boundary layer flow using tufts; (source: NASA)

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.18
 Figure 2.13: Particle image velocimetry (source: www.dlr.de)

Figure 2.14: Particle image velocimetry on a model airplane inside a wind tunnel
(www.dantecdynamics.com)

Figure 2.15: Stall flags

Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.19
Prof. Ing. Tonio Sant 2018/19 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malta 2.20