ASSIGNMENT

MEHAR RAIQUE
SAJJAD
21020920-116

Date
27-12-2023
Course title
LOGICS/MGT-204
DR YASIR ARFAT
 Q. How to Reduce the number of terms in categorical syllogism
And how to translate categorical proposition into standard
forms. Discuss briefly and give examples at least three for each.

1. Categorical syllogisms, by definition, must have exactly three terms: major, minor, and
middle.
2. Excess terms can lead to fallacies like the fallacy of four terms.
3. Reducing terms ensures the syllogism is valid and can be properly evaluated.

Methods for Term Reduction:

1. Synonym or Paraphrase:
- When terms seem different but express the same idea, use a synonym or rephrase one to match
the other.
- Example: "All humans are mortal. All people are mortal." (Reduce to "All humans are mortal.")

2. Obversion:
- Change a proposition's quality (affirmative to negative or vice versa) and replace the predicate
with its complement.
- Example: "All poets are artists" (A) becomes "No poets are non-artists" (E).

3. Contraposition:
- Switch the subject and predicate terms of a proposition and replace both with their complements.
- Example: "No cats are dogs" (E) becomes "No non-dogs are non-cats" (E).

Key Points:

- Apply these methods carefully, ensuring logical equivalence between the original and reduced
propositions.
- Consider the context and intended meaning to avoid misinterpretations.
- Reduction often involves rewriting propositions in their standard forms (A, E, I, or O).

Additional Tips:

- Identify the middle term, as it's crucial for linking the major and minor premises.
- If a term appears in both premises but not the conclusion, it's likely the middle term.
- Focus on reducing terms in premises, as the conclusion typically contains only the major and minor
terms.

Example:

Original syllogism:

- All mammals are vertebrates.

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- No reptiles are mammals.
- Therefore, no reptiles are vertebrates. (Invalid due to four terms)

Reduced syllogism:

- All mammals are vertebrates.

- All reptiles are non-mammals. (Obversion of the second premise)
- Therefore, no reptiles are vertebrates. (Now valid with three terms)

*Remember: Effective term reduction requires a solid understanding of categorical propositions, their
standard forms, and the logical operations of obversion and contraposition.

translating categorical propositions into standard forms:

1. Identify the components:

Subject term:
The class or category being talked about.
Predicate term:
The class or category being said something about the subject term.
Copula:
The verb that links the subject and predicate, usually a form of "to be."
Quantity:
Whether the proposition refers to all or some members of the subject class (universal or particular).
Quality:
Whether the proposition affirms or denies the relationship between the subject and predicate classes
(affirmative or negative).

2. Standard forms:

A: All S are P:
Universal affirmative (e.g., "All cats are mammals").
E: No S are P:
Universal negative (e.g., "No fish are mammals").
I: Some S are P:
Particular affirmative (e.g., "Some cats are black").
O: Some S are not P:
Particular negative (e.g., "Some cats are not black").

3. Steps for translation:

1. State the subject and predicate terms as nouns or noun phrases.

2. Use "all" or "no" for universal propositions, and "some" for particular propositions.
3. Use "are" or "are not" for affirmative or negative propositions, respectively.
4. Arrange the terms in the correct order: subject, copula, predicate.

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4. Examples:

- "Only mammals are warm-blooded" becomes "All warm-blooded things are mammals" (A).
- "Not all birds can fly" becomes "Some birds are not things that can fly" (O).
- "Most students are diligent" must be rephrased to specify a quantity (e.g., "Some students are
diligent" (I)).

5. Special cases:

- Propositions with "only" or "none but" often translate into A propositions (e.g., "Only members can
enter" becomes "All who can enter are members").
- Propositions with "few," "many," or "most" need rephrasing to indicate a specific quantity (e.g., "Few
students failed" becomes "Some students are not those who passed").

Q. Construct the table of Boolean functions of degree 3.

x y f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

f11 f12 f13 f14 f15 f16 f17 f18 f19 f20 f21 f22 f23 f24 f25 f26 f27 f28 f29 f30
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

f31 f32 f33 f34 f35 f36 f37 f38 f39 f40 f41 f42 f43 f44 f45 f46 f47 f48 f49 f50
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

f51 f52 f53 f54 f55 f56 f57 f58 f59 f60 f61 f62 f63 f64 f65 f66 f67 f68 f69 f70
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

f71 f72 f73 f74 f75 f76 f77 f78 f79 f80 f81 f82 f83 f84 f85 f86 f87 f88 f89 f90
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

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 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

F F F F F F F F f9 f10 f10 f10 f10 f10 f10 f10 f10 f10 f10 f11
91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

f11 f11 f11 f11 f11 f11 f11 f11 f11 f12 f12 f12 f12 f12 f12 f12 f12 f12 f12 f13
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1

f13 f13 f13 f13 f13 f13 f13 f13 f13 f14 f14 f14 f14 f14 f14 f14 f14 f14 f14 f15
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0

f15 f15 f15 f15 f15 f15 f15 f15 f15 f16 f16 f16 f16 f16 f16 f16 f16 f16 f16 f17
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

f17 f17 f17 f17 f17 f17 f17 f17 f17 f18 f18 f18 f18 f18 f18 f18 f18 f18 f18 f19
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

f19 f19 f19 f19 f19 f19 f19 f19 f19 f20 f20 f20 f20 f20 f20 f20 f20 f20 f20 f21
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

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 F21 f21 f21 f21 f21 f21 f21 f21 f21 f22 f22 f22 f22 f22 f22 f22 f22 f22 f22 f23
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

f231 f232 f233 f234 f235 f236 f237 f238 f239 f240 f241 f242 f243 f244 f245 f246 f247 f248 f249 f250 f251 f252 f253 f254 f255 f256
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Q.Prove that Absorption laws, Demorgan’s laws, and Distributive
laws with the help of formulas and also by table forms.

Absorption laws,

Formulas:

1. X + XY = X
2. X(X + Y) = X

X Y X + XY
0 0
0 1
1 0
1 1
X(X + Y)
0 0
0 0
1 1
1 1

Formulas:

1. X + XY = X
2. X(X + Y) = X

Proof using formulas:

• X + XY = X:

o Factor out X from the left-hand side: X + XY = X(1 + Y)

o Since 1 + Y = 1 for any value of Y, X(1 + Y) = X

• X(X + Y) = X:

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 o Apply the identity law X + 0 = X to the right-hand side: X(X + Y) = X(X + 0 + Y)
o Rearrange terms: X(X + 0 + Y) = X(X + Y + 0)
o Apply the commutative law of OR: X(X + Y + 0) = X(X + 0 + Y)
o Apply the identity law again: X(X + 0 + Y) = X

Proof using truth tables:

• The truth tables above demonstrate that X + XY and X(X + Y) produce identical results for all
possible combinations of X and Y, proving their equivalence.

De Morgan's Laws:
Formulas:
1. (X + Y) = X * Y
2. (X * Y) = X + Y

Truth Tables:

X Y (X + Y) X* Y (X * Y) X+ Y

0 0 1 1 1 1

0 1 0 0 1 1

1 0 0 0 1 1

1 1 0 0 0 0

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Proof using formulas:
• (X + Y) = X * Y:
oApply the distributive law to (X + Y): (X + Y) = ( X)( Y) + ( X)( Y)
o Simplify: ( X)( Y) + ( X)( Y) = X * Y
• (X * Y) = X + Y:
o Apply the distributive law to (X * Y): (X * Y) = ( X)( X) + ( X)( Y) + ( Y)( X) + ( Y)( Y)
o Simplify using idempotent law (X * X = X) and commutative law: ( X)( X) + ( X)( Y) + (
Y)( X) + ( Y)( Y) = X + Y
Proof using truth tables:
• The truth tables above demonstrate that (X + Y) and X * Y, as well as (X * Y) and X + Y,
produce identical results for all possible combinations of X and Y, proving their equivalence.

Distributive Laws:
Formulas:
1. X + (Y * Z) = (X + Y) * (X + Z)
2. X * (Y + Z) = (X * Y) + (X * Z)

Proof using truth tables:

X Y Z X + (Y * Z) (X + Y) * (X + Z) X * (Y + Z) (X * Y) + (X * Z)

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0 0 0 0

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 1 0 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 0 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

• The truth tables demonstrate that both expressions in each law produce identical results for all
possible combinations of X, Y, and Z, proving their equivalence.
Proof using formulas:
While not as straightforward as using truth tables, here's a conceptual approach using formulas:
1. X + (Y * Z) = (X + Y) * (X + Z):
o Consider that X + (Y * Z) includes X regardless of Y * Z's value.
o (X + Y) * (X + Z) also includes X regardless of Y and Z's individual values.
o This conceptual similarity suggests their equivalence.
2. X * (Y + Z) = (X * Y) + (X * Z):
o Consider that X * (Y + Z) includes X only when either Y or Z (or both) are 1.
o (X * Y) + (X * Z) also includes X only when either X * Y or X * Z (or both) are 1, which
aligns with the same condition.
o This conceptual similarity suggests their equivalence.

Q. what are the importance of boolean algebra in our daily life

While Boolean algebra might not be explicitly used in most day-to-day activities, its influence
permeates our lives in many subtle ways. Here are some examples of its importance:
1. Digital technology:
• Computers and smartphones: The entire foundation of digital computers and smartphones is
built on Boolean logic. Every operation, from processing data to displaying visuals, relies on
the principles of Boolean algebra.
• Search engines and algorithms: When you search for something online, algorithms use
Boolean operators like AND, OR, and NOT to filter through vast amounts of data and deliver
relevant results.
• Programming languages: Most programming languages incorporate Boolean logic and
operators, allowing programmers to control program flow, make decisions, and perform
conditional operations.

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2. Communication and information systems:
• Networks and data transfer: Network protocols and data routing utilize Boolean logic to ensure
efficient and reliable communication across the internet and other networks.
• Databases and information retrieval: Databases rely on Boolean logic for data storage and
retrieval. Queries and filters often use operators like AND, OR, and NOT to search for specific
information within the database.
• Logic puzzles and games: Brain teasers, logic puzzles, and even some games use Boolean
concepts to challenge players and test their reasoning skills.
3. Everyday problem-solving:
• Decision-making: Although not consciously, we often use Boolean logic when making
everyday decisions. We weigh options, consider conditions, and apply logical reasoning to
arrive at a conclusion.
• Troubleshooting: When troubleshooting technical problems or analyzing situations, we might
subconsciously employ Boolean principles to identify potential causes and isolate the issue.
4. Future applications:
• Artificial intelligence: As AI continues to evolve, Boolean logic will play a crucial role in
developing intelligent systems that can make decisions, learn, and adapt to their environment.
• Cybersecurity: Protecting data and systems from cyber threats requires sophisticated
algorithms and encryption techniques, which often rely on Boolean logic principles.
Overall, while we might not always directly interact with Boolean algebra in our daily lives, its
principles and applications are deeply ingrained in the digital world we inhabit. Its influence continues
to expand, shaping the functionality of technology, driving information systems, and even influencing
our own problem-solving strategies.

Q. solve Q. No. 1 to Q. No 5(Page: 827-828).

LOGICS PAGE 10
Output
(X+Y)*𝑌

OUTPUT
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑋̅ ∗ 𝑌̅)

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OUTPUT

̅̅̅̅) + (𝑍̅ + 𝑋)
(𝑋𝑌

OUTPUT

̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑋̅ 𝑌𝑍)(𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍̅)

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OUTPUT
(X+Y+Z)+(𝑋̅ + 𝑌 + 𝑍)+(𝑋̅ + 𝑌̅ + 𝑍̅)

LOGICS PAGE 13