Genefler | FINE TUNE YOUR ENGLISH (ENGLISH GRAMMAR&USAGE) I II > Revision Notes, part | section A,B&C (chapters 1 - 21) Prepared by : Diyona Bennichan Department of English Girljyothi College of Arts & Science, VazhathpoeDiyona Bennichan Department of English Girijyothi College of Arts & Science, Vazhathope Revision notes - Fine Tune Your English: > Section A Chapter 1 “Whats an Effective Sentence? A sentence is said to be effective when it serves the purpose for which it is meant. The purpose can be anything, sometimes to describe something, argue a point or expound a theory. Whatever be your objective, it should serve the purpose for which it is meant. In short, an effective sentence is the one that imparts sense to the listener and at the same time the one that follows the right grammatical syntax. 1)An effective sentence should impart meaning to the listener 2) It should be free of solecisms( grammatical errors). The basic structure of a sentence is SVO; that is Subject -Verb- Object or Subject -predicate pattern, So every sentence has two parts- the subject and the predicate. Just have a look at a very simple example: " Children play" * Here "Childre * The subject is always a noun or noun equivalent, * The predicate consist of verb or words that are dependent on the verb. " js the subject and "play" the verb.Any sentence can be made more complicated by enlarging the subject and extending the predicate by adding modifiers. Tips for Constructing Effective Sentences. Do you know why a sentence fails to be effective? There may be many reasons for it. But mainly it becomes so due to the improper ways of expressing a particular idea; for the way in which an idea is expressed matters a lot. Behind every bad sentence there is a bad writer. >>. You can improve your writing skills by simply following the tips _ given below: #1) while you construct a sentence be cautious to be positive rather than negative by avoiding ino" "not" etc except when the negative idea seems very emphatic. (Use opposites instead of negatives) For example prefer one word substitutes like "disliked" instead of negative usages like " did not like" as in " he disliked experimental novels" for " he did not like experimental novels". The second sentence is simple and colloquial by the first one is ornamental. The first sentence has ascribed a positive quality to the negative idea presented in it. #2), Always prefer specificity to generality. (Specific to general) Specificity gives precision. Just compare the two sentences: a)The fearful sounds of the night kept me awake b) The fearful sounds of the night- the hooting of the owls, the baying of the wolves not to mention the screeching of the foraging bats, kept me awake during the night. Now just ask yourself, which one is more effective. You can feel that the second one is more effective than the first one. The first one is a general statement. But the second one is a spe ‘one providing all minute details thereby enhancing assimilation. #3) You can employ figurative language for improving your style. An abstract idea becomes concrete when couched in figurative language. Compare the two sentences. a) she sang very sweetly. b) She sang like a nightingale Sentence (b) has a simile in it which triggers the imagination of the listener thereby allowing him to compare the girl's song to that of a nightingale's.#4) Monotony should be avoided at any rate. It can instill boredom and make a sentence dull. (Avoid monotony) #5) A judicious use of "periodic" sentences (verb at the end) can improve the quality of your writing.A periodic sentence keeps the reader in suspense by placing the verb at the very end of the sentence. Though periodic sentences are not common in modern literature it was popular in old English. You can place the important ideas and words either at the beginning or at the end of a sentence. Relatively less important ideas may be relegated to the middle of the sentence. #6) Always give the most appropr less appropriate words are replaced by more appropriate ones.(Use appropriate words) 'e word for an idea. Your sentences get improved when Example "I heard from the kitchen the sound of the cutlery falling on the plates" Now look at the improved version: [heard the clatter of the cutlery falling on plates. #7) Learn the art of subordinating the less important ideas to the more important ideas. For that avoid short, choppy sentences. Use subordinate conjunctions to combine ideas. #8) Avoid faulty parallelism and mixed metaphors .All ideas of the series should be of the same word class. A mixed metaphor is the mixing of two metaphors. For example, look at the sentences. John was taciturn, shy and lacked the courage to face people. John was taciturn shy and timid. The latter is more effective than the former. Also avoid mixed metaphors. #9).place the modifiers as close to the referent as possible.Also avoid dangling modifiers. #10) Use passive voice only if there is real need for it. (Try to express ideas in active voice) #11) Avoid slangy and informal expressions (eg:" he kicked the bucket for "he died".)#12) Choose a style that is appropriate to the occasi #13) Do not modify the idea to accomodate the words you like.Chapter 2 - Phrases; what are they? ‘+ Whats a phrase? * phrase is a group of words that is meaningful but lacking a finite verb, though there may be verbal elements like the participles ‘* itis not complete like a sentence . Itddoes not have a Subject and predicate of its own. % Itcan function like a noun or an adjective or like an adverb, + Characteristic Features of Phrases > Phrases are group of words that convey some sense > Most phrases are non-finite;lt does not have a finite verb; but there may be verbal elements like the participles > some are totally verb- less; such phrases are contractions of participial phrases Eg; When Young, Blunt, the donkey was a champion. > phrases are more compact than clauses. If you use in the place of a clause, it will become more compact and due to this many good writers prefer Phrasal Constructions. Eg; When he woke up , he found his horse gone He woke up to find his horse gone > tis not complete like a sentence, with a subject or Predicate of its own. But there is a kind of phrase with a subject and a partial predicate of its own and function like a clause, but not a clause proper. Itis called Absolute phrase. Eg; The sun climbing to the zenith, the day grew rather hot. > Normally phrases are introduced by -ed participles, -ing participles, past participle,ete; But in certain cases a preposition, an adjective, an interrogative pronoun, an adverb or a noun can introduce a phrase, Eg; 1) Scrawled on the placard near him were the words," | am blind give me something" ( Introduced by ed participle, scrawled) Eg; 2) Sitting in the shade of a tree and with a hat by his feet, a blind boy was begging for alms.( Sitting; ing participle)Eg; 3) Overcome by curiosity, he asked a passer-by to read the new words on the placard.( Past tense participle, Overcome) Eg; 4) After rubbing off the words on the placard, he wrote something new there.( Introduced by the preposition ‘after'.) +> Disadvantage of using Non -Finite Phrases > Non finite phrases have some deficiencies; the use of a phrase in the place of a clause can sometimes lead to Ambiguity. > Ex. | met you leaving the room. Itis not clear who was leaving the room. + Different types of phrases Noun phrase/ Nominal Phrase. ‘A Noun Phrase is a word or group of words containing a noun or indefini or subject of a sentence and as the object of a sentence. Or it performs the grammatical function of a pronoun as the head word noun. Eg, am surprised at fools flourishing like that A mother selling her own child is unbelievable, am busy writing a novel. Overcome by curiosity, he asked a passer-by to read the new words an the placard 2. Adverb phrase ‘An adverb phrase is simply two or more words that act as an adverb. It can modify a verb, adverb or adjective and can tell why how where when an action occurred eg. Meet me at the mail ‘They must return before dusk. Whatever your problem, it has a solution.While praying to God, do not mention your personal needs. The weather having improved, we resumed the game. 3. Adjective phrase It is a group of words that describe a noun or pronoun in a sentence ; so in most cases they are tied to nouns, The adjective in an adjective phrase can appear at the beginning, end or middle of a phrase. The adjective phrase can be placed before or after the noun or pronoun in a sentence. eg. The ride was too terrible Everyone was extremely sad. | want you to grow strong in limb and strong in mind. Happy and Cheerful, the boy started to sing a song.Chapter 3 The Noun Clauses A clause is a unit of grammatical organisation next below the sentence in rank and in traditional grammar said to consist of a Subject and a predicate. What is an Independent clause ? ‘An independent clause can express a complete thought. So it is also called as standalone sentence. Example; Sheela ate an apple after she watched the movie. Consider the part underlined.” Sheela ate an apple”. considering it alone can give a sense of completeness.lt represents a complete action or thought.So it is the independent clause here. * What is a dependent clause ? ‘A dependent Clause is usually a supporting part of a sentence and it cannot stand by itself as a meaningful idea. for example, Sheela ate an apple after She watched the movie Now let us consider the second part.” after she watched the movie”. Here this is just a supporting part, subordinated to the independent clause. It cannot express a meaningful idea when considered alone. * What is clause analysis? Clause analysis is the procedure of dividing sentences into main and dependent clauses. * There are three types of dependent Clauses:- 1) Aclause that performs the function of a noun is a-noun clause.2) Aclause that functions like adverbs is called adverb clauses. 3) Aclause that performs an adjectival function is called adjective clause or relative clause. Noun Clauses clauses that perform the duty of a noun are called a noun clauses. > Noun clause can be used as ') the subject of a sentence eg. How this bloody sequence will end is anybody's guess ji) a noun clause can be used as the object of a verb eg. you must remember that you are not children. ii) it can be used as complements of subject as well as object. eg, Sancho panza was a barber before he turned a follower of Don Quixote.(subject complement. Both barber and follower complements the subject Sancho Panza) I consider John, my mentor(object complement. mentor complements John). iv) a noun clause can be used as an appositive. The function of an appositive is to describe the subject and thereby used in the same way as a subject or it is a word or phrase that follows another phrase and refer to it. eg; My father, a retired teacher, spends his time reading and writing. (here my father is the subject. here my father is also referred as a retired teacher. therefore,the phrase retired teacher functions as an an alternative subject. so, the phrase, retired teacher is the appositive in this sentence.) ‘Summing Up ‘Announ clause can be used in most of the ways a noun can be used. It can act as:v subject of a sentence object of a sentence vv complements of subject and object. appositive clause. v Chapter 4Adverb Clauses Definition; An adverb clause is a dependent clause that describes a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. An adverb clause tells when, where, how, why, to what extent, or under what conditions something happened. * An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction. * Some common subordinating conjunctions: after, although, as, asif, asfaras, aslongas, assoonas, as though, because, before, evenif, eventhough, how, if, inorderthat, once, provided (that), ratherthan, since, so fongas, so(that), than, that, though, unless, until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while, why > TYPES OF ADVERB CLAUSE 1) Adverb clause of time/temporal clauses ‘An adverb clause modifies the verb in the main clause by giving the time background of the action. {Subordinating conjunctions : when, whenever, before, after, as soon as, since, while, etc.) Ex; While it wos wandering in the field, a donkey happened to fall into a well 2) Adverb clause of place ‘An adverb clause of place is introduced by ‘where’ or ‘wherever’. It explains the place of an action or it describes where the action occured. Ex; Where the accident occured, a shepherd boy was tending sheep.{Itis not always necessary that a clause that begins with where or wherever is an adverb clause. At times it can also be relative clause. For example, The house where Shakespeare was born is still preserved.) 3) Adverb clause of reason/cause. It explains the reason of an action or it describes 'why' an action occured. {Conjunctions : as, since, because, etc. An adverb clause of reason can be introduced by the subordinator ‘now that! also.) ‘Now that you have got the visa, you can prepare for the journey. | forgive you since you repent | do it because i choose to 4) Adverb clause of purpose It describes the purpose of an action. It is introduced by subordinators like "so that", “in order that", etc. Ina purpose clause, usually the modal auxiliary ‘would’, ‘should’, or ‘might' is used. ‘She moved to her hometown so that she could be with her people. The village fool prepared to lower a ladder into the well, so that the donkey could climb out of the well. Negative purpose : is indicated by using clauses beginning with ‘for fear that’, lest’, ‘in case’, ete. For ‘example, She always kept a pistol near her in case somebody intruded into her house. "Lest" is very formal and is seldom used now. For example, He gripped his brother's hands firmly lest he be trampled by the crowd, s)Adverb clause of results/effect ‘An adverb clause of result is introduced with "so...that", "such...that" She grew so thin that she no longer looked like a human being. 6) Adverb clause of concession/contrast. When what is said in the main clause is surprising in the light of what the dependent clause says, its called adverb clause of concession/contrast.. ‘Though the train started late, it reached the destination on time. Ifhe does not speak English well, he is good at writing 7) Adverb clause of concession and condition At times concession clause can also become a clause of conditionNormally, a clause introduced by ven if'suggests both concession and condition. ven if he pays back the money, | will not take him back. 8) Universal conditional, concessive clauses. ‘Adverb clauses introduced by 'wh- compounds' (whatever, whoever, etc.) are called universal conditional, concessive clauses. Cleopatra looks pretty whatever she wears. 9)Adverb clause of comparison There are 2 types of comparison clauses : a) Adverb clause of manner Itis introduced with subordinators like "as", "asif", "like", ete. She wept as if her heart would break. b) Adverb clause of degree Itis introduced with subordinators like "as", "than', etc. Doit as ido. He is as stupid as she is proud.Chapter 5 “If All the Trees Were Bread and Cheese" > Conditional clauses "If all the trees were bread and cheese, there would be considerable deforestation ... where | live," says G.K.Chesterton (English writer). * Aconditional clause states the dependence of one circumstance/thing on another. (In the above quotation, deforestation is dependent on the condition that all trees are made of bread and cheese.) * Acondition can be expressed in many ways, using different conditional phrases. Different conditional phrases include Supposing, provided (that), one more (ex; one more step and you are a goner), but for (ex; but for his help we would not have won), should (ex; Should something happen, you will be responsible for it), were, on condition that, so long as, as long as, if, unless negative condition * What is a real condition? In a real condition there is equal possibility for the fulfilment or non- fulfilment of the condition. An if clause in this type of sentences are using the simple present tense, while the main clause uses the simple future tense. Real condition can be expressed in past tense also. “If a man stays long enough, something of this kind will happen," said Bernard Shaw. ‘An if clause as in this sentence, uses the simple present tense, while the main clause Uses the simple future tense. This condition is an example of a real condition. There is equal possibility for the fulfilment or non- fulfilment of the condition. ‘* What is an unreal condition? In an unreal condition, the main clause gives the probable result of the unreal condition. Here the condition is not only unreal but also impossible. The ‘if clause! in such sentences shows a condition impossible to fulfill. “If we had never met... we would not have been broken hearted." (Here the condition is not only unreal but also impossible.) * Negative condition? Negative condition suggests that there is no other way something can happen “Unless the Lord builds the house, the workers work in vain"Chapter 6 The Relative Clause “Relative clause is also known as adjectival clause. + Relative clause functions like an adjective qualifying 2 noun. * Arelative or adjectival clause is joined to another clause by means of relative pronouns like who, whom, that, whose, which, to whom, etc. (A relative pronoun performs 2 functions : it functions as either the subject or the object of the verb in the relative clause; it joins two clauses like a conjunction.) Defining Relative Clause A relative clause which identifies the noun it qualifies is a defining relative clause. Ex; The woman who supplies milk is moving out Non- defining relative clauseArelative clause that merely imparts additional information is a non- defining relative clause. A non- defining relative clause is seperated from the main clause using commas or dashes. Ex; The elephant, which is the largest of all land animals, is found in Asia and Africa. + Difference between 'Wh' - relative pronouns (who, whom, ,etc.) and 'that' as a relative pronoun. is not used to introduce non- defining relative clauses. whose, which, 1) "That! 2) The number or case of the antecedent does not affect the form of the relative pronoun ‘that’ While 'who' becomes 'whom' to show the objective case, there is no change in the form of ‘that’ ex; The man whom you called yesterday has arrived. The man that you called yesterday has arrived. 3) When a relative pronoun is the complement of a preposition, the prepo: before the 'wh-" relative pronoun or after it. However, when we use 'that' as a relative pronoun, the preposition can come only at the end. This is the hill that | dreamt about last night. This is the hill about which | dreamt last night. This is the hill which | dreamt about last night. 4) ‘Who's preferred to ‘that' if the antecedent is a personal noun. However, though The man who came here yesterday may be better than The man that came here yesterday, The man that | met yesterday is considered better than The man whom I met yesterday. + 'Who' cannot be used in the place of that in sentences like the following the man that he was. 5) When the antecedent consist of many words, 'wh' relative pronouns are preferred. For ex; | have many friends there in the Himalayas out there in the high ranges who. really care for me. 6) ‘That’ is common after words like ‘all, ‘everything’, ‘few’, etc. The relative pronoun, can be omitted if it isin the objective case. For ex; The culprit the police are looking for hanged himself. ion can come He is no longerChapter 7 How Clauses Are Conjoined ¥ How are two clauses connected to each other? Aclause is connected to another clause using mostly conjunctions, but relative pronouns and interrogative and relative adverbs too are used sometimes to connect certain types of clauses, A conjunction is defined as a word or word class that connects words or constructions. There are 2 types of conjunctions : co- ordinating conjunctions and subordinating conjunctions. ~The co- ordinating conjunctions join words and sentences of the same rank. Example; George came here but did not stay for lunch. Commonly used co- ordinating conjunctions are : and, but, for, only, either...or, neither...nor, andor. = There are 4 types of co-ordinating conjunctions: 1) Cumulative conjunctions (conjunctions like and, also, both...and, not only but also, ete.,). Ex; John as well as his brother is absent today. 2) Alternative conjunctions (either...or, neither...nor, otherwise, or, else, etc. Express a choice). Ex; You can either accept the job or look for another one.3)Adversative conjunctions ( still, yet, however, whereas, but, nevertheless, etc., express a contrast between two statements). Ex; Democracy has many flaws nevertheless it is preferable to all other political systems. 4) Iilative conjunctions (therefore, so, then, etc., conjunctions by which a fact or statement is inferred from each other). Noun Clauses '* Certain types of noun clauses are joined to the main clause using the conjunction ‘thi Ex; King Lear tells his daughter that nothing comes from nothing (That' is not always a conjunction, in relative clauses it functions as a connecting pronoun) * An interrogative adverb is used to connect certain types of noun clauses to the m: clause or to another clause. Ex; Where he has been all these years nobody knows (Sometimes where is using as a relative adverb) ‘+ Noun clauses can be connected with an interrogative pronoun/ a relative pronoun sometimes. Adjective(Relative) Clauses © Conjunctions cannot be used to connect adjective clause to other clauses. ‘© Arelative pronoun or a relative adverb is the only kind of connective by which an adjective clause can be attached to another clause. Ex; This is the house that Jack built (relative pronoun) This is the place where everything goes wrong (relative adverb) Adverbial Clauses ‘+ Adverbial clauses of time use conjunctions like since, as, when, so long as, as soon as, before, after, tll, untill, etc. Ex; When everybody else was playing, Bob sat in his room reading a book.Adverb clause of place usually start with conjunctions like where, wherever, whence, whither, etc. Ex; Where there is hate, destruction is certain Adverb clause of purpose are connected with conjunctions like so that, in order that, in case. Ex; He resigned his job so that he could devote more time to his son's education. Adverbial clause of reason begin with the conjunctions because, since, as, that, etc. Ex; As he was dishonest, | sacked him. Adverbial clause of result are connected with the conjunction so. Adverbial clauses of comparison begin with than, as, as if, etc. Adverbial clause of concession are introduced with although, though, even if, etc. hat. Ex; Though he was ill, he attended the meeting.SECTION B Chapter 8 Understanding the Verb A verb is the action or state of being in a sentence. Verbs can be expressed in different tenses, depending on when the action is being performed. ‘verb has a basic form and four assumed forms. The verb takes on the one or the other form depending on the number, tense, voice or the mood(whether what is said is certain, doubtful, possible, necessary, etc.)of the verb. 5 Forms of verb 1) The base form or the infinitive (like, dance,etc.) Basic form of verbs are the forms that the verbs take before adding any subject pronouns to the sentence. They can also be called infinitive or root form, It can occur with or without ‘to’. Examples; You ought to consult a doctor. Only a doctor can diagnose the complaint. 2) The -ing form(present participle) (walking, singing, etc) -ing form of the verb acts as/uses of -ing form of the verb * An adjective in a sentence Example; Barking dogs seldom bite * Continuous tense (be + present participle = is + barking) Ex; My dog is barking. So it will not bite till it has stopped barking.3) The -ed form or the past participle (walked, liked, etc.) -ed form functions as/uses of -ed form of the verb * To make passive voice (be + past participle) Ex; The dog was provoked by the rat pulling at his whiskers. * Asanadjective. Ex; A provoked dog is a dangerous animal. * To form the perfect tense Ex; Nobody else has ever provoked my dog so violently. 4) Past tense form Most verbs ends with suffix -d or -ed is past tense form. (Liked, walked, worked, etc.) S)the-s form Third person singular form. ( likes, works, goes etc.) ‘TYPES OF VERB Main Verbs Linking verbs (appear, be, etc) Auxiliary Verbs (be, do, have, etc) Modal Verbs (must, can, could, etc.)Chapter 9 Understanding Auxiliary Verbs ‘An auxiliary verb (or a helping verb as it's also called) is used with a main verb to help express the main verb's tense, mood, or voice. The main auxiliary verbs are be, have, and do. They appear in the following forms Be: am, is, are, was, were, being, been, will be Have: has, have, had, having, will have Do: does, do, did, will do There is another kind of auxiliary verb called a modal auxiliary verb (or modal verb). The modal auxiliary verbs are can, could, may, might, must, ought to, shall, should, will, and would. © Modal Auxiliaries and its uses Can (contracted negative form : can't) - to know, to know how to do something, to be able or powerful enough to do something, Ex; He can speak English fluently -it can show possibility and permission Ex; Accidents can happen at any time. (Possibility) Can I go home earlier today? (Permission)Could (couldn't) -Past tense of ‘can’ -shows ability in the past. Ex; He could answer all the questions but he didn't. ~ Could can express possibility, request, or permission. Ex; You could have won the game Could you speak to us about your political life? Could | use your computer? May (mayn't); Might (mightn’ -may and might show possibility and permission. Ex; There is a political rally in the afternoon, vehicular traffic may be affected. Might | use your computer? /May I... May | come in, sir? Must (mustn't) -shows obligation resulting from within, determination, and inference. Ex; we must help the poor (obligation) We must finish this work before 5'o clock, (Determination) He must have got help from outside. (Inference) -must not shows prohibition. Ought to (oughtn't} -shows moral obligation, desirability, etc.-ought is followed by 'to'-infinitive. Ex; You ought to consult a doctor ‘Shall (shan't) ; Will (won’ should (Shouldn't) ; Would (wouldn’ ~ Shall is used with the first person to show a future action and it can also show a suggestion in the form of an interrogative sentence ; used with second person/third person to indicate a command, a threat or a promise. Ex; | shall meet him tomorrow You shall vacate the premises before 5'o clock tomorrow. Shall we go out for a walk? - will is used to show a future action; used to frame a request and show determination. Ex; John will take over as the new CEO tomorrow.(future action) You will pay for it. (Threat) ‘We will reward you if you stand by us. (Promise) Will you please post this letter for me? (Request) They will fight to the bitter end. (Determination) -should is used 1) to indicate what is right or the best thing to do, 2) to give or ask for advice, 3) to make a polite request, 4) to show what is likely or to show that something that was expected did not happen Ex; 1) You should consult your parents before you take a decision about it. 2) Should | attend that wedding? 3) should be greatful if you accept our invitation 4) Today is sunday;the roads should be less crowed. 5) He should be happy he is not in jail-would can show past habit, future in the past situation, possibility, etc. Ex; On sundays he would go for a walk. In 1990 George met Mary whom he would marry next year. used to (used not to) Need (needn't), dare (daren’ -need as an auxiliary verb is used only in interrogative or negative sentences and in assertive sentences. Ex; need i come? No, you need not come You need come only if you are sent for. -dare : to challenge, to have the impudence to, to venture, to be bold enough. Ex; | dare you to a fight. -dare is used in exclamations. Ex; How dare you! - used to discourage someone. Ex; Don't you dare! -used to shows a past habit, Ex; when | was a student, | used to write poems.Chapter 10 Understanding Adverbs An modifies a verb, an adjecti in indefinit ional phi Cn ion, Ex; 1. Rani sang well at the concert ('well' modifies the verb sang’) 2. Actually, | should say she sang extremely well. (There are 3 adverbs in this sentence - 1) ‘actually’ modifies the entire sentence; 2) ‘extremely’ modifies another adverb,namely ‘well’ ; 3) ‘well! modifies the verb 'sang') 3. Her voice was sweetly melodious (the adverb ‘sweetly’ modifies an adjective 'melodious') 4, It sank right into the hearts of the audience. (The adverb ‘right’ modifies the prepositional phrase ‘sank into’) 5. Nearly everybody felt the magic of her words. (Adverb 'Nearly' modifies the indefinite pronoun ‘everybody') 6. Over five hundred people attended the function. (Adverb ‘Over' modifies 500 which is a numeral{number]) 7. Thousands listened to the concert from outside. (Adverb ' outside’ functions as the compliment of the preposition from) - Adverb can be placed in 3 possible positions in a sentence :~ 1) Initial (ex; Suddenly, she stopped singing.) 2) Middle (ex; she listened intently to the audience response.) 3) End (ex; The audience clapped aloud) -Usually, in a sentence adverbs are placed in the order : manner, place and time, -When there are 2 adverbs showing place, the one showing the larger place is put second. (Ex; She lives in the suburbs in Chennai= When verbs of movement such as ‘come’ and 'go' the adverb of place comes before the adverb of manner. (Ex; She went to the post office by taxi) - Adverbs are not always a single word, sometimes it will be phrases and clauses; Ex; . She arrived on time (‘on time" is an adverb phrase) ‘She sang at the Town Hall, at 3 o'clock in the afternoon. (‘in the Town Hall’ is an adverb phrase; ‘at 3 0 clock in the afternoon’ is also an adverb phrase) . Thousands of people cheered her when she arrived. ('When she arrived’ is an adverb clause.) (Refer chapter 4, Adverb Clause)Really Totally Nearly Partly Enough Hardly Never Well However Already Badly In addition Often Quietly Mo? a Usually Carefully ae ae Sloppy Asa result oe Fast Unlike ay Easily infoontcan titer Actually Hi - Clearly Well Definitely Ironically Daily e Wisely Straight cae: Stangely Early Honestly Seriously Late Bravely Hopefully Fast CarelesslyChapter 11 Understanding Pronouns Pronoun is a sub- class of the noun. Pronouns are using instead of nouns in a sentence. 8 types of pronouns 1, Personal pronoun |, you, they, we, he, she, it 2, Possessive pronoun (=possessive adjectives) My, our, their, his, her, its 3, Reflexive pronoun Myself, thyself, yourself, himself, herself, themselves, ourself, itself 4, Demonstrative pronoun This, that, these, those, such 5, Indefinite pronoun None, all, some, anybody, few, many, everybody - Indefinite pronouns are subdivided into 3 classes- universal (each, all, every) ; Partitive ( somebody, some, anyone, any, no one, none, neither) ; Qualifying (few, many) 6, Reciprocal pronouns Each other, one another 7, Interrogative pronounWhat 8, Relative pronoun ThatChapter 12 The Reflexive Pronouns A reflexive pronoun shows that a person or a thing does something to himself or to herself or to itself. They are so called because they are the object forms of the subject indicating that the action of the verb is performed upon the subject. Ex; John hurt himself It is not bad in itself John, Thomas and | cannot deceive ourselves Rules regarding the usage ofreflective pronounsWAM ae eee Elon eer et Dk omer nese ae ened Ree eee ee ne eae eee Tiare RS ae eee Reeders a zs Fl Ee A fa FI Fa Be el ans A OE if Es Fi Ey BlChapter 13 The Articles | There are 3 articles in English : a, an, the Articles define nouns as either specific or unspecific. Indefir Articles "A" and "an" are indefinite articles - Indefinite articles are used before singular nouns and countable nouns that are not specified. “You cannot use "a" or "an" before plural nouns or uncountable nouns. “% "A" is used before nouns starting with consonants letters (letters other than a, e, i, 0, U). ‘ "A" is also used with words that sound like they start with a consonant even if they start with a vowel (university, unit, one). Indefinite Articles - singular nouns erry (letters other than a, Vowels (a, ¢, , 0, u) port) An apple An animal Anegg An elephant An igloo Anice cream An ostrich An onion Abanana Acar Ahelicopter Alamp Awoman Aman Adog Atree ‘Asandwich Arobot Auniversity Aunit An umbrella An ugly sweater An hour ‘An honor “ "An" is used before nouns starting with vowels (a, e, i, 0, u) or with a silent h (hour, honor).Defi Article "The" is a definite article - Definite articles are used to refer to a specific noun or a noun that has been previously specified. They can be used before singular, plural, countable, and uncountable nouns. “ "The" is used before words that start with consonants or vowels. “ Itdoes not matter what letter the word starts withChapter 14 The Articles I Defi Article Rules IL Names of newspapers and journals are generally preceeded by 'the.'(for example, the Deepika). Title of books are usually used with 'the' before them. (For example, The Odyssey, The Mahabharatha,etc). ‘the' is dropped when the author's name is mentioned with the genitive ending before the title. (For example, Homer's Odyssey). If the! is already a part of the title, this rule will not apply. (For example, Shakespeare's The Tempest, The Merchant of Venice). 2. The definite article 'the' is usually used before an ordinal, that is, words like ‘first’, ‘second’, ‘23rd’, etc. © Ex; Itwas the first time that anybody from my town was being honoured with an award. B. ‘The’ is not usually used before a proper noun like Newton, John,etc. But if we use ‘the’ before a proper noun, it will become, in effect, a common noun and mean one like the person or thing suggested by the proper noun. Ex; | was not surprised, for he was the Newton of our school during his student days. 4. Geographical names which are descriptive are used with the definite article ‘the’ Ex; ... residence in the High Ranges B. We do not use 'the' generally before the names of mountains. "The' is used before superlative adjectives and words like ‘frst’, last’, ‘next’, etc. 'The' is always used before the names of mountain ranges. Ex; | could have from there a distant view of Anamudi, the tallest peak of the Western Ghats. . The’ is not used before nouns like ‘church’, ‘prison’, ‘hospital’, ‘market’, ete. after a preposition when we refer to them a stitutions.'The' is used before these nouns when we refer to them as buildings. Ex; Rani goes to school every day. Rani's mother came to the school to discuss her progress. 7. The’ is used before a noun when only one of something exist. Ex; The Bible, The Gita, The sun, The moon, The earth, The Taj Mahal, etc. B. When ‘the’ is used before certain adjectives, they function as nouns and refer to all members of a group or a nation. Such nouns are to be treated as plurals. Ex; the rich, the poor, the French, etc. 5. The definite article is used before a musical instrument or a dance in a general way. 1G. 'The' is using before abbreviations of the names of cohntries such as the U.K, the USA, etc. ‘BB. ‘The’ is using to idealise some place or thing and has often the meaning 'the best’. Ex; He said he was proud of being able to study at what he considered the university. BB sometimes, the use of the definite article turns a common noun into an abstract noun. For x; the scientist’ means ‘scientific spirit’ Ex; The mention of Cambridge caused the scientist in him to wake up BB. The’ is used to indicate the meaning ' enough of something’ Ex; Pointing to the mountain peak he asked me if | had the stamina to climb that peak 1. The’ is not used before proper nouns, but it is used before names of rivers (ex; the Nile), groups of Islands (the Andamans), names of straits, canals, channels (the English Channel), etc. 1B. when ‘the’ is used with a singular countable noun, it shows the whole species. Ex; A rabbit scampered across the road and he said : "the rabbit seems to be ubiquitous." FE. Used before a unit of measurement 'the' will have the meaning ‘each.’ Ex; Pointing to my vehicle he asked :" How much does it give to the litre?"Chapter 15 The Adjective Adjectives describe or modify nouns. They generally appear immediately before the noun. * groups of adjectives are : Simple adjectives (basic adjectives, ex; kind, pretty, etc.) and Derived adjectives (derived from other words by adding suffixes, ex; fearful, heroic, admirable, etc.) veh Ade %* Adjectives modify nouns in two ways :- they either pre- modify nouns or serve as the complements of linking verbs like ‘appear’, 'seem’, ‘look’, 'grow’, 'be', etc. A pre- modifying adjective is placed before the noun it modifies as in the phrases 'a memorable event’, 'an inseparable companion’, etc. The use of adjectives to pre- modify nouns is. called the attributive use. * When an adjective is used as the complement of a linking verb, it is said to be predicatively used. in other words, predicatively used adjectives complement linking verbs. Their relationship can be either with the subject or with the object. * Most adjectives can be used both attributively and predicatively. But, adjectives like ‘aware’, ‘asleep’, 'awake',etc., can be used usually only predicatively. Comparative and Superlative forms of adjectives Comparative adjectives compare two things. Superlative adjectives compare more than two things.perry A > Comparative adjectives compare two tl w Coo © Old © Young © Pretty © Long © Short © Bright © Close © Happy © Tall © small © Warm © Easy or en ar Adjective © Older ‘© Younger © Prettier © Longer © Shorter © Brighter © Closer © Happier © Taller © Smaller © Warmer © Easier -y" use "-er" to form comparatives. For adjectives ending ‘Superlative eo © Oldest © Youngest © Prettiest © Longest © Shortest © Brightest © Closest © Happiest © Tallest © Smallest © Warmest © Easiest \gs. Adjectives that contain only one syllable change the "y" to "i" before adding the "-er". Superlative adjectives compare more than two things. Adjectives that contain only one syllable or end in change the "y" to "i '-y" use "-est" to form superlatives. For adjectives ending in "-y", before adding "-est".Chapter 16 Phrasal Verbs A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a preposition, or both, Typically, their meaning is not obvious from the meanings of the individual words themselves. Phrasal Verbs, Meaning & Example Sentences Goatong | To continveto heppen o Wipeout | To destroy Zomething Tobegine | Pmnotverygoodat ‘Checkoff hly toa up recent 7 “Getaround | To wavelto | twilestaround iromtown || we Aiforentplaces | teow = He passed out becouse the People worythacimate | Completely _| eropsincerain counris seep | Finishasuppiy | rvoused up all myholdoy ‘methine Setaside | Toreserve [John ‘omemoncy || Keapte | Persitin, | He kapt to purse untl wae Srethingfor | five Sertinve’__ | done, Getap | stopsiesing | Wasting! dowhenteet Sitevervths | weekto make suvethe Wake wp They often wakeup ai7. || Camelback | Return | what time are vou coming ae Se ding yourself down “The roses give forth avery ‘Come Tame serosa car Fanever theyear nme Teton You don't want let Scumee hrieek wit ory tank? Keepin | Notallow ‘hikren were kept afer riven the pho They’ hold on another ute then They nave ‘When Hook back, mies www.englishgrammarhere.com @ apter 17Mind Your Prepositions Prepositions are words that link a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to some other part of the sentence. Dove rosa 21 Away 22 Bacme of 33 baore 25 Below wowenglshgrammarhere.com @Q) ~'In' is used to show position or enclosure (example ; in the room), physical condition (ex; in good health), external condition (ex; in poverty), external physical condition (ex; in the rain), emotional state (in fear), 2 period of time (in three hours), location (in Wall Street), attitude of the mind (in agreement),the material something is made of (in gold), division (in two), membership (in the navy), etc, ‘in’ is used when we are not mentioning the exact location. used to mention the exact location (at Bill's Cafe) ‘at! before the names of villages and smaller towns. ‘on’ is used to show position (ex; on the mat), to indicate a place where something stands (ex; London stands on the Thames), to show the means of supporting life (ex; He lives on bread and water), to indicate the means by which something functions (ex; This engine works on diesel), to show direction in relation to something or somebody (ex; Take the first turning on the right), to suggest reason (ex; On my advice he left the place), to show time (ex; On sunday), to show membership of a committee,group,etc. (On the committee, on the council, on the board, on the staff, on the faculty, on the senate, etc.) * Use only at after adjectives like ‘good’, ‘bad’, ‘clever’, proficiency or the lack of it. killful, etc.,when you mean ~‘in' is using before ‘Army’, ‘Navy’, ‘Civil Service, etc. -'Dream' is followed by about if a real dream is meant. - When dream means to imagine or to entertain an idea, use of after dream. e', etc. - Use into after the verbs ‘bump’, ‘crash’, 'run', '[among | surrounded by Petr wes anog espe [beneath | under ‘The pen was beneath the book between | inte space separating wo tings | The dog sat between the two chidren. "down ‘rom high 1 lower Julie pulled down the blind. ‘ala point within an area The penis in the drawer. Tinto | emtera closed space ‘Acustomer went into the shop. near ‘hose to A policeman was standing near the entrance. Texto | bese The bank is nextto the cinema The plats on the table ‘The cat jumped onto the roof of the car. Meg sat opposite Tom at the table, [ ut of | move roma closed space lack got out ofthe taxi and pad the diver. ‘over —_| above or across /more than Eva put her hand over her eyes. It cost over 2006! “round | inacievlr movement The earth moves round the sun [through | from oe side tothe other The Thames flows through London | up | towards a higher level A.group of visitors walked up the steps. SECTION C www. leam-english-today.com Chapter 18Concord * Concord means the agreement between the subject and the verb. * It can also mean the agreement between the subject and the complement (ex; Children are angels), * subject - object concord (ex; He injured himself), and * pronoun concord- the agreement between the subject and the pronoun. Rules (read common types of concord related mistakes from your text book and look at these rules) 1, The verb and subject must agree in number (singular or plural). This means that if the subject is singular, the verb should be singular and if the subject is plural, the verb should also be plural. The Basics Basic Rule A singular subject needs a singular verb; a plural subject needs a plural verb. Basic Pattern Singular Plural First person I walk we walk Second person you walk you walk Third person __he/she/it walks _ they walk 2, The number of the subject (singular or plural) will not change due to words/phrases in between the subject and the verb. 3, Subjects that are joined by ‘and’ in a sentence, use a plural verb. Subjects that are joined by ‘either/or’, neither/nor’ use a singular verb.4, The verb in a sentence containing ‘or’, ‘either/or’, ‘neither/nor’ agrees with the noun or pronoun closest to it, 5, When the subject is followed by words such as ‘as well as’, ‘along with’, ‘besides’, ‘not’ etc. ignore them and use a singular verb if the subject is singular. 6, In sentences that begin with ‘here’, ‘there’, the true subject usually follows the verb. 7, Insentences that include sums of money, periods of time or distances etc. (as a unit), use singular verbs. 8, In the case of words such as ‘a lot of all’, ‘some’ etc. in a sentence, pay attention to the noun after ‘of’. If the noun after ‘of’ is singular then use a singular verb, if plural, use 2 plural verb. 9, In the case of collective nouns such as ‘group, ‘population’, ‘family’, in a sentence, the verb can be singular or plural depending on their use in the sentence. 10, Nouns such as ‘mathematics’, ‘civics’, ‘news' etc. while plural in form, are singular in meaning and use singular verbs. 11, In sentences that express a wish, request or contrary to fact, the word ‘were’ is used instead of ‘was. Chapter 20 Errors, Common and UncommonSome common misunderstood phrasal verbs or words and its meanings/usages Fall off- Bike,horse,a ladder, a chair Fall out- window Fall down- fall into ground from standing position. Use " fall" and not "fall down" to show the natural downward movement of things. (Ex; tears fall from your eyes, (similarly, leaves, rain, snow, etc.)) Prepositions like in, at, on, are not used before this month, last month, next year,etc. FR OF * + Dropped - to let or cause to fall.(ex; The postman dropped a few letters into my room). Sentences containing some common and uncommon errors I got your letter on last Friday... | am sad indeed to hear that you cannot attend my daughter's wedding... As you advised, We bought the ornaments from a jewellery in Trichur... | hope you are in good condition. Corrections : 1) the 1st sentence is wrong because "on last Friday" is quite un English or wrong. We do not place ‘in’, ‘at’, and ‘on’ before time phrases like 'this week’, 'every month’, 'last month’, 'next year',etc. (Ex: special classes will be conducted next Friday ; we have evening classes every Tuesday.) 2) 'Indeed' means ‘in fact’, ‘truly’, etc. and is used to confirm or stress a previous point. (Indeed | am sad is correct if it comes as the answer to ‘Are you sad?", because there is previous reference to sadness in the question.,Indeed is used to confirm that point.) ; where there is no previous reference, the appropriate word is ‘certainly’ or 'definitely'.; Indeed can be used without previous reference in the structures - very + adjective + noun + indeed ; and 'very + adj.+ indeed. (Ex; That was a very good answer indeed, that was very good indeed.)." | am sad indeed " in the above sentence can be replaced as; | am indeed very sad ... 3) Jewellery means 'ornaments' like ring, bangles, necklace, etc. Often this word is wrongly understood as the place where ornaments are sold. You buy jewellery from a jeweller's. We bought the ornaments from ajewellery...is a wrong usage. Rewrite the sentence as : we bought the jewellery from a jeweller's in Trichur. 4) when you enquire about somebody's general state of health, the usual expression is ‘well’ or 'fit and well’. (Ex; are you fit and well?). Are you in good condition means ‘are you fit and strong’ - this suggests that one has been doing physical exercise. We use ‘well’ when somebody asks us about our health (ex; How are you? ‘Very well, thank you'.; the common response to How are you is I'm fine. Be carefull not to say 'l am very fine' (this is not correct).Chapter 21 False Witnesses Here are some wrong usages, let us find out the errors. (Context : John fainted or atleast pretended to faint in the class...Later that day, Robin , who was no great friend of John, came to me...He said ; ) 1,That was mere pretension. John was cheating you. © This sentence is incorrect. * 'Pretend' has two noun forms - pretension and pretence. Pretence means 'the act of pretending ', ‘deception’, etc. ¢ Pretension means ‘claim’. e What John did was to make a pretence of fainting, Robin should have said :"' That was mere pretence.John was cheating you." 2, | may be as disinterested in my studies as he is in his, but | won't do such a thing. © This sentence is incorrect. ¢ " Disinterested" and" uninterested" do not have the same meaning. © Disinterested means ‘having no personal advantage or gain' or ‘impartial’. (Ex; A judge should be disinterested in the case he is trying) Uninterested means ‘unwilling to give attention to. e Robin should have said : | may be uninterested in my studies... 3, In the class he is hated both by the boys and girls.e — 'the' should be necessarily repeated if the combination is preceded by 'both.' (Both the Bigendians and the Smallendians were stupid,...). ¢ Ifa preposition comes immediately before 'both' it need not be repeated. fit comes after 'both' it should be repeated. (Ex; He got money from both the plaintiff and the defendant.) e Robin should have said : In the class he is hated both by the boys and the girls. 4, Did you notice that though he fell down, he escaped without scarcely a scratch. e@ Here we have a kind of double negative.(without and scarcely) © Scarcely means ' almost not'. Here scarcely is an unnecessary word. © Say either 'without a scratch’ or ‘with scarcely a scratch." 5, He might deny that he had not fainted on purpose, but you should not believe him. e Here also we have double negative. (Deny and not) Deny means ' to say that you have not done something’. e ‘not' should not be uses after ‘deny’. ¢ "He denied that he had not attended the funcition"means 'that he had attended the function. © Robin should have said :"" He might deny that he had fainted on purpose". 6, If you question him with a cane, that might make him to tell the truth.© 'Make' in this sense is followed by an infinitive 'to'. ('to' is not needed here) © Say : If you question...,that might make him tell the truth.(without 'to') 7,John said : Do not believe Robin Sir;he is both crooked, cunning and jealous. © ‘Both’ should not be used if more than two terms are involved. * Say this sentence without ‘both’ 8, He talked as well as copied in the last examination. ¢ ‘As well as" does not co- ordinate two nouns but only introduces a parenthesis ¢ When ‘as well as' joins two verb forms, it means ‘in addition to' and then it is not followed by a finite verb.Use the gerund form here.(-ing form). Say : He talked as well as copying in the examination. 9, When he was in the middle school, he was nearly expelled for misbehaviour. The proper expression in this context is "at the middle school" (in the school is American usage). 10, He is shabby; you can notice it in his behaviour. ¢ 'Can' is not used before ‘notice’. © Say either "you notice it..." Or "you can see it in his behaviour.