ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The materials used in this block are designed and developed by Indira
Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi, Krishna Kanta Handiqui
State Open University, Guwahati, Assam and OpenStax of Rice
University, Texas.
 BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONOURS) IN
SOCIOLOGY (BASO)

BSO-1
Introduction to Sociology-1

BLOCK-1
SOCIOLOGY: DISCIPLINE AND PERSPECTIVE
UNIT 1 MEANING, DEFINITION AND SUBJECT MATTER
UNIT 2 EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY
UNIT 3 NATURE, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF
SOCIOLOGY
UNIT 4 SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
BSO-1 INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY-1
The course ‘Introduction to Sociology-1’ tries to introduce the discipline of Sociology to the
learners. It intends to familiarize the learners with some of the basic concepts and areas of
interest in Sociology. This introductory course proposes to acquaint the learners with
Sociology as a social science and the basic concepts used in the discipline. It also focuses on
the concept of social stratification that man encounters as a member of the society. The
course comprises of three Blocks with 12 Units. Block-1 describes the origin of sociology
and also explains the meaning, nature and scope of sociology. It discusses the relationship
and difference between Sociology and other social sciences like Anthropology, History,
Economics, Political Science, and Social Psychology. Block 2 discusses the meaning and
characteristics of the concepts like society, community, institution and association. This
Block also discusses the meaning and types of social groups like primary group, secondary
group, and reference group, in group and out group. It also presents the concepts like social
groups, status, role, social norms and power. The meaning, types and characteristics of
culture and civilization are also explained in this Block. Block 3 tries to discuss about some
of the forms of social stratification in society like race, caste, class, estate and gender and also
describes theories of social stratification like functionalist theory, Marxian, Weberian and
elite theory of social stratification.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this course, you will be able to;

 know the convergence and divergence of Sociology with other social science
disciplines in terms of the subject matter, nature and scope of the discipline and its
approach.
 develop knowledge about its historicity.
 get acquainted with the basic concepts used in the discipline of Sociology.
 generate ideas about the social stratification and other social institutions

LEARNING OUTCOMES

This course is expected to clarify and broaden your notion about the
discipline, the basic concepts used and some universal societal processes. This will provide a
basic understanding about what the subject is all about.
BLOCK 1 DISCIPLINE AND PERSPECTIVE
Introduction to Sociology-1 follows to the scope and structure of a typical, one-semester
introductory sociology core course. Block 1, ‘Discipline and Perspective’ focuses on the
meaning, definition and subject matter of Sociology. It offers comprehensive coverage of core
concepts, foundation and scope of sociology. This block presents contents, questions for
checking progress with their answer keys, discussions, and glossary that help the students to
enhance their knowledge, and features that draw learners into the discipline in meaningful
ways. This Block comprises of four Units. Unit 1 speaks about meaning, definition and
subject matter of Sociology. Emergence of Sociology is discussed in Unit 2 followed by the
third Unit. Unit 3 describes the nature, scope and importance of Sociology. Last Unit intends
to explain the relationship of Sociology with other social sciences such as History,
Psychology, Economics, Anthropology, and Political Science.
UNIT 1 MEANING, DEFINITION AND SUBJECT
MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY
Structure

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Learning Objectives
1.3 Meaning and Definition of Sociology
1.4 Subject Matter of Sociology
1.5 Let Us Sum Up
1.6 Glossary
1.7 Check Your Progress: The Answer Keys
1.8 Model Questions
1.9 References

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The first Unit of Block 1 on ‘Discipline and Perspective’ aims to define the meaning
of Sociology and discuss the subject matter of Sociology. Sociology is the science of
society. The subject covers the social relationships, its emergence, its structure, and it
also explores how these relationships change over time. Sociology as a branch of
social sciences has its unique features. Does society totally determine our beliefs,
behavior, and life chances? No. Individual differences still matter, and disciplines
such as psychology are certainly needed for the most complete understanding of
human action and beliefs. But if individual differences matter, so do society and the
social backgrounds from which we come. Even the most individual attitudes and
behaviors, such as the voting decisions discussed earlier, are influenced to some
degree by our social backgrounds and, more generally, by the society to which we
belong.

1.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to,

 explain the meaning of Sociology

 outline how sociologists define Sociology
 discuss the subject matter of Sociology

1
1.3 MEANING AND DEFINITION OF SOCIOLOGY

For thousands of years, men have reflected upon societies in which they live. In the
writings of philosophers, thinkers, law givers of various countries and of various
epochs we find ideas regarding society. In the writings of Plato, Aristotle, Manu,
Confucius and others, we find major attempts to deal systematically with the nature of
society. However, it was only in the 19th century that scientific attempts were made
by Auguste Comte, Herbert Spencer, Emile Durkheim, Max Weber and others to
study society and to establish an academic discipline, namely Sociology.

Sociology is the study of groups and group interactions, societies and social
interactions, from small and personal groups to very large groups. A group of people
who live in a defined geographic area, who interact with one another and who share a
common culture is what sociologists call a society. Sociologists study all aspects and
levels of society. Sociologists working from the micro-level study small groups and
individual interactions, while those using macro-level analysis look at trends among
and between large groups and societies. For example, a micro-level study might look
at the accepted rules of conversation in various groups such as among teenagers or
business professionals. In contrast, a macro-level analysis might research the ways
that language use has changed over time or in social media outlets. The term culture
refers to the group’s shared practices, values, and beliefs. Culture encompasses a
group’s way of life, from routine, everyday interactions to the most important parts of
group members' lives. It includes everything produced by a society, including all of
the social rules. Sociologists often study culture using the sociological imagination,
which pioneer sociologist C. Wright Mills described as an awareness of the
relationship between a person’s behavior and experience and the wider culture that
shaped the person’s choices and perceptions. It’s a way of seeing our own and other
people’s behavior in relationship to history and social structure (1959).

Sociology is one of the youngest members in the family of social sciences. As a

young discipline in social science, it has acquired a distinct status for itself. Its
importance and practical usefulness are widely recognized today. Auguste Comte, the
French Philosopher, is regarded as the Father of Sociology (1798–1857). Comte
coined the term Sociology in 1839 in his work Positive Philosophy (1896, orig. 1838;
Abercrombie, Hill, and Turner 2000, 67). He was the first person to distinguish the
subject-matter of Sociology from all the other sciences. The main idea of Sociology is
to study human society. Its emphasis is on the social aspect of human relationships.
The purpose of sociological study is not, however, simply to describe social
relationships, but also to analyze them. The term ‘Sociology’ has been defined by
different scholars in different ways. Some of the definitions of Sociology are stated
below:

Sociology as the science of social phenomena “subject to natural and invariable laws,
the discovery of which is the object of investigation”
- Auguste Comte

2
“Sociology is the study of systems of social action and of their inter relations”
- Alex Inkeles

“Sociology is the science of society or of social phenomena”

- L. F. Ward.

“Sociology is the science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social

action.”
- Max Weber

Sociology is an attempt to account for the origin, growth, structure and activities of
society by the operation of physical causes working together in the process of
evolution”.
- Giddings

“Sociology is the science that deals with social groups; their internal forms or modes
of organization, the processes that tend to maintain or change these forms of
organization and relations between groups”.
- M. Ginsberg

From the above definitions, we may conclude that the common idea underlying all of
them is that sociology is concerned with man, his social relations and his society. It
also shows that sociologists differ in their opinion about the definition and the subject
matter of sociology. But the common idea underlying all these is that sociology is
concerned with human beings and their relationships. It gives stress on the social
aspect of these relationships. MacIver opines that whatever subject may be included
in the subject matter, its real subject matter are social relationships. This social
relationship is the basis of social interaction of social processes. That is why man
becomes a social animal only when he enters into these social relationships. Hence,
studying sociology means studying social relationships.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1.1

Note:

I. Write your answer in the space given below.

II. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit

Q.1 The term sociology was coined in the year ……………………….

Q.2 Sociology is a science which attempts at the ........................ understanding of

social action.

3
1.4 SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

During the 19th century sociology emerged as separate social science in Europe and
its objective was the study of society. Auguste Comte, Spencer and Emile Durkheim
besides several other social thinkers sought to establish the idea of society as a matter
of study, unique in itself. They examined society as a whole - which is more than the
sum of its parts. Society is more than the actions, thoughts, values, belief and wishes
of its individual members. It is a complex and abstract reality; yet all human beings
live in a society.

A sociologist is interested in the general study of social behaviour as it occurs in

groups, large or small, and lays special stress on understanding social life in the
contemporary world. The word 'general' has been used as other social science
disciplines deal with more specific areas. For example, a political scientist studies
governmental functions and activities and an economist studies production and
distribution of goods. It is, however, difficult to draw an exact line of difference.
Social psychology, social anthropology, political science and economics, all in a
sense, have human social life as their general subject.

As sociology is a relatively young discipline compared with the discipline of

philosophy, economics and political science, sometimes, people confuse it with social
work. Sociology is used in the discipline of social work to analyze and understand
social problems. Social work is concerned with the uplift of those socially deprived,
physically handicapped, etc. Sociology is not concerned with the reformation of
society as such nor is it directly involved in social planning or directed change. The
sociological understanding and research can help in better planning and in finding
ways and means of acceptance of improved practices, in the formulation of
development policies and programmes. It is generally accepted that sociologists do
not interfere with social process. They are supposed to be value-neutral, i.e., they are
not supposed to have any bias or prejudice in the analysis of the social behaviour.
There are, however, at present, some, who question this and feel that sociologists
must take an active role in the development process.

We have defined sociology as the study of social life and group interaction and social
behaviour. In order to understand social life, sociology is interested in the study of the
organisation and the functioning of societies or social groups.

Sociology is considered as the mother of social sciences, has its own subject matter. It
is a scientific study of society, social life as a whole.

First, its main concern is sociological analysis. Sociologists define society and social
behavior, culture from the sociological perspective. They analyze the evolution of
society and its transformation through ages.

Secondly, sociology discusses the basic units of social life such as social facts, social
relationships, individual personality, social groups, communities, associations etc.

Thirdly, it has been concerned with the structure and functions of different social

4
institutions such as family, marriage, religion etc.

Fourthly, the discipline includes the concept of social processes which play a vital
role in society. The associative social processes are cooperation, assimilation,
accommodation, and the dissociative processes are conflict and competition.

Fifthly, different sociological research methods have also got much priority in
sociology. Contemporary sociology has tended to become more and more rational and
empirical rather than idealistic and theoretical. Sociologists have sought the
application of scientific method in social researches. Like a natural scientist, a
sociologist also formulates a problem of investigation and also formulates a
hypothesis and after collecting data he then analyzes the results and finally arrives at
meaningful concepts, propositions and generalization.

Sixthly, sociologists are concerned with the task of formulating concepts and theories.
Concepts are abstracted from concrete experience to represent a class of phenomena.
For example, social stratification is a concept. Theories are the propositions which
explain social phenomena. They are rooted from social facts.

Lastly, the discipline becomes interdisciplinary. It has lots of specialized areas such
as sociology of literature, sociology of disaster, sociology of education, sociology of
law etc.

1.5 LET US SUM UP

Sociology is the systematic study of society and social interaction. In order to carry
out their studies, sociologists identify cultural patterns and social forces and
determine how they affect individuals and groups. They also develop ways to apply
their findings to the real world. Studying sociology is beneficial both for the
individual and for society. By studying sociology people learn how to think critically
about social issues and problems that confront our society. The study of sociology
enriches students’ lives and prepares them for careers in an increasingly diverse
world. Society benefits because people with sociological training are better prepared
to make informed decisions about social issues and take effective action to deal with
them.

1.6 GLOSSARY

Culture : a group's shared practices, values, and beliefs

Society : a group of people who live in a defined geographical

area who interact with one another and who share a
common culture

Sociology : the systematic study of society and social interaction

Sociological Imagination : the ability to understand how your own past relates to
that of other people, as well as to history in general and
5
 societal structures in particular

1.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS : ANSWER KEYS

Ans to Q1: The term sociology was coined in the year 1839.
Ans to Q2: Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretative understanding of
social action.

1.8 MODEL QUESTIONS

A. Short Questions (Answer the question in about 150 words)

Q1: What led to the birth of sociology?
B. Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)
Q1: Discuss meaning and definition of Sociology.
Q2: What do you understand by the term sociology? Briefly write down
the scope and subject matter of sociology.

1.9 REFERENCES

1. Earl Babbie, (2004). The practice of Social Research. Wadsworth

Publication, U.S.A.
2. Elias, Norbert. 1978. What Is Sociology? New York: Columbia University
Press.
3. Gisbert. P. (2010). Fundamentals of Sociology. Orient Black Swan:
New Delhi
4. H.K. Rawat, (2007). Sociology: Basic Concepts, Rawat Publications,
Jaipur
5. H.M. Johnson, (1960). Sociology, A Systematic Introduction, Allied
publication, New Delhi.
6. Kumar. A (2003). Sociology Basic Concepts. Swarup and Sons: New
Delhi.
7. R.M MacIver and C.H Page, (1965). Society: An Introductory Analysis,
Macmillan India Ltd, New Delhi
8. Small, A. (1904). The Subject-Matter of Sociology. American Journal of
Sociology, 10(3), 281-298.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/2762232

6
UNIT 2 EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Structure

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Objectives
2.3 Background to the Emergence of Sociology
2.3.1 The Enlightenment Period
2.4 The Social Conditions in Which Sociology Emerged
2.4.1 The Commercial Revolution
2.4.2 The Rise of a New Class
2.4.3 The Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance Period
2.4.3.1 Social Functions of Sciences
2.4.3.2 Science in the Medieval Period
2.4.3.3 The Renaissance Period
2.4.4 Post-Renaissance Developments
2.4.4.1 Experimental Methods in Physics and Mathematics
2.4.4.2 Biology and Evolution
2.5 The French Revolution
2.5.1 The Basic Picture of the French Society: Division into Feudal Estates
2.5.2 The Political Aspects of the French Society
2.5.3 The Economic Aspects of the French Society
2.6 The Industrial Revolution
2.6.1 New Invention
2.6.2 Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Society
2.6.3 Significant Themes of the Industrial Revolution
2.7 The Intellectual Influences Affecting the Emergence of Sociology
2.7.1 The Philosophy of History
2.7.2 The Biological Theories of Evolution
2.7.3 Surveys of Social Conditions
2.7.4 Creating a Discipline: The Founding Fathers
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Glossary
2.10 Check Your Progress: The Answer Keys
2.11 References

7
2.1 INTRODUCTION

This Unit will trace the relationship between the emergence of sociology and the
social and intellectual conditions of eighteenth and nineteenth century Europe.
Sociology was emerged first in Europe. Sociology can in this sense be studied as a
response to the social and intellectual climate prevailing in Europe of that time. A
proper understanding of this linkage will help you better appreciate the ideas of the
Founding Fathers of Sociology. The first section of this unit describes the background
to the emergence of sociology. To explain the social, cultural, political and economic
conditions of Europe before the emergence of sociology, we give briefly an account
of the Commercial Revolutions and the Scientific Revolution which took place in
Europe from about fourteenth century to the eighteenth century. We will then discuss
two salient events of the period, the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution.
They followed the Commercial Revolution and the Scientific Revolution in Europe,
and left a lasting impact on the main themes of sociology.

2.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this unit, you should be able to,

 outline the background to the emergence of sociology

 list the main features of the French and the Industrial Revolution and
 define the main intellectual trends of that period which influenced the
emergence of sociology.

2.3 BACKGROUND TO THE EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

To understand the emergence of sociology we need to appreciate the relationship

between society and ideas. There is always a connection between the social
conditions of a period and the ideas, which arise and are dominant in that period.

To give you an example, let us remind you of the National Movement in our country.
When India was under the British Raj, the country had to suffer all the ills of
colonialism. Indians were economically exploited, politically bonded, socially
humiliated, and culturally bereft. At the same time, the Indian middleclass emerged as
a product of the economic policies of colonialism. They had also been exposed to the
liberal and radical European social thought. They were therefore disturbed by the
exploitation of colonialism and started writing, campaigning and building up a
movement to free India. Culture, theatre, songs, literature were pervaded by the spirit
of freedom. Premchand’s novel Karma Bhumi, which was serialized on television in
the 1980s, depicts the changes of that time. You can thus see that ideas are normally
rooted in their social context. It is in this context that we need to see the emergence of
sociology as a discipline. Let us begin with a discussion of the Enlightenment period.

2.3.1 The Enlightenment Period

The roots of the ideas developed by the early sociologists are grounded in the social
conditions that prevailed in Europe. The emergence of sociology as a scientific
8
discipline can be traced to that period of European history, which saw such
tremendous social, political and economic changes as embodied in the French
Revolution and the Industrial Revolution. This period of change in European society
is known as the Enlightenment Period as it embodies the spirit of new awakening in
the French philosophers of the eighteenth century.

The Enlightenment Period marked a radical change from the traditional thinking of
feudal Europe. It introduced the new way of thinking and looking at reality.
Individuals started questioning each and every aspect of life and nothing was
considered sacrosanct - from the church to the state to the authority of the monarch
and so on.

The roots of the ideas, such as the belief that both nature and society can be studied
scientifically, that human beings are essentially rational and that a society built on
rational principles will make human beings realize their infinite potentials, can be
traced in the development of science and commerce in Europe. The new outlook
developed as a result of the Commercial Revolution and the Scientific Revolution and
crystallized during the French and the Industrial Revolutions gave birth to sociology
as a discipline.

To understand the social changes that were taking place in European society, we will
first look at the kind of society that existed in traditional Europe, i.e. prior to the
Enlightenment period.

2.4 THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS IN WHICH SOCIOLOGY EMERGED

During the 19th century sociology emerged as separate social science in Europe and
its objective was the study of society. Auguste Comte, Spencer and Emile Durkheim
besides several other social thinkers sought to establish the idea of society as a matter
of study, unique in itself. They examined society as a whole - which is more than the
sum of its parts. Society is more than the actions, thoughts, values, belief and wishes
of its individual members. It is a complex and abstract reality; yet all human beings
live in a society. Europe then was passing through a period of immense changes
which had set in with the French and the Industrial Revolutions. Indeed, sociology
can be considered above all a science of the new industrial society.

But before we go on to describe the salient points of the French Revolution and the
Industrial Revolution, we will explain to you the Commercial Revolution and the
Scientific Revolution which took place in Europe between the fourteenth century and
the eighteenth century. It was during these two Revolutions in Europe, covered by
what is popularly known as the “Renaissance” period, when there took place a revival
of art, literature, music, sculpture, science and so on.

2.4.1 The Commercial Revolution

The “Commercial Revolution” refers to a series of events between 1450 to

approximately 1800. These events signaled to a shift from the largely subsistence and
stagnant economy of medieval Europe to a more dynamic and worldwide system. The

9
Commercial Revolution in this sense, signified the expansion of trade and commerce
that took place from the fifteenth century onwards. It was of such a large scale and
organized manner that we call it a Revolution. This expansion was as a result of the
initiative taken by certain European countries to develop and consolidate their
economic and political power. These countries were Portugal, Spain, Holland and
England.

Let us now study some of the important aspects of the Commercial Revolution,
namely overseas discoveries and conquests. Europe’s trade with the Oriental or
Eastern countries like India and China was transacted by land routes. The northern
Italian cities of Venice and Genoa were the major centers of trade. The result of the
Italian monopoly was that the prices of goods like spices and silks imported from the
East were extremely high. Portugal and Spain therefore, wanted to discover a route to
the Orient that would be independent of Italian control.

Thus began a shift from land routes to sea-routes. The Portuguese were the pioneers
in adventurous navigation and exploration, you probably know of the historic voyage
of Vasco da Gama who, in 1498 landed on the Indian coast after having sailed around
the southern tip of Africa.

Christopher Columbus, an Italian under the patronage of the Spanish King and
Queen, set sail for India. However, he landed on the shores of North America. This
accidental discovery of America was to prove very beneficial to Spain. It laid the
foundations of what was to become a Spanish empire in America.

Britain, France and Holland soon followed Spain and Portugal. The parts of India and
Africa, Malacca, the Spice Islands, West Indies and South America came under the
economic control of Spain, Portugal, England, France and Holland. Commerce
expanded into a world enterprise. The monopoly of the Italian cities was destroyed.

European markets were flooded with new commodities; spices and textiles from the
East, tobacco from N. America, Cocoa, Chocolate and quinine from S. America,
ivory and, above all, human slaves from Africa. With the discovery of the Americas,
the range of trade widened. Formerly, the items sought for were spices and cloth;
later, gold and silver were added to the list.

As the Commercial Revolution progressed, the position of Portugal and Spain

declined. England, Holland and France came to dominate Europe and the world.

2.4.2 Rise of a New Class

As hinted at earlier in this section, one of the most distinctive characteristics of this
period was the rise of the middle class to economic power. By the end of the 17th
century, the middle class had become an influential group in nearly every western
European country. It included merchants, bankers, ship-owners and investors. Their
power, at this stage, was mainly economic. But later in the unit, we shall see how they
became politically powerful in the 19th century. “Europeanisation” of the world

By this term, we mean the transplanting of European manners and culture in other
10
societies. The activities of traders, missionaries and conquerors saw the
Europeanisation of the Americas. Later, with the strengthening of colonialism, this
process took root in Asia and Africa as well.

This period saw the strengthening of monarchy, the decline of the Church and the rise
of the middle class. It marked the beginning of the process of “Europeanisation”,
which was to reach a peak with colonialism. Thus Europe charted new areas for
economic expansion - the whole world had become Europe’s oyster. Now let us
examine the revolution in science.

2.4.3 The Scientific Revolution and the Renaissance Period

In this section, we shall examine the changes and developments that took place in a
very significant area of human activity - science. Europe produced a “scientific
revolution” in the Renaissance period of fourteenth to sixteenth century A.D. The
impact of the scientific revolution was crucial not just in changing material life, but
also people’s ideas about Nature and Society.

To begin with, let us clarify what we mean by the “history of science”, which is what
we will be describing in this section. The history of science does not mean a list of
dates and events to be memorized. It is a story of the interconnection between science
and society, polity, economy and culture.

2.4.3.1 Social Functions of Sciences

Science does not develop independent of society; rather, it develops in response to

human needs e.g. various vaccines were not developed just out of the blue, but out of
the necessity to cure diseases.

Apart from influencing the physical or material life of society, science is intimately
connected with ideas. The general intellectual atmosphere existing in society
influences the development of science. Similarly, new developments in science can
change the attitudes and beliefs in other areas as well. It is important to keep this fact
in mind. We shall constantly be demonstrating how new scientific ideas influenced
scholars to think about society in new ways. The emergence of sociology in Europe
owes a great deal to the ideas and discoveries contributed by science.

2.4.3.2 Science in the Medieval Period

As we have described in the earlier section, medieval society was characterized by the
feudal system. The Church was the epicenter of power authority and learning.
Learning was mostly of the religious variety. Nothing could challenge the ‘dogmas’
or rigid beliefs of the Church. New, daring ideas could not flower in such an
atmosphere. Thus the development of science was restricted mainly to improvements
in techniques of production.

2.4.3.3 The Renaissance period

The ‘Renaissance’ period saw the beginning of the ‘Scientific Revolution’. It marked

11
an area of description and criticism in the field of science. It was a clear break from
the past, a challenge to old authority. Some of the major developments in art and
science of this period were visual art, literature, medicine, chemistry, and navigation
and astronomy.

2.4.4 Post-Renaissance Developments

Here we describe the developments in different fields that led to new methods and
perspectives in scientific research.

2.4.4.1 Experimental Method in Physics and Mathematics

The work of physicists and mathematicians like Galileo Galilei (1564-1642),

Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) and subsequently, Sir Isaac Newton (16421727)
revolutionized science. It brought to the forefront the experimental method. Old ideas
were challenged and alternatives were suggested. If these alternative ideas could be
proved and repeatedly verified and checked out, they were accepted. If not, new
solutions were sought.

Scientific methods thus came to be regarded as the most accurate, the most objective.
You will later see how the use of the ‘scientific method’ to study society was
recommended by pioneer sociologists.

2.4.4.2 Biology and Evolution

As has been mentioned earlier, dissection of the human body helped people gain a
better understanding of its working: Circulation of blood was discovered by William
Harvey (1578-1657). This led to a lot of rethinking. The human organism came to be
viewed in terms of interrelated parts and interconnected systems. This had its impact
on social thought of Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, to name a few.

Let us now come to one of the most interesting contributions in biology, which
created a furor in the society of that time. The British naturalist Charles Darwin
(1809-1882) published the Origin of Species in 1859. It was based on the
observations made whilst traveling for five years all over the world. Darwin put
forward the theory that various living organisms compete for the limited resources the
earth has to offer. Thus “survival of the fittest” is the natural law. Some species
evolve or develop certain traits, which make their survival possible, other species die
out.

Darwin studied ‘human evolution’, tracing it in his work, Descent of Man (1863). He
traced the origins of the human species to some ape-like ancestors, which, over the
centuries, evolved into modern human beings. This book created uproar. It was
believed that ‘God’ made humans “in his own image” and conservatives were not
willing to accept that they were descended from the monkey.

Darwin’s evolutionary theory did, however, gain wide acceptance. It was applied to
the social world by ‘evolutionary’ thinkers, notably Herbert Spencer. Not just
organisms, but societies were seen as constantly ‘evolving’ or developing from a
12
lower to a higher stage.

The forces of change set in by the Commercial Revolution and the Scientific
Revolution would have now become clear to you by now. We will next describe the
salient aspects of the French Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, which have
together provided the social conditions which led to the emergence of sociology as a
discipline. Since these two revolutions are of considerable significance let us discuss
them in the next two sections (2.5 and 2.6).

Check Your Progress Exercise 2.1

Note:

I. Write your answer in the space given below.

II. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit

Q.1 What do you understand by the Commercial Revolution in Europe? Describe it in

about six lines.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.2 Describe at least two developments in science during the “Scientific Revolution”.
Use about six lines.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
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2.5 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

The French Revolution, which erupted in 1789, marked a turning point in the history
of human struggle for freedom and equality. It put an end to the age of feudalism and
ushered in a new order of society. An outline of this revolution will explain to you the
kind of turmoil that occurred in Europe. This revolution brought about far reaching
changes in not only French society but in societies throughout Europe. Even countries
in other continents such as, India, were influenced by the ideas generated during this
revolution. Ideas like liberty, fraternity and equality, which now form a part of the
preamble to the Constitution of India, owe their origin to the French Revolution. Let
us first examine some of the major aspects of this revolution.

13
2.5.1 The Basic Picture of the French society: Division into Feudal Estates

The French society was divided into feudal ‘estates’. The structure of the feudal
French society comprised the ‘Three Estates’. Estates are defined as a system of
stratification found in feudal European societies whereby one section or estate is
distinguished from the other in terms of status, privileges and restrictions accorded to
that estate.

a) The First Estate consisted of the clergy, which was stratified into higher clergy,
such as the cardinal, the archbishops, the bishops and the abbots. They lived a life of
luxury and gave very little attention to religion. In fact, some of them preferred the
life of politics to religion. They spent much of their time in wasteful activities like
drinking, gambling, etc. In comparison to the higher clergy, the lower parish priests
were over worked and poverty-stricken.

b) The Second Estate consisted of the nobility. There were two kinds of nobles, the
nobles of the sword and the nobles of the robe.

The nobles of the sword were big landlords. They were the protectors of the people in
principle but in reality they led a life of a parasite, living off the hard work of the
peasants. They led the life of pomp and show and were nothing more than ‘high born
wastrels’; that is, they spent extravagantly and did not work themselves. They can be
compared to the erstwhile zamindars in India.

The nobles of the robe were nobles not by birth by title. They were the magistrates
and judges. Among these nobles, some were very progressive and liberal as they had
moved in their positions from common citizens who belonged to the third estate.

c) The Third Estate comprised the rest of the society and included the peasants, the
merchants, the artisans, and others. There was a vast difference between the condition
of the peasants and that of the clergy and the nobility. The peasants worked day and
night but were overloaded with so many taxes that they lived a hand to mouth
existence. They produced the food on which the whole society depended. Yet they
could barely survive due to failure of any kind of protection from the government.
The King, in order to maintain the good will of the other two estates, the clergy and
the nobility, continued to exploit the poor. The poor peasants had no power against
him. While the clergy and the nobility kept on pampering and flattering the King.

As compared to the peasants, the condition of the middle classes, also known as the
bourgeoisie comprising the merchants, bankers, lawyers, manufacturers, etc. was
much better. These classes too belonged to the third estate. But the poverty of the
state, which led to a price rise during 1720-1789, instead of adversely affecting them,
helped them. They derived profit from this rise and the fact that French trade had
improved enormously also helped the commercial classes to a great extent. Thus, this
class was rich and secure. But it had no social prestige as compared with the high
prestige of the members of the first and the second estates.

In spite of controlling trade, industries, banking etc. the bourgeoisie had no power to
influence the court or administration. The other two estates looked them down upon
14
and the King paid very little attention to them. Thus, gaining political power became
a necessity for them.

The clergy and the nobility both constituted only two per cent of the population but
they owned about 35 per cent of the land. The peasants who formed 80 per cent of the
population owned only 30 per cent of the land. The first two estates paid almost no
taxes to the government. The peasantry, on the other hand, was burdened with taxes
of various kinds. It paid taxes to the Church, the feudal lord, taxed in the form of
income tax, poll tax, and land tax to the state. Thus, you can see how much burdened
and poverty stricken the peasants had become at this time. They were virtually
carrying the burden of the first two estates on their shoulders. On top of it all the
prices had generally risen by about 65 per cent during the period, 1720-1789.

2.5.2 The Political Aspects of the French society

Like in all absolute monarchies, the theory of the Divine Right of King was followed
in France too. For about 200 years the Kings of the Bourbon dynasty ruled France.
Under the rule of the King, the ordinary people had no personal rights. They only
served the King and his nobles in various capacities. The King’s word was law and no
trials were required to arrest a person on the King’s orders. Laws too were different in
different regions giving rise to confusion and arbitrariness. There was no distinction
between the income of the state and the income of the King.

2.5.3 The Economic Aspects of the French society

The kings of France, from Louis XIV onwards, fought costly wars, which ruined the
country, and when Louis XIV died in 1715, France had become bankrupt. Louis XV
instead of recovering from this ruin kept on borrowing money from bankers. His
famous sentence, “After me the deluge” describes the kind of financial crisis that
France was facing. Louis XVI, a very weak and ineffective king, inherited the ruin of
a bankrupt government. His wife, Queen Marie Antoinette, known for her expensive
habits, is famous for her reply, which she gave to the poor, hungry people of France
who came to her asking for bread. She told the people that, ‘if you don’t have bread,
eat cake’. Now let us examine the intellectual developments in France, which proved
to be the igniting force in bringing about the revolution. 1.4.4 Intellectual
Developments in France, like some other European countries during the eighteenth
century, had entered the age of reason and rationalism. Some of the major
philosophers, whose ideas influenced the French people, were rationalists who
believed that all true things could be proved by reason. Some of these thinkers were
Montesquieu (1689-1755), Locke (1632-1704), Voltaire (1694-1778), and Rousseau
(1712-1778). Montesquieu in his book, The Spirit of the Law, held that there should
not be concentration of authority, such as executive, legislative, and juridical, at one
place. He believed in the theory of the separation of powers and the liberty of the
individual. Locke, an Englishman, advocated that every individual has certain rights,
which cannot be taken by any authority. These rights were (i) right to live, (ii) right to
property, and (iii) the right to personal freedom. He also believed that any ruler who
took away these rights from his people should be removed from the seat of power and
replaced by another ruler who is able to protect these rights. Voltaire, a French
15
philosopher, advocated religious toleration and freedom of speech. He also stood for
the rights of individuals, for freedom of speech and expression. Rousseau wrote in his
book, The Social Contract, that the people of a country have the right to choose their
sovereign. He believed that people can develop their personalities best only under a
government which is of their own choice. The major ideas of these and several other
intellectuals struck the imagination of the French people. Also some of them who had
served in the French army, which was sent to assist the Americans in their War of
Independence from British imperialism, came back with the ideas of equality of
individuals and their right to choose their own government. The French middle class
was deeply affected by these ideas of liberty and equality. So far you have leant about
the basic picture of the French society just before the Revolution. Now we will
describe some of the major of the major events that took place during the Revolution.

2.6 THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

The Industrial Revolution began around 1760 A.D. in England. It brought about great
changes in the social and economic life of the people first in England, then in the
other countries of Europe and later in other continents. In Europe, especially England,
the discovery of new territories, explorations, growth of trade and commerce and the
consequent growth of towns brought about an increase in demand for goods. Earlier
goods (i.e. consumer items like cloth, etc.) were produced at domestic levels. This
means that there existed a domestic system of production. With increased demand,
goods were to be produced on a large-scale.

2.6.1 New Invention

During Industrial Revolution, new tools and techniques were invented, which could
produce goods on a large-scale. During 1760-1830 A.D., a series of inventions in
tools and techniques and organization of production took place and it gave rise to the
factory system of production. Thus, a change in economy from feudal to capitalist
system of production developed. Subsequently, there emerged a class of capitalists,
which controlled the new system of production. Due to this revolution society moved
from the old age of hand-made goods to the new age of machine-made goods. This
shift heralded the emergence of Industrial Revolution.

One of the significant mechanical inventions, which led to a quicker and better
method of production in various industries, was the Spinning Jenny, invented in 1767
by James Hargreaves, an English weaver. It was a simple machine rectangular in
shape. It had a series of spindles, which could be turned by a single wheel. In 1769,
Arkwright, an English barber, invented another tool, which was named after the name
of its inventor and called Arkwright’s Water Fame. This Water Frame was so large
that it could not be kept in one’s home and a special building was required to set it up.
Thus on account of this it is said that he was responsible for introducing the factory
system. Another invention called “the Mule” was by Samuel Crompton in 1779 in
England. There were several other inventions, which all contributed to the industrial
growth of European society.

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2.6.2 Impact of the Industrial Revolution on Society

With the change in the economy of society several social changes followed. As
capitalism became more and more complex, the developments of banks, insurance
companies, and finance corporations took place. New class of industrial workers,
managers, capitalists emerged.

The peasants in the new industrial society found themselves with thousands of other
people like themselves, winding cotton in a textile mill. Instead of the famous
countryside they found themselves in unhygienic living conditions. With the increase
in production, population started increasing. Rise of population led to the increased
rate of urbanization. The industrial cities grew rapidly. In the industrial cities socio-
economic disparities were very wide. The factory workers were involved in repetitive
and boring work, the result of which they could not enjoy. In Marxist terms the
worker became alienated from the product of his/ her labour. City life in the industrial
society became an altogether a different way of life.

These changes moved both conservative and radical thinkers. The conservatives
feared that such conditions would lead to chaos and disorder. The radicals like Engels
felt that the factory workers would initiate social transformation.

Though the judgment of values differed, social thinkers of the time were agreed upon
the epoch-making impact of the Industrial Revolution. They also agreed upon the
importance of the new working class. The history of the period from 1811 to 1850
further indicates that this class increasingly agitated for their rights.

2.6.3 Significant Themes of the Industrial Revolution

The significant themes of the Industrial Revolution, which concerned the early
sociologists, were as given below.

i) The condition of labour: A new population earning their livelihood by working in

the factories arose. In the early years this working class lived in poverty and squalor.
They were socially deprived. At the same time they were indispensable in the new
industrial system. This made them a powerful social force. Sociologists recognized
that the poverty of this class of workers is not natural poverty but social poverty.
Thus the working class became during the nineteenth century the subject of both
moral and analytical concern.

ii) The transformation of property: The traditional emphasis on land lost its value
while money or capital became important during the Industrial Revolution. The
investment in new industrial system came to be recognized. The feudal landlords
became less significant while the new capitalists gained power. Many of these new
capitalists were the erstwhile landlords.

Property was one of the central issues that were raised in the French Revolution too.
Its influence on the social order is considerable. Property is related to economic
privileges, social status and political power. A change in the property system involves
a change in the fundamental character of society. Sociologists have grappled with the
17
question of property and its impact on social stratification since the days of Marx,
Tocqueville, Taine and Weber.

iii) The industrial city, i.e. urbanism: Urbanization was a necessary corollary of
the Industrial Revolution. Industries grew and along with it grew great cluster of
populations, the modern towns and cities. Cities were present in ancient period too,
such as Rome, Athens, etc. but the new cities, such as Manchester in England, famous
for its textile, were different in nature. Ancient cities were known as repositories of
civilized graces and virtues while the new cities were known as repositories of misery
and inhumanity. It was these aspects of the new cities, which concerned the early
sociologists.

iv) Technology and the factory system: Technology and the factory system has
been the subject of countless writings in the nineteenth century. Both the conservative
and radical thinkers realized that the two systems would alter human life for all times
to come. The impact of technology and factory system led to large-scale migration of
people to the cities. Women and children joined the work force in the factories.
Family relations changed. The siren of the factory seemed to rule peoples’ life. The
machine rather than man seemed to dominate work. As mentioned earlier the relation
between the labourers and the products of their labour changed. They worked for their
wages. The product was the child of everybody and of the machine in particular. The
owner of the factory owned it. Life and work became depersonalized. Marx saw a
form of enslavement in the machine and a manifestation of alienation of labour.
Social scientists, felt that men and women had grown mechanical in heart, as well as
in hand due to the industrial system of production.

Check Your Progress Exercise 2.2

Note:

I. Write your answer in the space given below.

II. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit

Q.3 List three changes, which took place in Europe due to the Industrial Revolution.

…………………………………………………………………………………………
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…………………………………………………………………………………………..

Q.4 Fill in the blanks in the following sentences.

a) Industrial Revolution led to the transformation of the economy from ………..

to capitalist.
b) The French Revolution put an end to a political structure based on …………
privileges and feudalism.
c) July 14th, 1789 is celebrated by the French people as their …………. day.

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2.7 THE INTELLECTUAL INFLUENCES AFFECTING THE
EMERGENCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology emerged as a response to the forces of change, which took place during
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in Europe. The ideas, which are discussed again
and again in early sociological writings, are thus essentially ideas of that period.

The thinkers of the Enlightenment of eighteenth century affected much of the early
sociology. The Enlightenment appears as the most appropriate point of departure in
the study of the origins of sociological theory, for various reasons including those
mentioned below.

Firstly, a scientific approach to the study of society dates back to the tradition of
Enlightenment. The eighteenth century thinkers began more consistently than any of
their predecessors to study the human conditions in a scientific way using the
methods of the natural sciences. They consciously applied scientific principles of
analysis to the study of human beings and their nature and society.

Secondly, the eighteenth century thinkers upheld reason as a measure to judge social
institutions and their suitability for human nature. Human beings, according to them,
are essentially rational and this rationality can lead them to freedom of thought and
action.

Thirdly, the eighteenth century thinkers believed that human beings are capable of
attaining perfection. By criticizing and changing social institutions they can create for
themselves even greater degrees of freedom, which, in turn would enable them
increasingly to actualize the potentially creative powers.

Sociological thinkers are concerned with the above three assumptions. Apart from
them, three other intellectual influences current in the post Enlightenment period
influenced the emergence of sociology in Europe. They can be identified as

i) the philosophy of history

ii) the biological theories of evolution; and
iii) the surveys of social conditions.

These three intellectual influences are the precursors of sociology and are reflected
the writings of the early sociologists.

2.7.1 The Philosophy of History

In the early part of the nineteenth century the philosophy of history became an
important intellectual influence. The basic assumption of this philosophy was that
society must have progressed through a series of steps from a simple to complex
stage. We may briefly assess the contributions of the philosophy of history to
sociology as having been, on the philosophical side, the notions of development and
progress. On the scientific side, it has given the concepts of historical periods and
social types. The social thinkers, who developed the philosophy of history such as
Abbe Saint Pierre, and Giambattista, were concerned with the whole of society and
19
not merely the political, or the economic, or the cultural aspects (Bottomore 1962:
1415). Later the contributions of Comte, Spencer, Marx and many others reflected the
impact of the loss of this intellectual trend in their sociological writings.

2.7.2 The Biological Theories of Evolution

The influence of the philosophy of history was further reinforced by the biological
theory of evolution. Sociology moved towards an evolutionary approach, seeking to
identify and account for the principal stages in social evolution. It tended to be
modeled on biology, as is evident from the widely diffused conception of society as
an organism, and from the attempts to formulate general terms of social evolution.
Herbert Spencer and Durkheim are good example of this kind of writing.

2.7.3 Surveys of Social Conditions

Social survey forms an important element in modern sociology. It emerged due to two
reasons, one was the growing conviction that the methods of the natural sciences
should and could be extended to the study of human affairs; that human phenomenon
could be classified and measured. The other was the concern with poverty (the social
problem); following the recognition that poverty was not natural but social. The
social survey is one of the principal methods of sociological inquiry. The basic
assumption, which underlines this method, is that through the knowledge of the social
conditions one can arrive at solutions to solve the social problems prevalent in
society.

2.7.4 Creating a Discipline: The Founding Fathers

1. Auguste Comte (1798–1857)

The term sociology was first coined in 1780 by the French essayist Emmanuel-Joseph
Sieyès (1748–1836) in an unpublished manuscript (Fauré et al. 1999). In 1838, the
term was reinvented by Auguste Comte (1798–1857). Comte originally studied to be
an engineer, but later became a pupil of social philosopher Claude Henri de Rouvroy
Comte de Saint-Simon (1760–1825). They both thought that social scientists could
study society using the same scientific methods utilized in natural sciences. Comte
also believed in the potential of social scientists to work toward the betterment of
society. He held that once scholars identified the laws that governed society,
sociologists could address problems such as poor education and poverty
(Abercrombie et al. 2000). Comte named the scientific study of social patterns
positivism. He described his philosophy in a series of books called The Course in
Positive Philosophy (1830–1842) and A General View of Positivism (1848). He
believed that using scientific methods to reveal the laws by which societies and
individuals interact would usher in a new “positivist” age of history. While the field
and its terminology have grown, sociologists still believe in the positive impact of
their work.

2. Karl Marx (1818–1883)

Karl Marx (1818–1883) was a German philosopher and economist. In 1848 he and
20
Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) coauthored the Communist Manifesto. This book is one
of the most influential political manuscripts in history. It also presents Marx's theory
of society, which differed from what Comte proposed. Marx rejected Comte's
positivism. He believed that societies grew and changed as a result of the struggles of
different social classes over the means of production. At the time he was developing
his theories, the Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism led to great disparities
in wealth between the owners of the factories and workers. Capitalism, an economic
system characterized by private or corporate ownership of goods and the means to
produce them, grew in many nations.

Marx predicted that inequalities of capitalism would become so extreme that workers
would eventually revolt. This would lead to the collapse of capitalism, which would
be replaced by communism. Communism is an economic system under which there is
no private or corporate ownership: everything is owned communally and distributed
as needed. Marx believed that communism was a more equitable system than
capitalism. While his economic predictions may not have come true in the time frame
he predicted, Marx’s idea that social conflict leads to change in society is still one of
the major theories used in modern sociology.

3. Herbert Spencer (1820–1903)

In 1873, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer published The Study of Sociology,
the first book with the term “sociology” in the title. Spencer rejected much of
Comte’s philosophy as well as Marx's theory of class struggle and his support of
communism. Instead, he favored a form of government that allowed market forces to
control capitalism. His work influenced many early sociologists including Émile
Durkheim (1858–1917).

4. Georg Simmel (1858–1918)

Georg Simmel was a German art critic who wrote widely on social and political
issues as well. Simmel took an anti-positivism stance and addressed topics such as
social conflict, the function of money, individual identity in city life, and the
European fear of outsiders (Stapley 2010). Much of his work focused on the micro-
level theories, and it analyzed the dynamics of two-person and three-person groups.
His work also emphasized individual culture as the creative capacities of individuals.
Simmel’s contributions to sociology are not often included in academic histories of
the discipline, perhaps overshadowed by his contemporaries Durkheim, Mead, and
Weber (Ritzer and Goodman 2004).

5. Émile Durkheim (1858–1917)

Durkheim helped establish sociology as a formal academic discipline by establishing

the first European department of sociology at the University of Bordeaux in 1895 and
by publishing his Rules of the Sociological Method in 1895. In another important
work, Division of Labour in Society (1893), Durkheim laid out his theory on how
societies transformed from a primitive state into a capitalist, industrial society.

21
According to Durkheim, people rise to their proper levels in society based on merit.
Durkheim believed that sociologists could study objective “social facts” (Poggi
2000). He also believed that through such studies it would be possible to determine if
a society was “healthy” or “pathological.” He saw healthy societies as stable, while
pathological societies experienced a breakdown in social norms between individuals
and society.

In 1897, Durkheim attempted to demonstrate the effectiveness of his rules of social

research when he published a work titled Suicide. Durkheim examined suicide
statistics in different police districts to research differences between Catholic and
Protestant communities. He attributed the differences to socio-religious forces rather
than to individual or psychological causes.

6. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931)

George Herbert Mead was a philosopher and sociologist whose work focused on the
ways in which the mind and the self were developed as a result of social processes
(Cronk n.d.). He argued that how an individual comes to view himself or herself is
based to a very large extent on interactions with others. Mead called specific
individuals that impacted a person’s life significant others and he also conceptualized
“generalized others” as the organized and generalized attitude of a social group.
Mead’s work is closely associated with the symbolic Interactionists approach and
emphasizes the micro-level of analysis.

7. Max Weber (1864–1920)

Prominent sociologist Max Weber established a sociology department in Germany at

the Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich in 1919. Weber wrote on many topics
related to sociology including political change in Russia and social forces that affect
factory workers. He is known best for his 1904 book, The Protestant Ethic and the
Spirit of Capitalism. The theory that Weber sets forth in this book is still
controversial. Some believe that Weber argued that the beliefs of many Protestants,
especially Calvinists, led to the creation of capitalism. Others interpret it as simply
claiming that the ideologies of capitalism and Protestantism are complementary.
Weber believed that it was difficult, if not impossible, to use standard scientific
methods to accurately predict the behavior of groups as people hoped to do. They
argued that the influence of culture on human behavior had to be taken into account.
This even applied to the researchers themselves, who, they believed, should be aware
of how their own cultural biases could influence their research. To deal with this
problem, Weber and Dilthey introduced the concept of verstehen, a German word that
means to understand in a deep way. In seeking verstehen, outside observers of a
social world—an entire culture or a small setting—attempt to understand it from an
insider’s point of view. In his book The Nature of Social Action (1922), Weber
described sociology as striving to "interpret the meaning of social action and thereby
give a causal explanation of the way in which action proceeds and the effects it
produces." He and other like-minded sociologists proposed a philosophy of anti-
positivism whereby social researchers would strive for subjectivity as they worked to
22
represent social processes, cultural norms, and societal values. This approach led to
some research methods whose aim was not to generalize or predict (traditional in
science), but to systematically gain an in-depth understanding of social worlds.

2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you studied how social conditions affect the ideas which people have. You
learnt how certain changes taking place in the eighteenth and nineteenth century in
Europe bothered social thinkers. Sociology thus grew essentially as a product of the
reflections of the great thinkers reflecting on society.

You learnt about the sociologically significant themes of the Commercial, the French
and the Industrial Revolutions. Finally, you read about the intellectual influences such
as the philosophy of history, biological theories of evolution and surveys of social
conditions, which affected the emergence of sociology in Europe.

2.9 GLOSSARY

Capitalist: In an industrial system of production, the class of owners of the means

of production (such as, the capital i.e. the money, the property, the
tools, etc.) is called the capitalists.

Democracy: A form of government in which the supreme power is vested in the

people collectively. It is a state of society characterized by recognition
of equality of rights and privileges, social and legal equally.

Enlightenment: It refers to that period in European history, which embodies the

spirit of the French philosophers of the eighteenth century. During this
period a belief developed that both nature and society can be studied
scientifically. Human reason and the ideas of progress developed.

Estate: The system of stratification followed in medieval European society of

around 17th-18th century, in which society was divided into different
social groups having a different set of laws and social status for each

Feudal: A system of tenure in agricultural areas whereby a vassal or serf

served the landlord to whom the land belonged. In return the landlord
allowed the serf to till his land and live on his land

Liberal: A person who is broad minded and not bound by authority or

traditional orthodoxy i.e. old fashioned beliefs

Verstehen: a German word that means to understand in a deep way

2.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: ANSWER KEYS

Ans to Q.1: The forces of change in the largely subsistent and stagnant economy of
the Medieval Europe from about 1450-1800 century A.D. led to what
it called the Commercial Revolution in Europe. The cause of this
23
 Revolution was expansion of trade and commerce initiated by certain
European countries. These countries, such as Portugal, Spain, and
Holland etc. tried to consolidate their political and economic power
through overseas trade and commerce and conquests of new territories

Ans to Q.2: During the scientific revolution, the following two developments,
among many others, took place and helped in advancement of
knowledge. Dissection of human body started which led to an
increased knowledge of the anatomy. Modern medicine developed due
to this knowledge. The ancient belief that the earth was fixed and the
sun revolved around it was shattered by Copernicus, who proved that it
is the sun, which is fixed, and the earth, which revolves around it. This
is called the “heliocentric theory”.

Ans to Q.3: a) The production process of Europe was transformed with the new
capitalistic factory system replacing the old feudal, largely agricultural
system.

b) A new working class employed as wage labour in the industries

arose.

c) The growth of urban slums changed both the physical as well as the
social life of people.

Ans to Q.4: a) Feudal

b) Hereditary

c) Independence

2.11 REFERENCES

1. Berger, P. (1963). Invitation to sociology: A humanistic perspective,

Anchor Books Double Day & Company, Inc.: New York
2. Bottomore, T.B. (1962). Sociology: A guide to problems and literature,
George Allen & Unwin Ltd.: London
3. Inkeles, A. (1975). What is sociology? Prentice-Hall: New Delhi.

24
UNIT 3 NATURE, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE OF
SOCIOLOGY

Structure

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Learning Objectives
3.3 Origin and Development of Sociology
3.4 Nature of Sociology
3.4.1 Methods in Sociology
3.5 Scope of Sociology
3.6 Importance of Sociology
3.7 The Sociological Perspective
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.9 Glossary
3.10 Check Your Progress: Answer Keys
3.11 Model Questions
3.12 References

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Centuries ago Aristotle said, ‘Man is a social animal’. Human Being is born in society
and bred up in society, nourished and nurtured in Society. Society makes our life
livable. Since the dawn of civilization, society has been a subject for speculation and
inquiry. Social phenomena have continued to awe the restless and inquisitive mind of
man. Much later it was St. Simon who started the scientific study of society. After
him, Auguste Comte carried his legacy and coined the term sociology for a new
science of studying society. In this unit, we will discuss the nature and scope of
Sociology as a discipline.

3.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to

 explain the nature of sociology
 identify the different methods in sociology
 discuss the scope of sociology.
 Explain the importance of sociology

3.3 ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology came to be established as an independent and a separate social science in

the middle of the 19th century. Various factors paved the way for its emergence.
There are three main factors that hastened the process of the establishment of
sociology as a separate science. They are briefly mentioned below-

 Industrial Revolution of England and the Social and the Political revolution of

25
  France Inspiration from the growth of Natural Sciences.
 Inspiration provided by the radically diverse societies and cultures of the
colonial empires.

During the second half of the 18th century, some far reaching changes had occurred
in Western Europe. These changes agitated the minds of some people and made them
very conscious of what had happened around them. To begin with, the Industrial
Revolution which emerged in England during the late 18th century was one such
event of tremendous social significance. Never before in history did social changes
take place on such a massive scale. Industrial Revolution not only revolutionized the
method of production, but also brought about far reaching social changes. The simple
rural life and small-scale home industries were replaced by complex urban life and
mass production of goods. Industrialization changed the direction of civilization.
Social problems became rampant in the fast developing cities. All of a sudden, the
people were brought face to face with problems, which they or their forefathers had
never experienced before. These challenges stirred deeply the minds of men. And
they began to ponder over the ways of combating social evils which emerged as an
off-shot of Industrial Revolution. Social thinkers like Comte, Spencer and others
argued that there was an urgent need to establish a separate science of society. They
believed that such a science would be of great help in understanding the nature and
problems of society and to find solutions for the same.

19th century was a period in which natural sciences had made great progress. The
success attained by the natural scientists inspired and even tempted a good number of
social thinkers to emulate them. A question arose in the mind of people that if the
methods used by natural science could be successful in the physical world to
understand physical or natural phenomena, could they not be applied successfully to
the social world to understand social phenomena. As an answer to this question,
Comte and others successfully demonstrated that these (scientific) methods could be
used to study the social world also. Along with these, the colonial powers of Europe
were exposed to different types of societies and cultures in the colonial empires. Their
exposure to such diversities in societies and cultures provided an intellectual
challenge for the social scientist of the day. So, the conditions which gave rise to
sociology as an independent discipline were both intellectual and social.

LET US KNOW

Auguste Comte (Isidore Auguste Marie Francois Xavier Comte – 1798-1857)

introduced the word ‘Sociology’ for the first time in his famous work ‘Positive
Philosophy’ in about 1839. The term Sociology is derived from the Latin word
Socius, meaning companion or associate, and the Greek word Logos meaning study
or science. Thus, the etymological meaning of sociology is the science of society.

26
3.4 NATURE OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is scientific in nature. In other words, sociology tries to make a scientific

study regarding the social actions or the social events. This statement might have
raised a question that what is a scientific study.

When one tries to understand a phenomenon systematically and logically then it can
be called a scientific study. In other words, scientific study must be based on facts
and the subjective feelings of a researcher must not influence the study. Secondly, the
study must employ appropriate methods to unravel facts and analyze them for logical
conclusions. Such conclusions or generalizations must be empirically verifiable,
reliable and valid with respect to the phenomena under investigation.

Now, since sociology deals with human beings and the values that people in societies
hold, the methods used in sociology is slightly different from methods used by natural
sciences. The subject matter of natural sciences, for example that of Physics or
Chemistry, is non-living particles. These particles do not have any consciousness of
their own. However as already mentioned, the subject matter of sociology is human
being who has a consciousness of his/her own and tends to behave differently when
he/she comes to know that his/her behavior is being observed. Moreover, human
beings cannot be studied in a laboratory and to understand their real nature,
sociologists have to study them in a natural setting. But one thing is common about
all the sciences (including sociology) that observation must be done in a scientific
way. This means an observer must be able to note down accurately whatever he or
she is observing. Thus, a sociologist must be able to keep away his/her pre-conceived
notions while researching. For example a researcher might have some earlier notion
about a particular society which he or she is trying to study, but while studying, he or
she must note whatever he/she has observed and not what he/she ‘feels’ about that
society. Robert Bierstedt in his book “The Social Order” described some of the
characteristics of sociology which are discussed below

1. Sociology is an independent science

2. Sociology is a social science not a physical science
3. Sociology is a categorical and not a normative discipline.
4. Sociology is a pure science not an applied science
5. Sociology is relatively an abstract science and not a concrete science
6. Sociology is a general and not a particular or individual science
7. Sociology is both rational and empirical science

3.4.1 Methods in Sociology

In order to unravel truth regarding social world, sociologists employ different

methods. Some of those methods are discussed briefly:

 Survey method: This method involves systematic collection of facts

regarding a group of people residing in a particular geographical, cultural or
administrative area, for example census survey. Social surveys are usually
conducted to elicit social facts regarding different aspects (attitudes, opinions
27
 or behavior pattern) of a particular society. This method usually covers a
wider area. Therefore, a researcher generally makes use of a questionnaire to
elicit data which is relevant for his/her study. A questionnaire consists of a set
of questions which are relevant for a researcher’s study. A questionnaire is
sent to the respondents either through mail or is given directly by hand. The
respondents are supposed to answer the questions and send it back. By
analyzing the responses, the research comes to a conclusion.
 Historical method: This method assumes that the contemporary social
condition of a particular society has its roots in its past social life. Therefore, a
researcher begins to study the events, processes and institutions which a
particular society had earlier. For example: Karl Marx analyzed the problems
in modern capitalist society by analyzing the earlier stages of a modern
society.
 Comparative method: In this type of research, a researcher tries to compare
different societies or different groups within the same societies to understand
man’s social behavior in different contexts. For example: Max Weber
compared eastern religions with western religions in order to understand why
capitalism emerged in western societies.
 Case study method: In this method a particular phenomenon is analyzed
through intensive analysis of an individual, group or community. This method
involves study of every minute detail of the unit (individual, group or
community) under study.
 Statistical method: This method tries to understand a social phenomenon by
the use of mathematical calculations. Studies involving migration, standard of
living, divorce, marriage, crime, suicide, etc. extensively make use of this
method.
 Content analysis: In this method, the researcher tries to understand a
particular phenomenon by analyzing a text available in the published works
including newspapers and magazines. For example : if a researcher tries to
study how the mainstream media represents north-east India, then a researcher
may start looking for the number of times the national dailies have reported
about the events in the north east. A researcher may also start analysing the
words which came to be associated with the region. If more positive words are
used then it would indicate a positive representation of the north east. But if
negative words are used more, then it would indicate a negative representation
of the region.
 Ethnography: This method tries to describe the social life of a particular
group rather than explaining it. In other words, a researcher tries to note what
the person whom he/she is trying to study understands about their social world
and the meanings that they attach to their practices in daily life.

3.5 SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY

Ever since the beginning of Sociology, Sociologists have shown a great concern in
man and in the dynamics of Society. Therefore, the subject matter of sociology,
which it covers to study, became very wide. Here, a general outline of the subject
matter of sociology is given:
28
The major concern of sociology is sociological analysis. It means that sociologists
seek to provide an analysis of human society and culture with a sociological
perspective.

Sociology has given sufficient attention to the study of primary units of social life. In
this area, it is concerned with social acts and social relationships, groups of all
varieties, communities (urban, rural and tribal), associations, organizations and
populations.

 Sociology has been concerned with the development, structure and function of
a wide variety of basic social institutions such as the family and kinship,
religion economy, polity, legal and educational institutions.
 The social processes such as co-operation, competition, accommodation and
assimilation, social conflict, social change, social differentiation and
stratification, socialization, social control and deviance assume prominence in
sociological studies.
 Sociology has placed high premium on the method of research also. Sociology
has tended to become more and more rational and empirical rather than
philosophical and idealistic.
 Sociologists are concerned with the task of “formulating concepts,
propositions and theories.”
 In the present era of explosion of knowledge, sociologists have ventured to
make specializations also. Thus, today a good number of specialized fields of
inquiry are emerging out. Sociology of knowledge, sociology of history,
sociology of medicine, sociology of culture, sociology of religion, sociology
of education etc., represent such specialized fields.

The field of sociological inquiry is so vast that any student of sociology equipped
with intellectual ingenuity and rich sociological imagination can add new dimensions
to the discipline of sociology as a whole.

Every subject has its own scope and subject matter. Sociologists differ among
themselves regarding the scope of sociology. As a result, there is no unanimity of
opinion amongst scholars about the scope of sociology. Some sociologists opine that
sociology studies everything and any- thing under the sun, whereas, others opine that
the scope of sociology is very limited as it studies only those things which are not
studied by other social sciences. V.F. Calberton opines “since sociology is so elastic a
science, it is difficult to determine just where its boundaries begin and end, where
sociology becomes social psychology and where social psychology becomes
sociology or where economic theory becomes sociological theory, something which
is impossible to decide”. However, an attempt has been made to demarcate the exact
scope of sociology.

There are two schools of thought with different viewpoints regarding scope and
subject matter of sociology- formal school and synthetic school. According to the
formal school, sociology was conceived to be a social science with a specifically
defined field. This school had George Simmel, Ferdinand Tonnies, Alfred Vierkandt
and Leopord Von Wiese as its main advocates. On the other hand, the synthetic
29
school with Emile Durkheim, L.T Hobhouse and Pitirim Sorokin advocated a
synthesis in the form of coordination among all social sciences.

 Formal School of Sociology: The formal school of Sociology argued in

favour of giving sociology a definite subject matter to make it a distinct
discipline. It emphasized the study of forms of social relationships and
regarded sociology as an independent discipline. According to Simmel,
sociology is a specific social science which describes, classifies, analyses and
delineates the forms of social relationships or, in other words, social
interactions should be classified into various forms or types and analyzed.
Simmel argued that social interactions have various forms. He carried out
studies of such formal relationships as cooperation, competition, sub and
super- ordinate relationships and so forth. Vierkandt maintained that sociology
should be concerned with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic relationship
which knit the people together in a society. According to Max Weber, the aim
of sociology is to interpret or understand social behaviour. But social
behaviour does not cover the whole field of human relations. Indeed, not all
human interactions are social. Sociology is concerned with the analysis and
classification of types of social relationships.
 Synthetic School of Sociology: The Synthetic school of Sociology wanted
sociology to be a synthesis of the social sciences and thus, wanted to widen its
scope. According to Durkheim, sociology has three principal divisions,
namely-Social morphology, Social Physiology and General Sociology. Social
morphology is concerned with the geographical or territorial basis of the life
of the people such as population, its size, density and distribution etc. Social
physiology deals with the genesis and nature of various social institutions,
namely religion, morals, law and economic institutions etc. In general
sociology, the main aim is to formulate general social laws. Hobhouse
perceived sociology as a science which has the whole social life of man as its
sphere. Its relations with the other social sciences are considered to be one of
mutual exchange and mutual stimulation. Karl Mannheim divides sociology
into two main sections-Systematic and General sociology and Historical
Sociology. Systematic sociology describes one by one the main factors of
living together as far as they may be found in every kind of society. Historical
sociology deals with the historical variety and actuality of the general forms of
society. Ginsberg has summed up the chief functions of sociology as it seeks
to provide a classification of types and forms of social relationships especially
of those, which have come to be defined as institutions and associations. It
tries to determine the relation between different parts of the factors of social
life; for example, the economic and political, the moral and the legal, the
intellectual and the social elements. It endeavors to disentangle the
fundamental conditions of social change and persistence and to discover
sociological principles governing social life.

From the above discussion, we may conclude that the subject matter of sociology is
social life as a whole and it deals with the more general principles underlying all
social phenomena. Thus, the scope of sociology is very wide. It is a general science
30
but it is also a special science.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3.1

Note:

I. Write your answer in the space given below.

II. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit

Q.1 Name some of the advocates of the synthetic school.

………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………

Q.2 Which of the following best describes sociology as a subject?

a. The study of individual behavior

b. The study of cultures
c. The study of society and social interaction
d. The study of economic

3.6 IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

The importance of sociology is growing day by day. The society and the social life of
individual are changing continuously. Sociology is the discipline through which
people understand their everyday lives and its changing scenarios. The fundamental
aspect of studying sociology is to study the social problems and to make adjustment
with the society.

The prominent sociologist Peter L. Berger (1929–2017), in his book “Invitation to

Sociology: A Humanistic Perspective” (1963), describes a sociologist as "someone
concerned with understanding society in a disciplined way." He asserts that
sociologists have a natural interest in the monumental moments of people’s lives, as
well as a fascination with banal, everyday occurrences. Berger also describes the
“aha” moment when a sociological theory becomes applicable and understood:

[T]here is a deceptive simplicity and obviousness about some sociological

investigations. One reads them, nods at the familiar scene, remarks that one
has heard all this before and don't people have better things to do than to
waste their time on truisms—until one is suddenly brought up against an
insight that radically questions everything one had previously assumed about
this familiar scene. This is the point at which one begins to sense the
excitement of sociology. (Berger 1963)

Sociology can be exciting because it teaches people ways to recognize how they fit
into the world and how others perceive them. Looking at themselves and society from
31
a sociological perspective helps people see where they connect to different groups
based on the many different ways they classify themselves and how society classifies
them in turn. It raises awareness of how those classifications—such as economic and
status levels, education, ethnicity, or sexual orientation—affect perceptions.

Sociology teaches people not to accept easy explanations. It teaches them a way to
organize their thinking so that they can ask better questions and formulate better
answers. It makes people more aware that there are many different kinds of people in
the world who do not necessarily think the way they do. It increases their willingness
and ability to try to see the world from other people's perspectives. This prepares
them to live and work in an increasingly diverse and integrated world.

Studying sociology can provide people with this wide knowledge and a skill set that
can contribute many workplaces, including

 an understanding of social systems and large bureaucracies;

 the ability to devise and carry out research projects to assess whether a
program or policy is working;
 the ability to collect, read, and analyze statistical information from polls or
surveys;
 the ability to recognize important differences in people’s social, cultural, and
economic backgrounds;
 skills in preparing reports and communicating complex ideas; and
 the capacity for critical thinking about social issues and problems that
confront modern society.
(Department of Sociology, University of Alabama)

Sociology prepares people for a wide variety of careers. Besides actually conducting
social research or training others in the field, people who graduate from college with
a degree in sociology are hired by government agencies and corporations in fields
such as social services, counseling (e.g., family planning, career, and substance
abuse), community planning, health services, marketing, market research, and human
resources. Even a small amount of training in sociology can be an asset in careers like
sales, public relations, journalism, teaching, law, and criminal justice. Giddings has
pointed out, “Sociology tells us how to become what we want to be”.
Let us now discuss how sociology helps in different ways.

a) The discipline sociology studies the society in a scientific manner, the

scientific knowledge about human society to achieve progress in various
fields.
b) Sociology examines why man is a social animal and it also outlines the
relationship between individual and society
c) Sociology improves the understanding about society and social relationships.
d) Sociology studies the role of social institutions through which society
functions.
e) The study of sociology helps to solve the social problems like poverty, family

32
 disorganization, unemployment, juvenile delinquency etc.
f) Sociological knowledge is necessary for understanding and planning of
society.
g) It has made a greater contribution to enrich human culture.

3.7 THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Sociology provides unique perspectives regarding the world around us. Sociological
perspective is a way of looking at events, forms, and processes through the trained
eyes of a scientist. The sociological perspective enables us to look critically at
commonly held assumptions about ourselves and our society. It also tells us that we
are all products of our culture. The major goal of sociological perspective is to
identify and interpret the patterns underlying the recurrent regular aspects of social
life and also to investigate the influences on social behavior.

Now, we will attempt to highlight the main focus of sociological perspective in brief
as given below-

 Sociology is a scientific endeavor with a strong humanistic bent. The old

notion that whether sociology is scientific or humanistic has been replaced by
the modern view that it is both scientific and humanistic. As a scientific
discipline, it aims at value- free and objective causal analysis of social
phenomena.
 Sociology views society or social relations as structured, constituting a reality
that transcends individuals. Like psychology, sociology is not interested in
behavior of an individual but in the patterns of behavior or behavior of groups
of persons. Sociology is concerned with how the structure of society is
created, maintained and changed.
 Sociology tries to investigate the processes through which society shapes the
individual and how in turn individuals create the structure of society.
 Sociology studies social phenomena from both holistic and relational points of
view. These perspectives enable sociologists to identify the underlying
recurrent patterns of and influences on social behavior.
 Sociology studies human behaviour in group context. For a sociologist,
man/woman and his/her particular act or activity is nor important, but his/her
status and role in which the activity is performed is important.
 Sociological perspective is neither utopian nor fatalistic but scientific. But at
times, it sometimes goes beyond the questions of what, how, why and where
and assumes the role of an applied science. Thus, sociological perspective is
both naturalistic and interventionist. Early sociologists were positivists; they
emphasized its naturalistic character, but modern sociologists argue that
sociologists should adopt the role of an interventionist along with his
traditional role of a scientist.
 Sociological perspective involves the investigation of the problem on both
micro and macro levels. At micro level, sociology studies how individuals
behave in social situations – at work, at play, at home, or in school, or in small
and large groups. It deals with people’s everyday interactions. At macro level,
33
 sociology focuses on patterns of behavior and forms of organization that
characterize entire societies. At this level, sociology deals with large-scale
structures, broad social categories, institutions, social systems and social
problems such as war, unemployment, poverty, corruption and solutions to
these problems are sought at the structural or organizational level.

3.8 LETS US SUM UP

 Society has been a subject for speculation and inquiry.

 During 1839, August Comte coined the term sociology for a discipline which
would study society scientifically.
 Sociology is a science which attempts the interpretative understanding of
social action.
 There are three main factors that hastened the process of the establishment of
sociology as a separate science.
 Industrial Revolution of England and the Social and the Political
revolution of French.
 Inspiration from the growth of Natural Sciences.
 Inspiration provided by the radically diverse societies and cultures of the
colonial empires.
 Sociology is scientific in nature.
 Survey method involves systematic collection of facts regarding a group of
people residing in a particular geographical, cultural or administrative area.
 In historical method, a researcher begins to study the events, processes and
institutions a society had earlier.
 In comparative method, a researcher tries to compare different societies or
different groups within the same societies to understand man’s social
behaviour.
 In Case study method, a particular phenomenon is analyzed through intensive
analysis of an individual, group or community.
 Statistical method tries to understand a social phenomenon by the use of
mathematical calculations.
 In content analysis, a researcher tries to understand a particular phenomenon
by analyzing newspapers and magazines.
 All the aspects of a society- economic, political, and social -form the subject
matter of sociology.
 There are two schools of thought with different viewpoints regarding scope
and subject matter of sociology- formal school and synthetic school.
 According to formal school, sociology was conceived to be a social science
with a specifically defined field.
 According to the formal school, not all human interactions are social.
Sociology is concerned with the analysis and classification of types of social
relationships.
 The formal school had George Simmel, Ferdinand Tonnies, Alfred Vierkandt
and Leopord Von Wiese as its main advocates.
 The synthetic school with Durkheim, Hobhouse and Sorokin advocated a
34
 synthesis in the form of coordination among all social sciences.
 According to the synthetic school, sociology is a science which has the whole
social life of man as its sphere.
 The relation of sociology with the other social sciences is considered to be one
of mutual exchange and mutual stimulation.
 Sociology views society or social relations as structured, constituting a reality
that transcends individuals.
 Sociology is concerned with how the structure of society is created,
maintained and changed.
 Sociology studies social phenomena from both holistic and relational points of
view.
 Sociology studies human behavior in group context.
 Sociological perspective is neither utopian, nor fatalistic, but scientific.
 Sociological perspective involves the investigation of the problem on both
micro and macro levels.

3.9 GLOSSARY

Positivism: the scientific study of social patterns

Theory: a proposed explanation about social interactions or society

Functionalism: a theoretical approach that sees society as a structure with

interrelated parts designed to meet the biological and social
needs of individuals that make up that society

Hypothesis: a testable proposition

3.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: ANSWER KEYS

Ans to Q.1: Some of the advocates of the synthetic school are Emile Durkheim,
L.T. Hobhouse and Pitirim Sorokin.

Ans to Q.2: (c) The study of society and social interaction

3.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A. Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q1: What led to the birth of sociology?
Q2: What do you understand by scientific method?

B. Long Questions (Answer each question in about 300-500 words)

Q1: What do you understand by the term sociology? Briefly write down the
scope and nature of sociology.
Q2: Discuss the different methods used in sociology.
Q3: Explain the importance of Sociology.

35
3.12 REFERENCES

1. Earl Babbie, (2004). The practice of Social Research. Wadsworth Publication,

U.S.A.
2. H.M. Johnson, (1960). Sociology, A Systematic Introduction, Allied
publication, New Delhi
3. R.M MacIver and C.H Page, (1965). Society: An Introductory Analysis,
Macmillan India Ltd, New Delhi
4. H.K. Rawat, (2007). Sociology: Basic Concepts, Rawat Publications, Jaipur

36
UNIT 4 SOCIOLOGY AND OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

STRUCTURE

4.1 Introduction
4.2 Learning Objectives
4.3 Sociology and History
4.4 Sociology and Political Science
4.5 Sociology and Economics
4.6 Sociology and Anthropology
4.7 Sociology and Social Psychology
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.9 Glossary
4.10 Check Your Progress: Answer Keys
4.11 Model Questions
4.12 References

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Sociology, as we know, is the science of society but since human society is a complex
one, it is not possible for Sociology to solely encompass every aspect of the society
within its scope. To have a complete understanding of society, Sociology has to
depend upon other disciplines such as Economics, Political Science, History,
Anthropology so on and so forth. Therefore to study society in its entirety, Sociology
depends on other subjects and disciplines which take up specific aspects of society as
their subject matter. For example, Political Science studies the polity and matters
related to politics and political systems. Now, Sociologists cannot have a complete
understanding of the society without having knowledge and understanding of Polity
and its functions. Thus, he has to depend upon Political science which specifically
deals with polity. Same is the case with other disciplines also. Hence, we can say that
while other subjects or disciplines are one dimensional; Sociology is multi-
dimensional in nature. Again any particular social problem can be understood and
analyzed from different angles. For example: drug abuse or child trafficking is
understood and analyzed by a physician, an economist, a historian, a political scientist
in different ways according to their training in their respective subjects or disciplines.
A Sociologist would try to understand any problem by analyzing the social structure.
He/she would analyze its implications on social relationship. In the previous unit, we
have learned about the origin, nature and scope of Sociology. In this unit, we shall
discuss about the relationship of Sociology with other Social Sciences.

37
4.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be able to—

 understand the relationship between Sociology and History

 explain the relationship between Sociology and Political Science
 discuss the relationship between Sociology and Economics
 discuss the relationship between Sociology and Anthropology
 understand the Relationship between Sociology and Social Psychology

4.3 SOCIOLOGY AND HISTORY

Sociology shares a close relationship with History. History, as we know, is

documentation or a depiction of the past. It is a record of the ways in which human
societies have evolved over time and how man and his actions and his society have
changed at different points of time. Thus, History particularly deals with the past and
narrates the different activities, events and phenomenon which took place in the
earlier periods. Sociology is interested in the historical development of society and
why and how human societies and social relationships have emerged and changed
over time. For this, Sociology has to depend on History. Thus, History provides us
with facts and details which we analyze and interpret. Again, Sociology also helps
history by providing the social context in which history should be studied and
understood. Without the social context, it is almost meaningless to study any
historical fact/phenomenon. Thus, History and Sociology both help each other and are
therefore mutually dependent. But even though both the disciplines are intimately
related there are distinctions between the two. History views human events from their
correlation in time but Sociology tries to understand the social relationships involved.
Thus, if a historian narrates about a war, he/she would give detailed description of the
different circumstances and situations that took place during the war but a Sociologist
would analyze and understand the implication of war on social relationship, social
institutions and the changes it brought to the larger social context. Thus, Sociologists
interpret war as social phenomena. Again, History deals with particular events and
occurrences, while Sociology is concerned with general laws. But despite differences,
one cannot deny that both history and sociology are interdependent and need each
other for the growth of the respective disciplines. Hence, G.E. Howard has rightly
said that History is past sociology and Sociology is present history.

Differences:

a) Sociology is a science of society and is concerned with the present society.

But history deals with the past events and studies the past society.
b) Sociology is a modern or new subject whereas history is an older social
science.
c) Sociology is abstract whereas history is concrete in nature.
d) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of history is limed.
Sociology includes history within its scope.
e) Sociology is an analytical science whereas history is a descriptive science.

38
 f) Attitude of sociology and history differ from each other. Sociology studies a
particular event as a social phenomenon whereas history studies a particular
event in it’s entirely.
g) Sociology is a general science whereas history is a special science.

4.4 SOCIOLOGY AND POLITICAL SCIENCE

Sociology shares a close relationship with Political Science as well. The distinction
between Sociology and Political Science is only a recent one. Political Science has its
own exclusive domain of study such as the nature and systems of law, the methods of
Political representation etc. But there are certain aspects of Polity which cannot be
isolated from the larger social context. Since, we cannot understand polity in isolation
from the social background and also cannot understand society in its totality leaving
aside polity, both Sociology and Political Science have to be mutually dependent.

Sociology depends on political science because almost every social problem has a
Political Cause and to understand that Sociology takes help from Political Science. It
cannot leave aside Polity if it has to understand any social problem in its totality.
Again, it is not possible for a Sociologist to understand any Political Event without
taking help from Political Science. Further to understand the changes brought into the
society by the change in Polity, a Sociologist must understand the Political System
and the change it is going through. To understand any event, any problem, any
change so on and so forth, a Sociologist should try to understand the politics behind
it; he/she should try to analyze its link with Polity.

In the words of Morris Ginsberg, “Historically Sociology has its main roots in politics
and philosophy of history.” The books written by political scientists like Plato,
Aristotle and Kautilya such as The Republic, The Politics and Arthasastra
respectively have been of great help to students of Sociology.

Political Science also has to depend upon Sociology as every Political problem or
event takes place in a political context which needs to be examined and understood.
Polity is a part of Society; and to understand that part we have to understand it in
relation to the whole. Almost all political problems have a social cause and for the
solution of these political problems political science takes the help of sociology.

State frames its rules, regulations and laws on the basis of social customs, tradition
and values. Without Sociological background, the study of political science will be
incomplete. Political Scientists largely benefited from the researches and research
methods of the Sociologist. Some consider political science as a branch of Sociology.

Thus, the subject matter of Sociology and Political Science are common to a large
extent but the perspectives and approaches they use to understand any particular
aspect is different. For example, a Sociologist would understand State as a Social
Institution, whereas a Political Scientist would look at it as the Supreme regulating
power of the community and the source of Political law.

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  Differences between Sociology and Political Science:
 Sociology is a science of society and social relationship, whereas political
science is a science of state and government.
 Sociology is a general science but political science is a special science.
 Sociology studies organized, unorganized and disorganized society,
whereas political science studies only politically organized society.
 Sociology studies the social activities of man, whereas political science
studies political activities of man.
 Sociology is a new or young science but political science is an older
science.
 Sociology studies both formal and informal relations, whereas political
science studies only formal relations.
 Sociology analyses both conscious and unconscious activities of man,
whereas political science analyses only conscious activities of man.
 Sociology deals with all forms of association, whereas political science
deals with only one form of association named state.

4.5 SOCIOLOGY AND ECONOMICS

Sociology, as we have discussed above, is the science of Society. Understanding

Social Relationships is its major thrust. It shares a very close relationship with
economics because economic relationships bear a close relation to social activities
and relationships. Likewise, social relationships are also affected by economic
relationships. As the economic process develops in society, it influences and is
influenced by the Social life of man. Economists like Max Weber, Pareto, and
Schumpeter who understood economic change as a result of Social change are of the
view that the study of economics in isolation from the Social background would be
inadequate and ambiguous. The same is the case with Sociology as well. Since
economic institution is very much a part of the Society, almost all social phenomena
has an economic dimension to it. Therefore, the study of Society and Social
Relationships would be incomplete and vague if its economic dimension is
overlooked and ignored. MacIver, therefore, writes that, “Thus economic phenomena
is constantly determined by all kinds of social need and activity and in turn they are
constantly predetermining, creating, shaping and transforming social need and
activity of every kind”.

Marx opines that economic relations constitute the foundation of Society. He calls it
the infrastructure; the main base on which the other things in society rest or depend
upon. Economic factors play a very important role in every aspect of our social life
and that is why, Sociologists are concerned with economic institutions. For this
reason, Sociologists like Spencer, Weber, Durkheim and others have taken the help of
economics in their analysis of social relationships.

Thus both the subjects are interdependent, inter-related and take help from each other.
But despite their close proximity to each other, they also differ in many cases. Let us
now try to understand the points of difference between Sociology and Economics:

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  Sociology is defined as the science of society and it studies social
relationships, whereas economics is a science of wealth and choice.
 Sociology is again a much younger science in comparison to economics. It is
of much recent origin and therefore, called the Youngest Social Science,
whereas the origin of Economics goes far back in history.
 Sociology is an abstract science, whereas economics is concrete in nature.
 Sociology is a general social science, whereas economics is a special social
science.
 Sociology is concerned with the social activities of man, whereas economics
is concerned with the economic activities of man.
 Society is studied as a unit of study in Sociology, whereas man is taken as a
unit of study in economics.
 Both Sociology and economics differ from each other in respect of the
methods and techniques they use for their study.

4.6 SOCIOLOGY AND ANTHROPOLOGY

Sociology and Anthropology share such a close relationships that they are often
understood as synonymous; and appear as two names for the same field of enquiry.
The relationship is so close that Anthropologists like A.L. Kroeber consider
Sociology and Anthropology as twin sisters. They often appear as two names for the
same subject. R. Redfield recognizes the closeness between these two social sciences.

Anthropology is derived from two Greek words ‘Anthropos’ meaning ‘man’ and
‘Logos’ meaning ‘study’. Thus, according to its etymological meaning, Anthropology
is the study of man which studied of the development of human race. Anthropology
has, thus, a very wide field of study. It is concerned with both the physical as well as
social aspect of man.

Anthropology concentrates entirely on the study of man and his culture as they
developed in the past. Sociology, on the other hand, studies the same phenomena as
they exist at present. Sociology depends very much on the material supplied by
Anthropology. In fact, the historical part of Sociology is identical with Cultural
Anthropology. Anthropology has contributed substantially to the study of Sociology.

Anthropology contributes to the growth of Sociology. Without the help of

anthropology the study of Sociology can’t be complete. It is a part of Sociology.

Anthropology provides knowledge about ancient societies. To have a comprehensive

understanding of present society Sociology takes the help of anthropology.
Contributions of many Anthropologists like R.Brown, Linton, Mead and Pritchard
enriches sociological knowledge. The origin of family, marriage, religion etc. can be
better understood through anthropological knowledge. Sociology accepts the concepts
like cultural area, cultural traits, and cultural lag etc. from anthropology. Sociology
accepts the anthropological conclusion that racial superiority is not responsible for
mental development. ‘Thus Sociology is greatly benefited by anthropological studies.
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Similarly, Sociology contributes richly towards the growth of anthropology.
Anthropology accepts many concepts of Sociology. Research and contributions of
many Sociologists like Emile Durkheim, Herbert Spencer is of great help to
anthropology. Anthropologists greatly benefited by the Sociological researches. Ideas
and conclusions of Sociology contribute to the research in anthropology.

Differences:

a) Sociology is a science of society whereas anthropology is a science of man

and his behaviour.
b) The scope of Sociology is very wide whereas the scope of Anthropology is
very limited.
c) Sociology studies society as a whole whereas anthropology studies man as a
part of society.
d) Sociology studies civilizations which are vast and dynamic on the other hand
Anthropology studies cultures which are simple and primitive.
e) Sociology studies modern, civilized and complex societies whereas
Anthropology studies ancient and pre-literate societies.
f) Sociology is concerned with social planning whereas anthropology is not
concerned with social planning. On the basis of social planning sociology
make suggestion for future but anthropology do not make any suggestion for
future.
g) In the words of Kluckhon, “The Sociological attitude has tended towards the
Practical and Present, the anthropological towards pure understanding of the
past.”

4.7 SOCIOLOGY AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Social Psychology deals with mental processes of man considered as a social being.
Its prime focus is on the mental condition and of man. It tries to analyze the influence
of social groups and social life on the mental development of man. Thus, ‘mind’ or
the mental state of individuals, as well as groups is the central theme of investigation
of Social Psychology. To understand the mental state of man and its development,
Social Psychologists require help from Sociologists because Man lives in Society and
his/her mentality is shaped and developed in a social context. His behavior, his
attitudes and activities are also shaped by the Society and its culture through the
process of Socialization and hence, in order to have a correct or proper understanding
of human nature and behavior, a Social Psychologists needs to understand the social
structure, organisation and culture of the particular societies to which the individuals
belong. Thus, a Social Psychologist needs help from a Sociologist in order to have an
idea about the Social backdrop and how it influences human mind. He /She cannot
afford to leave aside the Social backdrop because it will lead to an inadequate and
ambiguous understanding. Kimball Young, therefore, states that, “We might say that
while our major emphasis is on the individual in interaction with others, such
interaction can only be understood within the social life and cultural matrix in which
it occurs.”
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However, it is not that only Social Psychologists have to depend on Sociologists for
their analysis. The sociologists also have to dwell upon Social Psychology. It is not
possible to deny the importance of psychological factors among other factors in
understanding the changes in social structure. Lapiere and Farnsworth write that
“Social Psychology is to sociology and psychology as Bio-chemistry is to Biology
and Chemistry”. According to Motwani, “Social Psychology is a link between
psychology and sociology.” Thus, it is clear that both the disciplines share a close
relationship and are mutually interdependent.

The relationship between the two is so close and they are so intimately connected that
Karl Pearson has not accepted the two as separate sciences. In the words of MacIver,
“Sociology in special gives aid to psychology, just as psychology gives special aid to
sociology.”

It is now generally assumed that a scientific study of social phenomena must have a
psychological basis; and the psychological facts regarding human nature should not
be assumed but should be explored by direct observation as well as by
experimentation. The improved understanding of human behavior will make the
science of sociology more objective and realistic.

According to McDougall and Freud, the whole of social life could be reduced finally
to psychological forces. But if that happens, Sociology would be reduced to a mere
branch of Psychology. It would no longer remain an independent discipline.
However, their opinion cannot be accepted because the social behavior of man are
influenced, governed and shaped not only or solely by psychological factors. The
Economic, Geographical, Political etc. factors too play a great role in the social
behavior of man. These factors also significantly govern man’s social behavior and
influence their social relationships. Therefore, it would be wrong or inadequate to
understand human behaviour as being shaped by psychological factors alone. Thus, it
is not possible to study and analyze Social life exclusively with the methods of the
Psychologists. The fact of mutual dependence of Social Psychology and Sociology
should not be interpreted to mean that one is either identical with or the branch of the
other.

From the above discussion, we have learned that Sociology and Social Psychology
share a very close relationship. But despite their commonalities, there are points of
difference as well. Let us now try to understand the distinction between the two.

 Firstly, Sociology is a study of the society as a whole while Social Psychology

is merely the study of individuals in interaction as members of groups and of
the effect of that interaction on them. Social Psychology mainly focuses on
the mental set up of men and influence of group life on it. Bogardus writes,
“As psychology analyses mental processes, so Sociology analyses social
processes.”
 Sociology studies the organisation of social groups, their central values and
the various forms of institutional behavior arising on account of them and
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 Social Psychology is concerned with the individuals as members of the group.
 The individual is the unit of analysis in Social Psychology but for
Sociologists, Social groups and social relationships are the prime area of
focus. As remarked by Klineberg, “The primary concern of the sociologist is
group behaviour, and that of the social psychologists is the behavior of the
individual in the group situation.”
 Further, social life is dealt with from different angles by Sociologists and
Social Psychologists. The former studies society from the viewpoint of the
community, while the latter from the viewpoint of psychological factors
involved.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4.1

Note:
I. Write your answer in the space given below.
II. Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this Unit

Q1: Distinguish between Sociology and History.

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Q2: From which word is the term Anthropology derived?

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Q3: What is the Subject Matter of Social Psychology?

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Q4: Do Psychological factors alone govern human behaviour?

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4.8 LET US SUM UP

 Sociology, as we know, is the science of society but since human society is a

complex one, it is not possible for Sociology to solely encompass every aspect
of the society within its scope
 To have a complete understanding of the society, Sociology has to depend
upon other disciplines such as Economics, Political Science, History,
Anthropology so on and so forth.
 History, as we know, is documentation or a depiction of the past.
 History particularly deals with the past and narrates the different activities,
events, phenomenon which took place in the earlier periods
 Sociology is interested in the historical development of society and why and
how human societies and social relationships have emerged and changed over
time.
 History views human events from their correlation in time but Sociology tries
to understand the social relationships involved.
 Sociology shares a close relationship with Political Science as well.
 We cannot understand polity in isolation from the social background and also
cannot understand society in its totality leaving aside polity; both Sociology
and Political Science have to be mutually dependent.
 The subject matter of Sociology and Political Science are common to a large
extent but the perspectives and approaches they use to understand any
particular aspect is different.
 It shares a very close relationship with economics because economic
relationships bear a close relation to social activities and relationships.
Likewise, social relationships are also affected by economic relationships.
 Anthropology concentrates entirely on the study of man and his culture as
they developed in times long past. Sociology, on the other hand, studies the
same phenomena as they exist at present.
 Social Psychology deals with mental processes of man considered as a social
being. Its prime focus is on the mental condition of man.
 To understand the mental state of man and its development, Social
Psychologist requires help from Sociologists because man lives in Society and
his/her mentality is shaped and developed in a Social context.
 Sociologists also have dwell upon Social Psychology. It is not possible to
deny the importance of psychological factors among other factors in
understanding the changes in social structure.

4.9 GLOSSARY

Antipositivism: the view that social researchers should strive for subjectivity as
they worked to represent social processes, cultural norms, and
societal values

Constructivism: an extension of symbolic interaction theory which proposes

that reality is what humans cognitively construct it to be

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Paradigms: philosophical and theoretical frameworks used within a
discipline to formulate theories, generalizations, and the
experiments performed in support of them

4.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS: ANSWER KEYS

Ans to Q1: History views human events from their correlation in time but
Sociology tries to understand the social relationships involved.
Further, History deals with particular events and occurrences while
Sociology is concerned with general laws.

Ans to Q2: Anthropology is derived from two Greek words ‘Anthropos’ meaning
‘man’ and ‘Logos’ meaning ‘study’.

Ans to Q3: Social Psychology deals with mental processes of man considered as a
social being. It studies particularly the influence of group life on the
mental development of individual, the effect of the individual mind on
the group, and the development of the mental life of the groups within
themselves and in their relations with one’ another.

Ans to Q4: No, the social behaviour of man is influenced, governed and shaped
not by Psychological factors alone. The Economic, Geographical,
Political etc. factors too play a great role in the social behaviour of
man.

4.11 MODEL QUESTIONS

A) Short Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q1: What is the subject matter of Sociology?

Q2: What does the Anthropologist Study?
Q3: What is the difference between Political Science and Sociology?
Q4: Distinguish between Sociology and Economics.

B) Long Questions (Answer each question in about 150 words)

Q1: Discuss the relationship between Sociology and History.
Q2: Discuss the relationship between Sociology and Social Psychology.
Q3: “Sociology shares an interdependent relation with the other social sciences”
Elaborate the Statement.

4.12 REFERENCES

1. Gisbert. P (2010). Fundamentals of Sociology. Orient Black Swan. New

Delhi.
2. Kumar. A (2003). Sociology Basic Concepts. Swarup and Sons. New Delhi.

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