10 1016@j Idairyj 2020 104948

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Cream cheese: historical, manufacturing, and physico-chemical aspects
Alan F. Wolfschoon Pombo
PII: S0958-6946(20)30318-6
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104948
Reference: INDA 104948
To appear in: International Dairy Journal
Received Date: 1 October 2020

Revised Date: 26 November 2020
Accepted Date: 27 November 2020
Please cite this article as: Wolfschoon Pombo, A.F., Cream cheese: historical, manufacturing, and
physico-chemical aspects, International Dairy Journal, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idairyj.2020.104948.
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1 Cream cheese: historical, manufacturing, and physico-chemical aspects
7 Alan F. Wolfschoon Pombo †
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14 Kraft Foods R&D Inc./Mondelez International, Munich, Germany
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19 E-mail address: awolfschoon@gmail.com
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24 Current affiliation: Novaleite lecturer for dairy technology, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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27 ____________________________________________________________________________
28 ABSTRACT
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30 Cream cheese is an acid coagulated particle microgel with a structure consisting of protein-
31 covered milk fat globules, forming aggregated clusters at different scales, with pores filled with
32 whey and characterised by its creamy taste and spread-ability. This review focuses on the
33 technology for the production of high fat cream cheese, its historical background and evolution
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34 from 1870 until today, covering the different processing developments and breakthroughs. In
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35 addition, fundamental physico-chemical aspects arising from technological and processing
36 steps, that influence cream cheese properties, are discussed.
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39 Contents
40 1. Introduction
41 2. Historical aspects
42 3. Manufacturing procedures
43 3.1 Cream cheese making 1870–1920
45 3.2.1 The Dahlberg process
46 3.2.2 The Marquardt process
47 3.2.3 Roundy & Price process
48 3.2.4 Reichert & Crowe process
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50 3.3.1 The Oscar Link process
51 3.3.2 The Berge process
52 3.3.3
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Carswell and Hurlburt process
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53 3.4 Membrane processing since 1980
54 3.4.1 Ultrafiltration
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55 3.4.2 Nanofiltration + Ultrafiltration

56 3.4.3 Microfiltration
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57 3.5 Alternative technologies

58 4. Technical, physico-chemical and biological aspects
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59 4.1 Milk standardisation, heating, homogenisation

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60 4.2 Gelation, coagulation

61 4.2.1 Rheology
62 4.3 Curd handling
63 4.4 Cooling, storage
64 5. Conclusions and perspectives
65 References
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67
68 1. Introduction
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70 Global cheese production is predicted to be ~21.3 million tons in 2020 with a market size
71 estimated at US$65–68 billion. The EU-27 accounts for about 10.3 million tons and USA ~6.1
72 million tons (Index Mundi, 2020). Germany is the leading cream cheese producer in the
73 European Union (EU-27), as USA is in America. Cream cheese is a fresh dairy product with an
74 increasing economic importance in the food industry, with a projected global cheese market size
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75 of ~8.3 billion US $ by 2026. A mild cream buttery flavour and slight dairy sour taste, total
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76 absence of bitterness, along with a creamy texture, and a consistency that varies from brittle to
77 spreadable and with shiny appearance, characterises this acid-coagulated fresh cheese product.
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Its versatility allows many different applications throughout the food industry. The cheese
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79 provides an adequate matrix to add flavours, fibres, herbs, condiments, air (Guinee & Hickey,
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80 2009) or, e.g., to supplement with pre- and probiotics (Alves et al., 2013). Well-known examples
81 of cream cheese applications are in bagels and in New York-style cheesecake.

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82 The objective of this article is to present a technological historical review on cream

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83 cheese making from ~1870 until present, discussing manufacturing aspects of this special acid-
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84 curd cheese and important process-technology steps that are quality-related, covering the most
85 important breakthroughs achieved. The review will not discuss cream cheese varieties (e.g., low-
86 fat cream cheese) or related technologies to their processing (e.g., quark, yoghurt), nor the
87 different compositional standards of identity and regulations, existing around the globe, a matter
88 already reviewed in detail by Guinee and Hickey (2009). Moreover, topics such as vegetable fat-
89 filled and plant protein-based “cream cheese” (non-dairy imitations) products are not included.
90 The present historical – technological review might be over-weighted in information
91 obtained from US and European sources, mainly because a) the cheese was “born” in USA
92 despite its European origin and, b) cheese research-technological based knowledge increased
93 in Europe more than elsewhere in the second half of the last century. Moreover, also, during that
94 time cream cheese production experienced enormous growth in Europe, Latin America and
95 Australia, based on proprietary technology from each brand owner.
96 This review will also include a critical discussion on the underlying (milk) physical
97 chemistry of cream cheese production, which has been already well treated in previous
98 publications (Guinee & Hickey, 2009; Guinee, Pudja & Farkye, 1993; Lucey, 2004a;
99 Phadungath, 2005; Schulz-Collins & Senge, 2004) and hence, trying to avoid unnecessary
100 repetitions. Because of its importance for the dairy science and industry, detailed historical
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101 aspects regarding the evolution of the make procedure are also reviewed.
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103 2. Historical aspects
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105 In the late nineteenth century, around 1870–1880, post-colonial farmers in the USA
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106 started cream cheese production. The origins of this special cheese should be seen in the
107 European Neufchâtel cheese, produced in the Northern part of France (Normandy), although in
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108 England, cream-based cheese was appreciated by the upper class and English immigrants
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109 presumably might have played a role in its introduction in USA.

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110 According to Marx (2015), in 1872 William Lawrence, a dairyman in Chester, in upstate
111 New York, added cream to the recipe of the American (“farmers”) cheese Neufchâtel, an un-
112 ripened, fresher sibling of the French product, creating a full fat version of this cheese and thus
113 the first American cream cheese, at his factory. Lawrence’s factory was the first to produce at
114 large scale cream cheese around 1875. Until today, typical American Neufchâtel cheese has
115 about one-third less fat and higher moisture than the regular American cream cheese. Around
116 1880, Alvah Reynolds, a clever cheese broker and market genius (in the words of Marx), gave
117 the brand name “Philadelphia” to Lawrence’s cream cheese, repacked it and started to sell it
118 (initially sold as a luxury product) in many stores in upper New York state (Marx, 2015). A stand-
119 alone iconic brand was created. Why did Reynolds do that? Likely because in those times, the
120 city of Philadelphia was known for its commerce of quality cheese and Reynolds saw here a
121 great opportunity to make money.
122 In 1892, Reynolds bought the Empire Cheese Co. in New York to increase cream cheese
123 production volume; that factory burned down in 1900. Reynolds, who jointly with Lawrence
124 produced cream cheese, sold in 1903 the brand to the newly formed Phenix Cheese Company
125 to produce his cream cheese. The production of cheese in the early 1900’s was centred in the
126 Northern areas (central and Atlantic areas) of North America (Price, 1954). A cheese company
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127 created by J. L. Kraft in Chicago, the Kraft Cheese Company, merged in 1928 with the Phenix
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128 Cheese Co., becoming Kraft-Phenix and produced the cheese in New York state. From all the
129 above, it is clear that cream cheese was not invented nor ever produced in the city of
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Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; however, Philadelphia is a synonym for cream cheese worldwide.
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131 Today, Kraft Heinz Co. and Mondelez International, originated from Kraft Foods, inherited the
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132 Philadelphia iconic brand and expertise and are the major producers of cream cheese. Other
133 manufacturers of cream cheese are Arla Foods, Fonterra, Karwendel, Hochland, Franklin Foods,
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134 Lactalis, etc.; hence today cream cheese can be found around the world.
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136 3. Manufacturing procedures
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138 Manufacturing of cream cheese differs today from the original process utilised about 120-
139 140 years ago, just adding cream to an un-ripened, fresh Neufchâtel cheese, or simply using the
140 Neufchâtel process with a higher fat milk mix. Over the years, trade and company secrets,
141 patents, etc., have resulted in little detailed public information available on the manufacturing of
142 both Neufchâtel and cream cheese. The manufacturing methods could be arbitrarily classified,
143 based on the breakthroughs introduced, in the following periods: from about 1870 to 1920, from
144 1920 to 1945, from 1945 to 1980, and from 1980 until present.
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146 3.1. Cream cheese making 1870–1920
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148 Before and about the turn of the century, the cheese was made following the Neufchâtel
149 process and adding cream, and then clotting the casein in the cheese milk by developed lactic
150 acid and added rennet, and fermented until a low pH (< 4.6) was attained. The whey from the
151 acid curd was then separated via cloth bags or sacks, as traditionally done at those times for,
152 e.g., Baker or quark cheese (Emmons & Tuckey, 1967); the tied bags were placed either in a
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153 tank to drain or hung for draining. To ensure uniformity in composition and texture of the cheese,
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154 the curds obtained were then blended manually or even forcing them through a meat grinder. On
155 those times, manufacturers already encountered quality issues (crumbly texture, sour and/or
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yeasty taste, high moisture, short shelf life), arising from an adequate lack of control of
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157 temperature, starters and rennet (Dahlberg, 1927). Hence, compositional and quality constraints,
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158 as well as low productivity, restricted the expansion of production.
159 The Neufchâtel factory process, utilised until ~1920 by all manufacturers, was essentially
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160 the same as for the Neufchâtel made on the farm and described by Matheson and Cammack
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161 (1918). In early times, commercial starters were not widely used to make Neufchâtel cheese and
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162 blends of evenings’ and mornings’ milk had to compensate for this with all the associated quality
163 implications. Moreover, pasteurisation was not officially mandatory. Whole milk with 3.5–4% fat
164 (w/w) for Neufchâtel was used whereas for cream cheese, standardised whole milk to 6–8%
165 (w/w) fat cheese milk was needed. Pasteurisation batches were about 2200 L capacity; rennet
166 and 1–1.5% (w/w) starter were added (when available or self-made) and the milk run into cans
167 holding ~15 L. Then cans were set aside by side in a cellar (or placed one upon another), where
168 steam pipes regulated the temperature (24–29 °C), so as to achieve a coagulation after 15–18
169 h. Afterwards, the coagulum was poured into cloth bags for draining, and placed on special drain
170 racks. Once the majority of the whey was drained off (about 3 h), the corners of the cloths were
171 folded, tucked in and cooled down by placing on cracked ice (alternated bags and ice layers),
172 thus preparing the acid curd for gradually pressing (lever press) and afterwards, 1% (w/w)
173 salting. A grinding step (or any other mixing device) for the pressed, salted curd followed, prior to
174 moulding and packaging (wrapped in thin aluminium foil and boxed). It is interesting to note that
175 before 1920 milk homogenisation was not daily practice, although the first homogenisers were
176 built between 1892 and 1899.
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180 The expansion (inside and outside USA) of the Philadelphia cream cheese foil-wrapped
181 in blocks, started in the 1920’s and was made possible due to the introduction of better hygienic
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182 manufacturing practices, hydrocolloids, heat treatment, homogenisation, better cultures,
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183 refrigeration and improved distribution channels including expanded railroads. The milk
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184 pasteurisation law was introduced only in 1947, which represented a landmark in dairy product
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185 safety (Boor, Wiedmann, Murphy, & Alcaine, 2017). Availability of pasteurisation equipment and
186 implementation costs were issues facing its practical adoption (Johnson, 2017). Homogenisation
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187 of the milk mix was investigated in the mid-twenties (Dahlberg, 1927; Marquardt, 1927) using
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188 “pasteurised” cream. Another manufacturing method differed from the latter in the set
189 temperature and culturing with/without added rennet. A cooking step to ~43 °C was implemented
190 for proper drainage. These procedures were known as the cold pack method. Fiske (1925)
191 mentioned by Dahle and Nageotte (1948) introduced the practice of cooking the curd after
192 draining to improve its keeping quality; also, curd homogenisation was implemented and both
193 steps dramatically promoted the growth of the cream cheese industry. This latter process was
194 known as the hot-pack method. Around 1940, the Kraft Co. strategy showed American new
195 ways to use cream cheese, and boosted sales: the Philadelphia cream cheese cake was
196 developed.
197 In 1921, the Secretary of Agriculture of the United States of America issued the first
198 advisory standard of identity for cream cheese, stating, “Cream cheese is the un-ripened cheese
199 made by the Neufchâtel process from whole milk enriched with cream. It contains in the water-
200 free substance not less than sixty-five per cent (65%) of milk fat”. In the following decade,
201 manufacturers distanced from the old Neufchâtel cream cheese with ~26% (w/w) fat and 60%
202 (w/w) moisture; competition forced them to increase the fat content to over 33% (w/w) fat,
203 leading to a smoother cheese and higher sales (Lundstedt, 1954). With the introduction of the
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204 hot pack method, manufacturers produced cream cheese with 24% (w/w) fat and 68% (w/w)
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205 moisture, thus within the standard of identity. However, laws were needed to regulate the fat and
206 moisture content and thus Federal standards were issued in 1943 and amended in 1948,
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wherein it was stated that cream cheese must have not less than 33% fat and not more than
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208 55% moisture. Moreover, the allowed raw materials included milk, skim milk, cream, condensed
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209 milk or condensed skim milk or non-fat dry milk solids; added hydrocolloids were limited to not
210 more than 0.5% (w/w).

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212 3.2.1. The Dahlberg process

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213 Important modifications to the manufacturing process of the “Neufchâtel cream cheese”
214 were introduced by Dahlberg (1927), which paved the way for an improved new cream cheese.
215 He started from standardised cream to compare in composition with cream cheese. In this way,
216 he standardised the moisture content before the cheese was made (no whey drainage!). To the
217 standardised cream he added dry skim milk and either gelatin or agar, then heat-treated it (63
218 °C × 30 min or 82–85 °C × 10 min, when gelatin or agar were added, respectively). Thereafter,
219 cooled to 43 °C and added salt 0.75% (w/w) and 0.5–1% (w/w) starter; the blend was
220 homogenised (single stage valve, 25.0–28.5 MPa, ~47 °C), placed immediately in the final
221 container and cooled down to, and kept at, 21 °C for about 10–15 h until the mild acid flavour
222 developed. Afterwards the cheese was further cooled (~4 °C) and was ready for consumption,
223 with up to 5 weeks shelf life (in those times, many cheeses were stored at room temperature).
224 This manufacturing method (called the Geneva method) allowed packaging of the
225 cheese directly from the homogeniser into foil lined boxes. Dahlberg (1927) recognised that (a)
226 increased firmness and less syneresis correlated with increased fat content; (b) homogenisation
227 reduced the average size of the fat globules to ~2 µm; (c) higher homogenisation pressures
228 reduced stickiness and syneresis, and augmented body firmness; (d) 40% (w/w) fat rendered an
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229 ideal quality cheese (kept at 21 °C); (e) large clusters of fat globules were present after
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230 homogenisation; (f) rennet added after homogenisation resulted in increased whey drainage; (g)
231 the use of hydrocolloids was advantageous; (h) the high sugar content (from the dry skim milk
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added) and warm storage conditions led to increased acidity; (i) through cooling of the
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233 fermenting cheese mass, the acidity could be checked at any time; and (j) no bags were needed
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234 any more. This author also observed that the cheese made from his process was sliceable
235 (using a wire) but too sticky to cut with a knife. Lundstedt (1954) discussed factors determining
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236 the quality of cold pack cream cheese.

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238 3.2.2. The Marquardt process
239 Marquardt (1927) also published results from investigations conducted with the objective
240 to develop a cream cheese with smooth texture and a mild acid flavour that could be sliced. He
241 combined two manufacturing methods (using rennet and milk set at 24 °C or using only starter
242 and milk set at 32 °C) into one (rennet + starter and 22 °C set temperature). This researcher
243 studied several manufacturing parameters and recognised the tremendous effect of low and high
244 heat treatment on cream cheese texture. The cheese milk mix started from milk and cream (15–
245 18% (w/w) fat as ingredients. The low temperature long time pasteurisation (~63 °C, 30 min)
246 improved the flavour quality of the cheese and did not affect its texture; to accomplish textural
247 changes, the heat treatment needed to be increased to ~82 °C for 10 min (milk) or 30 min
248 (cream). He also discovered that a minimum pressure of ~14.0 MPa produced a cheese with a
249 desired smooth texture while simultaneously reducing the fat losses into the whey. The smooth
250 texture of the cream cheese was mainly controlled by the milk mix fat content and globule size.
251 Milk homogenisation temperatures set between 54 °C and 60 °C (to eliminate viscosity
252 variations) favoured drainage of the bags. Increased homogenisation temperature and pressure
253 complicated whey separation. Although it was difficult to separate whey from low viscosity milk
254 mix homogenised at lower temperature (<54 °C), a homogenisation temperature of ~43 °C
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255 ensured a smooth textured cheese regardless the slow whey drainage. A dry appearance and
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256 lumpiness were found in curds made with excessive rennet amounts and fermentation times
257 between 12 h and 18 h at ~22 °C. A fermentation temperature between 20 °C and 22 °C was
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found best for proper curd and acid formation. Increasing the fermentation temperature resulted
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259 in excessive acid generation and granular curd. A titrated acidity (of the culture used) between
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260 0.6–0.8% (w/w) expressed as lactic acid was deemed necessary to develop proper cheese
261 flavour. Marquardt (1927) reported that high temperature pasteurisation produced a soft curd
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262 with drainage problems and that gentle agitation under special heat treatment (~35 °C to ~43
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263 °C) of the curd should be applied to achieve proper drainage.

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264
265 3.2.3. Roundy and Price process
266 In this process, pasteurised (63 °C, 30 min), homogenised (~10.6 MPa, ~49 °C) cream
267 was added with 5% (w/w) starter and rennet, the cream cooled to set at 32 °C until acidity
268 developed to 0.6% (as lactic acid) or pH lowered to 4.7 in about 4 to 5 h. Afterwards the
269 coagulum was heated to ~52 °C in 45–60 min under agitation, the cooked acid coagulum was
270 held for 10 min and poured into bags, and the bags hung on a draining rack and after draining
271 (about ~90 min for ~0.5 kg coagulum), the bags were tied and pressed. The bags were opened
272 once for salting (up to 1% of the expected yield); the curd was further pressed and then cooled
273 (~4 °C) in a refrigerator (Roundy & Price, 1941) and packed. This is also a “cold process”.
274 They recognised that increasing fat in the cream resulted in lower moisture and higher fat
275 content of the cream cheese and that its smoothness increased, but they did not state the fat
276 and moisture content required for the best quality cheese. However, they found that 16 to 20%
277 (w/w) fat in the cream led to a desirable quality cheese with 50–54% (w/w) moisture and 37–
278 42% (w/w) fat. They graphically demonstrated the relationship between cream fat content and
279 the amount of cheese produced. They also showed the effect of the fat in cream and the whey
280 expelled from the acid curd during the initial draining step. One of their major achievements was
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281 to suggest standardising the fat percentage of the cream in relation to the casein content in
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282 order to regulate the quality of the cheese. This important observation took years to be accepted
283 in manufacturing practice. Roundy and Price (1941) recognised the importance of the original
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properties of a re-heated (~71–77 °C) acid curd after draining and mixing with cream, added
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285 with stabilisers and homogenised, upon the characteristics of the final product. This process is
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286 known also as the “hot pack” in commercial practice.
287
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289 Reichert and Crowe (1941) following and modifying the idea from Dahlberg blended
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290 cottage cheese curd, 65% (w/w) fat cream, and salt to obtain pH between 4.5 and 4.7, and with
291 the desired fat and total solids level (30–32%, w/w, and 43–46%, w/w, respectively) in the final
292 cream cheese. The blend was heated to ~82 °C, homogenised (~17.7 MPa), hot packed and
293 cooled to ~4 °C. Among the raw materials they used were sour and sweet cream, and
294 condensed milk.
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298 Before this period, manufacturers differentiated between the cold and hot process to
299 make cream cheese and recognised that the cold process cream cheese had a somewhat mealy
300 texture whereas the hot process cream cheese was smooth and slightly sticky; the biggest
301 problems, however, were the long draining time and short shelf life of the product. The physical
302 laws limited the draining capacity of bags: thanks to capillary forces inherent to the fabric (filter
303 cloth) used, when it has effected absorption that corresponds to its maximum absorption
304 capacity, the evacuation of moisture (whey) reaches a limit; that is the reason why a
305 compression force was applied to further drain whey from the acid curd. In the period under
306 consideration, striking inventions were patented; major developments are discussed below.
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307 In 1971, Roland Miller from Kraft Foods developed the rigid pack filling machine for cold
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308 pack cream cheese, whereby the cheese is stuffed into brick forms using an extruder and a chill
309 roll process to cool the cheese and avoid the adverse effects of shear. With the elimination of
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the draining bags, the manufacture of hot packed cream cheese experienced a new revolution.
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311 A big change in the usage form of cream cheese, i.e., the spreading usage, was made possible
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312 due to a patent filed in 1979 by L. Lee Davis from Kraft Co. Lee Davis simply blended cream
313 cheese curd with a cultured cream dressing and enabled its usage as a spread; before this,
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314 cream cheese was used primarily as a baking ingredient. Moreover, milk pasteurisation, rapid
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315 cooling of the milk at the farms, and overall better cleaning and sanitation, made possible bulk
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316 milk delivery and milk cans obsolete, thus improving milk product quality (Johnson, 2017).
317 Moreover, better control of the rate and extent of milk acidification by starter cultures in cream
318 cheese making was a logical consequence of the above developments.
319
320 3.3.1. The Oscar Link process
321 Oscar Link (Link, 1945) from the Kraft Food Co. patented a process to make cream
322 cheese without bags. A milk mix made from sweet cream with 7–20% (w/w) fat and sweet milk
323 or skim milk, pasteurised, homogenised, set to approximately 17–27 °C, added starter, and
324 fermented (8–18 h) until desired whey acidity (~0.7–0.9%, w/w, expressed as lactic acid ) was
325 developed.
326 A modified cream centrifugal separator was implemented to continuously remove whey
327 from the hot coagulum at 57–77 °C. This invention eliminated the long draining bag step and
328 enabling hot packaging of cream cheese directly into the final package under more aseptic
329 conditions. Actual residence time in the separator bowl is typically ~15–20 s, thus the high
330 temperature accomplished both separation and pasteurisation of the product (hot filling). The
331 prescribed legal limits for moisture were easily achieved. This process was a true technological
332 revolution that allowed mass production and high productivity which increased the cream cheese
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333 shelf life to ~120 days from ~ 18 days. Today, several types of centrifugal separators with
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334 different throughput are available that depend on the fat content of the coagulated cheese mass
335 and on differences in specific gravity between the cheese curd and whey.
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337 3.3.2. The Berge process
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338 This process related to the de-wheying step using a moving filter material that
339 continuously recovers its inherent moisture absorbing capacity. The strainer patented by Berge
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340 (1961) from Ch. Gervais SA, enabled continuous whey release from the curd, while reducing the
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341 bag draining time by 5 h. It consisted in effecting the draining operation by applying the face of
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342 the cloth (the filter material) opposite to that in contact with the curd, a layer of supplementary
343 absorbing (sheet) material. This layer was continuously wrung to remove the absorbed moisture.
344 The moisture level of the final cheese on the continuous draining belt was regulated by
345 controlling the feed rate of the curd, and the speed of the filter or supplementary opposite
346 absorbing sheet. This process was not as popular as the simpler method of Link, for obvious
347 reasons; however, it is still in use, especially for high solids cream cheese.
348
349 3.3.3. Carswell and Hurlburt process
350 A patent granted to Carswell and Hurlburt (1970) from the National Dairy Product
351 Corporation in 1970, taught how to minimise or avoid wheying-off during storage of hot pack
352 cream cheese and to eliminate the use of non-dairy stabilisers. When the cream cheese milk mix
353 is ripened (up to 0.8–0.9%, w/w, lactic acid), a portion of an un-ripened mix is added back, so as
354 to standardise (reduce) the acidity to less than about 0.7% (w/w) lactic acid. The acid
355 standardised milk mix can be then treated and separated into cream cheese and whey
356 according to conventional procedures.
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358 3.4. Membrane processing since 1980
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360 3.4.1. Ultrafiltration
361 After the breakthroughs achieved in processing milk and cream for cream cheese making
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with high quality in the first half of last century (Dahlberg, 1927; Fiske, 1925; Link, 1945;
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363 Lundstedt, 1954; Marquardt, 1927), the decade of the 1960’s entered into cheese making history
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364 with the membrane technology. The latter (known as the MMV-process), was patented by
365 Maubois, Mocquot, and Vassal (1969) in France, and showed the potential for innovative (and
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366 continuous) cheese making processes (Lelievre & Lawrence, 1988). Quark (in Germany), feta
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367 (in Denmark) and fromage frais, Camembert (in France) were produced with the new
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368 technology. The membrane technology refers to the concentration of milk protein components
369 and milk fat, and separation of the soluble components depending on, and utilising, different
370 pore sizes, pressures and membrane materials. Ultrafiltration (UF) permits the free movement of
371 lactose and soluble minerals across the membrane, while proteins and fat are retained. The
372 highly concentrated (5:1–10:1 volume concentration ratio) liquid UF-retentates with about same
373 composition as the final cheese, were called pre-cheese by the inventors.
374 English and North American researchers deviated from the MMV-process and created
375 the concept of low concentration (2:1) retentate (LCR), whereby the retentate was then
376 subjected to traditional cheese making with benefits in manufacturing efficiency (Kosikowski,
377 1986). Initially, ultrafiltration cost advantages (savings) were seen in terms of cheese and
378 concentrate total solids and in the reduced amount of cheese milk needed to make 1 kg of
379 cheese (Dejmek, 1986). The latter author showed the (linear) increase in skim milk saved in
380 percentage of input when making low and high fat cream cheese from milk with low, mid and
381 high concentration factors.
382 Maubois and Mocquot (1975) published a general procedure used at that time in France
383 to make fresh soft cheese: the UF retentate added with lactic acid bacteria and rennet, ripened
384 until pH of 4.7, the coagulated mass and added cream stirred and homogenised, cooled and
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385 packed. Later, Maubois (1978) reported on the specific procedure for cream cheese: blend of
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386 ~72.5% (m/m) pasteurised skim milk (~9% total solids, 3.2% protein), 1% culture with 27.5%
387 (m/m) of 40% fat cream. During UF, about 70% (m/m) permeate removed. The ripening of the
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liquid pre-cheese (~41.7 Kg) allowed reaching a similar level of curd demineralisation to that
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389 obtained with the traditional process. The dry matter increased to about 48% (w/w) solids, 0.23%
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390 salt was added and 0.23% locust bean gum, then heated (~54 °C) and homogenised (~6.7 MPa)
391 to obtain ~42 kg cream cheese with ~9% protein, ~35% fat and ~52% moisture and final pH 4.6,
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392 packed and cooled.

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393 Covacevich and Kosikowski (1977) started from UF skim milk sweet retentate (~27.5%,
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394 w/w, solids), 69% fat cream and permeate from the UF concentration. These materials were
395 blended to obtain the legal composition for regular cream cheese, the mix was pasteurised (71
396 °C × 30 min) and homogenised (~12.8 MPa), cooled to 32 °C or 37 °C and inoculated with 5%
397 commercial starter + Lactobacillus bulgaricus (1:1) or only with Lb. bulgaricus, respectively, and
398 fermented (pH ~4.4). Afterwards, the coagulated mass was pasteurised (74 °C, 30 min) and
399 added with 1% (w/w) salt and 0.3% (w/w) locust bean gum during heating, immediately
400 homogenised (~12.8 MPa) and hot-packed, cooled at room temperature for ~6–7 h and stored at
401 5 °C (Covacevich & Kosikowski, 1977). This process was probably the first effort to make hot-
402 pack cream cheese with UF technology. However, the make needed further refinement due to
403 the low sensory scores (bitter taste, too firm texture and high viscosity) of the cream cheese
404 obtained. The (negative) effect of (excessive) whey protein on the quality of most UF cheeses
405 was probably one of the major factors limiting progress in the early adoption of the technology.
406
407 3.4.2. Nanofiltration + ultrafiltration
408 In the late 1990’s a new membrane process technology to make fresh cheese based on
409 nanofiltration was developed by Schkoda and Kessler (1997). It was called the FML-process, an
410 acronym from the German word “Forschungszentrum für Milch und Lebensmittel”, meaning
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411 research centre for milk and food, of the Technical University of Munich in Freising-
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412 Weihenstephan. The proof of concept was presented in making a quark cheese with 12%
413 protein and 18% total solids. The process involved the utilisation of two different membrane
414
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types: first nanofiltration (NF) to concentrate (concentration factor = 2, 50 °C) the milk before the
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415 fermentation and then ultrafiltration to separate the ripened curd to the desired total solids level.
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416 Pasteurised skim milk (72 °C, 15 s) was utilised as the raw material. During the NF
417 concentration sweet permeate was generated. The NF concentrate was heat-treated (~80 °C, 7
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418 min; whey protein denaturation > 75%), cooled (30 °C) and mesophilic starters and rennet were
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419 added, and let ripen (30 °C, 14–16 h, pH ~4.6). After breaking the acid gel with agitation and
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420 heating to 40 °C, ultrafiltration (concentration factor = 1.3–1.7) was carried out until the desired
421 solids (17–21%) were achieved. The UF acid permeate accounts for one third of the total
422 permeate mass generated in the FML-process. The authors indicate the post-addition of fatty
423 cream at 10–15 °C for the production of a fatty quark and adjusting this process should allow
424 cream cheese making as well.
425
426 3.4.3. Microfiltration
427 It is not easy to draw a line between the time when Maubois et al. (1969) patented the
428 MMV process, and the next generation technology for cream cheese. Microfiltration (MF) was
429 envisaged as a technology to separate caseins from whey proteins (Maubois, 1984). With further
430 developments in milk fractionation with different membrane types and processes, a change
431 started to evolve (Fauquant, Maubois, & Pierre, 1988; Hülsen & Ramin, 2004; Kulozik & Kersten,
432 2002). These led to the evolution of the microfiltration process for cheese making. Advantages
433 from the MF process were better standardisation of the fat to casein ratio of cheese milk, better
434 moisture control, greater milk solids recovery hence yield, and sweet permeate generation.
435 Hülsen and Ramin (2004) developed a process utilising microfiltration to make quark and
436 cream cheese, reducing the amount of acid whey resulting from the filtration of a fermented
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437 curd. Starting from skim milk with ~9.0% (w/w) solids, a MF (ceramic membrane, concentration
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438 factor 1.8) retentate with 11.7% (w/w) solids and ~5.8% (w/w) protein, was produced. Then it
439 was heat treated (90 °C, 5 min), blended with culture, fermented, heat treated (60–62 °C, 1–3
440
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min at pH ~4.5), cooled (~45 °C) and separated with a thermo-quark centrifugal separator to
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441 obtain quark type product with 18% (w/w) solids and ~12.3% (w/w) protein (Hülsen & Ramin,
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442 2004). In this process ~44% of the milk volume was microfiltered off as sweet permeate. When
443 the acid curd (~56% of the original cheese milk mass) was further separated with the centrifuge,
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444 ~45% of its total mass was obtained as retentate and 55% (~31 kg 100 kg-1) was generated as
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445 acid whey. Thus in their process ~45 kg less acid whey per 100 kg of cheese milk were
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446 generated as compared with a standard process without MF processing of the cheese milk. Five
447 important highlights from this process are: a) the considerable reduction of acid whey; b) the
448 reduction of skim milk per kg cheese; c) the avoidance of bitterness by limiting the volume
449 concentration factor to < 1.8; d) the potential utilisation of the resulting sweet MF permeate; and
450 e) the reduction in heating surface needed by the heat exchangers. The authors did not explicitly
451 add cream to produce the cream cheese; however, adding cream is obvious and optimising the
452 process should allow for cream cheese making.
453 Another MF process was developed in Hohenheim, Germany by Schäfer, Hofmann, and
454 Hinrichs (2015) aimed at avoiding the production of acid “whey” generated during cream cheese
455 making while simultaneously eliminating the bitterness problems. In detail, the process is as
456 follows: pasteurised skim milk is heat treated at 95 °C for 256 s, cooled to 38 °C and
457 concentrated via microfiltration (0.1 µm and ΔPTM = 0.1 MPa). The skim milk retentate is
458 standardised with the sweet permeate to a protein level of 8.5%. Then it is pasteurised (75 °C,
459 30s), cooled (~22 °C), mesophilic homofermentative starters and rennet added, then filled in
460 cups and ripened to pH 4.5–4.6.
461 The fresh cheese had a total calcium content of >2700 mg kg-1, and was bitter. Schäfer
462 et al. (2015) indicated that low fat fresh cheeses can be manufactured using a fatty retentate,
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463 provided the sensory aspects are fine. Later, Schäfer et al. (2019) improved the process. The
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464 changes were related to a first acidification of the protein standardised (3.4% protein) milk at 10
465 °C with citric acid to pH ~6.2 and MF concentration (concentration factor ~2.83 at 50 °C). After
466
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cooling to <10 °C, a second acidification followed down to pH 5.6 with citric acid. To reduce the
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467 total calcium, six diafiltration steps (demineralised water) during a second MF process at 50 °C
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468 were carried out. The ~52–57% calcium-reduced retentate (pH ~5.6) was then lactose-
469 standardised (to ~4.5% with dry lactose) and pasteurised (72 °C, 15s) before the addition of
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470 starters and a reduced amount of rennet. The concentrate was packed, fermented (22.5 °C, pH
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471 4.6–4.7) and cooled to 8 °C. The cheese produced had a total calcium content of 16 mg g-1
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472 protein and ~7.8% total protein (Schäfer et al., 2019). However, although bitterness was reduced
473 as compared with their first process, it was still present and increased over the cheese shelf life
474 of the product.
475 One of the problems of making fresh cheese from sweet milk by membrane
476 concentration (UF, NF, MF) is the high amount of calcium in the concentrate and a bitter taste
477 (Brulé, Maubois & Fauquant, 1974) because the acid whey drainage step is eliminated. The
478 problem can be largely minimised by concentrating the acidified milk. In other words,
479 demineralising the liquid pre-cheese to the same acidification level of the mix (milk + cream) of
480 traditional technology. The major hurdle resides initially in the micellar calcium accumulation in
481 the concentrate, its pH- and temperature dependence, its distribution and forms in the soluble
482 phases, and its strong relationship to bitterness (Wolfschoon Pombo & Andlinger, 2013c). The
483 concentrates present a potent buffer barrier that has to be overcome by the starter bacteria
484 (Bäuerle, Walenta & Kessler, 1983; Brulé et al., 1974; Covacevich & Kosikowski, 1977; Salhab,
485 1998). The more casein in the concentrate, the higher the amount of colloidal calcium and the
486 greater the buffering effect (Wolfschoon Pombo, Böttger, & Lösche, 2013). Schkoda & Kessler
487 (1997) established the ideal NF concentration limit for fermentation, indicating ~1.4% total ash
488 (i.e., implies total minerals and here within, calcium!) as maximum. This aspect of membrane
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489 technology and cream cheese making still requires further research (Wolfschoon Pombo &
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490 Andlinger, 2013c). The last 30 years has seen the slowly but steady implementation of
491 membrane technology in dairy processing, worldwide. The secrecy about membrane technology
492
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and cream cheese making has been either exclusively kept by private companies and or
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493 protected by numerous patents because mainly big manufacturers and few institutes/universities
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494 carried out the research work.
495
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496 3.4. Alternative technologies

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497
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498 Advances in engineering equipment for cheese making and mechanisation/automation
499 as well as improvements in commercial starters and reduced labour costs (Johnson, 2017),
500 supported the new developments in cream cheese making until today. Research done on
501 microparticulation and fractionation of whey proteins (Spiegel,1999; Toro Sierra, 2017) also
502 boosted the numbers of patents and publications and opened perspectives in the area of
503 incorporation of whey proteins into fresh cheese including cream cheese, albeit years before,
504 processes based on whey protein denaturation were already used, e.g., thermo-quark
505 production. On the other hand, recombination technologies, using powdered dairy ingredients
506 and milk fat (forms) to make the milk (“reformed milk”) or the milk mix has been successfully
507 applied. In addition, the use of reconstituted mix with the same composition as the final cheese
508 (to make cream cheese without whey separation), has been reported in the patent and dairy
509 literature. Direct acidification of the milk mix (reformed or not) is also a process that can be used
510 to make a cream cheese, provided the amount of acid (e.g., citric, lactic) is brought in concert
511 with the coagulation behaviour of the casein under the pH and temperature existing in the
512 system (Hammelehle, 1994). These approaches are specially intended for countries where fluid
513 milk is not (or not easy) available, and for costing reasons; the cheese quality is not the same.
514 The reader is referred to Guinee and Hickey (2009) for more details. Thermo-sonication of milk
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515 at varying combinations of ultrasound power, temperatures and times reduce the size of milk fat
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516 globules, increase the fat retention (yield), and improved the thermo-stability of cream cheese
517 (Almanza-Rubio et al., 2015). This processing technology (ultrasound power ~50 W, for < 30 min
518
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at temperatures between 35° and 59 °C) induces the growth and collapse of micro-bubbles from
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519 the turbulence and intense shear forces generated within the bubbles and surrounding medium,
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520 and modifies the viscoelastic properties and spread-ability of cream cheese. Moreover, acid gel
521 properties can be modified by using heat and ultrasound treatments separately. Datta and
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522 Tomasula (2015) give an excellent update of emerging technologies for dairy processing (and
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523 applicable to cream cheese) in their book.

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524
525 4. Technical, physico-chemical and biological aspects
526
527 It is interesting to note the difference in the volume of literature available on the physical
528 chemistry and manufacturing of cultured dairy products such as yoghurt and cream cheese.
529 Previous reviews on the physico-chemical and biological aspects of cream cheese were
530 published in journals (Phadungath, 2005) and book chapters (Fox, Guinee, Cogan, &
531 McSweeney, 2000; Guinee & Hickey, 2009; Guinee et al., 1993; Schulz-Collins & Senge, 2004)
532 with details. The knowledge acquired on the internal structure of caseins, on the so-called
533 colloidal calcium phosphate (CCP), on the mineral equilibrium in play during manufacturing, on
534 the heat effect on milk proteins, interactions with pH, temperature and processing, etc., warrants
535 a short review of these fundamental aspects of cream cheese manufacture.
536
537 4.1. Milk standardisation, heat treatment, homogenisation
538
539 The basic process steps in traditional cream cheese making are standardisation,
540 heating/homogenisation, fermenting, concentration (separation), curd treatment and packing. A
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541 general schema for cream cheese manufacturing is presented in Fig. 1.
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542 To begin (1 in Fig. 1), the cheese milk is standardised to a certain fat to protein (casein)
543 level, according to the desired fat level (double cream, fat, light, extra light or even no fat!) and
544
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moisture content in the final cheese (in other words, to fulfil its standard of identity). There are
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545 different standards according to the regulations in different countries (Guinee & Hickey, 2009).
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546 Hence, many different raw materials are permitted, besides milk and cream, to standardise the
547 milk and cream cheese (Guinee & Hickey, 2009; Laye et al., 2005). In this regard, and with the
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548 widespread utilisation of membranes in dairy processing, many combinations of retentates

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549 (concentrates) and permeates (e.g., Wolfschoon Pombo, Demmer, Milosavljevic, Spiegel &
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550 Hammer, 2016), as well as of dairy powders, including milk powder, whey powder, isolates, etc.
551 can be utilised. Fat can be added not only in the form of cream, but also as whey cream, butter,
552 phospholipids from milk, etc. The US standard of identity is often used for reference. Normally,
553 around 8–16% fat milk is used to obtain the full fat version. The standardisation process will
554 result in a defined cream cheese product composition (Roundy & Price,1941) that affects its
555 microstructure, texture, rheological (Macdougall, Ong, Palmer, & Gras, 2019; Ong et al., 2020)
556 and sensory properties (Brighenti, Govindasamy-Lucey, Lim, Nelson, & Lucey, 2008; Wendin,
557 Langton, Caous, & Hall, 2000). The relationship between the dairy proteins, level and cheese
558 characteristics do not seem to have been investigated in detail for cream cheese and this is
559 important because both fat and protein are determinants for sensory and textural properties, as
560 well as yield.
561 Once the milk is standardised, the cheese milk is then heat treated (2 in Fig. 1). This is
562 one of the operations of utmost importance, affected by pH, temperature × time combination,
563 and the raw materials used. The pH and heating regime directly affects several physico-
564 chemical characteristics of the cheese milk, such as whey protein denaturation, protein
565 distribution, viscosity, etc. (Anema, 2008; Lucey, 2004b; Vasbinder & de Kruif, 2003) and
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566 hereupon of the curd. It is well known that when the milk is heated above 70 °C, whey proteins
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567 denature and interact with κ-CN in both the colloidal and serum phase, depending on the pH at
568 heating (Anema, 2008; Vasbinder & de Kruif, 2003). Experiments by Anema (2008) on heating
569
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milk at pH 6.5–6.9 and at 20–90 °C for 15min, indicated that the higher the pH and temperature
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570 at heating, the more κ-CN dissociates from the micelles, goes into the serum phase before the
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571 denaturation of the whey proteins, which then, once denatured, preferentially interact with the
572 serum-phase κ-CN. Researchers at Weihenstephan in Germany (Dannenberg & Kessler, 1988;
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573 Tolkach, 2008; Toro Sierra, 2017) published diagrams for the different milk temperature and time
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574 combinations needed to achieve a desired whey protein denaturation and cross-linking of the
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575 whey proteins with κ-casein protein. Through the heat treatment, with the opening of the protein
576 structure, unexposed buried hydrophobic amino acids residues are exposed. Via hydrophobic
577 interactions and disulphide cross-links between the denatured whey proteins and caseins,
578 results in aggregate formation once the milk is acidified (Gélébart et al., 2019).
579 With regard to the heating temperature of the mix (2 in Fig. 1), pasteurised (~72–75 °C,
580 15–20 s) or high heat-treated milk (up to 90–95 °C for seconds or minutes), is commonly used in
581 cream cheese manufacture. The heat treatment applied and the inactivation of Byssoclamiys
582 nivea ascospores, responsible for a mould (quality) defect in cream cheese remains in secrecy
583 within the industry. The heat treatment affects not only the microbiology but also the consistency
584 of the cheese, turning it smoother and firmer with reduced propensity for syneresis. A gel with
585 more gel forming particles, fine-structured and with lower permeability is the result from protein
586 interactions due to the applied heat (Gébélart et al., 2019; Guinee et al., 1993).
587 However, excess heat treatment such as UHT or sterilisation can modify the flavour and
588 colour of the milk (Maillard reaction), which might be undesirable. In cream cheese made from
589 high heated milk, where enough denaturation of ß-lactoglobulin takes place, the higher
590 isoelectric point of this protein shifts the gelation and aggregation to higher pH values, implying a
591 sooner gelation because the bacteria are reaching sooner that higher pH (Lucey, 2004b).
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592 Recently Boiani, Fenelon, Fitzgerald, and Kelly (2018) highlighted the influence of high
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593 temperature (90 °C) on the casein phosphate nanocluster (CPN) structure and reversibility of the
594 mineral equilibria. They indicated that in addition to the repartitioning of the minerals between
595
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the colloidal and aqueous phases, a temperature raise increases the negative charge of the
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596 inorganic phosphate (Pi), in the CPN of casien micelles. Moreover, it also changes the structure
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597 of the casein phosphate nanocluster, likely due to an increase in the P:Ca ratio owing to
598 augmented phosphorus content.

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599 The cheese milk treatment includes the milk homogenisation step (2 in Fig. 1).
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600 Homogenisation (upstream or downstream) is important due to several effects, it: a) reduces the
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601 size of the milk fat globules, minimises the separation risks during processing; b) allows the
602 formation of fat globules - protein complexes (pseudo-protein particles) that participate in the
603 cheese matrix formation (Guinee et al., 1993; Obeid et al., 2020); c) reduces milk fat losses in
604 the whey. A complete study on the homogenisation conditions for cream – milk blends with 15–
605 46% (w/w) fat, pasteurised or UHT- treated, in relation to the emulsion stability and their related
606 parameters (e.g., consistency, particle size distribution, etc.), was published by Eibel (1987). The
607 appearance of homogenisation clusters in the standardised milk will depend on the protein level
608 and if single or two-step homogenisation is used. Typically, for the pressure ratio in the second
609 to first stages a Thoma number of ~0.2 (e.g., 4 MPa/20 MPa) is recommended to eliminate
610 homogenisation clusters. Kalab, Sargant, and Froehlich (1981) showed, using scanning electron
611 microscopy, that in cream cheese microstructure, the small fat globules are aggregated in
612 spherical clusters. The latter authors pointed out that micellar protein is accumulated at the
613 interface between the aqueous and lipid phases. The interaction of the homogenised, small
614 sized fat globules with the whey proteins and caseins present in the system is increased by the
615 heat treatment applied and the ensuing low pH after fermentation, compared to unheated milk.
616 The latter is due to the presence of highly reactive denatured whey proteins located at the
617 surfaces of both caseins and fat globules (Obeid et al., 2020).
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618 Ningtyas, Bhandari, Bansal, and Prakash (2018) recently studied the effect of
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619 homogenisation pressures (0–100 MPa) of a cream-sodium caseinate blend cheese milk mix,
620 with high-shear mixing of the cheese curd, for a low fat cream cheese. They concluded that the
621
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homogenisation treatment reduced and narrowed the particle size distribution, leading to a firmer
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622 and less spreadable cream cheese, whereas the high-shear mixing of the curd increased
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623 spreadability. The homogenisation of the mix is partially responsible for the hardness attribute of
624 full fat cream cheese as compared with the low-fat variants, as reported by Brighenti et al.
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625 (2008) in a study of 18 commercial samples from the US market. In addition, Brighenti,
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626 Govindasamy-Lucey, Jaeggi, Johnson, & Lucey, (2018) investigated the combined effect of low
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627 (10 MPa) and high (25 MPa) milk homogenisation pressures (HP) in the first stage and at a
628 constant pressure of 5 MPa in the second stage, and of the fermentation temperature (FT, 20°
629 and 26 °C) on the rheology, texture and sensory properties of cream cheese. These authors
630 found that a higher HP resulted in a higher coating of the fat globules but less bulk phase
631 protein, and that also at the higher FT coarser gels networks were formed (see also Guinee et
632 al., 1993), which could have contributed to the lower firmness and stickiness observed in cream
633 cheese manufactured with that combination.
634
635 4.2. Gelation, coagulation
636
637 As stated by Lucey (2004b), the understanding of the gelation process in cultured dairy
638 products allows control of the physical properties of the products made thereof. In cream
639 cheese, the acidification-gelation process (3 in Fig. 1) starts once mesophilic starters are added
640 to the homogenised, heat treated milk, and then under incubation at temperatures about 20–30
641 °C for a time period of between 8–10 and 16–20 h, depending on inoculum level and room
642 temperature.
643 Acidification directly affects the lactose and pH, casein, calcium and phosphorus
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644 equilibria. Gelation will result, in situ, from the conversion of the milk sugar into lactic acid, by the
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645 lactic acid bacteria added. About 80% of the milk proteins are made up by casein (from Latin
646 caseus), which is the “cheese making stuff”. It is of general knowledge that caseins (CNs) are
647
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composed of 4 major sub-fractions, αS1-CN, αS2-CN, β-CN and κ-CN, present at certain ratios
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648 and associated in the form of CN micelles. The micelle size is determined by the κ-CN on its
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649 surface. CNs enclose CPN, embedded more or less uniformly across the micelles. The CPN is
650 the sub-microstructure within the CN micelles formed by the sequestration of amorphous CaP
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651 (calcium phosphate) by consecutive phosphorylated (serine phosphate) residues of caseins

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652 (Holt, 2004). For an update on suggested structures for the CPN, the reader is referred to
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653 Boiani et al. (2018); Hindmarsh & Watkinson (2017); Holt (2004); Lenton, Wang, Nylander,
654 Teixeira & Holt (2020).
655 Recently it was postulated that non-spherical particles found in sodium caseinate appear
656 to be also present in original casein micelles, building so-called primary casein particles (PCP)
657 that led to the description for casein micelles as porous structures of PCP linked by the CPN
658 (Huppertz et al., 2017). Sodium caseinate might resemble the PCP in cream cheese. In fact, the
659 internal architecture of the CN micelles was visualised by cryo-electron microscopy and
660 tomographic reconstruction by Hettiarachchi, Swulius, and Harte (2020) and Trejo, Dokland,
661 Jurat-Fuentes, and Harte (2011), who demonstrated the existence of water-filled cavities,
662 channels, CPN and absence of spherical submicellar particles within the interior of the micelles.
663 This implies that in the CN micelles areas of different protein density and moisture content exist
664 (Huppertz et al., 2017). When cream cheese is produced, a great part of the water associated
665 with the CN micelles, i.e., water entrapped within the structure, water bound to the proteins and
666 water associated with the κ-CN brush (Huppertz et al., 2017), has to be squeezed out from the
667 continuous particle gel network occluding water and fat, via destabilisation of the CN micelles.
668 Casein destabilisation, gel formation, protein coagulation and whey separation is the
669 basis of any cheese making process. The production of lactic acid by bacteria lead to generation
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670 of protons that are quickly bound (owing to pKa differences) by citrate (as long as it was not been
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671 metabolised), by phosphate and by amino acid residues in the proteins. Thus, the lactic acid
672 produced protonates an array of cascading buffering systems present in milk. These include the
673
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special casein buffer component formed by the CPN (Kirchmeier, 1980; Noeparvar, 2018;
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674 Wolfschoon Pombo & Wolfschoon Ribeiro, 2014; Wolfschoon Pombo et al., 2013). Aided by the
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675 denatured whey proteins on the CN micelle surface, pH gradients and low local pH values are
676 likely to occur in the micelle. The protonation takes place as a diffusion process, implying that
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677 during the fermentation of the milk mix, a diffusion gradient for acidification and demineralisation
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678 exists within the micelle (core and surface), which delays the dissociation of the minerals in the
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679 CPN (Laligant, Famelart, Brulé, Piot, & Paquet. 2003; Wolfschoon Pombo & Andlinger, 2013b).
680 The protonation brings down the original milk pH (~6.7), forming thus first a gel and finally the
681 curd, typically at around pH 4.55–4.75. Because of the lowering of the pH, the κ-CN surface
682 layer losses its charge, the polyelectrolyte brush collapses, and hence the electro-steric
683 stabilisation of the casein micelles is lost leading to coagulation. The latter happens owing to an
684 increase of attraction and aggregation induced by hydrophobic forces. Some manufacturers use
685 rennet because it improves acid gelation and yields acid gels with higher firmness and elastic
686 modulus (Li & Zhao, 2019).
687 Concurrent to the lowering of the pH, there are several physico-chemical changes
688 occurring and described in detail by, e.g., Dalgleish and Corredig (2011); Guinee et al. (1993);
689 Lucey (2004a). Because in cream cheese making the milk fermentation process occurs
690 predominantly at low mesophilic temperatures (~20–25 °C), some but not pronounced
691 dissociation of CN from the micelle takes place. The casein micelle structure is important
692 because the amount of CCP removed during acidification of the milk is also a parameter co-
693 determining the rheological properties of the acid gel structure (Anema, 2009a; Ozcan, Horne &
694 Lucey, 2010) and hence, of the cream cheese. Famelart, Gauvin, Pâquet, and Brulé (2009)
695 suggested that the initial calcium bound to phosphoserine is more determinant than the initial
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696 CCP for the structure and rheological properties of acid milk gels. When the pH at which gelation
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697 occurs is high, due to a combination of several manufacturing factors, there is still CCP,
698 phosphoserine- and glutamic-, aspartic- bound calcium in the gel formed, which will continue or
699
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not to solubilise according to the final pH reached during manufacture. Le Graet and Brulé
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700 (1993) and Koutina, Knudsen, Andersen, and Skibstedt (2014) for example, have showed that
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701 still significant amounts of calcium are present in micelles at pH < 5.0. Le Graet and Gaucheron
702 (1999) demonstrated that the solubilisation curves of the minerals are different depending on the
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703 casein concentration. Moreover, the mineral distribution between the soluble and colloidal
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704 phases depends not only on the pH at heating, but also on the temperature and concentration of
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705 the milk (Anema, 2009b). Titrimetric investigations have shown that even acid curd cheeses
706 such as cream cheese (Wolfschoon Pombo & Andlinger, 2013a) and quark and cottage
707 (Remillard & Britten, 2011) have low levels of CCP present at pH < 5. 0.
708 The temperature of acidification of the cheese milk is important owing to its effect on the
709 elastic modulus, hence different combinations of pH values and temperature may cause different
710 final textures (Koutina et al., 2014). A higher fermentation temperature will result in a sooner
711 onset of gelation at a higher pH, and in a coarser, firmer, gel structure (Guinee et al., 1993).
712
713 4.2.1. Rheology

714 The acid casein gel that gives origin to the cream cheese curd upon separation has a
715 heterogeneous and particulate structure, which builds the protein network with water occluded in
716 the pores. Primary casein particles (PCP) (Huppertz et al., 2017), which are presumably the
717 basic structural elements of the acid gel, first aggregate in strands and nodes (Roefs & Van
718 Vliet, 1990). These, in turn, build microparticle clusters, bigger aggregates and clusters,
719 depending on the temperature during milk mix fermentation, thus resulting in a heterogeneous
720 gel consisting of particle classes with different sizes. The distance between the clusters is
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721 considered as the pore size, and the clusters size seems to not depend on product composition
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722 but determined by processing conditions (Fenoul, Le Denmat, Hamdi, Cuvelier, & Michon,
723 2008). Ong et al. (2020) evidenced that the lower the pH value of the final cream cheese, the
724
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more continuous the protein-fat network and with smaller pores, compared with the cream
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725 cheese with the higher pH. Microparticle arrangements, outside and inside the particles, due to
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726 inter- and intra-particle forces (Roefs & Van Vliet, 1990) dictate the gel physical behaviour. The
727 latter largely determines the mechanical properties of the gel, especially the characteristics
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728 resembling those of a liquid and partly those of a solid.

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729 Vast research work exists related to the viscoelasticity of acid casein gels from skimmed
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730 milk, mostly from yoghurt experiments and mainly acidified using glucono-δ-lactone, but not so
731 many studies in comparison with the fatty milk mix forming the acid gel in cream cheese making
732 using lactic acid bacteria. Amplitude sweeps are applied to determine the firmness of the cheese
733 mass against deformation, frequency sweeps to find about the structure, and temperature
734 sweeps to track temperature-induced changes (Senge, Hentschel, & Blochwitz. 2006).
735 Using rheometry, the viscoelastic properties of cream cheese were investigated by, e.g.,
736 Brighenti et al. (2008, 2018), Brückner and Senge (2008), Ong et al. (2020), Ong, Kentish, and
737 Gras (2018); Sanchez, Beauregard, Bride, Buchheim, and Hardy (1996a), Sanchez,
738 Beauregard, Chassagne, Bimbenet, and Hardy (1996b), Sanchez, Beauregard, Chassagne,
739 Duquenoy, and Hardy, (1996c), Schulz-Collins and Senge (2004). Brückner and Senge (2008)
740 showed in a double logarithmic scale that cream cheese provides a linear viscoelastic region
741 with preponderant solid character, being G’ always higher than G’’ and that the loss factor (tan δ)
742 is <1 until both moduli decrease and tan δ increase. However, G’ values decrease with
743 increasing temperature implying a deficit in the solid property, in agreement with previous
744 research on acid skim milk gels and sodium caseinate gels by Roefs and Van Vliet (1990).
745 Ong et al. (2020) showed on temperature sweep experiments (20–90 °C) with different
746 cream cheese (gel) pH values (from 4.3 to 5.0) that the characteristic trend in the storage (G’)-,
of
747 loss (G’’) moduli, and loss tangent (tan δ) did not change, being G’ always >> G’’ as the
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748 temperature was increased. Maximum tan δ was at ~55 °C regardless of gel pH, indicating a
749 -p
softening of the structure up to ~60 °C (Ong et al., 2020); higher temperatures (75–85 °C) and
750 shearing will lead initially to more protein aggregations (Dang, Wolfschoon Pombo, & Kulozik,
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751 2019).
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752 Brückner and Senge (2008) showed in dynamic low amplitude oscillatory experiments,
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753 that the fat melted between 40 °C and 50 °C. They also found (from amplitude and frequency
754 sweeps) that the micro- and macro-structure of cream cheese remains stable even after the
ur
755 melting point temperature of the fat phase is exceeded and considered cream cheese as a
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756 reversible semisolid product. Brighenti et al. (2008) also showed that G’ decreased during
757 heating up to 40 °C (tested from 5 °C to 80 °C) and that the loss tangent (tan δ) maximum was
758 observed below 40 °C.
759
760 4.3. Curd handling
761
762 Once the gel is formed in the fermentation tank, i.e., the desired pH reached or controlled
763 by cooling, the gel is broken (cut) and possibly adjusted with sweet milk mix or by mixing
764 batches with different pH (Carswell & Hurlburt, 1970; Ong et al., 2020). The pH of the gel at
765 breaking is important; cutting the curd at pH ~4.5 will reduce the syneresis level, since the curd
766 is more dehydrated owing to increased CN aggregation. The cooking step (at about 60 °C) stops
767 the starter bacteria activity and hence prevents further lowering of the pH, which otherwise
768 would result in cheese with more acid flavour and brittle texture. The curd + whey mass are
769 transported via positive pumps to a heat exchanger whereby type of equipment and plant layout
770 decisively affect curd properties.
771 Several processing steps (5, 6 in Fig. 1) besides the heat treatment prior to separation
772 affect product characteristics. Those include pumping of the separated hot curd into a tank,
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773 kettle or hopper for further final cheese standardisation, as well as the ingredients added, and
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774 final heating and/or homogenisation. The curd pH and the separation method are factors that
775 affect microstructure, sensory and rheological properties of the cream cheese (Coutouly,
776
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Riaublanc, Axelos, & Gaucher, 2014; Ong et al., 2018, 2020). Separation can be effected via
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777 either a centrifuge (at ~55–85 °C), a membrane (ample separation temperature spectrum based
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778 on membrane type, e.g., for UF typically 50–55 °C), or via cloth draining bags (at 60–90 °C
779 range). Increased homogenisation pressure of the acid curd results in higher cream cheese
na
780 firmness, and part of it can be lost after mixing with salt and final (dynamic) cooling (Bäuerle et
ur
781 al., 1984; Coutouly et al., 2014; Mokoonlall, Nöbel & Hinrichs, 2016; Sanchez et al., 1996a,b).
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782 Hinrichs et al. (2004) using NMR to detect changes in the water holding capacity of cream
783 cheese showed that good syneresis properties correlated with softer mechanical consistency of
784 the product and hence provided a tool to improve production processing.
785 Ong et al. (2018) recently examined (at small scale) the effect of heating prior to
786 separation (centrifugation or cloth bags, pH ~4.5) on curd characteristics. These authors found
787 that the temperature at separation dramatically affected the mass of whey expelled with both
788 methods albeit the cheese microstructure was similar when heat was applied. They also found
789 that a separation temperature of ~70 °C provides a good parameter to work because the
790 viscoelastic moduli and the viscosity did not modify significantly in the temperature range 60 °C
791 to 80 °C. Moreover, Ong et al. (2018) also reported that the lower the separation temperature is,
792 the higher the centrifugal g-force required for proper whey separation, because of the higher
793 viscosity. The authors also noted a higher coalescence of milk fat, induced in the heat-treated
794 samples, and lower fat losses into the whey with the centrifugal process, compared with 20 °C
795 and to the cloth bag process.
796 Further experiments by Ong et al. (2020), on cream cheese curd separation pH (4 in
797 Fig.1), showed a denser gel microstructure and (significant) firmer texture, increased β-sheet
798 structure and lower porosity developing as the separation pH was lowered from 5.0 to 4.7–4.3
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799 range. In addition, higher whey protein losses at the lower pH seemed to contribute to the
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800 increased hardness of the cheese, albeit the lower pH during gel heating prior separation
801 resulted in less α-lactalbumin in the whey at lower pH (Ong et al., 2020). Changes in the protein
802
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secondary structure were effected by the changes in pH. Higher pH resulted in slightly higher
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803 whey released, more total calcium in cheese and less calcium in the whey. Earlier experiments
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804 with cream cheese pH, conducted by Monteiro, Tavares, Kindstedt, and Gigante (2009), support
805 the findings of Ong et al. (2020) regarding the softer texture in cream cheese with high pH (~5.0)
na
806 compared to low pH cheese.

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807 Depending also on cream cheese formulation and composition, it might be necessary to
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808 apply a certain holding time for restructuring (Dang et al., 2019) of the cheese before filling. The
809 latter authors presumed that in a restructured cream cheese, the protein structure is composed
810 of caseinate particles (Na- and H-caseinate) with a changed morphology, which interacted with
811 themselves and also with the water phase, resulting in viscosity changes. Ong et al. (2018)
812 reported that when the acid gel is irreversibly shear-altered at high separation temperatures, the
813 structure would not recover to its original state. Kalab and Modler (1985) and Ong et al. (2018)
814 have shown that the thermo-mechanical step creates the typical cream cheese corpuscular
815 structure where protein aggregates extensively coated small clusters of fat globules.
816 This corpuscular structure is responsible for the smoothness and spreadability. Sainani,
817 Wyas, and Tong (2004), tempered the curd for cream cheese making at 55 °C, 30 min and
818 induced large particle cluster formation and graininess, thus showing the importance of
819 temperature and time control during manufacturing for cream cheese product quality. Ong et al.
820 (2020), found that the size of the corpuscular, particulate microstructure within cream cheese is
821 bigger at high pH (~5.0 where fewer interactions between whey proteins and CN take place) as
822 compared with the structure at lower pH (e.g. 4.3). Particle aggregations (aided by
823 homogenisation and shear time) are increased due to the effect of temperature on the kinetic
824 energy (Brownian motion, collisions). Hence, the distribution of the proteins between the cream
of
825 phase, the water phase and the network core will be different for curds treated differently.
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826 Moreover, Hahn, Sramek, Nöbel, and Hinrichs (2012a) observed polydispersity in the particle
827 size of the microgel dispersion.
828
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Recent research by Dang et al., (2019) showed that the water mobility (T2 relaxation time
re
829 by NMR) decreased by ~21% in the mobile water phase during the thermo-mechanical step in a
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830 cream cheese. Concomitantly with a viscosity increase, a syneresis behaviour reflecting the
831 inverse shape of the structure building reaction was recorded. The holding temperature for cold
na
832 pack fresh cheese, separated and kept at 38 °C for 300 min without shearing before filling,
ur
833 clearly demonstrated that even at that low processing temperature, in-mouth graininess
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834 [particles with volume weighted diameter (dv 0.75) and size above 40 µm, cheese pH ~4.44] can
835 be perceived. The latter highlighted the effect of the temperature and holding time and that by
836 applying shear, the texture can be smoothed (Hahn et al., 2012a,b). The aggregation process
837 (and hence particle growth) occurring at higher temperatures, has an activation energy of ~26 kJ
838 mol-1; the mechanism responsible was proposed (Hahn et al., 2012a) to be a diffusion-limited
839 along with the effect of hydrophobic interactions, where large particles are built at the expense of
840 the small ones. Thus, the thermo-mechanical step allows the manufacturer to further control the
841 quality of cream cheese during production.
842 Addition of salt (for taste) and emulsifiers (for water binding and textural benefits) during
843 curd handling (5 in Fig. 1), as well as the presence of exopolysaccharides (EPS) secreted by
844 specific lactic acid bacteria, might or not change significantly the association of the already
845 emulsified fat droplets with the proteins in the network and water phase. Gums added and EPS
846 might interact with the microgel particles, affecting their aggregation rate and hence particle size
847 growth. By acting as active filler, they might also increase the dynamic moduli because of their
848 water-binding capacity owing to EPS molecular structure (Hahn et al., 2014; Surber et al., 2019).
849 Manipulation of the amount and ratio of the gum composition used alters the viscoelasticity of
850 the cheese. The reader is referred to Goh, Sarkar, and Singh (2009) for a review on the
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851 interactions between polysaccharide and milk proteins.
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852 Experiments from Surber et al. (2019) showed that improvements in syneresis results
853 obtained from cream cheese manufactured with three different ropy and non-ropy EPS
854
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producing strains, could be related to a high molecular mass (~106 Da) of the ropy EPS.
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855 Research on forced syneresis determination in commercial cream cheese samples with added
lP
856 stabilisers corroborate the dominant effect of hydrocolloids on cream cheese syneresis
857 reduction, and pinpointed salt to be an influential parameter to reduce serum release in those
na
858 cheeses (Wolfschoon Pombo, Dang, & Chiriboga Chiriboga, 2018). The choice of stabilisers
ur
859 (alginates, locust bean gum, carrageenan, guar gum, gelatin, xanthan gum, mono-diglycerides
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860 of fatty acids) depends on the desired sensory characteristics. The stabilisers affect the texture
861 (from thin fluid to creamy, soft, short, firm and brittle semi-solid), water holding and the mouthfeel
862 (from dry to soft and very creamy and soft) in the cream cheese (Guinee & Hickey, 2009;
863 Wehrhahn, 2005).
864 Møller et al. (2012), using 1H T2 NMR relaxometry, showed that the microstructure of
865 cream cheese samples (pH range 4.2 to 5,2; NaCl range 0 to 1.25%) gave rise to different local
866 water activities (aw range 0.986 to 0.997). However, aw alone could not help to explain variations
867 in the survival rate of inoculated microorganisms and kept at 11–16.6 °C for 6 months, because
868 the levels of protein, salt, fat and moisture and pH values in the samples also play a role. 1H T2
869 relaxation data predicted part of the survival data variation in the samples stored under the
870 above abnormal temperature conditions (Møller et al., 2012). Cream cheese is a safe food
871 product owing to its intrinsic characteristics and the different heating steps applied during its
872 manufacturing and final storage conditions.
873 Wendin et al. (2000) investigated cream cheese (pH ~4.7) making focusing on milk fat
874 standardisation (constant protein level at ~75 g kg-1) and processing. They found that the
875 interactions between a high fat level (280–340 g kg-1 compared to 220 g kg-1), salt content (4–7
876 g kg-1) and the homogenisation step, affected both the creamy taste/flavour (more intense) and
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877 texture (more compact and creamy) of the cream cheese. High salt content also affected the
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878 saltiness and sourness, as well as the protein aggregation. Too high homogenisation pressures
879 associated with a high salt level led to less fatty perception. Wendin et al. (2000) concluded that
880
-p
creaminess demands that the fat droplets have a critical size and is product specific. They
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881 showed that by mastering those parameters, it was possible to produce cream cheese with
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882 lower fat content but with same sensory characteristics as a high fat product. Frøst and Janhøj
883 (2007) found that in cream cheese, process and textural parameters such as pH, salt, and
na
884 creaminess correlates with sensory properties of smoothness, fatty after-mouth feel and cream
ur
885 flavour. Wolfschoon Pombo et al. (2018) found in commercial cream cheese samples without
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886 added stabilisers, that a salt level of ≥ 6.6 g kg-1 and high fat content (> 280 g kg-1) led to a
887 considerably lower forced serum release. In addition ζ-potential (–9.61 to 2.01 mV) and cheese
888 pH (4.58–4.9) had no significant effect on the expressed serum.
889 Mokoonlall et al. (2016) and Senge et al. (2006) summarised that the optimisation of the
890 thermo-mechanical stress to obtain cream cheese with desired structural properties, depend on
891 the magnitude of the cumulative effects obtained in the different post-processing unit operations,
892 downstream of fermentation. Nothing is truer than this, if up-stream processing is mastered and
893 constant because the structure of the curd subjected to post-processing also depends on how
894 the acid gel was developed and coagulation occurred.
895
896 4.4. Cooling, storage
897
898 In these last manufacturing stages (6 & 7 in Fig. 1), the final sensory characteristics are
899 acquired. “Whey” separation (not syneresis) in cream cheese might result from the formation of
900 condensate (~0.5 mL) on the underside of the foil lid during hot filling of the product. After
901 cooling and certain storage time, this moisture may or not be reabsorbed by the matrix and is
902 distinctly different in appearance from whey expressed (macro-syneresis) due to matrix
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903 shrinkage. There is also a micro-syneresis at the microstructural level but this cannot be
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904 observed.
905 Reduction of wheying-off due to syneresis can be minimised or prevented by the use of
906
-p
hydrocolloids in the formula and by reducing the time to cool down the product to certain
re
907 temperature from the hot fill temperature. This can be achieved under consideration on how the
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908 product was filled (amount, nozzle design, speed), the form of the foil and tub packs, or packed
909 (trays, carton displays, shippers, layer spacers, pallets), time and temperature before cooling
na
910 starts, how the cooling is effected (cooling rate) and the final cooling room characteristics. The
ur
911 cooling profile affects not only the incidence of syneresis but also the consistency of the product.
Jo
912 The slower the cooling rate to achieve a certain temperature, the higher the syneresis will be
913 (formation of larger milk fat crystals; higher firmness due to more time to hydrophobic forces to
914 act); rapid cooling brings about the opposite effect. Therefore, there is during manufacturing a
915 cooling step for textural (quality) reasons and a second (mandatory) one for microbiological
916 constrains.
917 Sanchez et al. (1996a) studied the effect of dynamic (scraped-surface heat exchanger)
918 and slow cooling of the cheese mass after heating it and homogenisation (2 stages) at 85 °C.
919 They found that increasing the cooling rate resulted in a weaker structural organisation
920 (decreased G’ and G’’) and produced a softer cheese (decreased yield value). Initially, after the
921 combined treatments (heat/homogenisation) a more open network of compact MFG-protein

922 clusters with reduced MFG size and larger void spaces is formed. However, the sensitivity to
923 MFG-coalescence increases (this implies some de-emulsification and destabilisation of the MFG
924 due to the increased protein-protein interactions leaving less proteins for surface adsorption on
925 the new created MFG). Slow cooling of the cheese mass to 5 °C increases the degree of
926 structuring and results in a more compact network and firmer and more elastic cream cheese, as
927 compared with dynamic cooling (Sanchez et al, 1996a). In the case of dynamic cooling, a higher
928 hydration of the curd is expected and the cream cheese, which is less firm, shows decreased
of
929 viscoelastic moduli and higher tan δ after storage (Sanchez at al., 1996a,b). The latter is due to
ro
930 disruption of homogenisation clusters and/or their dispersion in the aqueous phase (Sanchez et
931 al., 1996a). Moreover, the rheology and structural changes prevail during storage (Sanchez at
-p
932 al., 1996b). Brighenti et al. (2008) found in cooling experiments (80 °C down to 5 °C) that G’
re
933 values in cream cheese increased at temperatures <30 °C and with a greater rate of increase,
lP
934 whereby the observed G’ values at 5 °C were lower than those determined before heating the
na
935 samples to 80 °C.
936 Milk fat crystallisation, MFGM rupture, aggregation of MFG during storage and solid fat
ur
937 formation might give rise to some matrix instability. With rapid, dynamic cooling (>30 °C min-1)
Jo
938 fat crystallisation did not influence the stability of the cheese matrix (Sanchez et al., 1996c). In
939 general, milk fat crystallisation at low storage temperature reinforces the network. Cooling rate
940 governs the number of nuclei formed during crystallisation and the size of the fat crystals, as well
941 as the ratio of solid to liquid fat and the firmness of the cheese. Brückner and Senge (2008)
942 stated that the path of tan δ over time suggested melting and crystallisation processes of the fat
943 in cream cheese. This implies a correlation between the temperature dependent behaviour and
944 the fat fraction, based on comparisons with the behaviour of clarified butter. Brückner and Senge
945 (2008) also stated that in cream cheese, immobilised fat and its relation to fluid or free fat and
946 the distribution of the crystalline fat within and outside the fat globule, are determinants of
947 cheese structure. Very few research articles have been published on this topic for cream
948 cheese.
949 Almena Aliste and Kindstedt (2005) observed from post-manufacturing experiments
950 where cream cheese was subjected to ammonia vapours to elevate its pH (~5.2 and ~5.8)
951 before stored at 4 °C, that the induced higher pH resulted in cheese that had a softer texture.
952 They suggested that increased casein-water over casein-calcium interactions, were favoured
953 and responsible for the softer texture. These authors added that the lower total and soluble
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954 calcium content in cream cheese, might have limited pH-induced redistribution of soluble
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955 calcium and interactions. Cream cheese makers know that the higher the cheese pH, the softer
956 the cheese. Kindstedt and Acosta (2005) demonstrated that the viscosity of the water phase in
957
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cream cheese made with locust bean gum was reduced over the storage time, more at 25 °C
re
958 than at 4 °C, leading to a syneresis increase, and presumed that the stabiliser function might
lP
959 have been impaired over time. Likely, there were also rearrangements of the protein network
960 continuing over the storage time leading to shrinkage and syneresis.
na
961
ur
962 5. Conclusions and perspectives

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963
964 Several processes are used today to manufacture cream cheese. Early “cheeseologists”
965 recognised the importance of the milk standardisation, adequate heat treatment and
966 homogenisation conditions for milk and curd. Today, choice of the right parameters for milk
967 fat/protein standardisation, heat treatment, homogenisation and acidification processes gained
968 increased attention. More focus is given to the interactions of fat and protein (types) with the
969 processing steps, whereby the interest in cream cheese microstructure, and hence texture and
970 sensory properties, will likely continue. Cream cheese making has improved over the last
971 century due to the advances in processing, microbiology and physical and analytical chemistry
972 and this is expected to continue in the years to come. In the future, many areas for further
973 research and production of new cream cheese variants, quality improvement and cost efficiency
974 are likely to be seen in the following topics: a) membrane technology; b) enzymatic protein
975 modification; c) addition of microgel aggregates, whey proteins and fractal aggregates to tailor
976 the microgel particle size; d) multimodal, playing with the casein volume fraction and packing; e)
977 the interface fat-proteins-serum phase; f) high hydrostatic pressure and thermo-sonication
978 (ultrasound) treatments; g) syneresis, interactions of bacteria and hydrocolloids (the quest for
979 less or no stabilisers will continue); h) minerals and bitterness, elimination of acid whey
of
980 generation; i) health-promoting products; j) sustainability of production; and k) combinations of
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981 all the above.
982 Rheology, NMR, spectroscopy and microscopy methods will continue to provide insights
983
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into the internal structure, rearrangements of bonds and heterogeneity of the gel (curd, cheese).
re
984 In addition, some changes in cream cheese individual country standards might arise to allow
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985 adoption of new technologies. Thus, based on experience, the knowledge being generated
986 today in acid-curd cheese research will have commercial significance in 5–10 years.
na
987 Finally, yet importantly, we can anticipate a continued healthy single digits cream cheese
ur
988 growth in the years to come. The uninterrupted demand for high protein, low fat, or indulgent
Jo
989 dairy products, and their utilisation as ingredients in many food applications, will continue. In
990 addition, further market development and expansion in the Asia Pacific, Middle East and Latin
991 America markets will support the demand.
992
993 References
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996 (2015). Modification of the textural and rheological properties of cream cheese using
997 thermo–sonicated milk. Journal of Food Engineering, 168, 223–230.

998 Almena Aliste, M., & Kindstedt, P. S. (2005). Effect of increasing pH on texture of full and
999 reduced–fat cream cheese. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 60, 225–230.
1000 Alves, L. A., Richards, N. S. P. S., Mattana, P., Andrade, D. F., Rezer, A. P. S., Milani, L. I. G.,
1001 et al. (2013). Cream cheese as a symbiotic food carrier using Bifidobacterium animalis
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1004 Anema, S. (2008). On heating milk, the dissociation of κ–casein from the casein micelles can
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1061 phosphate–depleted preheated milk. Dairy Science & Technology, 89, 335–348.
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Figure legend
Fig.1. General cream cheese manufacturing steps.
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Milk, cream, other dairy components
(1) Milk mix standardisation
(2) Heating homogenisation
(3) Acidification, gelation
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(4) Heating, separation
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(5) Curd, additives
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(6) Curd heating, shearing
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(7) Filling, packing, cooling

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Declaration of interests
☒ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered
as potential competing interests:
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Cream cheese: historical, manufacturing, and physico-chemical aspects

Alan F. Wolfschoon Pombo

To appear in: International Dairy Journal

Received Date: 1 October 2020

© 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

7 Alan F. Wolfschoon Pombo †

19 E-mail address: awolfschoon@gmail.com

36 steps, that influence cream cheese properties, are discussed.

55 3.4.2 Nanofiltration + Ultrafiltration

57 3.5 Alternative technologies

59 4.1 Milk standardisation, heating, homogenisation

60 4.2 Gelation, coagulation

81 of cream cheese applications are in bagels and in New York-style cheesecake.

82 The objective of this article is to present a technological historical review on cream

90 The present historical – technological review might be over-weighted in information

95 Australia, based on proprietary technology from each brand owner.

103 2. Historical aspects

109 presumably might have played a role in its introduction in USA.

121 great opportunity to make money.

136 3. Manufacturing procedures

158 as well as low productivity, restricted the expansion of production.

176 built between 1892 and 1899.

178 3.2. Cream cheese making 1920–1945

210 more than 0.5% (w/w).

212 3.2.1. The Dahlberg process

236 the quality of cold pack cream cheese.

238 3.2.2. The Marquardt process

263 °C) of the curd should be applied to achieve proper drainage.

265 3.2.3. Roundy and Price process

286 known also as the “hot pack” in commercial practice.

288 3.2.4. Reichert and Crowe process

294 condensed milk.

296 3.3. Cream cheese making 1945–1980

318 cheese making was a logical consequence of the above developments.

320 3.3.1. The Oscar Link process

349 3.3.3. Carswell and Hurlburt process

356 according to conventional procedures.

358 3.4. Membrane processing since 1980

381 high concentration factors.

392 packed and cooled.

407 3.4.2. Nanofiltration + ultrafiltration

424 cream cheese making as well.

426 3.4.3. Microfiltration

452 process should allow for cream cheese making.

460 cups and ripened to pH 4.5–4.6.

474 of the product.

494 carried out the research work.

496 3.4. Alternative technologies

498 Advances in engineering equipment for cheese making and mechanisation/automation

523 applicable to cream cheese) in their book.

525 4. Technical, physico-chemical and biological aspects

535 a short review of these fundamental aspects of cream cheese manufacture.

537 4.1. Milk standardisation, heat treatment, homogenisation

540 heating/homogenisation, fermenting, concentration (separation), curd treatment and packing. A

548 widespread utilisation of membranes in dairy processing, many combinations of retentates

560 well as yield.

598 augmented phosphorus content.

633 cheese manufactured with that combination.

635 4.2. Gelation, coagulation

651 (calcium phosphate) by consecutive phosphorylated (serine phosphate) residues of caseins

654 Teixeira & Holt (2020).

686 modulus (Li & Zhao, 2019).