CHAPTER 7: THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

NURANP | First Semester - Midterms

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

Functions of the Nervous System

● Sensory Input
○ gathering information
○ to monitor changes occurring inside and
outside the body
○ changes = stimuli
● Integration
○ to process and interpret sensory input and
decide if action is needed
● Motor Output
○ a response to integrated stimuli
○ the response activates muscles or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System

● Central Nervous System (CNS)
○ brain and spinal cord
○ acts as integrating and command center
■ interpret incoming sensory
information and issue instructions MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
based on past experiences and SKELETAL MUSCLE
current conditions ● Astrocytes
● Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) ○ abundant, star-shaped cells
○ nerves outside the brain and spinal cord ○ brace neurons
○ link all parts of the body by carrying impulses ○ form barrier between capillaries and neurons
to the CNS and back and make exchanges between the two
○ control the chemical environment of the brain
Functional Classification of the Peripheral Nervous by capturing ions and neurotransmitters
System
● Sensory (Afferent) Division
○ nerve fibers that carry information to the
central nervous system
● Motor (Efferent) Division
○ nerve fibers that carry impulses away from
the central nervous system
○ Two Subdivisions
■ Somatic Nervous System ● Microglia
➢ voluntary nervous system ○ spider-like phagocytes
○ dispose of debris
➢ skeletal muscle reflexes ■ dead cells and bacteria
such as stretch reflex are
initiated involuntarily by
same fibers
■ Autonomic Nervous System
➢ involuntary nervous
system
➢ sympathetic and
parasympathetic divisions ● Ependymal Cells
○ line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
○ circulate cerebrospinal fluid with cilia

● Oligodendrocytes
○ wrap their flat extensions tightly around the
nerve fibers
○ produce myelin sheath around nerve fibers
Organization of The Nervous System in the central nervous system

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 ■ junction between nerves

Nerve FIber Coverings

● Schwann Cells
○ produce myelin sheaths in jelly-roll like
fashion
● Nodes of Ranvier
○ gaps in myelin sheath along the axon
● Satellite Cells
○ protect neuron cell bodies
● Schwann Cells
○ form myelin sheath in the peripheral nervous
system
● neuroglia are not able to transmit nerve impulses but
do not lose their ability to divide, unlike neurons

NERVOUS TISSUE: NEURONS

● neurons = nerve cells
● cells specialized to transmit messages
● Major Regions of Neurons
○ Cell Body
■ nucleus and metabolic center of the
cell Neuron Cell Body Location
○ Processes ● most are found in the central nervous system in
■ fibers that extend from the cell body clusters called nuclei
● bundles of nerve fibers in CNS = tracts
Neuron Anatomy ○ Gray Matter
● Cell Body ■ cell bodies and unmyelinated fiber
○ Nissl Substance ○ White Matter
■ specialized rough endoplasmic ■ myelinated fibers
reticulum ● bundels of nerve fibers in PNS = nerves
○ Neurofibrils ● Ganglia
■ intermediate cytoskeleton that ○ collections of cell bodies outside the central
maintains cell shape nervous system
○ nucleus, large nucleolus
● extensions outside the cell body Functional Classification of Neurons
○ Dendrites ● Sensory (Afferent) Neurons
■ conduct impulses toward the cell ○ cell bodies in a ganglion outside the CNS
body ○ carry impulses from the sensory receptors to
○ Axons CNS
■ conduct impulses away from the ■ Cutaneous (Skin) Sense Organs
cell body ■ Proprioceptors
➢ detect stretch or tension in
muscle, tendon, joints
● Motor (Efferent) Neurons
○ cell bodies found in the CNS
○ carry impulses from the central nervous
system
● Interneurons (Association Neurons)
○ found in neutral pathways in the central
nervous system
■ cell bodies in the CNS
○ connect sensory and motor neurons

Neuron Classification

Axons and Nerve Impulses

● axons end in axonal terminals
● axonal terminals contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
● axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron
by a gap
○ Synaptic Cleft
■ gap between adjacent neurons
○ Synapse
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Structural Classification of Neurons
● Multipolar Neurons
○ many extensions from the cell body
● Bipolar Neurons
○ one axon and one dendrite
■ rare in adults
➢ in eye and ear only
● Unipolar Neurons
○ have a short, single process leaving the cell
body
■ axon conducts nerve impulses both
to and from the cell body
Functional Properties of Neurons
● Two Main Functions
○ Irritability
■ ability to respond to stimuli
○ Conductivity
■ ability to transmit an impulse
● the plasma membrane at rest is polarized
○ fewer positive ions (usually K+) are inside
the cell than outside the cell (usually Na+)
Starting a Nerve Impulse
● Depolarization
○ a stimulus depolarizes the neuron’s
membrane
● a depolarized membrane allows sodium to flow inside
the membrane
● the exchange of ions initiates an action potential
(nerve impulse) in the neuron
The Action Potential
● if the action potential (nerve impulse) starts, it is
propagated over the entire axon – all-or-none
response
● porassium ions rush out of the neuron after sodium
ions rush in, which repolarizes the membrane
● the sodium-potassium pump restores the original
configuration
○ this action requires ATP
● until repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot conduct
another impulse
Nerve Impulse Propagation
● the impulse continues to move toward the cell body
● impulses travel faster when fibers have a myelin
sheath
○ nerve impulse literally jumps from node to
node because it cannot cross myelin
insulation
● impulses are unable to cross the synapse to another
nerve
○ nurotransmitter is released from a nerve’s
axon terminal
○ the dendrite of the next neuron has receptors
that are stimulated by the neurotransmitter
○ an action potential is started in the dendrites
of the next neuron
● transmission of an impulse is an electrochemical
event
How Neurons Communicate at Synapses
The Reflex Arc
● Reflex
○ rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses
to stimuli
● Reflex Arc
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 ○ direct route from a sensory neuron, to an
interneuron, to an effector

Simple Reflex Arc

Lobes of the Cerebrum

● fissures (deep grooves) divide the cerebrum
into lobes
● surface lobes of the cerebrum
○ named for cranial bone over them
■ Frontal Lobe
■ Parietal Lobe
Types of Reflexes and Regulation ■ Occipital Lobe
● reflex arcs have a minimum five elements ■ Temporal Lobe
○ a sensory receptor
■ reacts to stimuli
○ an effector receptor
■ muscle or gland stimulated
○ affferent and efferent neurons connecting
the two
○ the CNS integration center

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM (CNS)

● CNS develops from the embryonic neural tube – a
simple tube
○ the neural tube becomes the brain and
spinal cord
○ the opening of the neural tube becomes the
Specialized Areas of the Cerebrum
ventricles
● somatic sensory area in parietal lobe
■ four chambers within the brain
○ receives impulses from the body’s
■ filled with cerebrospinal fluid
sensory receptors (except special
senses)
REGIONS OF THE BRAIN ○ Occipital Lobe
● Cerebral Hemispheres ■ vision and temporal lobe –
● Diencephalon auditory
● Brain Stem
● Cerebellum ○ Primary Motor Area
■ sends impulses to skeletal
muscles – frontal lobe
○ Broca’s Area
■ involved in our ability to
speak – base of the
precentral gyrus

Cerebral Hemispheres (Cerebrum)

● paired (left and right) superior parts of the brain
● include more than half of the brain mass Sensory and Motor Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
● the surface is made of elevated ridges (gyri) and
shallow grooves (sulci)

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 ● an important part of the limbic system
(emotions) – emotional-visceral brain
● the pituitary gland is attached to and
regulated by the hypothalamus

Epithalamus
● forms the roof of the third ventricle
● houses the pineal body (an endocrine
● gland)
● includes the choroid plexus
○ forms cerebrospinal fluid
● cerebral areas involved in special senses
○ Gustatory Area (Taste)
Brain Stem
○ Visual Area
● attaches to the spinal cord
○ Auditory Area
● Parts of the Brain Stem
○ Olfactory Area
○ Midbrain
● interpretation areas of the cerebrum
○ Pons
○ speech/language region
○ Medulla oblongata
○ language comprehension region
○ general interpretation area
Midbrain
● mostly composed of tracts of nerve fibers
Specialized Area of the Cerebrum
● the cerebral aqueduct
○ canal that connects the 3rd
ventricle of the diencephalon to the
4th ventricle
● has two bulging fiber tracts
○ Cerebral Peduncles
■ convey ascending and
descending impulses
● has four rounded protrusions
○ corpora quadrigemina
■ reflex centers for vision
Layers of the Cerebrum and hearing
● Gray Matter
○ outermost layer Pons
○ cerebral cortex ● the bulging center part of the brain stem
○ composed mostly of neuron cell ● mostly composed of fiber tracts
bodies ● includes nuclei involved in the control of
● White Matter breathing
○ fiber tracts inside the gray matter
○ Example: Medulla Oblongata
■ corpus callosum connects ● the lowest part of the brain stem
hemispheres ● merges into the spinal cord
● includes important fiber tracts
● Basal Nuclei ● contains important control centers
○ internal islands of gray matter ○ Heart Rate Control
● helps regulate voluntary motor activities by ○ Blood Pressure Regulation
modifying instructions sent to the skeletal ○ Breathing
muscles ○ Swallowing
○ Vomiting
Diencephalon - Interbrain
● sits on top of the brain stem Reticular Formation
● enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres ● diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain
● Made of Three Parts: stem
○ Thalamus ● involved in motor control of visceral organs
○ Hypothalamus ● reticular activating system plays a role in
○ Epithalamus awake/sleep cycles and consciousness
● damage here results in a permanent coma
Thalamus
● surrounds the third ventricle of the brain
● the relay station for sensory impulses
passing upward to the sensory cortex
● transfers impulses to the correct part of the
cortex for localization and interpretation

Hypothalamus
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 ● circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central
canal of the spinal cord

Ventricles and Location of the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Cerebellum
● two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
● provides involuntary coordination of body movements
○ of skeletal muscles, balance and equilibrium
● Automatic Pilot
○ continually comparing brain’s intentions with
actual body performance

PROTECTION OF THE CENTRAL

NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Scalp and Skin
● Cerebrospinal Fluid
● Skull and Vertebral Column
● Blood Brain Barrier
● Meninges

Meninges Blood Brain Barrier

● Dura Mater ● includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
○ double-layered external covering the brain ○ only H2O, glucose, and essential amino
■ Periosteum acids get through
➢ attached to surface of the ● excludes many potentially harmful substance
skull ● useless against some substances
○ Fats and Fat Soluble Molecules
○ Respiratory Gases
○ Alcohol
■ Meningeal Layer ○ Nicotine
➢ outer covering of the brain ○ Anesthesia
and continues as the dura
matter of the spinal cord TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURIES
○ folds inward in several areas that attaches ● Concussion
the brain to cranial cavity ○ slight brain injury
● Arachnoid Layer ■ dizzy or lose consciousness briefly
○ middle layer that is web-like ○ no permanent brain damage
● Pia Mater ● Contusion
○ internal layer that clings to the surface of the ○ nervous tissue destruction occurs
brain following every fold ■ does not regenerate
● Subarachnoid Space filled with Cerebrospinal ○ if cortex is damaged, coma for hours or life
Fluid ● Cerebral Edema
○ Arachnoid Villi ○ swelling from the inflammatory response
■ projections of arachnoid membrane ○ may compress and kill brain tissue
protruding through the dura matter
Cerebrovascular Accident (CVA)
Cerebrospinal Fluid ● commonly called a stroke
● similar to blood plasma composition ● the result of a clot or a ruptured blood vessel
○ less protein, more vitamin C, different ions supplying a region of the brain
● formed by the choroid plexus ● brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood
● forms a watery cushion to protect the brain source dies
● loss of some functions or death may result
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 ■ each contains a number of fiber
Alzheimer’s Disease tracts make up of axons with the
● progressive degenerative brain disease same destination and function
● mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle ● central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid
age
● structural changes in the brain include abnormal
protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons
● victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion
and ultimately, hallucinations and death

SPINAL CORD
● extends from the medulla oblongata to the region of
T12
● below T12 is the cauda equina (a collection of spinal
nerves) PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
● enlargements occur in the cervical and lumbar ● nerves and ganglia outside the central nervous
regions system
● nerve = bundle of neuron fibers
● neuron fibers are bundled by a connective tissue
sheath

Structure of a Nerve
● endoneurium surrounds each fiber
● groups of fibers are bound into fascicles by
perineurium
● fascicles are bound together by epineurium

Classification of Nerves
● classified according to the direction in which they
transmit impulses
● Mixed Nerves
○ carry both sensory and motor fibers – spinal
nerves
Spinal Cord Anatomy ● Afferent (Sensory) Nerves
● Internal Gray Matter ○ carry impulses toward the CNS
○ mostly cell bodies that surround the central ● Efferent (Motor) Nerves
canal of the cord ○ carry impulses away from the CNS
○ Dorsal (Posterior) Horns
○ Anterior (Ventral) Horns Cranial Nerves
■ contains motor neurons of the ● 2 pairs of nerves that mostly serve the head and neck
somatic nervous system, which ● numbered in order, front to back
send their axons out the ventral root ○ names reveal structures they control
○ together, they fuse to form the spinal nerves ● most are mixed nerves, but three are sensory only
○ nerves leave at the level of each vertebrae ○ Optic, Olfactory, and Vestibulocochlear
● Dorsal Root Ganglion
○ where cell bodies of sensory neurons, whose Cranial Nerves
fibers enter the cord by the dorsal root are ● I Olfactory Nerve
found ○ for smell
● damage to this area causes sensation from the body ● II Optic Nerve
area served to be lost ○ for vision
● Exterior White Mater – Conduction Tracts ● III Oculomotor Nerve
○ posterior, lateral, and anterior columns ○ motor fiber to eye muscles (position)

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 ● IV Trochlear
○ motor fiber to eye muscles (movement)
● V Trigeminal Nerve
○ sensory for the face; motor fibers to chewing
muscles
● VI Abducens Nerve
○ motor fibers to eye muscles (rotation)
● VII Facial Nerve
○ for taste; motor fibers to the face

● VIII Vestibulocochlear Nerve

○ for balance and hearing
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
● IX Glossopharyngeal Nerve
○ sensory for taste; motor fibers to the pharynx ● the involuntary branch of the nervous system
● X Vagus Nerves ● consists of only motor nerves
○ sensory and motor fibers for pharynx, larynx, ● Divided into Two Divisions:
and viscera ○ Sympathetic Division
● XI Accessory Nerve ■ mobilizes the body
○ motor fibers to neck and upper back ○ Parasympathetic Division
● XII Hypoglossal Nerve ■ allows body to unwind
○ motor fibers to tongue

Spinal Nerves
● there is a pair of spinal nerves at the level of each
vertebrae for a total of 31 pairs Differences between Somatic and Autonomic Nervous
● spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the Systems
ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord
● spinal nerves are named for the region from which SOMATIC AUTONOMIC
they arise
NERVES one motor neuron preganglionic and
– axons extend postganglionic
all the way to the nerves
skeletal muscle
they serve

EFFECTOR skeletal muscle smooth muscle,

ORGANS cardiac muscle,
and glands

NEUROTRA always use use acetylcholine,

NSMITTERS acetylcholine epinephrine, or
norepinephrine

Comparison of Somatic and Autonomic Nervous Systems

Anatomy of Spinal Nerves

● spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord
○ Dorsal Rami
■ serve the skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
○ Ventral Rami
■ forms a complex of networks
(plexus) for the anterior, which
serve the motor and sensory needs
of the limbs

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division

● originates from the brain stem and S2 – S4
● neurons in the cranial region send axons out in cranial
nerves to the head and neck organs
● they synapse with the second motor neuron in a
terminal ganglion
● terminal ganglia are at the effector organs
Examples of Nerve Distribution
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 ● always uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter
● originates from T1 through L2
● reganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral root,
enter the spinal nerve, then pass through a ramus
communications, to enter a sympathetic chain
ganglion at the sympathetic chain (trunk) (near the
spinal cord)
● short pre-ganglionic neuron and long postganglionic
neuron transmit impulse from CNS to the effector
● norepinephrine and epinephrine are neurotransmitters
to the effector organs
Sympathetic Pathways
Development Aspects of the Nervous System
● the nervous system is formed during the first month of
embryonic development
● any maternal infection can have extremely harmful
effects
● the hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain
to develop – contains centers for regulating body
temperature
● no more neurons are formed after birth, but growth
and maturation continues for several years largely
due to myelination
● the brain reaches maximum weight as a young adult

Anatomy of the Autonomic Nervous System

Autonomic Functioning
● Sympathetic
○ “fight-or-flight”
○ response to unusual stimulus
○ takes over to increase activities
○ remember as the “E” division
■ exercise, excitement, emergency,
and embarrassment
● Parasympathetic
○ housekeeping activities
○ conserves energy
○ maintains daily necessary body functions
○ remember as the “D” division
■ digestion, defecation, and diuresis