Ha to several MH ‘can be produced by mechanical lowing advantages : j oxilator is & non-Ttating device. Conequent ly, hers ie “ Tile neta ree ihe absence of moving parts, the operation of one 4 es nd coe Me oe tt He) ofthe elcicn =™ ring each o fr arr no mean ze prordlo omens of te gener wave dceaes eral ons remains unchanged since it pes P=" ‘ we. TH adn are produced without any exe f Scanned with CamScannertronics : | inciples of Elec’ ical oscillations whose amplitude remaing BG ene cys clectrical os shows waveform of undamped se 3 damped asiliations. Tre 14.1 oxilaionsare eng gene : eee asian in which these osciao aes msi ios tio ey i anced that an oscilla rat ow right amount of ener dout now righ is I tan osc remains constant. It sng in ais electronic cae tude of the enero se ations for Ui lectror @ electric Satipme ce undamped elec produce tn 44.3 Oscillatory Circuit : pI lec ss of any desired frequency is known as Jectrical oscillations of any desired fr ich produces A cireuit w cirenit or tank circuit. i icitor (C) and inductance coil (2) in ee trical oscillations of frequee A simple ae ait eel system can aes 4 < shown in Fig, 14.2. Cie and be t it e values of Land C, To u ea ae ae with a polarity as shown in 1 wiecton arte Rey a in Fig. 14.2 (A), the upper plate of cap, kena i) Inthe position shown in Fig. Peg padre ext rn the ines plate has excess of electrons. Therefore, capaci capacitor has electrostatic energy. 7 (i) (iti) Fig. 14.2 ai) When switch S is closed as shown in Fig. 14.2 (ii) , the capacitor will dist inductance and the electron flow will be in the direction indicated by the arrow. This cum aed! bp magnetic field around the coil. Due tothe inductive effect, the current builds up slowly "8 maximum value. The circuit current will be ‘maximum When the capacitor is fully exter instant, electrostatic energy is zero but because electron motion ie greatest (i.e. maximum the magnetic field energy around the Collis maximum. This is shown in Fig. 14.2 (i ae © energy across the capacitor jg Sompletely converted into magnetic field ene 19s CHECA, the magnetic feta Will begin to collapse and ote’ law, the counter en ¢ Will keep the current flowing 8 5, that the capacitor ig NOW charged with o site polarity, making and lower plate positive ae at ns 0 SO, begins’ ir Opposite direction, Fj Fi ace maximum current flowing, PPOS"® direction. Fig. 145 (®) shows capacitor fully The sequence of charge ang discha: : : 3 current. The energy is alter rate) Be results in tng mon ot ns se = z Of the capaci stored : Field of the inductance coiy ry", St0Fd in the electric ¢ | 1 Cis repeat f oscillations, \ BY between L and it This intere} again resulting in the procyction +hange of ene, Scanned with CamScannerSinusoidal Oscillators ™ 367 Ifthere were no losses in the tank circuit ay, the interchange of energy between L oe gid continue indefinitely. In a practical tank cir- voll tive and radiation losses in the coil and vein the capacitor. During each cycle, a small orginally imparted energy is used up to over- josses, The result is that the amplitude of oscil- vent decreases gradually and eventually it becomes the energy is consumed as losses. Therefore, cuit by itself will produce damped oscillations as nFig. 14.3. quency of oscillations. The frequency of oscilla- == tie tank circuit is determined by the constants of the “Fig. 143 Land C. The actual frequency of oscillations is “scant frequency (or natural frequency) of the tank circuit given by : 1 f= i. 20 VLC bis clear tha nas: a ies 5 cae frequency of oscillations in the‘tank circuit is inversely proportional to Z and C. ee fly agg eine: a large value of capacitor is used, it will take longer for the capacitor oy, equiva also longer to discharge. This will lengthen the period of oscillations in the tank Loy gly lower its frequency. With a large value of inductance, the opposition to change ie pester poe sor and hence the time required to complete each cycle will be longer. There~ ‘lations in the cot inductance, the longer is the period or the lower is the frequency of fort. we ete ont cu ey M4 oe Scanned with CamScannernics 368 = Principles of Electro! rntinuous undam 4. the circuit will produce > ie oUt ut a, ed, it re fulfill a ful . Fig. 14.4. | 14.5. Positive Feedbac Jac} can act aS an oscillator jg & tive feed 7 5 it nroper{positiv: Fig. 14.5 shows a transistor ampy;7. Can A transistor amplifier with PT ana source. FS. Pie al oscillations without any exterm : y, ‘ou mplifier — Oscillatoy 180° [FEEDBACK| NETWORK 180° ig Fig. 14.5 feedback. Remember that a positive feedback amplifier is one that pro- aces a feedback voltage (V, ) that is in phase with the original input signal. As you can see, this condition is met in the circuit shown in Fig. 14.5. A phase shift of 180° is produced by the amplifier and a further hase shift of 180° is introduced by feedback network. Consequently, the signal is shifted by 360° and fed to the input i., feedback voltage is in phase with the input signal (#)_ We note that the circuit shown in Fig. 14.5 is producing oscil- lations in the output. However, this circuit has an input signal. ‘This is inconsistent with our definition of an oscillator ie., an oscillator ig 2 circuit that produces oscillations without any external signal source. Fig. 146 Witch Sof Fig. 14.5 (ii) When we open the s the input signal (V,,)is removed. Howey ‘o the input signal. “The amplifier wilt re will be amplified and sent tothe output, ty the input. Therefore, the amplifier receives This process will continue so long as the , We get the hich is in ph \d to this signal feedback net another amplifier j er, Vy Spon inp network sends a portion of the LF "Pat cycle and another output °° Fy ‘Stumed on. Therefore, the amplifer Scanned with CamScannerSinusoidal Oscillators = 369 _y wih no external signal source, The following points may be noted carefully : gor amplifer with proper positive feedback will work as an oscillator, jqouit needs only & quick trigger signal to start the oscillations. Once the oscillations xed, no external signal source is needed. : sgerto get continuous undamped output from the cccut, the following condition must vino mA, = 1 voltage gain of amplifer without feedback = feedback fraction parton i called Barkhaisen criterion. This condition willbe explained inthe Art 14.7 1,6 Essentials of Transistor Oscillator 7 shows the block diagram of an oscillator. Its essential components are : * tank circuit, Tt consists of inductance coil (L) connected in parallel with capacitor (C). The szeyof oscillations in the circuit depends upon the values of inductance of the coil and capaci- seo the capacitor. \i) Transistor amplifier. The transistor amplifier receives d.c. power from the battery and it nto a.c. power for supplying to the tank circuit, The oscillations occurring in the tank cuiare applied to the input of the transistor amplifier. Because of the amplifying properties of the sisor, we get increased output of these oscillations. > " tere L [TRANSISTOR | q AMPLIFIER | FEEDBACK |__, CIRCUIT Fig. 14.7 ee Amplified output of oscillations is due to the d.c. power supplied by the battery. ‘The output Ta St0F can be supplied to the tank circuit to meet the Losses. i itn) ¢etback cireuit. ‘The feedback circuit supplies a part of collector energy 10 the tank cir- fe Phase to aid the oscillations i.e. it provides positive feedback. ) 7 Explanation of Barkhausen Criterion line criterion is that in order to produce continuous undamped oscillations at the output ofan * the positive feedback should be such that : On. mA, = 1 be oe, His condition is set in the po ed at the output immediate continuous undamped oscillations i .ck amplifier, “ sitive feedback amp! Sar apple ty after connecting the necessary po Scanned with CamScanneranes OF Ot y= 58.6 MH and C= co 6P principles 1C juned circuit with Ly 3; = 200, we of hm receive mae et . cg ace * a , = 300 pF = 300x 102 ‘ solution , oscillations. f= IEE Frequeny © ~ a 58.6% 10° x 300197 2 1199 x 10° Hz = 1199 ky, | ‘tance of the capacitor required 101 rind ie capacitance of rime ie produce asine wave Of fequency f sesamin are ofescilations is given by + 1 f* on LG, 1 = 1 C= a = ~ io 1 Danf? ax) Oa 253 x10 F=2-53 x 104 PFO ‘The LC circuit is often called tuned circuit or tank circuit, ( 4.10 Colpitt’s Oscillator Fig. 14.10 shows a Colpitts oscillator. It uses two capacitors and placed across a commons Land the centre of the two capacitors is tapped. The tank circuit is made up of C,, C,andL frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of C,, C, and and is given by; = 1 ia LC, c, = oo Gre +¥ oo. where Fis. 140° Scanned with CamScannerSinusoidal Oscillators = 373 Cy — Lis also the feedback circuit that produces a phase shift of 180°, that Cy circuit operation. When the circuit is turned on, the capaci- cand Cy are charged. The capacitors discharge through L, = be, f frequency determined by exp."*(. ‘The | a | mage tthe amplifier appears across C, and feedback volt- —y, to ce eloped across Cy, The voltage across it is 180° out of | [" t : Ty se with the voltage developed across C, (V,,,) as shown in Fig. | | Nv easy to see that voltage fedback (vollage across C)to FEEDBACK CIRCUIT des positive feedback. A phase shift of 180° is Fig. 14.1 transistor provi : nd a further phase shift of 180° is pro- ed by the transistor a by C, - C voltage divider. In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous oscillation. Feedback fraction m,. The amount of feedback, voltage, in Colpit ck fraction m, of the circuit. For this circuit, sale t's oscillator depends upon ve Xx ct Feedback fraction, my = we xe a : it cl 7 : G os my = Sb i BG ‘ «ite tn ample 14.3, Determine the (i) operating frequency and (ii) feedback fraction for Colpitt's itor shown in Fig. 14.12. i j $ : Solution, fe AREA ised le the circuit is always equal to the reso- Opera Operating Frequency. The operating frequency of : the capacitors C, and C, are in series. r lency of the feedback network. As noted previously, GG. _ 0.001x0.01 4 = 2.001x 0.01 9.99 x 10 Grey = ooor+00t ~° es = 909 x 107 F : L = 15pH = 15x10°H * Operatiy : Perating frequency, f = t 2n JC, 2n y15 x10 909 x 10 = 1361 x 10° Hz = 1361 kilz Cp = Scanned with CamScannerilable. se the capacitor Values ing ris available. Choos’ ‘mH inductor is avat Colpits sa AL mie eile He | = 025. orouaty= 1 Micand™, Solution. Gg ; Feedback fraction, = G, g » GEAG, -4 1 EAC, . os = 2 1 Now f° on ic; 1 ___ os. 3x10 a = Tanpe (x10) On x1 x 10 = 253 pF GG, ae - se “Che or Grey, = 253 0F [ - GC ee C G =253 1+ ¢ Gq 7 Teg = 253 o. C)=25.3 x 5=1265 pF and C= ; 1 = C/4= 1265/4 =31.6 pF (14.14 Hartley Oscillator The Hartley oscillator is similar to tapped capacitors, two inductors 7, the inductors is tapped frequency of oscillation st Colpit’s oscillator with minor modifications. Instead ey a 1 and L, are placed across a common capacitor C aN we oc town in Fig. 14.13, ‘The tank cirouit is made up of Ly Ly 18 determined by the values of iy Le and Candis ven f dred ; Where 2 cr, pe ape =Le +2M 2m. Here L * Mutual indy; Note that L, ~1,~ Cis al ct tance between L, and the feedback ny , and L, “of 190° etwork that produces a phase shift of Scanned with CamScannerCircuit operation. When the circt charged. When this capacitor is ils Ly and Ly setting up oscilla 4.14. Itis easy to see that voltage transistor provides positive fee is across L,. Feedback fraction, my Solution. @ a . 2 Total inductance, Ly Capacitance, C +L, + 2M uit is turned on, the capacitor fully charged, it discharges through tions of frequency determined by back voltage across L,. The voltage across ) as shown in Fig. with the voltage developed across Lj (Vous fedback (i.e., voltage across L,) to. dback. A phase shift of 180° is luced by the transistor and a further phase by Ly — L, voltage divider. In this way, to produce continuous undamped oscillations. Feedback fraction m,. In Hartley oscillator, or m = Example 14.5. Calc b | Calculate the’ (i) operating frequency lator shown in Fig. 14.15. The mutual inductance Referring to Fig. 14.14, in isc pepo 4, it is clear that L, and Z, are in series, Therefore, total induc Fig. 14.13 C_ le, al ears across L, and Ly, L, is 180° out of T A | FEEDBACK CIRCUIT shift of 180° is pro- Fig. 144 feedback is properly the feedback voltage is across Ly and output volt- Vp Vout 5 “Ls Ly and (ii) feedback fraction ‘for Hartley ‘berween the coils, M = 20 HH. = 1000 pH; ZL, = 100 HHS M = 20H = b+ h,+2M i 1000 + 100 + 2x 20 = 1140 pH = 1140x I 20 pF = 20x 10°? F Vaden : sagt oe caphoe inductive To" Scanned with CamScannernciples of Electronics 376 = Pri Fig. 14.15 - _ 1 « a. Operating frequency, f ine = fsa xo? sae = 1052 10° Hz = 1052 kHz L, _ 100WH _ yy Feedback fraction, ™ = [~~ 1000 Hf available. Choose the inductor values ina Hartley y ci (i) Example 14.6. AI pF capacitor is so thet j= 1 MHz and m, = 0.2. Lf Z_ Feedback fraction, m, = 2 L or = 2 1 Ly=5L, l ‘ 1 : Now f= Ryne or Ly = i 1 CQnfy dx 10-7) Qn x1 x10 = 25.3x 10° H=25.3 mH = L+L, = 3mH = Shy +L, = 25.3 2. Ly = 25.316 = 4.22 mH. L, = SL,=5x422=21.1 mH 14.12 Principle of Phase Shift Oscillators eae Fete of anscilltor is that should feed back energy of comet phase me the losbes*occurring in it. In the osci ircui im rent m : oscillator circuits discussed 50 cil emplayedindutive)andcapsive() elements, Ins cuits a4 io obtsned dv ndtv or eapactv outing anda fuer phase shift or 180 was oti Uraneior opens this way, energy supplied tothe tank circuit was in wih te illator circuits employing L-C al drayback they suffer from frequency instabil clements have two Benet Foie coe fequency instability and poor waveform, Secondly, they cannot be ™ ncies because they become too much bulky and expensive. 0 Scanned with CamScannerili si sency stability and waveform can inusoidg, Oseiy rea " be obta; | go! 7 wiements. Such amplifiers are catteg bain pee lators n can be Con 3 | aia that they can be used for very joy i hase Sif oxida 8 in Ucncies, ‘ators an : Ft gh obained with a phase shit cut ing 18 fi = nes. Ina pha gg sift of 180° is introduced due to the cases OF inductive or <4 clog ‘circuit 183 sured of correct phase, Properties, Thus toning 4 " Supplied back “circuit. A phase-shitt ci : int circuit. Pp cuit essentially consis oti C network. Fi ‘onsists of an Re asin ion of av - From the elementary theory of eke 6 oe Fie 1416, «ang Woe Vj AO ead the pd vi lectical engiesing tear ital es of Rand C. Tf Vs by The ar Hee e (a w ~ Fig. 14.16 Fe. 4.16 (i) shows the three sections of RC network. Bach section produces is: shift of 4, Cnsequenly, a total phase shift of 180° is produced ie. voliage V leads the voltage V, by 18 A [1413 Phase Shift Oscillator _ Fig. 14.17 shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator. It consists of a conventional single transistor i sft network consist of three sections RC) .C; smliferand a RC phase shift network. The phase shi setvorcn i ace xd R,C,, At some particular frequency fo the phase shit section is 6 50 wet shi given by: se shift produced by the RC network is 180°. The frequency of oscillations is giv +Voo ourPuT Cet AAT Scanned with CamScanner——————— R where \ G=G=c " “i ations of ‘The output Ey of the amplifier is fed back to RC feedback a Phase shift of 180° and a voltage E; appears at its output Which jg appli tion, When the circuit is switched on, it produces oscil Circuit operation, mained by exp. Obviously, the feedback fraction m= E/E, The fecha 's produced by the transistor amplifier. A further phase shift o ’ ig, Phase is correct. a, 4 7 #180" is produced o < ain ASG result, the phase shift around the entire loop is 360°. RE RC y Igy Sa Advantages ‘© Tt does not require transformers or inductors. Tecan be used to produce very low frequencies, i) "The ciouit provides good frequency stability, ) Disadvaniages ®) Wis difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as the feedback is Senerally smaty, ©) The cireuit gives small output, Example 14.7, Inthe phase shift oscillator shown in Fi = CL=C, = 68 PE. At what ‘frequency does the circuit lution, 8. 14.17, R= R= oscillate ? R= RR =R=1yoe 10° o Y= GCs C= 68 pF = 68x 19-2 p Frequency of oscillations is tS ancy 1 = 954 Hy, = ; Example 1438. A phase sit sac rn duce Srequency we 800 kHz, Plase shift oscilator uses § PP capacitors. Find the value of R 10 Pr Solution, 1 f= We G or t 6 Y rx 2 £06 2m x 800 x 103 x 5 x 10 162x WW o- 162 kQ. Scanned with CamScanner = 4