EN G LI S H L I T E R AT U R E

I T S H I S T O R Y A N D I T S S I GN I F I C A N C E

F O R T H E L I F E O F T H E E N GLI S H

S PE A K I N G WO R LD

A T E X T B O O K FO R S C H O O LS
-

W I LLI A M J O NG
.
Ii

GI NN A N D CO M PA N Y
N E W YO R K C H I CA GO LO N D O N
0

o
D A L LA S C O LU M B U S S AN FR AN C I S C O
C OP Y R IG HT ,
1 909 , 1 9 1 9 ,BY W I LL I A M J L O NG .

E N TE R E D A T S T AT I O N E R S H AL L
’

ALL R I GH TS R ES ER VED
PR I NTE D I N TH E U NI TE D S TATE S O F AM ER I CA

a tb en zu m fi rm s
'

O
G I NN AN D C M PAN Y 0 P R O
P R I ET O RS o B S T N O O
U .S .A.
 TO

MY FRIEND

C H T
I N GRATIT U DE FOR

CO NTINU ED H ELP IN

PREPARATION OF

T HIS BO OK
 PR E FAC E

Thi s book which p re se n ts th e wh ol e s pl e n did hi story of

,

E n gli s h lit e ratu re from A n gl o S ax on ti m e s to th e cl ose of th e

-

V ictorian Era has th re e s p e ci fic ai m s The fi rs t i s to c re at e or

, .

to e n cou rage i n e ve ry s tud e n t t h e d e s i re t o r e ad the be s t b ook s ,

an d to k n ow lite ratu re it se l f rath e r th an wh at has b e e n wr itt e n

about lit e ratu re The s e c on d i s t o i n t e rp re t lite ratu re b oth p e r

.

so n al ly an d hi s torically th at i s to s h ow how a gr e at b ook ge n

, ,

e ral ly r e fl e ct s n ot on ly th e auth or s li fe an d th ou ght b u t al so the

’

’
S pi r it of th e age an d the id e al s of t h e n ati on s hi s tory The .

thi rd ai m i s to S h ow b y a s tudy of e ach s u cc e ss ive p e r i od how

, ,

ou r lit e ratu r e h as s t e adil d e v e l op e d from i ts fi r s t S i m pl e s on gs

y
an d s t or i e s to i ts p re se n t c om pl e xity i n p ros e an d p oe try .

To carry ou t th e s e ai m s w e h ave i n tr oduc e d th e foll owi n g

fe atu re s
b ri e f acc u rat e s u m m ar f hi t r ica l e v e n t s an d soci al
( )
I A , y o s o

con dition s i n e ach p e r i od an d a con s id e rati on of the id e al s

,

which s ti rre d the wh ol e n ati on as i n the d ays of Elizabe th, ,

be fore th e y fou n d e xp re s s i on i n lite ratu re .

( )
2 A s tud
y o f t h e v ar i ou s lit e rar
y e p o ch s i n tu rn ,
s h o wi n g
wh at e ach gai n e d from th e e p och p re ce di n g an d how e ach aid e d ,

i n the d e ve l op m e n t of a n ati on al lite rat u re .

( )
3 A r e a d a bl e bi o gr aph y o f e v e r
y i m p o rta n t w r it e r ,
s h o wi n g
h ow h e live d an d work e d how h e m e t s u cc e ss or fail u re how
, ,

h e i n flu e n c e d h i s age an d h ow h i s age i n fl u e n c e d h i m

, .

n d an al s i s of e ve r r k s an d of
( )
’

4 A s tud y a
y y au th or s b e s t w o ,

m an y of th e book s r e qu i re d for c oll e ge e n t ran c e e xam i n ati on s

-
.

( )
5 S e l e cti o n s e n o u g h e s p e—ci a ll y f r o m e a r li e r w r it e r s a n d ,

from wr it e rs n ot lik e ly to b e fou n d i n th e h om e or s ch ool lib rary

M7 8 4 1 9
vi ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

in dicate the s pi rit of e ach auth or s work ; an d di re cti on s

’
to
as to the b e s t wor k s to re ad an d wh e r e s uch work s m ay b e
,

fou n d i n i n e xp e n s ive e diti on s .

u n t e ch n ical di s cu s s i on of e ach gre at wr it e r s

’
6
( ) A f ran k ,

wor k as a wh ol e an d a critical e sti m ate of hi s re l ative pl ac e

,

an d i n fl u e n c e I n our lite ratu re .

( 7) A s e r i e s o f h e lp s t o s t u d e n ts an d t e ach e r s at th e e n d o f
e ach ch apt e r i n cl u di n g s u m m ar i e s s e l e cti on s for re adi n g bibli og
, , ,

rap hi e s a li s t of s u gge s tive qu e s ti on s an d a ch ron ol ogical tabl e of

, ,

i m portan t e ve n ts i n the hi story an d lite ratu re of e ach p e riod .

( )
8 T h rou gh out thi s b oo k w e h ave re m e m b e re d R oge r

A sc ham s s u gge s ti on m ad e ov e r th re e c e n tu ri e s ago an d s till

’

’
p e rti n e n t that t i s a p oor w ay to m ake a child l ov e s tudy b y
,

b e gi n n i n g with the thi n gs which h e n aturally dis like s .

”
We
h ave l aid e m ph as i s u p on the d e li ghts of lite ratu re ; w e h ave
t re ate d b ook s n ot as m e re i n s t ru m e n ts of r e se arch — which i s
th e d an ge r i n m os t of ou r s t u di e s — b u t rath e r as i n stru m e n t s

of e n j o m e n t an d of i n s pi rati on ; an d b m aki n g ou r s tud as

y y y
att ractiv e as p os s ibl e w e h av e sou ght to e n cou rage the s tud e n t

to r e ad wid e ly for hi m se l f to ch oos e th e b e s t b ooks an d t o

, ,

form hi s ow n j u d gm e n t ab ou t wh at ou r fi rs t An gl o S ax on -

”
wri te rs call e d the thi n gs worthy to b e re m e m b e re d .

To th ose w ho m ay thi s b ook i n th e i r h om e s or i n th e i r

u se

Cl ass room s th e w r ite r v e n tu re s t o offe r on e or tw o fr i e n dly s u g

,

ti on s ou t of hi s ow n e xp e r i e n c e as a t e ach e r of ou n g p e opl e
g e s
y .

F i rs t th e am ou n t of s pac e h e re g ive n to di ffe re n t p e r i od s an d

,

au th ors i s n ot an i n d e x of th e r e l ative am ou n t of ti m e to b e

s p e n t u p on th e di ffe r e n t s u bj e ct s T hu s to t e ll th e s tory of
. ,

S p e n s e r s li fe an d id e al s r e qu i re s as m u ch S pac e as to te ll th e
’

s tory of Te n n y son ; b u t th e av e rage cl ass will s p e n d i ts ti m e

m ore pl e asan tly an d p rofitabl y with th e l att e r p oe t than with

t he form e r S e c on d m an y au th ors w ho are an d ou ght to b e
.
,

i n cl u d e d i n thi s hi s tory n e e d n ot b e s tudi e d i n the cl as s roo m .

 PRE FA C E V
ii

A te xt -book i s n ot a cat e chi sm but a s tore hou s e i n which on e ,

fi n d s wh at he wan ts an d s om e good thi n gs b e s id e Fe w Cl ass e s

,
.

will fin d ti m e to s tudy B lak e or Ne wm an for i n s tan c e ; b u t ,

i n n e ar ly e ve ry cl as s th e re will b e fou n d on e or tw o s tu d e n ts
w ho are att racte d b y the m ys tici s m of B l ak e or b y th e p rofou n d

S pi r i t ual it of N e wm an S u ch s t u d e n t s s h ould b e e n c ou rage d to

y .

foll ow th e i r ow n s pi rits an d to s h are with th e i r cl ass m ate s th e

,

j y
o o f th e i r di s cove r i e s A n d th e
.
y s h ould fin d i n th e i r t e xt b ook -

th e m at e ri al for th e i r ow n s tudy an d re adi n g .

A thi r d s u gge s ti on re l ate s to the m e th od of t e achi n g lite ra

t ure ; an d h e re it m i ght b e w e ll t o c on s id e r th e w or d of a gre at
poe t ,
-th at i f you wou ld k n ow wh e re th e r ipe s t ch e rr i e s ar e ,

as k th e b o s an d t h e bl ackbi rd s
y I t i s s u rp r i s i n g h ow m u ch a

V
.

o u n g p e r s o n will ge t ou t of th e M e re /2a m o f n i ce an d s om e
y e ,

how arri v e at S h ak e s p e are s Opi n i on of S hyl ock an d Porti a i f

’

w e do n ot both e r h i m too m u ch with n ot e s an d c r itical di re c

ti on s as to wh at h e ought to se e k an d fin d Tu rn a child an d a .

d on k e y l oose i n the sam e fi e ld an d the child h e ad s s t rai ght for

,

th e b e au ti fu l S p ots wh e re b rook s ar e ru n n i n g an d bi rd s s i n gi n g ,

whil e the d on k e y tu rn s as n atu rally to we e d s an d thi stl e s I n .

ou r s tu dy of lit e ratu re w e h av e p e r h ap s t oo m uch s m p ath

y y
with the l att e r an d w e e ve n i n s i s t th at the child c om e back
,

from hi s ow n qu e s t of t h e id e al to j oi n u s i n ou r c r itic al com

p a n i o n s hi
p. I n r e adi n g m an
y t e xt b o o k s o f l at e
-
an d i n v i,
s iti n
g
m an y cl ass r oom s th e w r it e r has r e c e iv e d th e i m p r e s s i on th at w e
,

lay too m u ch s tre s s on s e co n d h an d c ritici s m p asse d d own from

-
,

bo ok to b ook ; an d w e s e t ou r p u pil s to s e archi n g for fi gure s of

S p e e ch an d e l e m e n t s of s t l e as if th e t b k s of t h w ld
y , g r e a oo e o r

we r e s u bj e ct to Ch e m ical an alys i s T hi s s e e m s to b e a m i sta k e

.
,

for tw o r e as on s fi rs t th e av e rage you n g p e r s on has n o n atu ral

,

i n te re s t i n s uch m att e rs an d s e con d h e i s u n abl e to app re ciate,

th e m H e fe e l s u n con s ci ou sly with Ch auc e r

.

An d for m e , th ou gh th at m y w i t b e lyté,
as

On b ook é s for to r e d e I m e d e ly te .
vii i ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

I n d e e d m an y m atu re p e rson s ( i n cl u di n g the writ e r of thi s hi story)

,

are oft e n u n abl e to e xpl ai n at fi rs t th e ch arm or the s t l e of an

y
au th or w h o pl e as e s th e m an d th e m ore p rofou n d th e i m p re s s i on

m ad e b y a boo k th e m ore di ffi cu lt it i s to give e xp re s s i on to ou r

,

thou ght an d fe e li n g To re ad an d e n j oy good books i s with u s

.
,
’
as with Ch au c e r th e m ai n thi n g ; to an al ze th e auth or s s ty l e or
, y
e xpl ai n ou r ow n e n j o m e n t s e e m s of s e c on d ar an d s m all i m p or
y y
t an c e . H owe ve r th at m ay b e w e s tat e fran kly ou r ow n c on victi on
,

th at the d e tail e d s tudy an d an aly s i s of a fe w s tan d ard work s

which i s th e on ly lit e rary pabu l u m give n to m an y you n g p e opl e i n
our s ch ool s b e ars the s am e r e l ation to tru e lit e ratu re th at th e ol
ogy b e ars to r e ligi on or p sych ol ogy to fr i e n d s hip
,
O n e i s a m ore .

o r l e s s u n w e lc om e m e n tal di s cipli n e the oth e r i s th e joy of li fe

‘

T he write r ve n tu r e s to s u gge s t th e r e fore th at s i n c e lite ra

, , ,

tu re i s ou r s u bj e ct w e b e gi n an d e n d with good b ooks an d that

,

w e s tan d as id e whil e t he gr e at wr ite rs s p e ak th e i r ow n m e ssage

to ou r pupil s . I n s tudy i n g e ach s u cc e s s ive p e r i od l e t the s tu ,

d e n t b e gi n b y r e adi n g the b e s t th at the age p rod u c e d ; l e t hi m

fe e l i n hi s ow n w ay the p owe r an d m ys te ry of B e ow u lf the ,

broad ch ar ity of S hake s p e are the s ubli m i ty of Milton the r o

, ,

m an tic e n th u s ias m of S c ott ; an d th e n wh e n h i s ow n tas t e i s ,

pl e as e d an d s ati s fi e d a n e w on e will ari s e — to k n ow som e

, ,

thi n g abou t the au th or the ti m e s i n which he live d an d fi n ally

, ,

of c r itici s m which i n i ts S i m plicit i s th e di s c ov e r th at th e m e n

, , y y
,

a n d w om e n of oth e r age s w e re v e r m uch lik e ours e lv e s l ovi n g as

y ,

w e l ove be ar i n g the sam e b u rd e n s an d foll owi n g the sam e id e al s

, ,

Lo, w i th th e an ci e n t

of
’
R oots m an s n ature

T w i n e s th e e te rn al

Pas s i on o f s on g .

E v e r Lov e fan s i t ;
E v e r Li fe fe e ds i t ;
Ti m e c an n ot ag e it ;
D e ath c an n ot s a l y .
 PRE FA C E 1X

To an s we r the que stio n s which ar i se n aturally b e twe e n t e ach e r

an d pupi l c on c e r i n g the bo ok s th at th e y r e ad i s on e Obj e ct of
n ,

thi s volu m e I t ai m s n ot s i m ply to i n stru ct but al so to i n s pi re

.

to trac e the hi s tor ical d e ve l op m e n t of E n gli s h lite ratu re an d at

,

th e s am e ti m e t o allu r e i ts re ad e rs t o the b e s t bo ok s an d the

be s t wr ite rs An d from be gi n n i n g to e n d it i s writt e n up on the
.

ass u m pti on th at th e fi rs t vi rtu e of s uch a w ork i s to b e accu rat e ,

an d the s e c on d to b e i n t e re s ti n g .

The au th or ack n owl e d ge s with gratitud e an d app re ci ati on

, ,

hi s i n d e bt e d n e s s to Profe ss or W illi am Lyon Ph e lp s for the

u se of h i s lit e rary m ap of E n gl an d an d to th e k e e n c ritic s
, ,

te ach e rs of lite ratu re an d hi story w ho h ave re ad the p roofs of

,

thi s book an d h ave i m p rov e d it b y th e i r good s u gge sti on s

, .

WI L L I AM J . L ON G
S TA MF ORD , C O NN E C T I C UT
 CO N T E N T S
PA G E
C H A PT E R I I N T R O D U C T I O N .
—
TH E M E A N I N G OF
L I T E R AT U R E

The S he ll an d t h e B o ok Q li t i e s . ua of i
L t e ra t u r e . T e s ts of i
L t e rat u re .
T h e O b j e c t i n s t d y i g Li t e r t r e u n a u . I m p o r t an c e of i
L t e ra t u re , Sum
m ary O f t h e S b j e c t B i b li g p h y
u . o ra .

C H A PT E R I I . TH E A N G LO —
S A X O N O R O LD —
E N G LI S H
PE R I O D

Our F i rs t Po e t r y . B e ow u f. l ” "
W id s i th .
" "
D e or s
’
La m e n t .
”
Th e
S e af a re r .
”
i
F gh t a t F i n n s b u r g h .
Th e
” "
W a l d e re . An gl o S ax on -

i
L fe . Ou r F rs t S p e e c h . Ch r s t a n W r te rs .
i i i i N o rt h u m b ri an L i t e ra t u r e .
Be de . C md m on . y e w l f D e c li
C n u . ne Of N o r t h u m b ri an i
L t e ra t u r e .
Alf re d . S u m m ar y B ib li o g ap h y Q
. r . u e s t on s .i Ch ro n o l o gy .

C H A PT E R I I I . TH E A N G LO -
N O R MA N P E R I O D
Th e N o rm an s . Th e C o n q u e s t . Li t e r ary I d e a l s Of the N o rm an s . G e o ffr e y
Of Mo n m o u t h . W o rk Of the F re n c h W r i t e rs . La ya m o n
’
s
“
B ru t .
Me t r i c a l R o m a n c es . T h e Pe a r l . M i s c e ll an e o u s i
L t e ra t u r e of the N or
m an Pe r i od. S u m m ar y . B b i li o
g ra
p h y .
Q u e s t i on s . C h ro n o l og y .

C H A PT E R I V TH E
. A GE O F C H AU CER .

H i s t ry f t h e
o o i o d F iv e W ri t s O f
Pe r . er the Ag e . Chau c e r . La n g l an d .

Pi e rsPl o w m an .J h W y lif J o h
”
o n c . n M an d e vill e . S u m m ar y . Bib l i
o grap h y. Qu e s tio s C h o o l gy
n . r n o .

C H A PT E R V TH E . RE VI VA L O F LE A R N I N G
Po l i t i c al C h an g e s . L t e ra t u re i viv a l Wy t t a d S
Of th e Re . a n u rr e
y M a l o ry s
.
’

Mor t e d Art h u r ’
. Su m m a ry B i b li o grap h y Q e s t i o s
. . u n . C h ron o l ogy .

C H A PT E R VI . T H E A GE O F E L I Z A B E T H .

Po t li i c l S m m ary C h a ac t e i s t i c s o f t h e E li zab e th an Age Th e N on

a u . r r .

D ra m at i c Po e t s E d m u d S p e s e . M i n o Po e t s Th o m as S ac kvill e
n n r. r . .

Ph ili p S i d n e y G o g e C h ap m an
. e Mic h ae l D ay t o
r Th e O i g i Of . r n . r n

t he D m
ra T h e R e li gi
a. s Pe r i o d o f t h e D am a Mi ac l e an d Mys t e ry
ou r . r

P l ay s . Th e Mo a l Pe ri d f t h e D ram a Th e I t l d e s Th e A t i s t i c
r o o . n er u . r

P e ri d O f t h e D ram a
o C l as i c l I fl c p .t h e D ra m a S
s h k e
a n uen e u on . a

sp e a re s Pr e d e c e s s o rs i n t h e D ram a C h ri s t o h e r Mar l ow e ak e s p e are

’
p S h . . .

x
 C ONTENTS
PAG E
D e c li n e k e sp e are s C on te m p orari e s an d S u cc e s s ors
t he D S ha
’
of ram a. .

B e n J o s on B e n m on t an d F l e t c h e r J oh n W e b s t e r Th o m a M i d d l e
. au . . s

t on T h o m s H e y w o d Th o m as D e kk e r M as s i g e r
. a F o d S h i rl e y
o . . n . r . .

P os e W ri t e rs
r Fra c is B c on R i c h a rd H o o k e
. S id e y
n R a l e i gh a . r. n . .

J o h F o xe C m d e n a d Kn o x H akl yt an d Pu c h as T hom as N o rt h
n . a n . u r . .

S m m a ry B ib li o g a p h y Q e s t i
u . s C h ro n o l ogy
r . u on . .

C H A PT E R VI I . T H E P U R I TA N A GE

Th e Pu r ta n i Mo v e m e n t . C h an g i n g I d e a ls . i
L t e ra r y C hara c t e ri s t i c s .

Th e T ran s t i io n Po e t s . S am u e l D an e i l . Th e S o n g W ri te rs Th e S p e n
.

s e r ani Po e t s . T h e Me t ap h ys i c a l Po e t s . J o hn D on n e . G e o rge H e rb e rt .
The Ca v a li e r Po e ts T h o m as Ca e w R o b e rt H e rri c k S c kli n g an d
. r . . u

Lo v e l ce J o h n Mil t on Th e Pro s e W i t e s J h n B
a . yan R ob e rt B r
. r r . o un . u

t on T h o m as B r w e T h o m as F ll e
. J e re m y T y l o r R i c h ard B axt e r
o n . u r. a . .

I zaa k W a l t o S u m m a ry B i b li o grap h y Q e s t i on s C h r o l o g y
n . . . u . on .

C H A PT E R VI I I . PE R I O D O F T H E R E S T O R AT I O N

Hi s to y o f t h e Pe ri o d Li t e y C h a ac t e ri s t i c s J o hn D ry d e S am u e l
r . ra r r . n .

B tl e
u H bb sr. d Lo c k e E v e l y a d Pe p y
o e an S u m m a ry B i b li o grap h y
. n n s. . .

Q e s t io s C h
u n o l o gy . ro n .

C H A PT E R I X. E I GH T E E N T H -
CENTU RY LI T E R A
TU RE
H i s t o ry o f t h e Pe ri o d Li t e ra y C ha rac t e ri s t ic s Th e C l as s i c Age
. r . .

Al e x a d e r Po p e J o t h an S w i ft J o s e p h Add i s o n
n . na Th e T t l e r an d . . a
”

“
S am e l J o h s o B os w e ll s Li fe o f J o h n s
” ‘
Th e S p e c t a t o La t e r
’
r. u n n . on .

A g s tan W ri t e rs Ed m
u u d B k e E d w a d G ib b on T h e R e viv a l O f
. un ur . r .

R o m a t i c Po e t y T h o m a s G ray O liv e Go l d s m i t h W illi m C o w p e r

n r . . r . a .

R ob e rt B rn s W illi am B l ak e T h e Mi o Po e ts o f t h e R o m a t ic
u . .
‘
n r n

R e viv a l J am e s Th o m s o W illi am C lli s Ge ge C ab b e J m e s

. n . o n . or
’
r . a

Mac p h e s on Th o m as C h att e rt o
r . Th o m as Pe c y T h e F i s t E g lis h n. r . r n

N o v e li s t s Me a i n g o f t h e N o v e l Pr e c s o s Of t h e N v e l D i s c o v e ry
. n . ur r o .

of t h e M d e rn N v e l o D a i e l D e fo e S am e l R i c h d s o
o . H ry n . u ar n . en

Fie l d i g n S m o ll t t a n d S t e rn e
. S u m m a y B ib li o g ra p h y Q e s t i on s
e . r . . u .

Ch l o gy
ro n o .

C H A PT E R X . T H E AG E O F R O M A N T I C I S M

H i s t o ri c a l S u m m ar y . Li t e r a ry Ch ar ac t e ri s t i c s Of th e Age . T h e Po e t s
of i c i s m W illi am W d s w o t h S am l Tay l or C o l e ri d ge
R o m an t . or r . ue .

R ob e rt S th y Wa l t e S c t t B y o P c y B y s s h e S h ll e y J hn
ou e . r o . r n . er e . o

K e a t s P o s W ri t e s O f t h e R o m
. r e t i c Pe ri d C h a l s La m b Th m as
r an o
‘
. r e . o

D e Q u i ce y J a e A s t n
n W a l t e r S av age Lan d or S u m m ary B i b liog
. n u e . . .

rap h
y Q u e s t i on s C h ro o l o gy
. . n .
 E NGL I S H L I TERATURE
PA GE

C HA PT E R X I . TH E VI CT OR I A N AGE

H i s tori c al S u m m ary Li te rary Ch a ac t e i s t i c s Po e ts of th e V

. r r i ctori an
Ag e Al fre d T e n n y s o n R ob e r t B ow n i g Mi n or P oe t s of th e V
.

. . r n i c tori an
.

Ag e E lizab e th B arr e tt R os s e tt i M o rri s S w i b rn e N ov e l i s t s o f n u

th e V
. . . . .

i c t o i an Ag e C h arl e s D i c k e n s Willi am Mak e p e ac e Thac k e ray

r

G e org e E li ot M i n or N ov e l i s t s Of th e V
. . .

. i c tor i an Ag e C h arl e s R e ad e . .

An t h on y T r o ll o p e C h ar l ot t e B r o t e B u l w e r Ly tto
. n . C h ar l e s K i n g s l e y n . .

Mrs Gas k e ll B l a c k m ore M e r e d i th H ard y S t e v e n s o E s s ay i t s n s

of t h e V
. . . . . .

i c t or i an Ag e Mac au l ay C arl y l e R u s ki n M atth e w Arn ol d

. . . . .

N e w m an Th e S p i ri t of Mod e r n Li t e ratu r e S u m m ary B i b li og rap h y

. . . .

Q u e s t i o n s C h r o n o l og y
. .

CHA PT ER X I I . AN E S S AY O F R E C E N T LI T E R AT U R E

Rud yard K i p li n g . S om e Mo d e rn N ov e li s t s
li s ts T h e Mod e rn . Th e R e a .

R om a c e T h e Po e ts Poe t ry of E v e r y d ay Li fe T h e S y m b oli s t s Th e
n . . . .

C e l t i c R e viv al B o o k s o f M a y K i n d s B ook s of t h e Wa r B i b li ogr ap h y

. n . . .

GE N E R A L B I B LI O GR A P H Y

I N D EX
 FU L L PAG E I L LU S T R AT I O N S
—

PAG E
C A N TE RB U R Y P I L G R I M S F r on tzlv
‘

p e
ze e

F m R y l MS
ro o a 8 D i i i th
.
,
I .
,
n e Br t ii sh M u se u m

L I TE R A R Y M AP O F E N G LA N D
TH E M A N U S C R I PT B O O K .

Aft t h p i t i g i t h C g
er e a n n n e on re s s on a i l Lib y ra r ,
b y J oh n W . A l e xa n d e r

G EO FF RE Y C H A U C E R
Aft t h R w li
er e a P t l P
n s on as e o rt ra it i n t h e B od li e an i
L b ra r y , O ford x
P O RT I A
Aft t h p t it b y J h Ev
er e o r ra o n e re tt M illa i s . Pr ope rt y of t he Me t rop o lit an
Mu se u m of Art

A M E RI C A N M E M OR I A L W I N DO W ST R AT F O R D ,

ED M U N D B U R K E
F ro m i t
a n ol d pr n

A L F R E D TE N N Y SO N
Aft t h p t i t b y G
er e o r ra g F d i W tt e or e re er c a s

S I R G ALA H AD

Aft t h p i t i g b y Ge o
er e a n g F d i
n tt r e re er c W a s

C H ARLE S D I CK E N S
Aft t h p t i t b y D
er e o r ra i l M li an e ac se

T H O M A S C A RL Y LE

Afte t h p t i t b y J m
r e o r ra M N l l Whi t la es c ei s er
 L I S T O F I L LU S T R AT I O N S

A PA G E F RO M T HE M A N U S C R I PT O F B EO W U L F
ST ON E H E N G E O N SA L I S B UR Y P LA I N
,

INI T I A L L ETTE R O F A M S C OP Y O F ST LU K E S G O SPEL

. .
’

RU I N S A T W H I T BY
C 1E D M O N C R O SS AT W H I T BY A BB E Y

LE I F E R I C S O N S V
’
E S SEL
C A N TER B U R Y C ATH EDRA L A S I T W A S C O M PLETE D LO N G A F TER
T H E C O N Q UE ST
R E M A IN S O F T H E S C RI PTO R I U M O F F OU N TA I N S A BB E Y
TA B A R D I N N
J O H N WYC L I F
SPE C I M E N O F C AX T O N S P R IN T I N G I N T H E Y EA R 1 4 86
’

E D M U N D SPE N SE R
W I LL I A M S H A K E SPEA R E
A N N E H ATH A W A Y C OTTA G E
B I RT H PLA C E O F S H A K E SPE A RE
TR I N I T Y C H U R C H STRAT F O RD O N A VO N
,
- -

B E N J O N SO N
J OH N M I LTO N
J OH N BU N YAN
L I B RA R Y AT T RI N I T Y C OLLE G E C A M B R I D G E
,

W E ST M I N STE R
J O N ATH A N S W I F T
TR I NI T Y C OLLE G E DU B L I N
,

J OSEP H ADD I SO N
SA M U EL JO H N SO N
TH O M AS G RA Y
C H U R C H A T ST O K E P OG ES
 ENGL I SH L I T E RATURE XV x

PA G E
OLIV
E R GO LDS M I TH
W I LL I A M C O W P ER
RO B ERT B UR N S
B I RT H P LA C E O F B U R N S
TH E AU LD B R I G AY R ( A Y R B R I D G E )
,

DA N I EL D E F O E
W I LL I A M W O RDS W ORT H
W ORDS W O RT H S H O M E AT R Y DA L M OU N T
’

S A M U E L TA Y LO R C O LER I D G E
R O B ERT SOU T H E Y
W A LTE R S C OTT
A BB OTS F O RD
G EOR G E G O R D ON LORD BY RO N
,

P ER CY BY SSH E S H ELLE Y
C H ARLE S LA M B
C HR I ST S H OSP I TAL L ON DO N
’
,

T HO M A S DE Q U I N C E Y
R O B ERT B RO W N I N G
M RS B RO W NI N G
.

W I LL I A M M A K EP EA C E T H A C K ERA Y
G EOR G E EL I OT
T HO M AS B A B I N G TO N M A C AU LA Y
U N I VE R S I T Y O F ED I N B U R G H
J O H N RU S K I N
Q UAD R A NG L E OF O RI E L C OLLE G E o x F O R D
,
 EN G L I S H LI T ER AT U R E

C H A PTER I

I NTR OD U C ON
TI — THE ME ANI NGD F LI TER ATU RE

H o l d th e h y e w e y , an d l at thy g os t th e e l e d e .
Ch a u c e r s Tr u ti e
’

On , on , y ou l
n ob e s t E n gl i s h ,
F o l l ow y ou r S p i ri t
S h ak e s p e ar e
’
s H e n ry V
Th e S h e l l an d t h e B ook . A child an d a
w e r e on e day m an
.

walki n g o n t h e s e as h ore wh e n t h e child fo u n d a littl e s h e ll

an d h e ld it t o h i s e ar S u dd e n ly h e h e a r d s ou n d s
. S t r an g e ,
—
,

low m e l odi ou s s ou n d s as if t h e S h e ll w e r e r e m e m b e r i n g an d
, ,

r e p e ati n g t o it s e l f t h e m u r m u r s of i t s o c e an h om e The child s

’
.

fa ce fill e d with w on d e r a s h e li s t e n e d H e r e i n t h e littl e S h e ll

.
,

app are n tl w a s a v oic e fr om an oth e r w or ld an d h e li s t e n e d

y , ,

with d e li ght t o i t s m y s t e ry an d m u s ic Th e n c am e th e m an . ,

e xpl ai n i n g th at t h e child h e ar d n othi n g s t r an g e ; th at t h e

p e ar l y cur ve s Of th e s h e ll s i m pl y c au ght a m u ltit u d e of s ou n d s
t oo fa i n t for h u m an e ar s an d fill e d t h e g li m m e r i n g h oll ow s
,

with t he m u r m u r o f i n n u m e rabl e e ch oe s I t w a s n ot a n e w .

w or ld b u t on l y t h e u n n otic e d h ar m on y Of th e Old th at had

,

ar o u s e d t h e child s w on d e r
’

S o m e s u ch e xp e r i e n ce as thi s aw a it s u s wh e n w e b e g in t h e
stu d Of lit e ra t u r e which h lw t w p ct on e Of
y ,
a s a a y s o a s e s ,

S i m pl e e n j o m e n t an d app r e ci at i on t h th o f an al y s i s an d
y e o e r ,

e x a ct d e s c r ipti o n . L e t a littl e s on g app e al t o t h e e ar or a ,

n obl e b ook t o t h e h e ar t an d for t h e m o m e n t a t l e a s t w e d i s

, ,
,

c ov e r a n e w w or ld a w or ld s o di ffe r e n t from ou r ow n th at it
,
 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

se e m s a pl ac e of d r e am s an d m ag ic TO e n t e r an d e n j oy th i s .

n e w w o r ld t o l ov e g o od b oo k s for th e i r ow n s a k e i s t h e chi e f
, ,

thi n g ; t o an a ly ze an d e xpl ai n th e m i s a l e ss j oy ou s but s till

an i m p or t an t m att e r B e hi n d e v e ry b ook i s a m an ; b e hi n d
.

t h e m an i s t h e r a c e ; a n d b e hi n d t h e r a c e ar e t h e n at u ral an d

s o ci a l e n v i r on m e n t s wh o s e i n fl u e n c e i s u n c o n s ci o u s l
y r e fl e ct e d .

The s e al So W e m u St k n ow i f t h e b ook i s t o s p e ak i t s W h o l e
,

m e s S a é I n a WO r d w e h av e n o w re a ch e d a p oi n t wh e r e w e
g . ,

W i Sh t qi u n d e r s t a n d a s w e ll a s t o e n j o y lit e r a t u r e an d t h e ,

fir St s t e p s i n ce e xact de fi n iti on 15 i m p os s ibl e i s t o d e t e r m in e

, ,

s om e of i t s e s s e n tial q u aliti e s .

Q u a l i t i e s o f L i t e r a t u r e T h e fi r.s t s i g n ific a n t thi n g i s t h e

e s s e n ti all y ar ti s tic q u alit y of a l l lit e rat u r e A ll art i s t he .

e xp r e s s i on of li fe i n for m s o f t r uth an d b e au t y ; or
Arti s ti c
rath e r it i s t h e r e fl e cti on o f s om e t ru th an d b e aut
, y
which ar e i n t he w orld but which r e m ai n u n n otic e d u n til
,

b r ou ght t o ou r att e n ti on b y s om e s e n s itiv e h u m an s ou l j u s t ,

as t h e d e lic at e c u r v e s of t h e s h e ll r e fl e ct s o u n d s a n d b ar m o

n i e s t oo fai n t t o b e oth e r wi s e n otic e d A h u n d re d m e n m ay .

p as s a h ay fie l d an d s e e on l y t h e s w e at y t oil an d t h e wi n d row s
Of d r i e d g ra s s ; b u t h e r e i s on e w h o p au s e s b a R ou m an i an
y
m e ad ow wh e r e g i rl s ar e m aki n g h ay an d S i n g i n g a s th e y w or k
, .

H e l ook s d e e p e r s e e s t r u th an d b e au t y wh e r e w e s e e on l y
,

d e ad gr a s s a n d h e r e fl e ct s wh at h e s e e s i n a littl e p oe m i n
,

which t h e hay t e ll s i t s o w n s t ory

Y e s t e r d a y s fl ow e r s a m I
’
,

An d I h a v e d r u n k m y l a s t s w e e t d r a u g h t O f d e w .

You n g m ai d e n s c am e an d s an g m e t o m y d e a th ;
T h e m oo n l oo k s d ow n an d s e e s m e i n m y s h ro u d ,
The s h ro u d Of my l as t de w .

Y e s te rd a y s ’
fl ow e rs th at a re
y e t in m e
Mu st n e e ds m a ke w ay for all to m or row -
’
s fl ow e rs .
T he m a i d e n s , t oo , th a t s an g m e t o m y d e ath
Mu s t e ve n so m a ke w a y fo r al l th e m ai d s

T h at ar e t o c om e .
An d as my s ou l , so t oo th e i r s ou l wi l bel
Lad e n w i th fragr an c e Of th e d a ys g o ne b .
y
 I NTRODU C T I O N 1
T he m a i d e n s th at to-m orrow c om e th i s w ay
W i ll n o t re m e m b e r th a t I on c e d i d b l oom ,

F or th e y w ill on l y s e e th e n e w -b o rn fl o w e rs .
Ye t w i ll m y p e rf u m e -l ad e n s ou l b r i n g b ac k ,
As a sw e e t m e m or y , t o w om e n
’
s h e ar ts
T he i r d a y s of m ai d e n h ood .
A n d th e n the y wi ll be s orr y th at th e y c am e

TO s in
g m e t o m y d e a th ;
An d al l th e b u tte rfl i e s w i m ou rn for m e . ll
I b e ar aw a y w i th m e
T he s u n shi n e s d e ar b r an c e , an d th e l ow
’
re m e m

S of t m u r m u r s Of th e s p r i n g .

My b re ath i s s w e e t as c h i l d re n s ’
p r at tl e i s ;
I d r an k i n al l th e w h o le e ar th s fru i tf u l n e s s ,
’

T o m ake Of i t th e fr ag ra n c e of my s ou l
T h at s ha ll ou t live m y d e a th .
1

On e who re a l y th at fi r s t e xq u i s it e li n e Ye st e r d ay s
ds on ,
’

”
fl ow e r s am I c an n e v e r aga i n s e e h ay with ou t r e c a lli n g t h e
,

b e a u t y that w as hidd e n fr om h i s e y e s u n til t h e p oe t fo u n d it .

I n t he sam e pl e as i n g s u r p r i s i n g w ay all ar ti s tic w or k m u s t

, ,

b e a ki n d o f r e v e la ti on Th u s ar chit e ctu r e i s p r ob abl y the

.

Old e s t of t h e ar t s ; t w e s till h av e m an y build e r s b u t fe w

y e

ar chit e ct s th at i s m e n wh o s e w or k i n w o o d or s t on e s u g g e s t s
, ,

s om e hidd e n t r u th an d b e au t y t o t h e h u m an s e n s e s S o in .

lit e rat u r e which i s t he art th at e xp r e s s e s li fe i n w or d s th at

,

app e al t o ou r o w n s e n s e o f t h e b e aut i fu l w e h av e m an y w r it e r s ,

b u t fe w ar t i s t s I n t h e b r oad e s t s e n s e p e rh ap s lit e r at u re
.
, ,

m e an s s i m pl y t h e wr itt e n r e c or d s of t h e ra c e i n cl u di n g al l i t s ,

hi s t ory an d s ci e n c e s as w e l l a s i t s p oe m s an d n ov e l s ; i n t h e
,

n ar r ow e r s e n s e lit e ra t u r e i s t h e a rti s tic r e c o r d of li fe a n d m os t ,

Of ou r w r iti n g i s e xclud e d f rom it j u s t as t h e m a s s of ou r ,

b u il di n gs m e r e s h e lt e r s fr om s t or m an d from c old ar e e x
, ,

cl u d e d fr om ar chit e ctu re A hi s t ory or a w o r k of s ci e n c e m ay

.

b e an d s om e ti m e s i s lit e rat u r e b u t on l y as w e for ge t t he ,

s u bj e ct m a
-
tt e r an d t h e p r e s e n t ati on of fa ct s i n t h e s im pl e
b e au t y Of i t s e xp r e s s i on .

1 Fr om Tb e B a r d o
f Me D zm b ov zt za , F
’ '

i rs t Ser i e s, p . 73 .
4 ENGL I SH L I TERA T URE
Th e sec on d qu alit y of lit e rat u r e i s i t s s ugg e s tiv e n e s s i t s ,

app e a l t o ou r e m oti on s a n d i m agi n ati on r a th e r th an t o ou r ,

i n t e ll e ct I t i s n ot S O m u ch wh at it s ay s as wh at it
.

S u g ge s ti ve
aw ak e n s i n u s th a t c o n s tit u t e s i t s ch ar m Wh e n .

Milt on m ak e s S at an s ay My se l f am H e l l h e d oe s n ot s t at e
, ,
”

an f a ct b u t r ath e r Op e n s up i n th e se t h t r e m e n d ou s
y , re e

w or d s a wh ol e w or ld Of s p e c u l ati on an d i m ag i n ati on Wh e n .

F a u s t u s i n t h e p r e s e n c e Of H e l e n a s k s
~

Wa s thi s t h e fac e,

”
th at l au n ch e d a th ou s an d s hip s ? he d oe s n o t s t at e a fact
o r e xp e ct a n a n s w e r H e o p e n s a d oor thr o ug h which o u r
.

i m ag i n ati on e n t e rs a n e w w or ld a w or ld Of m u s i c l ov e , n
, ,

be au t y h e r oi s m — t h e wh ol e s pl e n did w or ld of G r e e k lit e ra
, ,

t u r e S uch m ag ic i s i n w or d s W h e n S hak e s p e ar e d e s c rib e s

. .

t h e y o u n g B i r on a s s p e aki n g

I n s u c h ap t an d g rac i o u s w ord s
Th a t ag e d e ars p y
l a tr u an t a t hi s t al e s ,

h e has u n c on s ciou s l y g iv e n n ot on l y an e xc e ll e n t d e s c r ipti on

of hi m s e l f b u t t h e m e as u r e o f al l lit e r at u r e which m ak e s u s
, ,

pl ay t ru an t with t h e p r e s e n t w or ld an d r u n a way t o liv e awhil e

i n t he pl e as an t r e a l m Of fan c y Th e p r ovi n c e of all art i s n ot
.

t o i n s t r u ct b u t t o d e li g ht an d on l
y as lit e r at u r e d e li g ht s u s ,
"
c au s i n g e a ch r e ad e r t o b u ild i n h i s ow n s o u l th at l or dly
”
pl e as u r e h ou s e of which Te n n y s on d r e am e d i n h i s Pal ac e
”
o f Ar t , i s it w or th y of i t s n am e .

Th e thi r d ch ara ct e ri s tic o f lit e ra t u r e ar i s i n g di r e ctly from

,

t h e oth e r t w o i s i t s p e rm an e n c e
,
The w or ld d o e s n ot liv e b y
.

b r e a d al on e N otwith s t an din g i t s h u rry a n d hu s tle

.

Pe rm an e t
n
a n d app ar e n t ab s o rpti on i n m at e r i al thi n g s it d oe s ,

n ot willi n g l y l e t a n y b e au ti fu l thi n g p e r i s h Thi s i s e v e n m or e .

t r u e Of i t s s on g s th an of i t s p ai n ti n g an d s c u lpt u r e ; th oug h
p e r m an e n c e i s a q u ality w e S h ould h ar dl y e xp e ct i n t h e p r e s
e n t d e l u g e o f b oo k s an d m aga zi n e s p ou r i n g d ay an d n i g ht

fr om ou f p r e s se s i n t h e n am e of lit e rat u r e B u t thi s p r obl e m .

.

of t o o m an b ook s i s n o t m o d e r n as w e s u pp o s e I t h as b e e n
y , .

a p r obl e m e v e r s i n c e Caxt on b ro u ght t h e fi r s t p r i n ti n g p r e s s

6 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

b ook or a littl e s on g app e al s t o u n iv e r s al hum an i n t e re s t doe s

i t b e c om e p e r m a n e n t .

Th e s e c on d t e s t i s a pu re ly p e rs on al o n e an d m ay b e e x ,
”
p r e s se d i n t h e i n d e fi n it e w or d s t le
y I t i s on l
.
y i n a m e ch an

ic al s e n s e t h at s ty l e i s t h e ad e quat e e xp r e s s i on
S ty l e ”
of th o u g ht or
, t h e p e culi ar m an n e r of e xp r e s s in g
th ought or an y oth e r of the d e fi n iti on s th at ar e fou n d in
,

t h e r h e t or ic s I n a d e e p e r s e n s e s t y l e i s t h e m an th at i s t he
.
, , ,

u n c on s cio u s e xp re s s i on of t h e w r it e r s ow n pe rs on alit y I t i s
’
.

t h e v e ry s oul o f on e m an r e fl e cti n g as i n a g l as s t h e th ou ght s

, ,

an d fe e lin g s of hu m an it y A S n o gl as s i s c ol or l e s s b u t ti n g e s
.
,

m ore or l e s s d e e pl y t h e r e fl e cti on s fr om i t s s u rfac e s o n o ,

a uth or can i n t e r p r e t hu m an li fe with ou t u n c on s ci ou s l givi ng

y
t o it t h e n ativ e hu e of hi s ow n s oul I t i s thi s i n t e n s e ly p e r
.

s on al e l e m e n t th at c on s tit u t e s s t l e
y E v er .
y p e r m an e n t b o ok

has m or e or l e s s Of th e s e t w o e l e m e n t s t h e o bj e ctive an d th e
,

s ubj e ct iv e t he u n iv e r s al an d t h e p e r s on a l t he d e e p th ou g ht
, ,

an d fe e lin g o f t h e r a c e r e fl e ct e d an d c ol or e d b h
’
t e w r it e r s
y
o w n li fe an d e xp e r i e n c e .

Th e Ob j e ct i n s t u dy i n g Li t e ra t u re A s id e fr om t h e pl e a s ur e
.

of re a di n g Of e n t e r i n g i n t o a n e w w or ld an d h avi n g ou r i m ag i
,

n ati on quick e n e d t he s t u dy Of lit e ratu r e has on e d e fi n it e

,

Obj e ct an d th at i s t o k n ow m e n
, N ow m an i s e v e r a du al
.

c r e atur e ; h e has an ou tw ar d an d an i n n e r n at u re ; he i s n ot
on l y a d oe r of d e e d s b u t a d r e am e r of d r e a m s
, an d t o kn ow
h i m t h e m an of an y ag e w e m u s t s e ar ch d e e p e r th an h i s
, ,

hi s t ory H i s t ory r e c ord s h i s d e e d s h i s o utwar d act s lar ge ly ;

.
,

but e ve r y gr e at ac t S p r i n g s fr om an id e al an d t o u n d e r s t an d ,

thi s w e m u s t r e ad hi s lit e ratu r e wh e r e w e fin d hi s id e al s

,

r e c or d e d Wh e n w e r e ad a hi s t ory of t he An gl o S ax on s for
.
-
,

i n s t an c e w e l e a rn th at t h e y w e re s e a r ov e r s pi ra t e s e xpl or e r s
, , , ,

g r e a t e a t e r s a n d d r i n k e r s ; a n d w e k n o w s om e thi n g of th e i r

h ove l s and ha bit s an d th e l an d s which th e y h arr ie d an d p l iI n

,

d e re d All th at i s in t e re s ti n g ; b u t it d oe s n ot t e ll u s wh at
.

m os t w e wan t t o k n ow ab out th e s e old an c e s t or s of ou rs ,

 I NTRODU C T I O N L

n ot o n l y wh at th e y did but wh at th e y tho ught an d fe lt h ow

,

th e y l ook e d on li fe an d d e ath ; wh at th e y l ov e d wh at th e y ,

fe ar e d an d what th e y r e v e re n c e d i n God an d m an Th e n w e
, .

t u r n fr om hi s t ory t o t h e lit e r atu r e which th e y th e m s e lv e s

p r od u c e d a n d in s t an tly w e b e com e a cq u a in t e d Th e s e h ar dy
, .

p e opl e w e r e n ot S i m pl y fi ght e r s an d fr e e b oot e rs ; th e y w e r e

m e n lik e o u r s e lv e s ; th e ir e m oti on s awak e n i n s t an t r e s p on s e
in t h e s o u l s of th e i r d e s c e n d an t s A t t h e w or d s of th e i r
.

g l e e m e n w e th r ill a g a i n t o th e i r wild l o v e o f f r e e d om a n d t h e

op e n s e a w e g ro w t e n d e r at th e i r l ov e of h om e an d p at r i oti c ,

at th e i r d e athl e s s l o a lt t o th e i r chi e f wh om th cho s e

y y e
y ,

for th e m s e lv e s an d h o i s t e d on th e i r S hi e ld s i n s y m b ol O f hi s
l e ad e r s hip On c e m or e w e g ro w r e s p e ct fu l i n t he p r e s e n c e
.

of p u r e w om an h ood o r m e l an ch ol b e fo r e t h e s or row s an d
, y
p r obl e m s of li fe Or h u m bl y c on fid e n t l ooki n g u p t o t he God
, ,

wh om th e y d ar e d t o call t h e A ll fat h e r A ll th e s e an d m an y .

m or e i n t e n s e l y r e a l e m oti on s p a s s th r ou g h ou r s ou l s a s w e
r e a d t h e fe w s hi n i n g fra m e n t s o f v e r s e s th at t he j e al ou s
g
ag e s h av e l e ft u s .

I t i s s o with an y ag e or p e opl e T o u n d e r s t an d th e m w e.

m u s t r e ad n ot s i m pl y th e i r hi s t ory which r e c or d s th e i r d e e d s
, ,

b u t th e i r lit e r at u r e which r e c or d s t h e d r e am s th at m ad e t h e i r
, .

d e e d s p os s ibl e S O Ar i s t otl e w as p r ofou n dl y r i ght wh e n h e

.

s aid th a t p oe t ry i s m ore s e r i ou s an d phil os ophica l th an h i s

t ory an d G o e th e wh e n h e e xpl ai n e d l it e ratu re as th e
,
"
h u m an izati on O f t h e wh ol e w or ld .

I m por t an ce of Li t e r a t u r e I t i s a c u r i ou s an d p r e v al e n t
.

Opi n i on th at lit e ra t u r e lik e a ll ar t i s a m e r e pl ay o f i m ag i n a

, ,

ti on pl e as i n g e n ou gh lik e a n e w n ove l b u t with out an y s e r i

, , ,

ou s o r p r actic al i m p ort an c e N othi n g c ou ld b e farth e r fr om

.

t h e t r u th . Lit e r at u r e p r e s e r v e s t h e id e al s of a p e opl e ; an d
id l e a s — l ov e faith d u t y fr i e n d s hip fr e e d om re v e re n c e
, , , , ,

a r e t h e p ar t o f h u m an li fe m o s t w orth of p r e s e r v ati on Th e
y .

G r e e k s w e r e a m ar v e l ou s p e opl e ; y e t Of al l th e i r m ig ht y
w or k s w e ch e r i s h on ly a fe w ide al s — id e al s of b e auty in ,
8 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

p e ri sh abl e s t on e an d id e al s of t r u th i n i m p e ri s h abl e p ros e

,

an d p oe t r I t w as s i m pl t h id e al s o f t h e G re e k s a n d
y .
y e

H e br e w s an d R om an s p r e s e r v e d i n th e i r lit e r atu r e which

, ,

m ad e th e m wh at th e y w e r e an d whi ch d e t e r m i n e d th e i r v al u e
,

t o futu r e ge n e r ati on s O u r d e m o c ra c y t h e b oas t of al l E n g li s h

.
,

s p e a ki n g n ati on s i s a d r e am
,
n ot t he d o ubt ful a n d s o m e ti m e s

di s h e ar t e n i n g s p e ct a cl e p r e s e n t e d i n ou r l e gi s l at iv e h all s b u t ,

t h e l ov e l y an d i m m or t al i d e al of a fr e e an d e q u a l m an h ood ,

p re s e r v e d as a m os t p re ciou s h e r it age in e ve r y g r e at lit e ra tu r e

fr om t h e G r e e k s t o t h e An gl o S ax on s A l l o ur ar t s ou r s c i
-
. ,

e n c e s e v e n ou r i n v e n ti on s ar e fou n d e d s q u ar e l y u p on id e al s ;
,

for u n d e r e v e ry i n v e n ti on i s s till t h e d r e a m of B e ow u g f th at ,

m an m ay o v e r c om e t h e fo r c e s o f n atu r e ; an d t h e fo un d ati on
o f al l ou r s ci e n c e s a n d di s c ov e r i e s i s t h e i m m o r t al d r e am th at
”
men s h a ll b e as g od s k n owi n g g ood an d e vil
, .

I n a w or d o u r wh ol e civili zati on ou r fr e e d om o u r p r ogre s s

, , , ,

o u r h om e s ou r re li g i on r e s t s olidl up on id e al s f or th e i r
, ,y
fou n d ati on . N othi n g b u t an id e a l e v e r e n dur e s up on e arth I t .

i s th e r e for e i m p os s ibl e t o ov e r e s t i m at e t h e p ractic al i m p or t an c e

of lit e r at u r e which p re s e r v e s th e s e id e al s fr om fath e rs t o
,

s on s whil e m e n citi e s g ov e r n m e n t s civili zati on s v an i s h from

, , , , ,

t h e fa c e of t h e e ar th I t i s o n l y wh e n w e r e m e m b e r thi s
.

th at w e appr e ci at e t h e a cti on of t h e d e vout Mu s s u l m an w h o ,

pick s u p a n d car e fu ll y p r e s e r v e s e v e ry s c rap of pap e r on

which w or d s ar e w r itt e n b e cau s e th e s c rap m ay p e r ch an c e
,

c on t a i n t h e n am e of All ah an d t h e id e al i s t oo e n or m ou s l y
,

i m p or t an t t o b e n e gl e ct e d or l os t
'

S u m m ary of t h e S u b j e ct W e ar e n ow r e ady i f n ot t o
. ,

d e fi n e at l e as t t o u n d e r s t an d a littl e m or e cl e ar l y t he obj e ct
,

of o u r p r e s e n t s tudy L it e rat u r e i s t h e e xp re s s i on of li fe i n
.

’
w or d s of t r u th an d b e a ut y ; it i s t he w r itt e n r e c ord of m an s
S pi r it of h i s th ou g ht s e m oti on s as pi r ati on s
, ,
it i s th e hi s t ory
, ,

an d t h e o n l
y hi s t or
y o f t h e h u m an s oul
, I t i s ch ara ct e ri ze d .

b y i t s art i s tic i t s s u gg e s tiv e i t s p e r m an e n t q u aliti e s

, ,
I t s tw o .

t e s t s ar e i t s u n iv e r s al i n t e re s t an d i t s p e rson al s t y l e I ts .
 I NTRODU CT I O N 9

o bj e ct a s id e fr om th e d e light it giv e s u s i s t o k n ow m an
, , ,

th at i s t h e s oul of m an rath e r th an hi s a cti on s ; an d s i n c e it

,

p r e s e rv e s t o t h e ra c e t h e id e al s u p on which al l ou r ci vili zation

i s fo u n d e d it i s on e of t h e m o s t i m p or t an t an d d e li ght ful s u b
,

j e c t s th at c an o cc u p
y t h e h u m an m i n d .

l
B i b i ograp hy . N
( OTE k i c l u d e s a s p e c i al b ib li
. Ea c h c h ap t e r i n th is b oo n

i i c a l a d li t e y w k s e l e c t i o n s fo r ad i n g c h r n o l ogy
o g rap h y o f h s t o r n ra r or s, r e , o ,

e t c ; a d a g e e a l b i b li o g p h y o f t e x t s h e l p s a d e fe e c
. n n r ra b o o k s w ill b e , , n r r n e

fo un d at t h e e d T h e f o ll w i g b o o k s w h i c h a e a m o g t h e b e s t o f t h e i
n . o n , r n r

ki d a re i t e d e d t o h e l p t h e s t d e t t a b e tt e r ap p e c i at i on of li te rat r e an d
n , n n u n o r u

t o a b e tt e r k o w l e dg e f li t e ary c i t i c i s m )
n o r r .

Ge ne ra l Works W o o d b e rry s Ap p e c i a t i o f Li t e ra t u re ( B k e r T ay l o r
’
. r n o a

Gat e s s S t d i e s i Ap p e c i t i o ( Ma c m ill a ) ; B a t e s s T lk s th e S t dy
’ ’
u n r a n n a on u

o f Li t t e (H
e ra u r gh t Mi fl li n ) ; W o s fo l d s O t h e E x e c i s e of J d gm n t
ou on ,
‘
r
’
n r u e

i n L i t e ra t u e t ; H ar ri
) n s Th e C h i c e O f B o k s
( M c m ill n ; R s ki n s
)
’ ’
( D re n so o o a a u

d L ili e s Pa rt I ; Ma tt h w A l d s E s s ay s i n C r i t i c i s m ’
S e s am e an ,
e rn o .

on s B o k s i n S c i e ty an d S o li t d e ; D wd
’ ’
Ess ay s E m . e rs o
,
s Th e I n t e r o u o en

e t at i n o f L i t e i n T a s c ri p t s a d S t d i s l
’

p r o t e ra u r , ( K e g P r n a d n u e an au n

Th e T c h i g f E g li s h L i t e a t e i n N e w S t d i s i L i t e a t
ea n o n
( H
r o
g h t
ur on , u e n r u re u ,

Mi fll i ) ; Th S t d y o f Li t e at e Ess y s b y Mo l e y N i c o ll s a d L S t e p h e n
n e u r ur , a r , , n .
,

e d i t e d b y A F B l a i s d e ll ( W ill a d S m ll )
. . r a .

Cri ti ci s m C y l e y an d S c t t s A I t d c t i t t h e Me t h o d s an d Ma t e ri a l s
’
. a o n n ro u on o

o f Li t ary C ri t i c i m ( Gi n a d C m p a y )
er s W i c h e s t e s P ri c i p l s f L i t r y
n n o n n r
’
n e o e ra

C ri t i c i s m ( Mac m ill a ) ; W o f l d s P i i p l s f C i t i c i m ( L gm a s ) ; J h n
’
n rs o r nc e o r s on n o

s on s E l e m e ts f Li te ra ry C ri t i c i m ( Am e i c a B o k C o m p y) ; S ain ts b ry s
’ ’
n o s r n o an u

H i s t ry f C ri t i c i s m ( D d d M e a d )
o o o , .

Poe try G m m e e s H a d b
. u k f P e t ic s ( Gi a d C o m p a y) ; S t e d m an s
r
’
n oo o o nn n n
’

T h e N at e a d E l m e t s f Po e t ry ( H
ur n e
g h t o M i flini ) ; J ho s T h e F o rm s ou n , n o n son
’

o f E g li s h Po t ry ( Am i c an B o k C m p an y) ; A l d e s S p e c i m e n s f En g li s h
n e er o o n
’
o

Ve s e ( H o l t) ; G m m e s T h e B e gi n i gs o f Po e t ry ( Mac m illa ) ; S ain ts b ry s

r u re
’
n n n u
’

H is t o ry o f E gli s h P od y ( Mac m ill an )

n ro s .

The D rama C fli s Ap p e c i a t i n o f t h e D ram a ( B ak e r T ay l o r

’
. a n r o

The Nove l R l i gh s T h E g li h N v e l ( S ri b ) ; H am il to n s Th e Ma t e
’ ’
. a e e n s o c ner

ri a l s n d M e t h o d s o f F i c t i on B ak e r ay l o r
a
( T
 C H A PT E R I I

— —
THE ANGLO S AX ON OR OL -
D E N GLI S H PERI OD ( 4 5 0 1 05 0)

I . O U R F I R S T PO E T R Y

B e ow u l f . H e r e i s t h e
y li e s t a n d t h
s ort
e of B e ow u l f, t h e e ar

gre at e s t e pic or h e r oic p oe m i n ou r lit e rat u r e It b e g i n s with

, , .

a p r ol og u e which i s n ot an e s s e n tial p ar t of t h e s t ory b u t

, ,

which w e r e vi e w gl adl y for t he s ak e of t h e s pl e n did p oe tical

c on c e pti on th at p rod u c e d S cy ld ki n g o f t he S p e a r D an e s 1
, .

At a t i m e w h e n th e S p e ar D an e s w e re w i th o u t a ki ng , a S h i p c am e

s ai lin g i n to th e i r h arb or . fill e d w i th t re as u r e s an d w e ap on s o f

I t w as
w ar ; an d i n th e m i d s t o f t h e s e w ar l i k e t h i n gs w as a b ab y s l e e p i n g N0 .

m an s ai l e d th e s hi p ; i t c a m e o f i t s e l f b ri n g i n g th e c hi l d w h o s e n a m e , ,

w as S c y l d .

N ow S c y l d g r e w an d b e c am e a m i gh t y w a rr i or an d l e d th e S p e ar ,

D an e s fo r m a n y y e ars a n d w as th e i r k i n g , Wh e n h i s s on B e ow u l f had
2
.

b e c om e s tro n g a n d w i s e e n o u gh to r u l e th e n W y rd ( F a te ) w h o s p e a k s , ,

b u t o n c e t o a n y m an c a m e a n d s too d a t h a n d ; a n d i t w as t i m e for S c y l d
,

to g o T h i s i s h ow th e y b u r i e d h i m :
.

T h e n S c y l d d e p a r t e d a t w or d o f W y r d s p o k e n , ,

T h e h e r o t o g o t o th e h om e o f th e g od s .

y y
S ad l t h e b o r e h i m t o b r i n k o f t h e o c e a n ,
C om r ad e s , st ill h e e d i n g hi s w or d o f c om m an d .

T he r e i n th e h a r b or t h e p r i n c e s s h i p , r e a d y ,
r od e
’

W i th p ro w c u r v i n g p r ou d l y a n d S h i n i n g s ai l s s e t .
S h i p w a r d t h e y b o r e h i m , th e i r h e r o b e l o v e d ;
T h e m i g h t y th e y l ai d a t th e foot of th e m as t .

T re as u r e s w e r e th e r e f rom far a n d n e ar g ath e r e d ,

B y rn i e s of b at t l e , a r m o r a n d s w ord s ;
N e ve r
k e e l s ai l e d ou t o f a h arb or
a

S o s p l e n d i d l y t r i c k e d w i th th e t r ap p i n g s o f w a r .

1 Th i e re my t y b
s a t t hi
s er ld ha ou w hi h ti i m gi ti b t w hi h i
s o e ro c s r s ou r a na on , u c s

ne v xp l i d I t f p b b ly t m l g d f t h A gl S x w h i h w h v
er e a ne . re e rs , ro a , o so e e en o e n o- a on s c e a e

su pp li d f m t h
e ro o id d b y m v g
e r s o ur ce s , a
gg t i
e d g li m p
so ef th p t a u e su es on s an se s o e as

i n t h p e m i t e lf
e o s 2 Thi i
. t t h B e w lf w h i h s s no f t he poe m e o u o s e ro o .

I O
 TH E ANGLO — SAXO N PER I OD 11

Th e y h e ape d on h i s b os o m a h oard of b ri gh t je w e l s
T o fare w i th h i m for th fl o od g r e a t b r e as t .
’
on t he s

No l e ss g i
.
f t t h e y g a v e th a n t h e U n k n ow n p r o v i d e d ,

W he n al on e , as a c h i l d , h e c am e i n fro t h e m e re . m
H i gh o er
’
hi s h e ad w a v e d b r i gh t gol d e n s tan d a r d
a

N ow l e t th e w a v e s b e a r the i r w e a l th t o th e h o l m .
S ad -s ou l e d th e y g av e b ac k i ts g i ft t o th e oc e a n,
Mou rn fu l the i r m ood as h e s ai l e d ou t to s e a 1
.

“
An d no m an , sa y s th e p oe t,
“
n e i th e r c ou n s e or l n or h e ro , c an te ll
w ho re c e i ve d th a t l ad i n g .

of S c y ld d e s c e n d a n ts w as H ro th g ar , king of th e D an d
’
On e s an e s ;
w i th h i m th e s to r y o f ou r B e ow u l f b e g i n s . H r oth g ar i n h i s ol d ag e h ad
b u i l t n e ar th e se a a m e ad h a ll c a ll e d H e o rot , th e m os t s p l e n d i d h a l l i n

th e w h ol e w or l d , y
w h e r e th e k i n g an d hi s th an e s g athe r e d n i gh t l to
fe as t an d to l i s t e n t o th e s on gs o f h i s g l e e m e n O n e n i gh t , as th e y w e re .

a l l S l e e p i n g , a fr i gh t ful m o n s te r , Gr e n d e l , b ro k e i n to th e h a ll , k i ll e d

t h i r t y o f th e s l e e p i n g w a rr i or s , an d c arri e d off th e i r b od i e s t o d e v ou r
t he m i n h i s l a i r u n d e r t h e s e a Th e a p p al l i n g v i s i t w a s s p e e d i l y re p e a te d ,
.

an d fe a r a n d d e a th re i g n e d i n th e g re at h a l l . T h e w ar ri o rs fo u gh t at

fi rs t ; b u t fl e d w h e n t h e y d i s c o v e r e d t h at w e ap o n c ou ld h ar m th e
’

no

m o n s t e r . H e o r ot w as l e ft d e s e r t e d l
an d s i e n t . For t w e lv e w i n te rs Gre n
de l h or ri b l e r ai d s c on t i n u e d , an d j c h an g e d to m ou rn i n g
’
s oy w as a m on
g
th e S p e ar D an e s .

At l as t t he r u m or o f Gr e n d e l c r os s e d ov e r th e se a t o th e l an d of th e
Ge a t s , w h e r e y o u n g h e r o d w e l t i n t he h o u s e o f h i s
a Ki n g u n c le ,

H y ge l a c B e ow u l f w as h i s n a m e a m a n o f i m m e n s e s tr e n g th an d
. ,

c ou rag e an d a m i g h t y s w i m m e r w h o h ad d e v e l op e d h i s p o w e r s figh t
,

n i c k e rs w h al e s w a l ru s e s a n d s e al s i n th e i c e b o u n d n o r th e rn
“ ”
i n g th e , , ,

o c e an Whe n h e h e ard the s tory B e ow u l f w as s ti rre d to go an d fi ght

. ,

an d fr e e th e D w h o w e re h i s fa th e r fr i e n d s
’
th e m on s te r an e s , s .

Wi th fou rte e n c om p a n i o n s he c r os s e s th e se a. T he re i s an e x c e ll e n t
b it of o c e an p oe t r y h e r e ( 11. 2 1 0 an d w e g e t a v i v i d i d e a o f th e

h os p i t al i t y o f a b r av e p e op l e b f l l i h d
’
o o w n
g t e p o e t s e s c r i p ti on o f
y
B e ow u l f s m e e ti n g w i th Ki n g H r o thg ar an d Q u e e n We al h th e ow
’
, an d

of f as t i n g an d s t or y -t e ll i n
an d
the j oy e g i n H e oro t . T h e
p i c t u r e o f
We alh th e ow p as s i n g the m e ad c u p to th e w arri ors w i th he r ow n h an d
i s a n ob l e on e , an d p l a i n l y i n d i c ate s th e r e v e re n c e p ai d b y t h e s e s tr on g
m e n t o th e i r w i v e s a n d m o th e rs N i gh t c om e s o n ; t h e fe a r o f Gre n d e l
.

i s ag ai n u p on th e D an e s , an d al l w i th d raw a fte r th e k i n g h as w ar n e d
B e ow u l f o f th e fr i gh tfu l d an g e r o f s l e e p i n g i n th e h al l . B u t B e o w u l f
li e s d ow n w i th h i s w arr i ors , s a y i n g p rou d l y th at , s i n c e w e ap o ns w i l l
I

1 B e ow u lf ; 11. 2 6- 5 0, a fre e i
re n d e r n g to s u gge s t t he a llit i
e ra t on of t he or igi n al.
 I 2 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
n ot a v ai l ag ai n s t t h e m on s t e r , h e w i ll g r app e l w i th h i m b are h an d e d an d

w arr i o r s s t r e n g th .
’
t r u s t to a

F o r th from th e fe n s , from th e m i s t y m o o r l an d s ,
G re n d e l l i d i Go d w r a th 1
h e b or e
’
c am e g n
g s

C am e u n d e r c ou d s , u n t i l l he s a w c e ar l ly ,

G l i tt e r i n g w i th g o l d p l ate s , th e m e a d h a ll of men.
D ow n fe ll t he d oor , th ou gh fas t e n e d w i th fir e b a n d s ;
Op e n i t s p r an g a t th e s trok e o f h i s p aw .
S w oll e n w i th ra
gb u r s t i n th e b al e b r i n g e r ;
e -

F l am e d i n h i s e y e s a fi e r c e l i gh t, l i k e s t fir e
2
.

At th e S i gh t o f men a g ai n S e e p i n g l i n th e h a l l , G r e n d e l l au gh s i n hi s
h e art , th i n k i n g of hi s fe as t . H e se i ze s the n e ar e s t s e e l p e r , c ru sh e s h i s
b i t e , t e ars h i m l i m b f r o m l i m b , an d s w al l ow s h i m .
”
b on e c ase w i th a

Th e n h e c re e p s to t h e c ou c h o f B e o w u l f a n d s t r e t c h e s o u t a c aw , o n l ly
t o fin d i t c l u tche d in a g ri p o f s te e l . A s u d d e n te r r o r s t r i ke s th e m o n
s te r s
’
h e ar t . He roars , s t r u gg e s , l t ri e s to j e rk his fre e ; b u t B e ow u l f
ar m

l e ap s to hi s fe e t an d
g rap p e s l hi s e ne m y b are h an d e d T o an d fro th e y .

s u r ge . T ab l e sv e r tu rn e d ; g ol d e n b e n c h e s ri p p e d fr om th e i r fas te n
are o

i n gs ; th e w h o l e b u i l d i n g q u a k e s an d on l y i ts i r o n b a n d s k e e p i t from ,

fa ll i n g t o p i e c e s B e o w u l f s c o m p an i on s a r e on th e i r fe e t n ow h a c k i n g
’
. ,

v ai n l y a t th e m on s te r w i th s w ord s an d b at tl e a x e s a d d i n g th e i r s h ou ts -
,

t o t h e c r a s h i n g o f fu rn i tu r e a n d th e h ow l i n g o f G re n d e l
”
w ar s o n g .

O u ts i d e i n th e tow n th e D an e s s ta n d s h i v e r i n g a t t h e u p roar S l ow l y .

th e m on s te r s t r u g g l e s t o th e d oo r d ragg i n g B e ow u l f w h os e fi n ge r s , ,

c r ac k w i th th e s t r a i n b u t w h o n e v e r r e l a x e s hi s fi rs t g r i p
, S u dde n l y a .

w i d e w o u n d op e n s i n th e m on s te r s S i d e ; th e s i n e w s s n ap ; th e w h ol e
’

arm i s w r e n c h e d off a t th e s h o u l d e r ; an d Gr e n d e l e s c ap e s s h ri e k i n g

a c ros s t h e m oor a n d p l u n g e s i n to t h e s e a t o d i e
, .

B e o w u l f fi r s t e x u l ts i n h i s n i g h t s w o r k ; th e n he h an g s th e h u g e a r m ’

w i th i ts t e rr ib l e c l aw s fr o m a c r o s s b e am o v e r t h e k i n g s s e a t as o n e
’
-
,

w o u l d h a n g u p a b e ar s s k i n a ft e r a h u n t
’
A t d a y l i g h t c am e t h e D a n e s ; .

a n d all d a
y l o n
g i n th e i n t e r v a
,l s o f s i n g gi n s t o r y t e ll i n
g s p e e c h m a k ,
-
,

i n g a n d gi ft g i v i n g th e y r e t u r n to w o n d e r a t th e m i gh t y
, , g ri p o f

Gr e n d e l an d t o r e j oi c e i n B e ow u l f s v i c to r y
” ’
.

Wh e n n i gh t fa ll s a g re at fe as t i s s p r e ad i n H e o ro t an d th e D an e s ,

s l e e p on c e m or e i n th e r e a t h a ll A t m i d n i h t c o m e s a n ot h e r m o n s t e r
g g . ,

1 G d l f th E t
re n e , o (g i e t ) t h d
o en t h h d w t
anh m k t lk
r a ce , t h h d w e ea s a o ,
e ar s a e r, e s a o

ga g
n i
e r, l v i ly ll d g d f fi d f h ll C i b d t I t d h d ly
s a so a r ou s ca e o
’
s oe ,
en o e ,
a n s
’
r oo , e c. nee ar

be e xp l i d t h t t h l t t t m
a ne a e dd i t i
a s t th
er i gi l p o m m d p b b l y b y
er s are a on o e or na e ,
a e, ro a ,

m on k w h p i d th m
s o co e i pt A b li f i Wy d t h m ight y p w
e a n u s cr . t lli g t h
e e n r ,
e o er c on r o n e

d ti i
es f m
n es o i th hi f
e n, li gi m t iv f t h p i I li
s e c e re ou s 56 w fi d o i e o e e c. n ne 1 0 e n a c u r ou s

b l di g f p g
en n o d Ch i t i
a an an b li f w h Wy d i wi th t d b y t h w i G d
r s an e e , e re r s s oo e se o .
”

7 7 W h v t i di t d i l t i ( i q ta
2 S mm f 11 — t or n uo
uy ar 7 o . 10 2 . e a e no n ca e n ou r ra n s a on

tion s f m Ga ro tt M l y B rn e , k t ) w h p rt of t he t xt
or e ,
roo e , e c.m itt e d e re a s e are o .
I 4 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
he re ac he s b o t tom , Gre n d e l m oth e r r u sh e s ou t u p on hi m an d d r ag s
’
as s

hi m i n to a ca ve , w h e re se a m on s te rs s w ar m at h i m f r om b e h i n d an d

g n as h his ar m or w i th th e i r t u s ks . Th e e dge of hi s s w ord i s t u rn e d

y l
w i th th e m i gh t b ow h e d e a s the m e r e w z b l
u t i t h ar m s n ot th e m on
’

f ;
s te r . C as ti n g th e w e ap on as i d e , h e g r i p s h e r an d t ri e s t o h u r h e r d o w n , l
l l l
w h i e h e r c aw s an d t e e th c as h u p on h i s c ors e t b u t c an n ot p e n e t ra te l
th e s te e l r i n gs . S he th row s h e r b u lk u p on hi m , c r us h e s h i m d ow n ,
d raw s a s h or t s w or d an d p l u n
g e s it at h i m ; b u t ag ai n h i s s p l e n d i d
b y rn i e sa ve s hi m . H e i s w e ar i e d n ow , a n d op p r e s s e d S u dd e n l y , as.

hi s e ye sw e e p s th e g h t o f
ca a ve
m ag i
, c s w he
o r d , m ad c at c h e s
e b y si

t h e g i a n ts l on g a go, too h e a v y for w a rri o r s t o w i e l d . S t ru gg l i n g u p

h e s e i ze s th e w e ap o n , w hi r l s i t an d b r i n g s d ow n a c ras hi n g b l ow u p on
th e m on s te r
’
s ne c k . It s m as h e s th rou gh th e ri n
g b on e s ; th e m e r e w z
f
fa ll s , an d fi gh t i s w on
th e .

T h e c av e i s fu ll of tr e as u r e s ; b u t B e ow u l f h e e d s th e m n o t for n e ar ,

h i m l i e s Gre n d e l d e a d f rom th e w ou n d re c e i v e d th e p re v i ou s n i gh t
, .

Agai n B e ow u l f s w i n g s th e g r e a t s w o r d an d s t r i k e s o ff h i s e n e m y s h e ad ; ’

a n d l o as t h e v e n om ou s b l ood t o u c h e s th e s w or d b l ad e th e s te e l m e l ts l i k e
, ,

i c e b e fore th e fire an d on l y t h e h i l t i s l e ft i n B e ow u l f s h an d T a k i n g the

’
, .

hi l t an d the h e ad th e he ro e n te r s th e oc e an a n d m ou n ts u p t o th e s h ore
, .

O n l y h i s ow n fai thfu l b an d w e re w ai ti n g th e r e ; for th e D a n e s s e e ,

i n g th e o c e an b u b b l e w i th fre s h b l ood th ou gh t i t w a s al l o v e r w i th th e ,

h e r o a n d h ad go n e h om e An d th e re th e y w e re m ou rn i n g i n H e oro t w h e n
. , ,

B e ow u l f re t u r n e d w i th th e m on s t rou s h e ad of Gre n d e l c arr i e d on a

s p e ar s h aft b y fo u r o f h i s s t o u te s t fo l l o w e r s .

I n th e l as t p ar t o f th e p o e m th e r e i s an oth e r g re a t fi gh t B e ow u l f i s .

n ow a n ol d m a n h e h as re i g n e d for fi fty y e ars b e l o v e d b y al l h i s p e o ,

l H e h a s o v e r c om e e v e ry e n e m y b u t on e a fir e d r ag o n k e e p i n
p e .
g ,

w a t c h o v e r a n e n o r m ou s t re as u r e h i d d e n a m on g th e m ou n ta i n s On e .

d ay a w an d e re r s tu m b l e s u p o n th e e n c h an te d c a v e a n d e n t e ri n g t a k e s , ,

a j e w e l e d c u p w h i l e t h e fir e d r a k e S l e e p s h e a v i l y T h a t s a m e n i g h t th e .

d r a g on i n a fr i gh tfu l r ag e b e l c hi n g fo r th fire an d s m o k e r u s h e s d ow n
, , ,

u p on t h e n e a re s t v i ll ag e s l e a v i n g a tra i l o f d e a th a n d t e r r or b e h i n d hi m
, .

Ag a i n B e o w u l f g oe s for th t o c h a m p i o n hi s p e op l e As he ap p r o a c h e s .

th e d r agon s c a v e h e h as a p r e s e n t i m e n t t h at d e a th l ur ks w i thi n
’
,

S at on th e h e a d l a n d th e re th e w a rri or k i n g ;
F are w e ll h e s a i d to h e ar th c o m p an i on s t ru e -
,

T h e g o l d fr i e n d o f th e Ge a ts -
h i s m i n d w as s a d ,

D e a th r e a d y re s tl e s s
-
An d W y rd w as d r aw i n g n i gh
, . ,

W ho n ow m us t m e e t an d to u c h th e ag e d m an ,
To se e k th e t r e as u re t h a t h i s s o u l h ad sa ve d
An d p a ra te hi s b o d y fro m h i s l i fe
1
se .

1 B e ow u lf, ll . 2
41 7
- 2 42
3, a fre e i
r e n d e r n g.
 TH E ANGLO SAXO N PER I O D — 1 5

The re i s a fl as h o f i l l u m i n a t i o n , l i ke th a t w h i c h c o m e s to a d yi ng
m an , i n w hi c h h i s m i n d r u n s b a c k ov e r
l on g l i fe an d s e e s s o m e th i n g his
o f p ro fo u n d m e an i n g i n th e e l e m e n t al s o rro w m o v i n g s i d e b y s i d e w i th
’

m ag n i fi c e n t c our ag e T h e n fo ll ow s th e fi gh t w i th th e fire d r a k e i n
. ,

w h i c h B e o w u l f w ra p pe d i n fire an d s m o k e i s h e l pe d b y the h e r oi s m o f
, ,

W i g l a f on e o f h i s c o m p an i on s T he d rag o n i s s l ai n b u t the fir e ha s
, . ,

e n te re d B e ow u l f s l u n g s a n d h e k n ow s th a t W y r d i s a t h an d Thi s i s
’
.

h i s th ou gh t w hi l e W i gl a f re m o v e s hi s b a tte re d a r m or
,

O n e d e e p re g re t I h a v e : th a t t o a s o n
I m ay n o t g i v e th e arm or I h av e w o rn ,

T o b e ar i t a fte r m e F o r fi f ty y e a rs .

I r u l e d th e se pe o p l e w e ll a n d n o t a k i n g ,

O f th os e w h o d w e ll aro u n d m e d a re d o p p re s s ,

O r m e e t m e w i th hi s h os ts . At h o m e I w a i te d
F or t h e t i m e t h a t W y rd c o n t ro s . l Mi n e ow n I ke pt ,

N or q u arre l s s ou gh t, n or e ve r fa l s e l y s w ore .

N ow , w o u n d e d s ore , I w ai t for j o
y to c om e .

He se n ds Wi gl af i n to th e fi re d r a k e
’
s ca ve , w ho fi n ds it fill e d w i th
r a re t re as u re s an d , m os t w on d e r fu l o f al l , a go lde n b an n e r f r o m w h i c h
l i gh t p ro c e e d s a n d i ll u m i n e s al l th e d ar k n e s s . B u t W i g l a f c are s l i ttl e
for the t r e as u re s ; h i s m i n d i s fu ll o f h i s d y i n g c hi e f H e fil ls h i s h a n d s .

w i th c o s tl y o r n am e n ts a n d h u rri e s to th r ow th e m a t h i s he r o s fe e t The
’
.

o l d m a n l o o k s w i th s o r ro w at th e g o l d , th a n k s th e
”
Lord o f a ll th a t b y
d e a th h e h as g ai n e d m ore r i c h e s for h i s p e o p l e , a n d t e l l s h i s fa i th fu l
thane h ow hi s b od y S h al l b e b urn e d o n th e Wh a l e n e ss , o r h e ad l an d :

My l i fe i s we ll p d
a i fo r th i s h oard ; a n d n ow

C are for th e p e op l e s n e e d s . I m ay
’
no m o re
B e w i th th e m . B i d th e w a rr i ors ra i s e a b arrow
Afte r th e b urn i n g , on th e n e ss b y th e s e a,

O n H ro n e s n e ss , w h i c h Sha ll ri s e h i gh an d be
F or a re m e m b r an c e to m y p e op e . S e a fa re rs l
Wh o v
fro m a far o e r t h e m i s ts o f w a te rs
D ri v e fo a m y k e e l s m ay ca ll i t B e ow u l f
’
s Mou n t
”
H e re a fte r . T he n th e h e ro fro m h i s ne ck

Pu t of f a go l d e n co ll ar ; to h i s th a n e ,

T o th e y ou n g
w arr i or , g a e i t w i th h i s h e m , v l
l l
Arm e t a n d c o rs e t ; b a d e h i m us e t he m w e . ll
Th ou art Wae g m u n d i n g o f ou r ra ce
th e l as t ,

F o r fa t e h as s w e p t m y k i n s m e n al l aw a y .

E a r l s i n th e i r s t re n g th a re t o th e i r M a k e r g on e ,

An d I m u s t fo ll ow t he m ” 2
.

1 L i nes 2 7 9 74
2 -2
a fre e0,
re n d e ri g
2n Ma le y s ve i n 11
. r
’
rs o ,
. 2 799 - 2 81 6.
I 6 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
B e ow ul f w as s ti ll l i v i n g w h e n W i gl af s e n t a m e s se n g e r hu rri e d l y t o
hi s p e o p l e w he n t h e y c a m e th e y fo u n d h i m d e a d a n d th e h u g e d ragon ,

d e ad on th e s a n d b e s i d e h i m .

Th e n th e Go th
’
s p e op l e r e ar e d a m i gh t y
p i le
W i th sh ie lds a n d a r m ou r h u n g, as he h ad as k e d ,
An d i n th e m i d s t th e w a rr i o rs l ai d th e i r l or d ,

La m e n ti n g . T h e n th e w a rr i ors o n th e m ou n t
K i n d l e d a m i gh t y b a l e fir e ; th e s m o k e ros e
B l a c k fro m th e S w e d i s h p i n e , th e s ou n d o f fl am e
M i n g le d w i th s o u n d o f w e e p i n g w hi le sm o ke
S p re a d o v e r h e av e n T h e n u p on th e h i ll
.

Th e p e o p l e o f th e W e d e r s w r o u gh t a m ou n d ,

H i gh , b ro ad , an d to be se e n fa r ou t a t se a.

I n te n d a ys th e y had b u i l t an dll e d i t i n
wa
As th e w i s e th o u gh t m os t w o r th y ; p l a c e d i n it
R i n gs , je we ls , o the r t r e a s u r e s fr o m th e h o ar d .
Th e y l e ft th e ri che s , g o l d e n j oy o f e ar s , l
I n d u s t , for e a r th to h o d l w h e re y e t i t lie s ,

U l
s e e s s as e ve r . Th e n a b ou t th e m ou n d
Th e w ar ri ors r od e , a n d r ai s e d a m o u r n fu l s on g

F or t h e i r d e a d kin g e x a l te d h i s b ra v e d e e d s ,
H o l d i n g i t fit m e n h on ou r th e i r l i e g e l o rd ,
Pr a i s e h i m a n d l o v e h i m w h e n h i s s o u l i s fl e d .
Th u s th e G e op l e , s h a r e r s o f h i s h e ar th ,
’

[ e at
] p
s

M ou r n e d th e i r c h i e f s fa ll , p r a i s e d h i m , o f k i n g s ,
’
of m en
Th e m i l d e s t an d th e k i n d e s t an d
, to a ll

H i s p e op l e g e n tl e s t , y e arn i n g for th e i r p r a i s e .
1

On e i s t e m pt e d t o li n g e r ov e r t h e d e t a il s of t h e m agn ifi c e n t
e n di n g : t h e u n s e lfi s h h e r oi s m o f B e ow u l f t h e gre a t p r ot ot y p e ,

of K i n g A l fr e d ; t h e g e n e r ou s g r i e f of h i s p e opl e ig n or i n g ,

o ld a n d j e w e l s i n t h e th ou ht of t h e gr e at e r t r e as u r e th e
g g y
h ad l os t ; t he m e m or i al m ou n d on t h e l o w cli ff which w ou ld ,

c au s e e v e ry r e t u rn i n g m ar i n e r t o s t e e r a s t raight c ou r s e t o
h ar b or i n t h e r e m e m b r an c e of hi s d e a d h e r o ; an d t h e p u r e
p oe t ry which m a rk s e v e ry n obl e li n e B u t t he e pic i s gr e at .

e n ou gh an d S i m pl e e n ou h t o s p e ak for it s e l f S e a r ch t h e
g .

lit e r at u re s of t h e w or ld an d y o u will fin d n o oth e r s u ch ,

pict u r e of a b rav e m an s d e ath ’

.

1 L i ne s
3 1 5 6— 1 82
3 ( Mor le y
’
s v i e r s on . )
 TH E ANGLO SAXON PER I O D
—
I 7 \

C on c e r n i n g t h e hi s t o ry of B e ow q a wh ol e lib r ar y h as b e e n
wr itt e n an d s ch o l ar s s till di ff e r t o o r adic all y for u S t o e xp r e s s
,

a p o sitiv e j u d g m e n t Thi s m u ch h o w e v e r i s cl e a r
H i s t ory an d
.
, , ,

Me i g of
an n — th a t th e r e e xi s t e d at t h e ti m e t h e p o e m w as
,

B ow l f
e u
Com p os e d , v ar i ou s n or th e r n l e g e n d s of B e ow a a ,

h al f divi n e h e r o an d t h e m on s t e r G r e n d e l T h e l att e r h a s
-
, .

b e e n i n t e r p re t e d i n v ar i o u s w ay s s o m e ti m e s a s a b e ar
, an d ,

ag a i n as t h e m al ar i a o f t h e m ar s h l an d s F or th os e i n t e r e s t e d
.

i n s y m b o l s t h e s i m pl e s t i n t e r p r e t a ti on o f th e s e m y th s i s t o
’
r e g ar d B e o w u l f s s u cc e s s iv e fi g ht s with t h e th r e e d r ag o n s a s

t h e o v e r c om i n g fi r s t o f t h e o v e rwh e l m i n g d an ge r of t h e s e a
, , ,

which w as b e at e n b a ck b y t h e d y k e s ; s e c on d t h e c on q u e r ,

i n g of t h e s e a it s e l f wh e n m e n l e ar n e d t o s ail u p o n it ; an d
,

t hi r d t h e c on fl ict wit h t h e h o s til e for c e s of n at u r e which ar e

, ,

ov e r c o m e a t l a s t b an s i n d o m it a bl e will a n d p e r s e v e r an c e
’

y m .

Al l thi s i s p u r e l y m y t h ic al ; b u t th e r e a r e hi s t or ic al i n ci
d en t s t o r e ck on with Ab ou t t h e y e ar 5 2 0 a c e r t ai n n or th e rn
.

chi e f call e d b y t h e Ch r on icl e r Ch o c h ilai c u s ( w h o i s g e n e rall y

,

id e n tifi e d with t he H y g e la c o f t h e e pic ) l e d a h u ge pl u n d e r i n g

,

e xp e diti on up t h e R hi n e . A ft e r a s u cc e s s i on of b attl e s h e w as
ov e r c o m e b
y t h e F r an k s b u t
, a n d n ow w e e n t e r a l e e n d a r
g y
r e g i on on c e m o re n o t u n til a g i g an t ic n e ph e w o f H g e la c had
y
pe rfor m e d he r oic fe at s of va l or an d h ad s av e d t h e r e m n an t s
,

of t h e h o s t b a m ar v e l o u s fe at o f s wi m m i n T h m j it f
y g .e a or
y o

s ch ol ar s n o w h o l d th at th e s e hi s t or ic a l e v e n t s an d p e r s o n a e s
g
w e r e c e l e b r at e d i n t h e e pic b u t s om e s till a s s e r t th a t t h e e v e n t s
w h ich ga v e a f o u n d ati on fo r B e ow o cc u rr e d wh oll E
q y o n n
g
li s h s oil wh e re t h e p o e m it s e l f w a s u n d ou bt e dl y w r itt e n
, .

Th e r h y th m o f B e o w u lf an d i n d e e d o f all o u r e ar li e s t p o e t ry
d e p e n d e d u p on ac c e n t an d allit e r at i on th at i s t h e b e gi n n i n g
,

p oe ti cal o f t w o o r m o r e w or d s i n t h e s am e li n e with t h e
Fm “ sam e s ou n d or l e tt e r T h e li n e s w e r e m ad e u p of
.

t w o s h o rt h alv e s s e p arat e d b
,
y a p au s e N o ri m e w as u s e d ;
.

b u t a m u s ica l e ffe ct w a s p r od u c e d b ivi e a ch h a l f li ne

y g n
g
t w o s t r on gl a cc e n t e d s ll abl e s E ch f ll li th f
y y a . u n e e r, e or e ,
I 8 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

had fou r cc e n t s th r e e of which (i e t w o i n t h e fi r s t h al f

a , . . ,

an d on e i n t h e s e c on d u s u all b e ga n with t h e s am e s oun d o r

) y
l e tt e r Th e m u s ical e ffe ct w as h e i ght e n e d b y t h e h arp with
.

which t h e g l e e m an acc om pan ie d hi s s i n gi n g The p oe tical .

for m w ill b e s e e n cl e ar ly in t he foll owi n g s e l e cti on fr om t h e

w on d e rfu lly r e ali s tic d e s c r ipti on of t h e fe n s hau n t e d b y G r e n
del I t will n e e d on l y on e or t w o r e adi n gs al ou d t o S h ow th at
.

m an y of th e s e s t ran g e l ooki n g w or d s are p r act ica ll y t h e s am e

-

a s th os e w e s till u s e th ou g h m an y of t h e v ow e l s ou n d s w e re
,

p ron ou n c e d di ff e re n tl y b y o u r an c e s t ors .

H i e dyge l l o n d
Wa r i g e a th ,
l
w u f-h l e o th u , w i n d i g e n aess as ,
F r e c n e fe n -g e l ad , th a fy rg e n s tre a m
r -

U n d e r n ae s s a g e n i p u n i th e r g e w i te th ,

P l od u n d e r fol d a n . N i s th ze t fe or h e on o n ,
M il g e m e a r c e s
-
, th ae t se m e re s tan d e th ,
O fe r th ae m h o n g i a th b r i n d e b e arw as

The y ( ) a d a r k s om e l an d
W a rd ( i n h ab i t) , wo l f c l i ffs , w ind y n e s se s,

F ri gh t fu l fe n p a th s w h e r e m ou n t a i n s t r e a m
U n d e r n e s s e s m i s ts d ow n w a r d a n d e rs ,
’
ne th e r ( ) w
A fl ood u n d e r e a r th . I t is n ot far h e n c e ,
B y m i l e m e a s u re , th a t th e m e r e s tan d s ,
O v e r w hi c h h a n g ri m y g ro v e s .

Wi ds i t h p oe m Wi d s i t h t h e wid e goe r or w an d e r e r
. T he , ,

i s i n p ar t a t l e a s t p r ob ably t h e o ld e s t i n o u r l an g u ag e Th e
, , .

au th or an d t h e d at e o f i t s c om p o s iti on a r e u n k n ow n b u t the
p e r s on al acc o u n t of t h e m i n s t r e l s li fe b e l on g s t o t h e ti m e ’

1
b e for e t h e S a x on s fi r s t cam e t o En gl an d I t e xp r e s s e s t he .

w an d e r i n g life o f t h e g l e e m an w h o g o e s fo rth in t o t h e w orld ,

t o a bid e h e r e or th e r e a cc ordi n g a s h e i s r e w ar d e d for hi s

,

S i n gi n g F r om t h e n u m e r ou s r e fe r e n c e s t o r i n g s an d r e ward s
.
,

an d fr om t h e p rai s e g iv e n t o g e n e r ou s iv rs it w o u ld s e e m
g e ,

1 l
Pr ob a b y t o t h e fou rt h c e n t u r y , t hou gh s o m e p art s of t he poe m m u s t ha e b e e n v
l
a d d e d at e r . T h u s t he p oe t s a y s — 1 0 2 t ha t h e
) vi i
s t e d E o r m a n r i c , w h o d e d c i r . 3 75 , i
an d Q u e e n E a l hh i l d w h os e fa t h e r , E a d w i n , d e d i ci r . 5 61 . i
T he d ffi cu t y l of fi i
x ng a da te
t o t he p oe m i s app are n t . It con ta n s i se ve ral r e fe re n ce s to s ce n e s an d c ha ra ct e rs in
 TH E ANGLO SAXO N PER I OD
— 19

110 11 5 I o ce n In n in
g J I LE
’

n ( p (
u 0
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pu m
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Fr u l /5 11 m
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m VM /

um 0 1m m ( em
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er s ea r
p y 5 4 11 5 4 1 1 6 7
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j 3a hea pl
'

sa m e fib e w n b ct f
’
ve
j pg n

X W
P I I (
.
t e ac he r
Vea l In :
.
ace lae n ce
L
ylm an 11
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he jw ( c ew pzz t hea p 1 c co m

q w -
j om l lc
n r . ne
fm l u c 6
i ®3 1 § € b
u r
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m an a e obt
g m en m s q
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“£ 20
1 , 1
t
A P A G E F RO M TH E M A N U S C R I PT OF B EO W U L F
20 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

th at lit e rat u re as a p ay i n g p rofe s s i on b e gan v e ry e ar l y i n ou r

hi s t ory an d a l s o th at t h e p ay w a s b ar e ly s u fii c i e n t t o h old
,
‘

s ou l a n d b ody t og e th e r Of al l ou r m od e rn p oe t s G old s m ith

. ,

w an d e r i n g ov e r Eur op e p ay i n g for h i s l od g i n g with h i s s on g s

i s m os t s u gg e s tiv e of thi s fi rs t r e c or d e d s i n g e r of ou r rac e .

H i s l as t li n e s r e a d
T h u s w an d e r i n g th e y w h o s h ap e s on g s for m e n
,

Pas s o v e r m a n y l a n d s a n d te ll th e i r n e e d , ,

An d s p e a k th e i r th an k s an d e v e r s o u th or n orth , , ,

M e e t s o m e on e s k i ll e d i n s on gs a n d fre e i n g i fts ,

Who w o u l d b e r a i s e d am on g hi s fr i e n d s to fam e
An d d o b ra v e d e e d s ti ll l i gh t a n d l i fe a r e g o n e .

H e w h o h a s th u s w r ou gh t h i m s e l f p ra i s e s h all h av e
A s e ttl e d g l o r y u n d e r n e a th th e s t a rs 1
.

D eor s Lam e n t
’
In D e or w e h av e an oth e r pict u re of t h e
.

S ax on s c op or m i n s t r e l n ot i n g l ad w an d e r i n g b u t i n m an l y
, , ,

’
s orr ow I t s e e m s th at t h e s c o p s livi n g d e p e n d e d e n ti re l y u p on
.

h i s p ow e r t o pl e as e hi s chi e f an d th at a t an y ti m e h e m i g ht ,

b e s u ppl an t e d b y a b e tt e r p oe t D e or had thi s e xp e ri e n c e an d .

,

c om fort s hi m se l f i n a gr i m w ay b y r e calli n g v ar i ou s e x am pl e s
of m e n w h o h av e s u ffe r e d m o r e th an hi m s e l f Th e p oe m i s .

ar ra n g e d i n s t r oph e s e a ch o n e t e lli n g o f s om e a ffl ict e d h e ro

,

an d e n di n g with t h e s am e r e fra i n : H i s s orr o w as s e d a w ay ;

p
s o w i ll m i n e D e or . i s m u ch m or e p oe tic th an Wi d s it h “
,
”

an d i s t h e on e p e r fe ct l y r ic of t h e A n g l o S a x on p e r i od
2 -
.

W e l an d fo r a w o m a n k n e w t oo w e ll e x i l e .

S t ron g o f s o u l t h a t e arl s or r o w S h a r p h e b o r e ;
,

T o c om p a n i on s h i p h e h a d c a r e a n d w e ar y l o n g i n g ,

W i n t e r fre e zi n g
-
w re t c h e d n e s s . Woe h e fo u n d ag a i n , ag ai n ,

Afte r th a t N i th h a d in a ne ed h ad l a i d h i m
S t ag ge ri n g i
s n e w -w ou n d s s o r r ow -s m i tte n m an !
Tfl a t no ov e r w e n t; th is a ls o m ay

Th e S e af ar e r . Th ew on d e r fu l p oe m of The S e afar e r
s e e m s t o b e i n t w o di s t i n ct p ar t s T h e fi r s t S h ow s t h e h ar d s hip s .

1 Li ne sf3 s 4 3 ( M l y v i )
- 1 or e
’
s e r s on .

2 A l
y i i
r c h t p m
s a s fl ti g
or oem p l m t i lik l v
re ec n g i f Tw so e e r s on a e o on , e o e or r e . o

oth er A gl S x
n o -
p a m T h Wi f
on oe C m pl i t
s, d Th H
e b d M e s
’
g o a n
”
an e us an
’
s e ss a e,
"

b l g t thi
e on o l s c ass .
3 Fi rst t ph s rof B k v i H i t y f E ly E g l i l Lit t
e o roo e s
’
e rs on , s or o ar n s z er a u re.
22 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

Th e Fi ght at Fi n n s b u r gh an d Wal de re . Tw o oth e r of ou r ol d

”
e st p oe m s w e ll d e s e r v e m e n t ion The F ight at F in n s b u r gh .

i s a fr ag m e n t o f fi ft y li n e s d i s c o v e re d o n t h e i n s id e of a
,

p i e c e of p ar ch m e n t d rawn ov e r t h e w ood e n c ov e r s of a book

of h om ili e s .I t i s a m ag n ifi c e n t w ar s on g d e s c r ibi n g wit h ,

1
H om e r ic p ow e r t h e d e fe n s e of a h all b y H n ae f with s ixt y
w arr i or s agai n s t t h e a tt a ck of F i n n an d hi s arm y At m i d
, .

n i g ht , wh e n H n ae f an d hi s m e n a r e S l e e pi n g th e y ar e s u r ,

r oun d e d b a n ar m r u s hi n g i n with fir e an d s w o r d H ae f
y y n .

S p r i n g s t o h i s fe e t at t h e fi r s t a l ar m an d w ak e n s h i s w arr i or s

with a call t o acti on th at r i n g s lik e a b u g l e bl as t

Th i s n o e a s tw a r d d aw n i n g i s n o r i s h e r e a d r a on fl y i n
g , g ,

N or o f t hi s h i gh h all a r e th e h o rn s a b u r n i n g
B u t th e y ru s h u p on u s h e re n ow t h e r a v e n s S i n g ,

Gr ow l i n g i s th e g r a y w o l f g r i m th e w a r w ood r a tt l e s
,
-
,

S hi e l d t o s h a f t i s a n s w e r i n g fl
.

Th e fi ght l as t s five d ay s , b u t t h e fragm e n t

d s b e fore w e en

t h e ou t c om e Th e s am e fi ght i s c e l e b ra t e d b y H r othg ar s
’
l e arn .

g l e e m a n a t t h e f e as t i n H e or o t a ft e r t h e S l a
y i n g of G re n d e l
, .

Wal de r e i s a fragm e n t of t w o l e av e s fr om which w e g e t ,

on l a g li m p s e of t h e s t or o f Wald e r e W a lt e r of A quit ai n e
y y ( )
an d h i s b e t r oth e d b r id e H i l dg u n d w h o w e r e h os t ag e s at t h e ,

c ou r t of A ttil a Th e y e s c ap e d with a g r e at t r e as u r e an d i n
.
,

c r os s i n g t h e m ou n t ai n s w e r e att a ck e d b y G u n th e r an d hi s
war r i o r s am on g wh om w as Walt e r s for m e r c om ra d e H age n
,
’

, .

Walt e r fi g ht s th e m all an d e s c ap e s The sam e s t ory w as .

w ritt e n i n Lat in i n t h e t e n th c e n t u r y an d i s al s o p ar t of t h e ,

o ld G e r m an M o
'
’
e lu n e n li e a
g T h o u g h t h e s.a g a did n o t o r i g i
n at e with t h e A n l o S ax on s th e i r v e r s i on of it i s t h e old e s t
g
-
,

th at has c om e d ow n t o u s Th e chie f s ig n ific an c e of th e se

.

"
Wal de r e fragm e n t s li e s i n th e e vid e n c e th e y affor d th at
”

o u r an c e s t or s w e r e fam ili ar with t h e l e e n d s an d p oe t ry o f

g
o th e r G e r m an ic p e opl e s .

1 i i l
I t i s an op e n q u e s t on w h e th e r t h s p oe m c e e b ra t e s t he fight a t w h ch H n a f, t he i
D an i l d
s h e a e r , fe ll
, o
r a t
a er l fi i
gh t l e d b y H e n g s t , t o a e n ge H n ae f s d e at h .
’
v
2 k l i
B roo e s t ra n s a t on , H i s tor y of E a r l y E n g l i s /zL i t e r a t u r e . F or an ot he r e a r y b at t e
’
l l
son g s ee Te n n yson ’
s Batt le of B ru n a n b u rh . ”
 TH E ANGLO SAXO N PER I O D
— 23

II . A N G LO —
S AX O N L I F E

We h ave n ow d s om e of ou r e ar li e s t r e c or d s an d h av e
re a ,

be e n s u r p ri s e d p e r h ap s th at m e n w h o ar e g e n e rall y d e s c r ib e d
, ,

i n t h e hi s t or i e s a s s avag e fight e r s a n d fr e e b oot e r s c ou ld p r o

duc e s u ch e x ce ll e n t p o e t ry I t i s t h e obj e ct o f t h e s t u dy of
.

al l lit e ra t u r e t o m ak e u s b e tt e r acq u a i n t e d with m e n — n ot ,

s i m pl with th e i r d e e d s which i s t h e fu n cti on of hi s t or b ut

y , y ,

with t h e d r e am s an d id e al s wh ich u n d e r li e all th e i r a cti on s .

S o a r e adi n g of thi s ea r l y A n g l o S ax on p oe t r y n ot on l y m ak e s
-

u s a cq u ai n t e d b u t al s o l e ad s t o a p r ofou n d r e s p e ct for t h e
,

m e n w h o w e r e ou r an c e s t or s B e for e w e s t u d y m or e of th e i r
.

lit e rat u r e it i s w e ll t o g l an c e b r i e fl y at th e i r li fe an d l an g u ag e .

Th e Nam e O r i g i n all y t h e n a m e An gl o S ax on d e n ot e s t w o
. -

of t h e th r e e G e r m a n ic t r ib e s J u t e s An g l e s an d S ax on s
,
-
, , ,

w h o i n t h e m iddl e o f t h e fi fth c e n t u r y l e ft th e i r h om e s on t h e

s h or e s of t h e N or th S e a an d t h e B altic t o c on q u e r a n d c ol o n i ze

di s t an t B r it a i n An g e l n w a s t h e h o m e of on e t r ib e a n d t h e
.
,

n am e s till cli n g s t o t h e S p o t wh e n c e s o m e o f ou r f or e fath e r s

sa il e d on th e i r m om e n t ou s v oy age T he o ld S ax on w or d .

a n u l or on u l m e a n s a h ook an d t h e En li s h v e r b a n l e i s
g g g , g
u se d i n var i ably b y Walt on an d old e r w r it e r s i n t h e s e n s e of
fi s hin g W e m ay s till thi n k th e r e for e of t h e fi r s t An g l e s a s
. , ,

h ook m e n p os s ibly b e c au s e of th e ir fi s hin g m or e p r ob abl y

-
, ,

b e cau s e t he S h or e wh e r e th e y liv e d a t t h e foo t of t h e p e n in ,

s u l a of J u tl a n d w a s b e n t i n t h e s h ap e o f a fis h h ook
, Th e .

n am e S ax on fr om s e a r s ax a s h or t s w or d m e an s t h e s w or d
, , ,

m an a n d fr om t h e n am e w e m a j u dge s om e thi n g o f t h e
,
y
t e m p e r of t h e h ar dy fi ght e r s w h o p r e c e d e d t h e An gl e s i n t o
B r it ai n Th e A n gl e s w e r e t h e m os t n u m e r ou s of t h e c on
.

q u e r i n g t r ib e s an d fro m th e m t h e n e w h om e w a s c all e d
,

An glal o n d By gr a d u al ch an ge s thi s b e c am e fi r s t En g l e lon d

.

an d th e n En l an d
g .

Mor e than fiv e h u n d re d y e ar s af t e r t h e l an di n g of th e s e
t r ib e s an d whil e th e y call e d th e m s e lv e s E n g li s h m e n w e fin d
, ,

t h e La ti n w r it e r s of t h e Middl e A e s S p e aki n of t h e i n h abit an t s

g g
24 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

of B r it ai n as Ang l i s ax one sth at i s S a x on s of En g l an d — t o

,
—
, ,

d i s ti n g u i s h th e m fr om t h e S a x on s of t h e Con ti n e n t I n the .

Lati n char t e r s of K i n g A l fr e d t h e s am e n am e app e ar s b u t i t

i s n e ve r s e e n or h e ar d i n hi s n ativ e s p e e ch Th e re h e a lway s .

” ” “
S p e ak s o f h i s b e l ov e d E n gl e l on d an d of h i s b r av e E n gl i s c
p e opl e I n t h e s ixt e e n t h c e n t u ry wh e n t h e ol d n am e of
.
,

E n g li s h m e n cl u n g t o t h e n e w p e opl e r e s u lti n g from t h e u n i on

o f S ax o n a n d N or m an t h e n am e A n g l o S ax on w a s fi r s t u s e d
,
-

1
i n t h e n ati on al s e n s e b y t h e s ch ol a r Cam d e n i n h i s H i s tory
o
f B r i ta i n ; a n d S i n c e th e n it h a s b e e n i n
g e n e r a l u s e a m o n
g
En g li s h w r it e r s I n r e c e n t y ea r s t h e n am e has gai n e d a wid e r
.

s i gn ific an c e u n til it i s n ow u s e d t o d e n ot e a s pi ri t rath e r th an

,

a n ati on t h e b r av e vi g or ou s e n l ar g i n g s pi r it th at ch a r a ct e r
, , ,

i ze s th e En gli s h s p e aki n g r a c e s e v e ry wh e r e an d th at h as
-
,

a l re a d t b r oa d b e lt of E n li s h l aw a n d E n li s h lib e r t
y p u a g g y
a r ou n d t h e wh ol e w or ld .

Th e Li f e I f t h e lit e rat u r e of a p e opl e s p r i n g s di r e ctl y ou t

.

o f i t s li fe th e n t h e s t e r n b arb arou s l i fe o f ou r S ax on f or e
, ,

fath e r s w ou ld s e e m at fi r s t g l a n c e t o p r om i s e littl e of g ood

, ,

lit e r at u r e O u tw ar dl y t h e i r li fe w a s a c on s t an t h ard s hip a p e r

. ,

p e t u a l s t r u gg l e a g a i n s t sa v a g e n a t u r e a n d s av a g e m e n B e hi n d .

t h e m w e r e gl oom y for e s t s i n h a bit e d b y wild b e as t s an d s till

wild e r m e n an d p e opl e d i n t h e i r i m agi n at i on with d rag on s

,

an d e vil s h ap e s I n fr on t of th e m th u n d e r i n g at t h e v e ry
.
,

dik e s for e n t r an c e w as t he t r e ach e r ou s N orth S e a with i t s

, ,

fog s a n d s t o r m s an d i c e b u t with th a t i n d e fin ab l e c all of t h e

,

d e e p th at all m e n h e ar w h o liv e l on g b e n e ath i t s i n fl u e n c e .

H e r e th e y liv e d a b i g bl on d p ow e r fu l r a c e a n d hu n t e d an d
, , , ,

f ou g ht an d s ail e d an d d ra n k an d fe as t e d wh e n th e i r l ab or w as
,

d on e Al m os t t h e fi r s t thi n g w e n otic e ab ou t t h e s e b ig f e ar
. ,

l e s s childi s h m e n i s th at th e y l ov e t h e s e a ; a n d b e c au s e th e y
,

l ov e it th e y h e ar an d an s w e r i t s c all

1 Willi a m Ca m d e n (155 1 o n e of E ng l ’
i
a n d s e ar l e s t an d i
gr e a t e s t a n t q u a r i an s .

fi k
H i s rs t w or , B r i t a n n i a , a L a t n h st ory i i of En g l an d , ha s b e e n ca ll ed
“
t he c o m m on s un

i
w h e r e a t ou r m od e r n w r t e r s h a e a l l nd v ki l ed t he i lit tl
r e
”
t or ch e s .
 TH E A NGLO SAXO N PER I O D — 2 5
N O d e l i gh t h as h e i n t h e w or l d ,
N o r i n a u g h t s av e th e r ol l o f th e b i ll o w s ; b u t a l w a y s ‘
a l o n gi n g ,

A y e ar n i n g u n e as i n e s s , h as t e n s h i m on t o th e s e a 1
.

A s m i ght b e xp e ct e d thi s l ov e of th e o c e an fi n d s e xp r e s
e ,

s i on i n al l th e i r p o e t r y I n B e ow u lf al on e th e r e a re fi ft e e n
.

n am e s for t h e s e a from t h e kol m th at i s t h e h or i zon s e a t h e

, , , ,

" ”
u p m ou n d i n g t o t h e b r i m which i s t h e o c e an fl i n gi n g i t s
, ,

w e lt e r of s an d an d c r e am y foam u p on th e b e ach at y ou r fe e t .

An d t h e fi gu r e s u s e d t o d e s c r ib e or gl or i fy it t h e s wa n
road t h e wh al e p a th t h e h e avin g b attl e pl a i n
, , ar e a l m o s t —

as n u m e ro u s I n al l th e i r p oe t ry th e r e i s a m ag n ific e n t s e n s e of
.

l or d s hip ov e r t h e wild s e a e v e n i n i t s h ou r of t e m p e s t an d fu ry
O fte n i t b e fa ll s u s , on t h e o c e an s h i g hw a s ,
’
y
I n th e b o a ts ou r b o a t m e n , w h e n th e s t o r m i s r o ar i n g ,

Le ap th e b i l l ow s o ve r , o n o u r s ta ll i on s of th e fo a m . 2

Th e I n n e r Li f e . A m an th an h i s w or k ; h i s li fe i s m or e
’
s

d r e am i s e v e r gr e at e r th an h i s a chi e v e m e n t ; an d lit e rat u r e

.

r e fl e ct s n ot s o m u ch m an s d e e d a s t h e s pi r it which an i m at e s
’

hi m n ot t h e p oor thi n g th a t h e d o e s b u t r ath e r t h e S pl e n did ,

thi n g t h at h e e v e r h op e s t o d o I n n o pl ac e i s thi s m or e e vi .

d e n t th an i n t h e ag e w e ar e n ow s t u d y i n g Th os e e ar l y s e a .

ki n g s w e r e a m ar v e l ou s m ixt u r e of s avage ry an d s e n ti m e n t ,

of ro u g h livi n g a n d o f d e e p f e e li n g of s pl e n did c o u ra e an d
g ,

t h e d e e p m e l an ch ol y of m e n w h o k n ow th e i r li m it a t i on s an d
h av e fa c e d t h e u n an s w e r e d p r obl e m of d e ath T h e y w e r e n ot .

s i m pl
y fe ar l e s s fr e e b o ot e r s w h o h arr i e d e v e r
y c oa s t i n t h e i r

w ar gall e y s I f th at w e r e a ll th e y w o u ld h av e n o m or e h i s
.
,

t ory or lit e ra t u r e th an t h e Ba rb ar y pi r at e s of wh om t h e sam e ,

thi n g c ou ld b e s aid T h e s e s t r on g fath e r s of ou r s w e r e me n

.

of p r ofo u n d e m oti on s I n all th e i r fi g hti n g t h e l ov e of a n u n

.

’
t ar n i s h e d gl or y w as u pp e r m o s t ; a n d u n d e r t h e w ar ri or s s avage
e xt e r i or w a s hidd e n a
g r e a t l o v e o f h o m e a n d h om e l y vi r t ue s ,

1 F ro m I d d i n
gs
’
v i e r s on o f Tlze S e af a r e r .
2 From A n d r e as , II. 5 1 1 ff., a f re e t r a n s l ti
a on . Th e w h o l e po e m t h r ill s i
w t h t he
ol d S a xon lv
o e of t h e s e a an d of s h ip s.
2 6 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

an d a re v e re n c e for t h e on e w om an t o wh om h e w ould p r e s
e n tl r e t u rn i n t r i u m ph S o wh e n t h e w o l f h u n t w a s ov e r or
y .
,

t h e d e s p e ra t e fi g ht w a s w on th e s e m i ght y m e n w ou ld g ath e r
,

i n t h e b an q u e t h all an d l ay th e i r w e ap on s a s id e wh e r e t h e
,

Op e n fir e w o u ld fl as h u p on th e m an d th e r e li s t e n t o t h e s on g s ,

of S c op an d G l e e m an — m e n w h o c ou ld p u t i n t o ad e q u at e
,

w or d s t h e e m oti on s an d a s pi r ati on s th a t all m e n fe e l b u t th at

on l y a fe w c an e v e r e xp r e s s

Mu s i c an d s o n
g w h e r e th e h e roe s s at

T h e g l e e - w o o d r a n g , a s o n g u p r os e
W he n H r oth gar s s c op g a v e the h all g ood
’
ch e e r.
1

It thi s g r e at an d hidd e n li fe of t h e An g l O S ax on s th at
is -

fin ds e xp r e s s i on i n a ll th e i r lit e rat u re B r i e fl y it i s s u m m e d .
,

u p i n fiv e gr e a t p r i n cipl e s th e i r l ove of p e r s on al fr e e d om
,
-
,

th e i r r e s p on s iv e n e s s t o n at u r e th e i r r e ligi on th e i r r e ve r e n c e
, ,

for w om an h ood an d th e i r s t r u ggl e for g l ory as a r u li n g m otiv e

,

i n e v e ry n obl e li fe .

I n r e adi n g An gl o S ax on p oe t r y it i s w e ll t o r e m e m b e r t h e s e
-

five p ri n cipl e s for th e y a r e lik e t h e littl e s p r i n gs

S pri n g s 6, ,

A g l o S axon at t h e h e ad of a gr e a t r iv e r
n -
cl e ar pu re s p r in g s of , ,
PM ”
p oe t ry an d o u t of th e m t h e b e s t of ou r lit e r at u re
,

has alway s fl o We d Th u s wh e n w e r e ad
.
,

B l as t o f the te m p e s t i t a i d s o u r o a rs ;—

R o ll i n g o f th u n d e r i t h u rts u s n o t ; —

R u s h o f th e h u rr i c a n e b e n d i n g i ts n e c k —

T o s p e e d u s W h i th e r o u r w i ll s a re b e n t ,

we li ze th at th e s e s e a r ov e r s had t h e s pi r it of kin s hip with

re a

t h e m i ght y li fe of n at u r e an d ki n s hip with n a tu r e i n v ar i abl

y
e xp re s s e s it s e l f i n p oe t r y A g ai n wh e n w e r e ad . , ,

N ow h a th th e m an
hi s t rou b l e s . N o p l e as u r e d oe s h e l ac k ,
’
O e rc o m e

N or s t e e d s , n or j l
e w e s, n or th e j o y s o f m e ad ,

N or y t r e as u re th a t th e
an e a r th c a n g i v e ,

y l
0 r o a w om a n , i f h e h a ve b u t th e e , 2

F rom B e ow u lf, 11. 1 063 ff., a fre e t ra n s a t on .

1 l i
l i p e ce of b a r . W th w on
i k i
2 T ra n s ate d f r om H e H u s b a n d ’ s M es s a e w r t t e n on a
g ,
i i i
de rfu l poe t c n s ght t he b a r ki l
tse f i s re p re se n te d as t e lli i
n g i t s s t ory t o t he w fe , from
 TH E AN GLO SAXO N PER I O D — 27

we kn ow d e ali n g with an e s s e n tiall y n obl e m an n ot a

we ar e ,

s av ag e w e a r e fa c e t o fa c e with th at p r ofou n d re v e r e n c e for

w om an h ood which in s pi re s t he g re at e r p art of al l g ood p oe t ry ,

an d w e b e g i n t o h on or a s w e ll as u n d e rs t an d ou r an c e s t or s .

S o i n t h e m att e r of gl ory or h on or ; it w as app ar e n tl y n ot th e , ,

l ov e of fi ghtin g b u t rath e r t he l ov e of h on or r e s ulti n g from

,

fi ghti n g w e ll which an i m at e d ou r fore fath e r s i n e v e ry c am

,
”
p ga i n . H e w a s a m a n d e s e r vi n g o f r e m e m b r an c e w a s t h e

hi g h e s t thi n g th at c ou ld b e s aid of a d e ad w arr i or an d H e

”
i s a m an d e s e rvi n g of pr ai se w a s t h e hi g h e s t t r ibut e t o t he
livi n g The wh ol e s e c r e t of B e ow u l f s m i g ht y li fe i s s u m m e d
.
’

”
E v e r y e ar n i n g for h i s p e opl e s p rai s e
’
up i n t h e l a s t li n e , So .

e v e r y t r ib e had i t s s c op or p o e t m or e i m p or t an t th an an
, y ,

warr i or w h o p u t t he d e e d s of i t s h e r oe s i n t o t h e e xp re s s ive
,

w ord s th at c on s tit u t e lit e rat u r e ; an d e v e ry ban q u e t h all h ad

i t s gl e e m an w h o san g t h e s c op s p oe t ry i n or d e r th at t h e d e e d
’

an d t h e m an m i ght b e r e m e m b e re d O r i e n t al p e opl e s b u ilt .

m on um e n t s t o p e r p e tu at e t he m e m or y of th e i r d e ad ; but ou r
’
an c e s t or s m ad e p oe m s which s h ou ld liv e an d s ti r m e n s s ou l s
,

l on g aft e r m on u m e n t s o f b rick an d s t on e h ad c ru m bl e d away .

I t i s t o thi s i n t e n s e l ov e of gl or y an d t h e d e s i r e t o b e r e m e m
b e r e d th a t w e ar e i n d e bt e d fo r An gl o S a x on lit e ratu r e -
.

Ou r Fi r s t S p e e ch O u r fi r s t r e c or d e d s p e e ch b e g in s with
.

t h e s on g s of Wi d s i th an d D e or which t he An g l o S axon s m ay ,
-

h av e b r ou g ht with th e m wh e n th e y fi r s t c on qu e r e d B r it ai n .

A t fi r s t g l an c e th e s e s on g s i n th e i r n at i ve d r e s s l ook s t ran g e
as a for e ig n t on u e ; b u t wh e n w e e x am i n e th e m c a r e fu ll
g y
w e fin d m an y w or d s th at h av e b e e n fam ili ar S i n c e childh ood .

We h ave s e e n thi s i n B e ow u lf ; b u t i n p ros e t h e r e s e m bl an c e

i
t he t m e w h e n t he b i r ch i
t ree gr e w b e s d e t h e se a u n t il
t he e x e d m an fou n d i t il an d

i p pe d t h
str e b ark a n d ca r ve d on i t s s u rface a m e s s age t o t he w o m an he o e d . Th s lv i fi rs t

of ll E gli
a n s h l v
o e s on gs d e se r v es to ra n k w ith Vl a ent ne s i ’
i i
de scr p t on of S ilvi a:

Why , m an , s he is m i n e ow n ,

An d I as r i ch i n h avi n g s u ch a j e w e l
As t w e n t y s e as , i f a l l t he i r sa n d w e re pe a r l ,
The w ate r n e ct a r an d t he r oc k s l
p u re g o d .
Tw o Ge n tle m e n o f Ve r on a , I I , 4.
 28 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

of thi s ol d S p e e ch t o ou r ow n i s e v e n m ore s t riki n g H e r e .

,

for i n s t an c e i s a fragm e n t of t he s i m pl e s t ory o f t he c on

,

q u e s t of B r it ai n b y ou r An g l o S ax on an c e s t or s : -

H e r H e n ge s t an d f-Es c h i s sunufu h to n w i th B ry t t as , o n th ae r e s tow e

ge
th e i s g e c w e d e n C r e c c a n for d , a n d th aer o fs l og o n fe ow e r t h u se n d a w e r a .
An d t h a B ry t tas t h a fo rl e to n C e n t 10 n d , a n d m i d m y c l u m e g e fl u g on t o
-

Lu n d e n b y r i g ( A t t hi s t i m e H e n g e s t an d Ae s c , h i s s on , fo u h t a ai n s t
g
.
g

STO N EH E N G E O N SA L I S B UR Y P LA I N
,

Pro b b l y th
a i f t m p l f th t iv B it
e ru n s o a e e o e na e r on s

th e B ri t on s at th e p l ac e w hi ch i s c a ll e d C r a y fo rd an d th e r e s e l w fo u r
tho u s a n d m en A n d th e n
. t h e B ri t o n s fo rs oo k Ke n t l a n d , an d w i th m u c h
1
fe a r fl e d t o Lo n d on t o w n .
)
Th e d e r w h o u tt e r s th e s e w or d s al ou d a f e w t im e s will
re a

s p e e dil
y re c og n i ze h i s o w n t on g u e n ot s i m pl
y i n t h e w or d s
,

b u t al s o i n t h e wh ol e s t r u ct u r e of t h e s e n t e n c e s .

F r om s u ch r e c or d s w e se e th a t o u r s p e e ch i s T e u t on ic i n
i t s or i g i n ; an d wh e n w e e x am i n e an y Te u t on ic l a n g u ag e w e
l e ar n th a t it i s on l y a b r an ch of th e g r e at A r y an or I n d o
E u rop e an fam il y of l an g u age s I n li fe a n d l an g u age th e r e
. ,

fo r e w e a r e r e l at e d fi r s t t o t h e T e u t on ic r a c e s a n d th rou gh
, ,

t h e m t o all t h e n at i on s of thi s I n d o E u r op e an fam ily which -

, ,

s t ar ti n g with e n o r m ou s vi g o r fr om th e i r or i g i n al h om e ( p r ob

abl i n c e n t ra l E u r o p e s p r e a d s o u thw ar d a n d w e s twa r d d r iv

y ,

i n g o u t t h e n ativ e t r ib e s an d s l owl y d e v e l opi n g t he m i g ht y

civili zat i on s o f I n di a Pe r s i a G r e e c e R om e a n d t h e wild e r b u t
, , , ,

m or e vi g or ou s li fe of t h e C e lt s an d T e u t on s I n a ll t h e s e .

1 F r o m t he A n g l o-S a x on C/zr on i e l e , r e c o r d o f t h e y e a r 4 5 7.
2 Ac co r d n i g t o S w e e t t h e o i i l l
r g n a h o m e o f t h e Ar y a ns i s p a c e d i n c e n t ra o r n ort h e rn l
h
Eu r ope , ra t e r t h a n i n A s ai ,
a s w a s o n c e a s s u m e d . S e e Th e H i s t or y f
o L a n
g u a
g p
e ,
. 1 0
3 .
3 0 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

N or m an Con qu e s t I t i s thi s dual ch ara ct e r t hi s com bi n atio n

. ,

of n ativ e an d fo re i g n of i n n at e an d e x otic e l e m e n t s which ac

, ,

c oun t s for t h e w e a lth of o u r E n g li s h lan g u age an d lit e rat u re .

To s e e it i n c on c r e t e form w e s h ould re ad i n s u cc e s s i on
,

B e ow u lf an d P a ra d i s e L os t t h e t w o g re at e pic s which S h ow
,

t h e r oot an d t h e fl ow e r of ou r lit e rary d e v e l op m e n t .

III . C H R I S T I AN W R I T E R S OF T H E A N G LO -
S A X ON
PE R I OD

T he lit e ratu r e of thi s p e r iod fall s n atu rall y in t o t w o divi

s i on s —
, p agan an d Ch r i s ti an Th e form e r r e p re s e n t s t h e
.

p oe t ry which t he An gl o S ax on s p rob abl y b rou ght with th e m

-

i n t h e form of ora l sagas — t h e c ru d e m at e r i al ou t of which

,

lit e rat u r e w as S l owly d e v e l op e d on E n gli s h s oil ; t h e l att e r r e p

r e s e n t s t h e w r iti n g s d e v e l op e d u n d e r t e achi n g of t h e m on k s ,

aft e r t h e old p agan re l igi on h ad v an i s h e d but whil e it s till ,

r e t ai n e d i t s h old on t h e li fe an d l an gu ag e of t he p e opl e In .

re adi n g ou r e ar li e s t p oe t r y it i s w e ll t o r e m e m b e r th at a l l of
it w as Copi e d b y t h e m on k s an d s e e m s t o hav e b e e n m ore or
,

l e s s alt e r e d t o give it a r e li g i ou s c ol or i n g .

The c om i n g of Ch r i s ti an it y m e an t n ot s i m pl y a n e w li fe
an d l e ad e r for En gl an d ; it m e an t a l so t h e w e alth of a n e w

l an gu age Th e S c op i s n ow r e pl a c e d b y t h e lit e rary m on k ;

.

an d th at m on k th ou g h h e liv e s a m on g c o m m on p e opl e an d
,

s p e ak s with t h e En g li s h t on gu e h as b e hi n d h i m all t h e c u lt u r e
,

an d lit e r a ry r e s ou r c e s of t h e Lati n l an gu ag e T he e ffe ct i s .

s e e n i n s t an tl y i n ou r e ar l p ro s e an d p oe t ry
y .

Nor t h u m b ri an Li t e r at u re I n g e n e ral t w o gr e at s ch ool s of

. ,

Ch r i s ti an i n fl u e n c e c am e i n t o En gl an d an d s p e e dily p u t an
,

e n d t o t h e fr i g ht fu l wa rs th a t h ad w ag e d c on ti n u ally am on g

t h e var i ou s p e tt y ki n g d om s of t h e An g l o S ax on s T he fi r s t of
-
.

th e s e u n d e r t h e l e ad e rs hip o f A u g u s tin e ca m e fr om R om e
, ,
.

I t s p r e ad i n t h e s ou th an d c e n t e r of E n gl an d e s p e ciall y i n ,

t h e ki n g d om of E s s e x . I t fou n d e d s ch ool s an d par ti ally e d u

cat e d t he r ough p e opl e but it p roduc e d n o la s t i n g lit e r atu r e
,
.
 TH E ANGLO SAXO N PER I OD
-
3 1

Th e o th e r u n d e r t h e l e ad e r s hip of t he s ai n tl y Aid an c am e fr om
, ,

I r e l an d which cou n t r y h ad b e e n for c e n tu ri e s a c e n t e r of r e li

,

i on a n d e d u c a ti on for a l l w e s t e r n Eu r op e T h e m on k s of thi s
g .

s ch ool l ab or e d chi e fl y i n Nor th u m b r i a an d t o th e i r i n fl u e n ce ,

w e ow e all th a t i s b e s t i n An gl o S ax on lit e ra t u r e It i s c all e d

-
.

t he Nor th u m b r i an S ch ool ; 4 ww s w m tnw .

i t s c e n t e r w a s t h e m on
as t e r i e s an d a bb e y s s uch ,

a s J arro w an d Whitb y ,

an d i t s th r e e gr e at e s t

n am e s are B e d e Cae d ,

m on an d Cy n e w u l f
, .

BE D E 6
( 73 73 5 )
—

Th e V bl e B e d e
e n e ra ,

a s h e i s ge n e r all c all e d
y ,

o u r fi r s t gr e at s ch ol ar an d

t h e fath e r of ou r E n g li s h
”
l e a r n i n g wr ot e a l m os t
,

e xcl u s iv e l
y i n L ati n h i s ,

l as t w or k t h e t ran s l ati on
,

of t h e G o s p e l o f J oh n i n t o

A n g l o S ax on h avi n g b e e n
-
,

ST . LU K E S G OSPEL ;
’
cu e. 700 A D .

to ou r t th e r e for e
r e gr e , ,

h i s b ook s a n d t h e s t ory of h i s g e n tl e h e r o ic li fe m u s t b e ,

e xcl u d e d fr om thi s hi s t or of ou r lit e rat u r e H i s w or k s o v e r

y . ,

for t y i n n u m b e r c ov e r e d t he wh ol e fi e ld of h u m an k n owl e d g e
,

i n h i s d ay an d w e r e s o ad m i rabl y w r itt e n th at th e y w e r e
,

wid e l y Copi e d as t e xt b ook s or r ath e r m an u s cr ipt s i n n e ar ly

-
, ,

al l t h e m o n a s t e r s ch ool s o f E u r op e
y .

Th e w or k m o s t i m p or t an t t o u s i s t h e E cc l e s i a s ti ca l [f i s
tory of Me E ng l i s n P e op l e I t i s a fas ci n ati n g h i s to ry t o r e ad
.

e v e n n ow with i t s c u r i ou s c o m bi n a ti on of ac c u ra t e s c h ol ar s h i p
,
'

an d i m m e n s e cr e duli I ll t ictl hi t i c l m tt B d
ty n a s r
y s or a a e r s e e .
3 2 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

is a m od e l . Eve ryk n own au th or it y on t he s ubj e ct from ,

Pli n y t o Gild a s w a s c ar e fu ll y c on s id e r e d ; e v e ry l e ar n e d pil

,

i m t o R om e w a s c o m m i s s i on e d b y B e d e t o ran sa ck
Th e F i rs t g r

Hi s t ory of t h e ar chiv e s an d t o m a k e c opi e s of p ap al d e c r e e s

En gl an d
an d r oy a l l e tt e rs ; a n d t o th e s e w e r e a dd e d t h e t e s

t i m on y of a bb ot s w h o c ou ld S p e ak from p e r s on al k n o wl e d ge of
e v e n t s or r e p e a t t h e t ra diti on s of th e i r s e v e ra l m on as t e r i e s .

S id e b y s id e w ith thi s hi s t or ical e x act n e s s ar e m ar v e l ou s

s t or i e s o f s a i n t s an d m i s s i on ar i e s I t w as an ag e of cr e d u lit y
.
,

an d m ir a cl e s w e re i n m e n s m i n d s c on ti n uall T h e n of
’

y e m .

R U IN S AT W H I T BY

wh om he wr ot e liv e d liv e s m or e w on d e r ful th an an y r om an c e ,

a n d th e i r c o u ra ge an d tl n e s s m ad e a t r e m e n d o u s i m p r e s
g e n e

s i on on t he r o u g h , warlik e p e opl e t o wh om th e y c am e with

op e n h an d s an d h e ar t s .I t i s t h e n atu ral w ay of all p r im itiv e
p e opl e s t o m agn i fy t h e w or k s of th e i r h e roe s an d s o d e e d s of
,

h e roi s m an d kin d n e s s which we r e p art of t h e d aily li fe of

,

t h e I r i s h m i s s i on ar i e s w e r e s oon t ran s for m e d i n t o t h e m i ra cl e s

,

of t h e S ai n t s .B e d e b e li e v e d th e s e thi n g s as all o th e r m e n did

, ,

an d r e c or d s th e m with ch ar m i n g s i m plicit j u s t a s h e r e c e iv e d
y ,

th e m fr om bi s h op or abb ot N otwith s t an di n g i t s e rr or s w e
. ,

ow e t o thi s w or k n e ar l al l ou r k n owl e d g e of t h e e i g ht c e n
y
t u r i e s of ou r hi s t ory foll ow i n g t h e l an din g of Cae sa r i n B r it ain .
 TH E A NGLO SAXO N PER I OD -
33

CJ’E D M ON ( S e v e n th C e n t u r )
y

N ow m u s t y
w e h m n th e M as te r o f h e a v e n ,

Th e m i g h t o f th e M a k e r , the d e e d s o f the F a th e r,
Th e th ou gh t o f H i s h e a r t . H e , Lo rd e v e r l as ti n g ,
E s tab l i s h e d o f ol d th e s ou r ce o f a l l w on d e rs
C re tor
a all -
ho ly , H e h u n g th e b r i gh t h e a v e n ,
A roo f h i gh u p re are d, ’
o er l
th e c h i d r e n of men ;
T h e Ki n g of m an kind th e n c r e a te d fo r m or ta l s
T h e w o r l d i n i ts b e a u t y , t h e e ar th s p re ad b e n e a th
H e , Lord e v e rl as ti n g , o m n i p o te n t G o d .
1

I f B e ow u lf an d t h e frag m e n t s
li e s t p oe t r y w e re of o u r e ar

b r ought i n t o En g l an d th e n t h e h y m n giv e n ab ov e i s t h e fi r s t
,

v e r s e of all n ativ e En gli s h s on g th at has c om e d own t o u s ,

an d Cae d m on i s t h e fi rs t p oe t t o wh om w e c an giv e a d e fi

n it e n am e an d dat e The w or d s w e r e w r itt e n a b o ut 6 6 5 A D

. . .

an d ar e fou n d c opi e d at t h e e n d of a m an u sc r ipt of B e d e s

’

Life of What littl e w e kn ow of Cae d m on t he An gl o

Ca dm on . ,

S a x on Mil t on as he i s p rop e r ly c a lle d i s t ake n fro m Be d e s ac c ou n t 2 ’

, ,

of the Abbe ss H ild a an d of h e r m o n a s t e ry a t Wh itby H e r e i s a fre e .

an d c on d e n se d t ran slati on of Be d e s s t o ry
’

Th e r e w as , i n the m on as te r y of th e Ab b e s s H i l d a , a b r oth e r d i s ti n
g u i shed b y th e g ra c e of God , for th a t h e c o u l d m a k e p oe m s t re a t i n g
o f g oo d n e s s a n d r e l i g i on . Wh a te v e r w as t ra n s l a te d to hi m for h e c o u l d
(
n ot r e a d
) of S a c re d S c ri p tu r e h e s h or t ly re p r o d u c e d i n p oe ti c form o f
g re at s w e e tn e s s an d b e a u t y . N on e o f al l th e E n g l i s h p oe ts c ou l d e q u a l
h i m , for h e l e arn e d n ot th e ar t o f s o n g f rom m e n , b y th e a r ts o f
n or s an g

m e n . R ath e r d i d h e re ce i ve al l h i s p oe t r y as a fre e g i ft fr om God , an d

f or t hi s r e as on he did ne ve r c o m p os e p oe t r y o f a v a i n or w o r l d l y k i n d .

U n ti l of m atu re a
ge h e li v e d as a l a y ma n an d h ad ne ve r l e arn e d an y

p oe tr y I n de e d
. , so i g n or a n t o f s i n gi n g w as h e th a t s om e t i m e s , a t a fe a s t,
w h e re i t w as th e c u s tom th a t fo r th e p l e as u r e o f a ll e a c h g u e s t s h ou ld
sing i n t u r n , h e w ou l d ri s e fr om th e t ab l e w h e n h e sa w th e h ar p c o m i n g
to h i m an d
g o h om e N ow i t h ap p e n e d o n c e th at h e d i d th i s
a s h am e d .

th i n g a t a c e r tai n fe s ti v i t y , an d w e n t ou t to th e s tall to c ar e fo r th e
h ors e s , thi s d u t y b e i n g as s i g n e d t o h i m for th a t n i gh t . As h e s l e p t at

1 Cae d m on ’
s
”
H y n , Coo
m k v i ’
s e r s on , i n Tr a n s l a t i on s f r om Ol d E ng l i s li P oe t ry .
2 E ccl e s i a s t i ca l H i s t or y , I Vx xiv, .
34 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
t h e u s u al ti m e , on e s t ood b y hi m sa y in g : C ae d m on , si ng me s om e th i n g .
“
I c an n o t S i n g ,
”
he a n s w e re d , an d th a t i s w h y I c am e hi th e r fr o m t h e
fe as t .
”
B u t h e w ho spa k e u n to h i m s ai d ag ai n , C ae d m o n , si ng to m e
”
.

An d h e s ai d ,
“
Wh a t s h a ll I s i n
g ? ”
a nd he s ai d ,
“
S i n g the b e g i n n i n g
s i n g v e r s e s th a t h e
”
of c r e ate d T h e re u p o n C ae d m o n b e g an to
th i n g s .
h ad n e v e r h e ar d b e fo re , o f thi s i m p ort : “
N ow s hou l d w e p r ai s e th e
p ow e r an d w i s d o m o f the Cre ator , t h e w o r k s o f th e F a th e r . T h i s i s t h e
”

s e n se b ut n ot th e for m of y
th e h m n th at h e s an
g w hi e l l
s e e pi n .
g
Wh e n he aw a ke n e d , C ae d m on re m e m b e re d the w or d s of y
th e h m n
a n d a dd e d to th e m m a n y m or e . I n the m o rn i n g h e w e n t t o th e s te w ar d
o f th e m o n as te r y l an d s an d s h ow e d h i m the g i ft h e h a d r e c e i v e d i n
l
s e e p. The s te w a r d b rou g h t hi m t o H i l d a , w h o m a d e h i m r e p e at t o th e
m on ks y
th e h m n h e h a d c om p os e d , an d a l l a r e e d
g th a t th e g ra c e o f Go d
w as u p on Cae d m o n . T o te s t h i m th e y e x p ou n d e d to h i m a b i t o f S c ri p
t u r e fro m th e La ti n an d b ad e h i m , i f h e c ou ld
t o t u rn i t i n to p oe t r .
, y
H e w e nt aw a y hu m b l y an d r e t u rn e d in th e m orn i n g w i th a n e c e e n t x ll
p oe m . T h e re u p on H i l d a r e c e i v e d hi m an d h i s fa m i l y i n t o th e m on a s te r y ,
m a d e hi m on e o f th e b re thr e n , a n d c om m an d e d th at th e w h ol e c ou rs e o f
B i b l e h i s to r y b e e x p ou n d e d to h i m . H e i n t u rn , re fl e c t i n g u p on w h at he
h ad h e a r d , t r an s fo rm e d i t i n t o m os t d e l i ght fu l p oe t r y , an d b y e c h oi n g
i t b a c k t o th e m o n k s i n m o r e m e l od i ou s s ou n d s m ad e h i s t e a c h e rs hi s
l i s t e n e rs . I n a ll th i s h i s ai m w as t o t u rn m e n from w i c k e d n e s s an d to
h e l p th e m to t h e l ov e an d i of we ll d oi n g .
'

p r ac t c e

e n foll o w s b ri e f re c ord o f C ae d m on s l i fe an d an e x q u i s i te p i c t u r e
’

[
T h a

o f h i s d e a th a m i d s t th e b r e th re n A nd s o i t c a m e to p a s s s a y s th e
] .
[
s i m p l e r e c or d h a t a s h e s e r v e d Go d w h i l e l i v i n i n p u ri t y o f m i n d
] t g
an d s e r e n i t y o f s p i ri t , s o b y a p e a c e fu l d e ath he l e ft t h e w orl d an d w e n t

to l oo k u p o n H i s fa c e .

Cae dm on ’
s Work s T h e gr e at e s t w or k a tt r ib u t e d t o Cae d m on
.

i s t he s o -
c all e d P a r ap h ra s e It i s t he s t ory of G e n e s i s, E x od u s ,
.

an d a p ar t o f D an i e l t old i n gl owi n g p o e tic l an g u ag e with a

, , ,

p ow e r of i n s i ght an d i m ag i n ati on which oft e n ra i s e s it fr om

paraph ras e i n t o th e r e al m of t ru e p oe t ry T h ou gh w e h av e .

“
B e d e s as s u ran c e th at Cae d m on t r an s form e d t h e wh ol e c ou r s e
’

”
of B ibl e hi s t or y i n t o m os t d e li g ht ful p oe t r n o w or k k n ow n
y ,

c e r t ai n ly t o h av e b e e n c om p os e d b y hi m has c om e d o w n t o u s .

I n t h e s e v e n t e e n th c e n t u r y thi s An g l o S ax on P a r ap nra s e w as -

di s c o v e re d an d att r ib u t e d t o Cae d m on an d h i s n am e i s s till ,

as s o cia t e d with it th ou gh it i s n ow al m os t c e rta in th at t he

,

P u m p /era s e i s t h e wo r k of m ore th an on e w r it e r .
36 ENGLI SH L I TE RATURE

B e s id e s t h e P a rap nra s e w e h av e a fe w fragm e n t s of the

s am e l ch ara ct e r which ar e att r ib u t e d t o t h e S ch ool of
g e n e ra

Cae d m on The l on g e s t of th e s e i s j u d i t/z i n which t he s t ory

.
,

o f an ap oc r ph al b oo k o f t h e O l d Te s t am e n t i s d o n e i n t o
y
vi gor ou s p o e t ry H ol ofe rn e s i s r e p re s e n t e d as a s av ag e an d
V
.

c r u e l iki n g r e v e li n g i n h i s m e ad h all an d wh e n t h e h e r oic

,

J udith c u t s off hi s h e ad with h i s o w n s w ord an d th r ow s it

d ow n b e fore t h e warr i or s of h e r p e opl e r ou s i n g th e m t o ,

b attl e an d vict or y w e r e ach p e rh ap s t he m os t d ram ati c an d

,

b r illian t poin t of An gl o S ax on lit e ratu r e -

.

C YN E W U L F E
”

( ighth C e n t u ry )

O f Cy n e wul f, gr e at e s t of t h e An gl o S ax on p oe t s , e xc e pti n g -

on l
y t h e u n k n ow n a uth or o f B e ow u lf , w e k n ow v e r
y littl e .

I n d e e d it w as n ot till 1 84 0 m ore th an a t h ou san d y e ars aft e r

, ,

h i s d e ath th at e v e n h i s n am e b e cam e k n ow n Th ou gh he i s
, .

t he on l y on e of ou r e ar l y p oe t s w h o s ig n e d h i s w or k s t h e ,

n am e w as n e v e r pl ai n l w r itt e n b u t w ov e n i n t o t h e v e r s e s i n
y ,

1
t h e for m of s e c r e t r u n e s s u gg e s t i n g a m od e r n Ch arad e but , ,

m ore di ffic u lt o f i n t e r p re t ati on u n til on e h as fou n d t h e k e y

t o t h e p oe t s S i g n at u re
’
.

Work s of Cy n e w u l f The on l y s i gn e d p oe m s of Cy n e w u l f .

a r e Tne Ch r i s t j u l i a n a Tno Fa te s o , f t n e A p os tl e s a n d E l e n e
, , .

U n s i g n e d p o e m s att r ib u t e d t o h i m or h i s s ch ool ar e An d r e a s ,

p i m it iv l t t ld l ph b t I f w p g Cy
1 R w u ne s e re f th rth e e e rs o e o n or e rn a a e . n a e assa es ne

w lf
u h t
u s e s e ac p t t l y l tt b t w d b gi i g w it h t h t l tt
ru n e o re r e se n no on a e er u a or e nn n a e e r.

Th th
us q iv l t f C t
e r u n e -e d f u (ka en g o) Y f yf l ( vil i
s an s or ce n e ee n, c ou ra e ou s ,
or e e ,
n

the s e n se of w re t c he d ) , N for nyd ( n e e d) , W for w y n ( j oy ) U ,

for ur ( ou r) ,
L for l ag u
(l k
a e ) ,
F for f e oli ( fe e , w e a t h ) . l Us i ng t he ru n e s e
qu iv l a ent t o t he s e se ven l e t te r s ,

Cy n e w u f h de s l i a n d at t he s am e t mei re v l
ea s hi s n am e i n c e r ta n i v e rs e s of Tb e C/zr i st ,
for i n s t a n ce

k
T he n t he Cou r ag e lze a r te d q u a e s , w h e n th e K n g ( L ord ) he h e ars
'
-
i
k
S pe a t o t hos e w ho on ce on e a rt h b u t ob e e d H i m w e ak y , y l
While y e t t heas i
Ye a r n i n g p a i n an
r e r N e e d m os t e a s y d th i il
Com fort m ght d i sc o e r. i Gon e i s t he n t he Wi n s om e n e ss
v
O f t he e art h s a d orn m e n t s ! W hat t o U s a s m e n b e on ge d l
’

Of t h e jo y s of li l
fe wa s ocke d , on g ago, i n La é e fl ood . l
Al l th e F e e on e art h .

k
S e e B roo e s H i s tor y of E a r ly E n g l i s /z L i te r a t u r e , pp .
’ -
3 79, or Tb e C/zr i st f
o

Cy n ew u lf, e d . b y Coo , a s o b y Go an c z. k l ll
 TH E ANGLO SAXO N PER I O D —
37

t h e P kce n ix , t h e D re a m o
f ti l e R ood , th e D e s ce n t i n to H e l l ,
Gu t/zla c, t h e Wa n d e re r , a n d s om e of l a s t ar e t h e R iddl e s . Th e
s i m pl lit e r ar c o n u n d r u m s i n which s om e w e ll k n ow n obj e ct
y y
-
,

lik e t h e b ow or d r i n ki n g h orn i s d e s cr ib e d i n p oe tic l an g u ag e , ,

an d t h e b e ar e r m u s t g u e s s t h e n am e S om e of th e m l i k e T he .
,

” 1 ”
S wa n an d Th e S t o rm S pi r it ar e u n u s u all
y b e a uti fu l , .

O f a ll th e s e w or k s t h e m os t ch a r act e r i s tic i s u n d oubt e dly

Tne Cnr i s t a did a ctic p oe m i n th re e p ar t s t h e fi r s t c e l e b r at
,

i n g t h e N ativit y ; t h e s e c on d t h e A s c e n s i on ; an d ,
Th e Chri s t " ”
t h e thi r d D oom s d ay
, t e lli n g the t orm e n t s of t he ,

wick e d an d t he u n e n di n g j oy of t h e r e d e e m e d Cy n e w u l f t ak e s .

h i s s u bj e ct m att e r p artl y fr om t h e Ch u r ch lit u rgy b u t m or e

-
,

l ar ge l y fr om t he h om i li e s of G r e g or y t h e G r e at Th e wh ol e i s .

w e ll w ove n t og e th e r an d c on t ai n s s om e h y m n s o f g r e at b e au t y
,

an d m an p as s ag e s o f i n t e n s e d ram atic for c e T h r ou h ou t t h e

y g
V
.

p oe m a d e e p l o v e fo r C h r i s t an d a r e v e r e n c e f or t h e i r g in
Mary ar e m an i fe s t Mor e th an an y o th e r p oe m i n an y l an g u ag e
.
,

T/ze Chr i s t r e fl e ct s t h e S pi r it o f e ar ly L ati n C h r i s ti an it y .

H er e I s a fr ag m e n t c om p ar i n g li fe t o a s e a v oy ag e — a ,

c om par i s on which occu r s s oon e r or l at e r t o e v e ry th ou ght fu l

p e r s on an d which fi n d s p e r fe ct e xp r e s s i on i n T e n n y s on s
,
’

Cr os s i n g t h e B a r .

N ow t i s m os t l i k e a s i f w e fa re i n S hi p s
’

O n th e o c e a n fl ood o v e r th e w a te r c o l d , ,

D ri vi n g o u r v e s s e l s th ro u gh th e s p ac i ou s s e as
W i th h o rs e s o f t h e d e e p A p e r i l o u s w ay i s t h i s .

Of b o u n d l e s s w av e s an d th e re a re s to rm y s e as ,

O n w hi c h w e t os s h e r e i n thi s ( re e l i n g ) w o rl d
O e r th e d e e p p ath s O u rs w as a s o r r y p l i gh t
’
.

1 My r ob e is i l
n o s e e ss wh il e I t re a d t h e e a rt h ,

O r ta rr y
n e a t h t he b an
’
k s , or s t r i t he s ha ll; ow s

B u t w he n t he s e s h n n g i i i
w n gs , t h s i d e p t h of a i r ,
Be ar m e l
a oft ab o v th e e be n d i n
g s h o re s

Whe re me n ab id e ,
an d far t he w e lki n s s t re n gt h
’

O v th m l t i t d
er e v y m th
u u e s c on e s e, en

Wi t h h i g w hi
ru s d l nm l di r an c e ar e o ou s s ou n d

M y i m t i g A d li k
ra en w d i
S n s. n e a an e r n g sp r i it
I fl t
oa w un i dly fl d d fi ld
e ar e o er
’
oo an e .

( B gham v i i T l f r om Old E n g . P oet ry .)

’
rou s e r s on , n r an s .
38 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
U n ti l at l as t we l
s a i e d u n to th e l an d ,

O v e r t h e t ro u b l e d m a i n . H e l p c am e to us

T h a t b rou gh t us to t h e h a ve n l
o f s a v at on , i
G od an d
g r a n te d g r a c e t o u s
’
s S p i ri t S on ,
-

T h a t w e m i g h t k n o w e e n fr om th e v e s s e l s d e c k
’ ’

W h e r e w e m u s t b i n d w i th a n c h or age s e c u re
Ou r o c e a n s te e d s , o l d s t a ll i on s of th e w a e s . v
I n t he t w o pic p oe m s of An d r e a s an d E l e n e Cy n e w u l f
e

( i f h e b e t h e a u th or
) r e a ch e s t h e v e r
y s u m m it o f h i s p oe ti c al
An dr ea s an d ar t An d r e a s an u n s i g n e d p oe m r e c or d s t h e s t ory
.
, ,

El e m
of S t A n d r e w w h o c r o s s e s t h e s e a t o re s cu e h i s
.
,

c om rad e S t Matth e w from t h e c an n ib al s A y ou n g s hip

. . _

m as t e r w h o s a il s t h e b oa t t u r n s ou t t o b e Ch r i s t i n di s g u i s e .

Matth e w i s s e t f re e an d t he s av ag e s ar e c on v e r t e d b y a m i r
,

acl e
1
.It i s a s pi rit e d p oe m fu ll o f r u s h an d i n cid e n t an d t h e , ,

d e s cr ipti on s of th e s e a ar e t he b e s t i n A n g l o S ax on p oe t ry -
.

E l e n e has for i t s s u bj e ct m a tt e r t h e fi n din g of t h e t r u e -

’
c r os s It t e ll s of Con s t an ti n e s vi s i on of t h e R oo d on t he e ve
.
,

of b attl e Aft e r h i s vict ory u n d e r t h e n e w e m bl e m h e s e n d s h i s

.

m oth e r H e l e n a ( El e n e ) t o J e r u sa l e m i n s e ar ch of t h e or igi n al
c r os s an d t h e n ail s Th e p oe m which i s of v e ry u n e v e n qu alit y
.
, ,

m i g ht p r op e r l y b e p u t at t h e e n d of Cy n e w u lf s w or k s
’
He .

add s t o t h e p oe m a p e r son al n ot e S ig n i n g hi s n am e i n r u n e s ;

V
,

an d i f w e a cc e pt t h e w on d e r fu l i s i on of t h e R ood a s Cy n e
'

w u l f s w o rk w e l e arn how he fou n d t h e c r os s at l as t i n h i s o w n

’

h e ar t Th e r e i s a s u gg e s ti on h e r e of t h e fu t u r e S i r Lau n fal
.

an d t h e s e ar ch for t h e H ol y G ra il .

D e cl i n e of Nor t h u m b r i an Li t e rat u r e Th e s am e n or t h e rn .

e n e rg y which h ad built up l e ar n i n g a n d lit e r at u r e s o r apidly

i n N orthu m b r ia w as i n s t r u m e n t al i n p u lli n g it d own agai n .

To war d t h e e n d of t h e c e n tu ry i n which Cyn e w u l f liv e d t h e ,

D an e s s w e pt d ow n on t h e E n g li s h c oa s t s an d ov e rwh e l m e d
N or t h u m b r i a Mon as t e r i es an d s ch ool s w e r e d e s t r oy e d s ch ol
.

a r s an d t e ach e r s alik e w e r e p u t t o t h e s w or d a n d lib r ar i e s th a t ,

1 The s ou r ce of An d r e as i s an e ar ly Gre e k l e ge n d ofS t . An d re w t h at fou n d i t s

w ay t o E n gl an d a n d w as p rob a b y l k n ow n t o C y n e w u lf i n i
so m e b ri e f L at n for m , n ow os t . l
 TH E A NGLO SAXO N P E R I OD —
39

ha d b e e n g ath e r e d l e af b y l e af with th e t oil of c e n tu r i e s w e r e

s c att e r e d t o t h e fo ur wi n d s S o a ll t r u e N o rt h u m b ri an lit e r a .

t u r e p e r i s h e d with t he e xc e pti on of a fe w frag m e n t s an d th at

, ,

1
which w e n ow p o s s e s s i s l ar ge ly a t ran s l at i on i n t he di al e ct
o f t h e W e st S a x on s Thi s t r an s l ati on
w as m ad e b y A l fr e d s s ch ol a rs a ft e r
’

h e had d r iv e n b ack t h e D a n e s i n an
e ffor t t o p r e s e r v e t he id e al s an d t h e

civili zati on th at had b e e n s o h ar dl y

w on Wit h t h e c on q u e s t of N orth
.

u m b r i a e n d s t h e p oe tic p e r i od of
An gl o S ax on lit e rat u re With Al fre d
-
.

t h e G r e at of W e s s e x ou r p r os e lit e r a
t u re m ak e s a b e g i n n i n g .

A L F R E D ( 84 8— 9 0 1 )
Eve ry c r a ft an d e v e r y p ow e r s oon grow s
ol d a n d i s p as s e d o v e r an d forg o t te n , i f i t
be w i th ou t w i s d om . T hi s i s n ow to b e
s ai d , th a t w hi l i v e I w i s h t o l i v e n ob l y
lst I ,

a n d a f te r l i fe t o l e a v e t o th e m e n w h o c om e

a ft e r m e a m e m o r y o f g oo d w or k s
2 ”
.

So w r ot e t h e g r e at A l fr e d l o oki n g ,

b ack ov e r hi s h e r oic li fe Th at he .

live d n obl y n on e c an d o u bt w ho r e ad s
t h e hi s t o r y of t h e g r e at e s t of An g l o
C E D M O N C RO S S AT W H I T BY
S ax on ki n gs ; an d h i s g oo d w or k s
A BB E Y
I n cl u d e a m on g oth e r s t h e e d u c a t I on
, ,

of h alf a c ou n t r t h e s alv ag e of a n o bl e n ativ e lit e r at u r e

y , ,

an d t h e c r e a ti on o f t h e fi r s t E n li s h p r o s e
g .

1 O tw hi f th f m Ex t B k i Ex t C th d l ll ti a co ec on

d t h V l li B k
ur u o c e so r ce s ar e e a ou s e er oo n e er a e ra ,
,

o f A gl S x
n o-
p m p a on t d b y Bi h p L
oe f i (
s re s e n e s o eo r c c. an e e rc e oo

t y f V lli I t ly i
,

di v d i th m
s co e re n e 8
o n as e r Th ly k w m
o ipt f
e r ce , a ,
n 1 22. e on no n a n u s cr o

B w lf w
eo u di v d 6
as s co d i w i t h C tt
e re c. 1Lib y f t h B it i h M
00 , a n ms no n e o on r ar o e r s u se u .

All t h f gm
e s e a re t y p i
ra d h w t h m
e n ar k f fi co d f h d
e s , an g T h S o e ar s o re an o ar u sa e. e

E t B k
xe e r t i
oo th Ch i t G t hl
c on a n s th P h i x f li
e Wi d i th Th S f
r s ,
u a c, e oen . u an a, s e ea a r er ,

D L m t Th Wi f C mp l i t Th L M i fi i d d l d
’
e ar s a en ,
e e
’
g s t y o R a n ,
e ove r s
’
essa e, n ne - ve e s , an

m any h t hy m
s or d f gm t n s an
an t i h i g v i ty f
ra i gl m
e n s, i pt as on s n ar e or a s n e a n u s cr .

2 F m Al f d B th i
ro re
’
s oe u s.
40 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
Life an d Ti m e s of Al fre d . For t he h i st or y of Alfre d
’
s tim e s, an d

d e tail s of ific s tru ggl e w it h t he N or t hm e n t he re ad e r m u st

t he te rr ,

b e r e fe rre d t o t he h i st ori e s Th e s t ru ggle e n d e d w it h t he Tre aty of

.

We d m ore i n 878 w it h t he e st abli shm e n t o f Al fre d n ot on l y a s ki n g

, ,

o f We sse x b u t as o v e r l ord of t h e w h o l e n or t h e rn c ou n t r y
,
The n t he .

he r o l ai d d ow n h i s sw ord a n d se t h i m se l f a s a littl e c h ild t o l e arn

,

t o re ad an d w r i t e Lat in so t hat h e m i gh t l e ad h i s p e o p l e i n p e ac e a s
,

h e had l e d t he m i n w ar It i s th e n t hat Alf r e d b e gan t o b e t he he r oi c

.

fi gu re i n li t e rat u re that he had for m e rly b e e n i n the wars agai n st

t h e N or t h m e n .
Wi t h the sam e p ati e n c e an d he ro i sm t hat had m arke d the l on g
s t ru ggl e for fr e e d o m Alfr e d s e t h i m s e lf t o t he task of e d u c at i n g h i s
,

p pe o l e . F i r s t h e ga v e t h e m l aw s b e g i n n i n
g w it h t h e T e n,Co m m a n d
m e n t s an d e n d i n g w i t h t he G old e n R u l e an d t h e n e s t abli she d c ou r ts ,

w he r e l aw s c ou l d b e fai t hfu lly ad m i n i s t e r e d Safe fr om t he D an e s .

by l an d he c r e at e d a n a v y al m ost t he fi rst of t he En gli sh fl e e t s to

, , ,

d r i v e t he m from t he c oast The n w it h p e ac e an d j u s t i c e e stabli she d

. ,

w i t h i n h i s b ord e r s h e s e n t t o Eu rop e for s c h ol ar s an d t e ac h e r s an d

, ,

se t t h e m ove r s c h oo l s t hat h e e s t abli she d H i t he r t o all e d u c at i on .

h ad be e n i n Latin ; n ow h e s e t h i m se lf t h e tas k fi r s t of te ac hi n g , ,

e v e r y fr e e b orn En gli s hm an t o r e ad and w r i t e h i s ow n l an gu age an d

-
,

se c on d of t ran sl at i n g i n t o En gli s h t he b e s t b ook s for t h e i r i n s tr u c

,

t i on. E v e r y p oor s c h olar w as h on or e d at hi s c ou r t a n d w a s s p e e dily

s e t t o w o rk a t t e ac h i n g o r t r an s l a ti n g ; e ve r y w an d e r e r b ri n gi n g a

book or a l e af of m an u sc r i p t from t he p illage d m on aste ri e s Of N orth

u m b ri a w a s s u re o f hi s r e w ar d I n t hi s w ay t he fe w fragm e n t s of
.

n at i v e Nor t h u m b ri an lit e rat u r e w h i c h w e h a v e b e e n s t u dyi n g w e re

, ,

sa v e d t o t he w orld Alfre d an d hi s sc h ol ar s t r e a su r e d th e r are frag

.

m e n t s an d c o pi e d t he m i n t h e We st Sa x on di al e c t Wi th t h e e xc e p -
.

t i o n of Cae d m on s H y m n w e have hard l y a s i n gl e l e af fr om th e gre at

’
,

lit e ratu re of Nort hu m bria i n t he d i al e c t i n w h ic h i t w as first w rit t e n .

Work s of d u c ati on al w ork A l fr e d

Al f r e d . A s id e from hi s e ,

i s k n ow n chi e fl y as a t r an s l at or Aft e r fi ghti n g h i s c o u n t r y s

’
.

b attl e s an d at a tim e wh e n m o s t m e n w e r e c on t e n t with m il

,

i tary h on or h e b e gan t o l e ar n Lati n th at h e m i ght t r an s l at e

, ,

t h e w or k s th at w ou ld b e m o s t h e lp fu l t o h i s p e opl e H is .

i m por t an t t ran s l ati on s are fo u r i n n u m b e r : Or os i u s s U n i ve r ’

s a l H i s tory a n d Ge og rap hy t h e l e adi n g w or k i n ge n e ral hi s t ory

,
 TH E ANGLO SAXO N PER I OD —
41

1
for v e ral c e n t u r i e s ; B e d e s H i s tory t h e fi r s t g r e at hi s t or
Se
’
,
’
ical w or k w ritt e n on En g li s h s o il ; Pop e G re gor y s S hep
”

'

he r d s B ooh i n t e n d e d e s p e ci all y for t h e cl e r gy ; an d B oe t h i uS s

’
’

Con s ol a t i on s of P h i l os op hy t h e fav or it e phil os ophical w o r k of

'

t h e Middl e A g e s .

Mor e i m p or t an t th an an y t ran s l ati on I s t he E ng l i s h o r S ax on

Ch r on i cl e T hi s w a s p rob a bl y a t fi r s t a d r y r e c ord e s p e ci ally of
. ,

Th e S am , i m p o r t a n t bi r th s a n d d e ath s i n t h e W e s t S a x on -

011m m “ k i n g d om A l fr e d e n l arg e d thi s s c an t r e c or d b e g i n

. ,

n in g t h e s t or
y with C ae s ar s c on q u e s t W h e n it t o u ch e s h i s
’
.

ow n r e ig n t h e d ry ch r on icl e b e c om e s an i n t e r e s t i n g an d
c on n e ct e d s t or y t he old e s t hi s t ory b e l on g i n g t o an y m od e rn
,

n ati on i n i t s o w n l an g ua g e T he r e c or d o f A l fr e d s r e i g n
’

. ,

p r ob abl y b y hi m s e l f i s a s pl e n did bit of w riti n g an d s h ow s

,

Cl e a r l h i s C l a i m t o a pl a c e i n lit e rat u r e a s w e ll a s i n hi s t o ry
y .

T he Ch r on i cl e w a s c on ti n u e d aft e r A l fr e d s d e ath an d i s t h e
’

b e s t m on u m e n t o f e ar l y En g li s h p ro s e th at i s l e ft t o u s H ere .

an d th e r e s ti rr i n g s on g s ar e i n cl u d e d i n t h e n ar rativ e lik e ,

Th e B ttl e o Mald o
” ”
Th e Battl e o f B ru n a n b u r h an d a f n 2 .

Th e l as t e n t e r e d 99 I s e v e n t y fiv e y e ar s b e fo r e t h e N or m an
, ,
-

Con q u e s t i s t h e s wan s on g o f An gl o S ax on p o e t ry
,
Th e -
.

Chr on i cl e w as c on ti n u e d for a c e n t u r y aft e r t h e N or m an C on

q u e s t an d i s e xt r e m e l y v al u abl e n ot on l y as a r e c or d of
,

e v e n t s b u t a s a lit e r ar m o n u m e n t s h owi n g t h e d e v e l op m e n t
y
of ou r l an g u ag e .

Cl os e of t h e An gl o S ax on Pe r io d Aft e r A l fr e d s d e a t h th e r e
’
-
.

i s littl e t o re c or d e xc e pt t h e l o s s o f t h e t w o s u p r e m e obj e ct s
,

o f h i s h e roi c s t r u gl e n am e l a a ti on a l li fe a n d a n ati on a l
g y n , ,

lit e rat u r e I t w as at on c e t h e s t re n gt h an d t he w e ak n e s s of
.

t he S ax on th at h e liv e d ap ar t as a fr e e m an a n d n e v e r j o i n e d

e ffor t s willi n g l with l rg e b od o f h i s fe ll o w s T h e t r ib e

y an
y a y .

w a s h i s l ar g e s t id e a of n at i on alit an d wit h al l ou r a d m i rati on

y , , ,

1 I t is n ot c e rt a n i t h at t h e t ra n s l ti
a on of B e d e i s t h e w or k of Al fr e d .

2 Se e T r a n s l a t i on s f r om l
Ol d E n g l i s h P oe t r y . O n y a b r e f acc ou n t i of t he fig ht 15
i
g ve n i n t he Ch r on i c l e . T he so n g k n o w n as Th e B at t e of Ma d on , or
”
l l B y rh t n ot h ’
s
”
D e at h , i s r e c or d e d i n an othe r m an u s cr p t . i
4 2 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

w e m ust c on fe s s as w e fi r s t m e e t h i m th at he has n ot e n ough

s e n s e of u n it y t o m ak e a g re a t n ati o n n or e n o u gh c u lt u r e t o ,

p rod u c e a g r e at lit e rat u r e A fe w n obl e p olitical id e al s r e .

e a t e d i n a s c or e of p e tt y ki n g d o m s an d a fe w lit e r ar y id e a l s
p ,

Copi e d b u t n e v e r i n c r e as e d th at i s t h e s u m m ary of h i s lit e r ,

—

hi s t or F o r a fu ll c e n t u r aft e r A l fr e d lit e ratu re w as p r ac

ar
y y .
y
t ic all y at a s t an d s till h avi n g p rod u c e d t h e b e s t of which it w as
,

c apabl e an d En gl an d wait e d for t h e n at i on al i m pul s e an d for

,

t h e c u lt u r e n e c e s s ar y for a n e w an d g re at e r ar t B oth of th e s e .

ca m e s p e e dil y b y w ay of t h e s e a i n t h e N orm an Con qu e s t

, , .

S u m m ary of An gl o-S ax on Pe ri od . O u r li t e ra t u r e b e gin s w i th s o n g s an d

s t o ri e s o f a i
t m e w he n ou r T e u t on ic an c e s t o r s w e re livi ng on th e b o r d e rs of

the N o rth S e a . T h re e t r b e s i of the s e a n c e s t o rs , the J u te s , A n gl e s , an d S ax

on s ,

c o n q u e re i i n i t h e l at t e r h al f o f t h e fif th c e n t ry a d la i d th e fo n d a
d B r ta n u , n u

t i on o f t h e E g li s h n a t i on n Th e fi rs t l an d i g w s p b ab l y b y a t i b e o f J t s
. n a ro r u e ,

un d e c h i e fs c all e d b y t h e c h ron i c l e H e n gi s t an d H o rs a Th e d a t e i s d o b t
r . u

f l ; b t t h e y e ar 44 9 i s ac c e p t e d b y m o s t h i s t o i a s
u u r n .

Th e e o l d a c e s t o s w e e h ard y w a rr i o s a d s e a r o v e rs y e t w e e c ap ab l e
s n r r r n , r

o f p o fo n d a d
r u ob l e e m o t i o n s
n T h i r p e t ry re fl e c t s t h i s d o b l e n a t e
n . e o u ur .

I ts s b j e c t s w e e c h i e fl y t he s e a an d t he p l
u r
gi g b oa t s b a t t l e s a d v e t re un n , , n u ,

b r av e d e e d s t h e g l o y o f w a ri o rs a d t h e l o v
,
r f h me Ac c e n t a lli t ra t i
r , n e o o . , e on ,

an d an ab p t b re a k i t h m i d d l e o f e a c h li e ga v e t h e i p o e t ry a kin d o f
ru n e n r

m rt i a l r h y t h m
a I n g e n e a l t h e p oe t ry i s e arn e s t a d s o m b e r an d p e rv ad e d
. r n ,

b y fa ta li s m a d r e li gi o s f e e li n g A c are f l re a d i g f t h e f e w e m ai i g
n u . u n o r n n

f ra gm e ts o f A g l o S a x on li t e at u re r e v e a l s five s t riki g c h a ac t e ri s t i c s
n n -
r n r :

the l ov e of f e d om ; e s p on s iv e e s s t
r e n at r e s p e c i a ll y i n he r s te
n r o u re ,
rn e

m o od s ; s t g r li gi o s c on vi c t i o n s an d a b e li e f i
ron e u W y rd r F a t e ; re v e r , n , o

e c e f r w o m an h o o d ; a d a d e v o t i on t o g l
n o y as th e lin g m o t iv e i e v e ry
n or ru n

w a r i o s li f e
’
r r .

r s t d y w e h av e n o t e d : I ) t h e g e at e p i c o r h e o i c p o e m B
I n ou u
( w f
l r r eo u ,

an d a f e w f ragm e t s o f o r fi rs t p o e t ry s c h a s
n W id s i th
u
”
D e r La m e n t , u ,
o
’
s ,
”

2 Ch ra c t e ri s t i c s o f A g l a x o n li f e ; t h e f o rm o f
”
a d
n T h e S e af a r ( ) e r. S a r n o- ou

fi rs t S p e ch ( 3 ) Th e N o t h m b i a s c h l f w i t e s B e d e
e . r u rfi t h i s t ri an
n oo o r r . , ou r rs o ,

b e l on gs t o t h i s s c h o l ; b t l l h i s e x t a t w o k s
o e i
u La t i
a Th e t w gr e a t n r ar n n. o

p o e t s a e C ae d m on a d C y e w l f N th m b ri an li t e ra t e fl
r n n u ri s h e d b e t w e e
. or u ur ou n

65 0 a n d 85 0 I n t h e y e a 86 7 N o th m b ri a w as c o q e d b y t h D a e s w h o
. r r u n u re e n ,

d e s t o y e d t h e m o as t e ri e s a d t h e lib ra i e c o n t ai n i g o r e a li e s t li t e ra t re
r n n r s n u r u .

( 4 ) Th e b e g i i n g s o f Enn
g li s h p os e w ri t i g d e
n A l f e d ( 8 4 8 r O r m os t n un r r u

i m p o rta t p o s e w o rk of t h i s age i s t h e A gl o S x C h i c l e w h i c h w as
n r n -
a on ron ,

re vi s e d an d e l a r e d b A l f d a d w hich w s c t i e d f r m o re t h an t w o o
g y n e r , n a on nu

c e t ri e s
n u I t i s t h e o l d e s t h is t or ic a l re c ord kn ow n t o an y E u rop e an n at i on i n
.

i ts o wn t o n gu e .
44 ENGLI SH L I TERATURE
S u gge s t i veQ u e s t i on s .1 i 1. W ha t
s t o ry an d li t e rat u r e ? is th e l i
re a t on of h
W h y s h l d b o t h s b j e c t s b e s t d i e d t og t h e ? E xp l i t h e q a li t i e s t h at
ou u u e r a n u

c h a a c t e ri ze a l l g e a t li t e ra t re
r Ha r
y t x t b o k i h i s t o y e v e ap p e al e d
u . s an e -
o n r r

to y ou as a w o k o f li t e a t r e ? W h a t li t e ary q a li t i e s h av e y o
r r u n o tic e d in r u u

st and d h i s t o i c al w o k s s c h a t h o s e o f Mac a l ay Pre sc tt Gib b o n G e e n

ar r r , u s u , o , , r ,

Mo t l e y Pa k m a a d J o h n F i k e ?
, r n , n s

2 W hy d i d t h e An gl o S ax o s c o m e t o En gl a d ? W h at i d ce d t h e m t o
.
-
n n n u

re m ai n ? D i d a n cha ge oc c r i t h e i r i d e a ls o r i
n t h e ir m a
u e r o f lif e ?
n D o n nn
y ,

k ow a s oc i l o r p o li t i c a l i n s t i t t i on s w h i c h t h e y b ro u g h t a d w h i c h u
y o u n
y n a
-
, n

w e s t ill c h e ri s h ?
F ro m t h e li t e at re h a v e re ad w h a t d k w ab o t r An gl o
3 .
y o r u
y u , o ou no u ou

S a xon an c e s t o s ? W h a t vi r t u e s d id t h e y a d m i e i m
r ? H w w a s w m an r n en o o

re g ard e d ? C a y o c o m p a e t h e A gl S ax o i d e a l of w m an w i th t h a t of
n u r n o- n o

o the r at i n s th R m a s f r i s ta c
on , e o n o n n e

T ll i y d h l li i f A l i s ax on
p o e t ry H o w
‘

4 . e o r o w n nw o r s t u e g e e a
q a t e s g n r u o n o .

d id i t d iffe r i i ts m e t i c a l f o m f m m d
n r
p t ry ? W h a t p as ag s s e e m t o
r ro o e rn oe s e

y o u w o rt h l e a i g an d e m e m
rn nb e r i g ? C a
y o re x p l i w h y p e t ry i s mo e
n n u a n o r

ab un d t a d m ore i n t e e s t i n g t h a
an n
p s i t h e e r li e s t li t e rat
r e f al l
n ro e n a ur o

n at i on
s

5 T
. ll t h e
e s t y f B w f
l W orh at a p p a l s t
o
y
eo o m ust i . t h e p oe m ? W h y e o u o n

i i t a w o k f o a ll t i m
s r
o as t h e An g l o S a x n s w
r e , r, l d s ay w hy i s i t w o th y -
o ou ,
r

t o b e re m e m b e e d ? ( N o t e t h e p e m a e t q r li ty f li t e at e a d t h e i d e l s r n n ua o r ur , n a

a d e m t i o s w h i c h a e e m p h as i ze d i
n o n B q r
) D e s c r ib e t h e b r i a l s f n eo u o

S c y l d a d f B e o w l f D e s t h e p o e m t e ac h a y m ra l l e s s on ? E xp l a i n t h e
n o u . o n o

C h ri s t i a e l e m e t s i t h i s p a ga e p i c
n n n n .

6 N m e s m e th e r o f o r e a li e s t p e m s a d d c ri b e t h e
. a o o u er
y o u lik e o , n es on

b e s t H ow d e s th e s e a fi g e i
. o r fi st p t ry ? H w i s ur at en e ga d e d ?
ou r oe o n ur r r

W h a t p o m e v a l s t h e life of t h e s c op o r p o e t ? H w d o yo ac c o t fo r
e r e o u un

the s e i s ch
r ou cte r f A gl S ax o
a ra
p o e t y ? C o m p e t h e S a x on a d t h e
o n o- n r ar n

C e l t w i th re ga d t t h e g l a d s o m e e s s f lif e as s h w i t h e i r li t e t e
r o n o o n n ra u r .

7 Wh at
. s e f l p rp s e d i d p e t ry s e rv e a m
u u u o
g o r an c e s t o s ? W h at o on u r

p p s d i d t h e h a rp s e v e i
ur o e e c iti
g t h e i r p o e mr s ? W on r l d t h e h rp a ndd a
y u a n

thi g t
n m od
o our
p e t y ? e rn o r

8 Wh at i s m
. t by N t h m b ri e an li t e at e W h or t h e g e at N
u th m
an r ur o a re r or u

b i n w ri t e s ? W h t b e s i d e s t h e D an i h c o q s t c
r a r a s e d the d e c li e f s n ue au n o

N o t h m b ri an li t e a t e ?
r u r ur

9 F
. r w h o t i s B d w a
o t h y t b e re m ee m b e
e d ? T e ll t h e s t o ry of C ae d m
r o re on ,

as re c o d e d i B d e s H i t y W h t e w e l m e t i i t o d c e d i C ae d m o
’ ’
r n e s or . a n e n s n r u n n s

p ems
o W h a t e ff c t d i d C h is t i i ty h av p o A gl o S x on li t e at e C
e r an e u n n -
a r ur an

y ou
q o t a
u
yp e
s g e s f
n m C ae d
a sam t S h w t h a t
ro A g l S x n c h rac t
on er w s o o n o- a o a a

t h a g e d b t g iv e e w d i e cti Ify h ve d M il t di L t
’
no c n u n a n r s P on ou a re a on ara se os ,

w h at e s e m b l a c e a e t h e e b t w e n t h t p e m a n d C d m o h 2 ’
r n s r r e P p e a o ae n s ara r ase .

1 T he i
c h e f ob e c t o f j
t h e s e q u e s t on s i s n ot t o se r e a s a re e w , or t o p re p a re for i v vi
i i
e x a m n a t on , b u t r a t h e r t o s e t t h e s t u d e n t t h n n g f o r h m s e f a b ou t w h a t h e h a s r e a d . i ki i l
i v
A fe w q u e s t on s of an a d a n ce d n at u re ar e n se rt e d , w h ch ca f or s pe c a s t u d a n d re i i ll i l y
s e a r ch in i n t e re s t n g i fi lde s.
 TH E AN GLO —
SAXO N PER I OD 45

1 0. Wh at y n e w lf p e m s ? D e s c rib e a y t h t yo h av e re ad
a re t he C u o n a u .

H ow d o t h e y c m p e i n S p i i t a d i n e xp e s s i on w i t h B w lf ? w i t h C ae d
o ar r n r eo u

m o ? R e d Th P h i x ( w h i c h i s a t ra s l t i f o m t h e La t i ) i B ok e s ’
n a e a n n a on r n n ro

H is t y f E a ly E g li h Li t e a t e o r i G ll a c z E xe t e r B o k
’
or o r n s r i r ur , n o n s o , o n

C o k s Tra s l t i s f r m O l d E g li s h P e t y a d t e ll w h t e l m e t
’
n a on o n o r n a e n s ou
o
y ,

fi d t o s h w t h t t h e p e m i s o t o f An g l o S ax on o ri g i n C o m p a e t h e vi e w s
n o a o n -
. r

of na ut re i n B e o w l f a d i t h e Cy e w l f p o e m
u n n n u s.

1 1 D e s c ri b e t h e A g l S xo
. Ch i c l e W hat i s i ts v a l i o l an
n o- a n ron . ue n ur

ua
g g e li t e at re a d h i s to y ? Giv e a c c o t o f A l f d s life a d f h i s
, r u , n r n a un re
’
n o

w or k fo li t e ra t re H ow d o e s A g l o S axo n p o s e c m p are i n i t e re s t w i th
r u . n -
r o n

t h e p o e t ry ?

C H R O N O LO G Y

H I ST O R Y LI T E R A T U R E

i g of H e g i s t a d H o s a
La n d n n n r

i n B it ai r n

4 77. Lan d i g of S o u t h S a x on s
n

5 47 . A n g l e s s e t t l N or t h m b ri a e u
5 4 7. Gil d as
’
s H i s t o ry
5 9 7. L n d i g o f A g s t i n e an d h i s
a n u u

m k s Co ve i
on f Ke n t
. n rs o n o

617 . E a d w i e ki n g o f N o t h m b ri a
n , r u

63 5 - 66 5 C m i g o f S t A i d
. o n Co . an . n

v e rs io o f N o rt h m b ri a
n u 664 . C ae d m o n at W h i tb y
6 73 — 73 5 . Be de
7 C y ne l
w u f p oe m s
867. D an e s c o n q u e r N o rt h u m b ri a
871 A f re d ,
. l ki g n of We sse x An g l o-S ax o n Ch ron i c l e b e g u n
878 D e f e a t
. of D an e s . Pe a c e of

W e d m o re
90 1 . D e at h o f Alfre d 99 1 . Las t k n ow n p o e m f t h e A gl o o n

S axo p e ri o d T h e B at t l e o f
n ,

Ma l d oth
on , wi e ll d er s ca e

By fh tn o t h
’
s D e at h

1 0 1 3 — 1 04 2 . D an s h i pe r iod
1 0 1 6. Cn u t, ki ng

I o4 a. E d w a r d t h e C o n fe s s or. Sa x on
i o d s to e d
pe r re r

1 04 9 . W e s t m i s t e r Ab b e y b e g
n un

1 06 6 . H l d l s t o f S ax o ki
a ro , a n n gs .

N o rm an C o n q u e s t
 C H A PTE R I I I

A —
N GLO N OR M AN
THE PER I OD ( 1 06 6 - 1 3 5 0
)

I . H I S T O R I C A L I N T R O D U C T I ON

Th e Norm an s . Th e n am e N o rm a n , w h i c h i s a s of e n e t d fo rm of

No rthm an , te ll s i ts ow n s t or y
b or e t h e n am e c a m e
. Th e m e n w h o
o ri gi n ally from S c an di n avi a — ban d s of b i g bl on d fe arl e s s m e n
i n the ir V
, , ,

c ru i s i n g aft e r p l u n d e r an d ad v e n tu r e ikin g ship s an d ,

b rin gin g t e rror w he r e ve r t h e y app e are d It w as th e s e sam e Chil .

d re n of Wod e n w h o u n d e r th e D an e s ra v e n fl ag had bl otte d ou t

,
’
,

No rthu m b ri an C ivilizati on i n t h e n i n th c e n tu ry Lat e r th e sam e rac e .

of m e n c am e p l u n d e r i n g al on g t h e F r e n c h c o as t an d c on qu e r e d t h e

w hol e n or th e rn c ou n try ; b u t h e r e t h e r e su l t s w e r e al t oge th e r diffe r

ent I n ste ad of blot tin g ou t a su p e rior c i v ilizati on as the D an e s had
. ,

d on e the y p rom p tly aban d on e d the ir own Th e i r n am e o f NO1

, .

m an d y s til l c lin gs t o t h e n e w h o m e ; b u t all e l se t hat w a s N or s e

di sap p e ar e d as the c on qu e ror s in t e rm arri e d w i th the n ative Fran ks
an d a c c e p t e d Fr e n c h i d e al s an d s p oke th e Fr e n c h l an gu age So .

rap id ly d i d t h e y ad op t an d i m p rov e th e R om an c ivili zat i on of t h e

n at i v e s that fr o m a ru d e t rib e o f h e ath e n V

, ikin gs t h e y had d e ve l ,

O p e d w i th i n a s i n gl e c e n tu r i n t o t h e m o s t p ol i sh e d a n d i n t e ll e c tu al
y
e
p p o l e i n a l l E u r o
p e T h e u n i on
. o f N o rs e a n d F r e n c h ( i e R o m an . .

G alli c ) bl ood had he r e p r od u c e d a rac e havin g t he b e st qu ali ti e s of

b ot h , th e w ill p ow e r an d e n e rgy of t h e on e t h e e age r c u r i os ity an d ,

V ivid i m agin ati on of th e o th e r Wh e n th e se N orm an Fr e n c h p e o p l e .

—

ap p e ar e d i n An gl o S a x o n En gl an d t h e y b r ou ght wi th t h e m t h r e e
-

n o t e w o r th y t h i n gs : a li v e ly C e l t i c di s p os i t i on a V i gorou s an d p ro ,

g r e ss i v e L a t i n c iv i li zat i on an d a R o m a n,c e l an u
g g a e
1
W e a re t o .

t hi n k o f t h e c on qu e ro r s t he r e fo r e a s t h e y t h ou ght an d s p ok e of
, ,

th e m s e l v e s i n t h e D om e sd ay Book an d all t h e i r c on t e m p orary li te r

'

N orm an s b u t F r a n c i , t h a t i s , F r e n c hm e n .
‘

atu r e , n o t as as

1 A R om an ce l a n gu age is on e w h ose b a s s i s L at i i n, n ot l
t h e c as s c i l a n gu a ge of lit e ra

t u re , b u t a v lg
u a r or l
p op u ar La t ik i t h m il it y
n s po en n e ar ca m p s a n d p ro vi n ce s . Th u s
I ta li
,
ih
S p a n s , a n d F re n ch w e r e o r
an igi ll y d i ff t d i l t
na e re n a e c s of t he v lg
u ar La t i li ght ly
n, s

i i
m od fie d b y t h e m n gl n g of t h e R o a ni m ldi wi t h th t iv
so e rs e na e s of t he c on q u e re d pro vi n ce s .

46
 TH E AN GLO N OR MA N —
PER I O D 47

The Con qu e s t . At th e bat tl e of H as t i n gs ) ( 1 0 66 th e p o w e r of

H arold l a st of t h e S a x on
,
kin gs w a s b rokén an d Willi am
, , d u k e of ,

Nor m an d y b e cam e m as te r of En gl an d Of th e c om p l e t i on of that

,
.

s t u p e n d ou s Con qu e st w h i c h b e gan a t H a s t i n gs an d w h i c h c han ge d ,

th e c ivili zat i on of a w h o l e n ati on th i s i s n ot t h e pl ac e t o s p e ak

,
.

We S i m ply poin t ou t thr e e gre at r e su l ts o f t he Con qu e st w hi c h have

a di r e c t b e ari n g on ou r li t e rat u r e F i rst n otw i thstan d i n g Cae sar s
’
.
,

l e gi on s an d Au gu stin e s m on ks t h e Norm an s w e r e t he fi rs t to b rin g

’
,

t h e c u l tu r e an d th e p rac ti c a l id e al s of R o m an c i v ili za ti on h om e to
t h e En gli sh p e op l e ; an d t h i s a t a c r i t i c al t i m e w h e n En gl an d had ,

p rod u c e d h e r b e s t an d h e r own li te ratu r e an d c i v ilization had al re ady

,

b e gu n to d e c ay S e c on d t he y forc e d u p on
. ,

En gl an d th e n at i on al id e a t hat i s a , ,

c e n t rali ze d gov e rn m e n t to r e p l ac e

l oos e au thori ty of a Sax on c hi e f ove r

h i s trib e sm e n An d th e w orld s h i s
’
.

t ory Show s that w ithou t a gre at

n a ti on a lit y a g r e a t

li t e ratu r e i s i m p o ssi
b l e Th ird t h e y
.
,

b rou ght t o En gl an d
t he w e al th of a n e w
lan gu age an d li te ra
tu re an d ou r En gli sh
,

r ad u all b b d
g y a s o r e

b oth Fo r t hre e c e n
.
LE I F E R I C S O N S V E S SE L ’

t u r i e s aft e r H as ti n gs
F re n c h w as th e l an gu age of th e u p p e r c l ass e s of c ou rt s an d sc h ool s ,

a n d li t e ra tu re ; t so t n ac i ou sl d i d t h o m m o n p e o p l e c li n g t o
y e e y e c

t h e i r ow n s t ron g s p e e c h that i n t he e n d En gli s h ab sorb e d al m ost th e

w hol e b ody of Fr e n c h w ord s an d b e c am e t h e l an gu age of t h e l an d .

It w as th e w e ldin g of Sa x on an d Fr e n c h in to on e sp e e c h t hat p ro
d u c e d th e w e al th of ou r m od e rn En gli s h .

Natu rally su c h m om e n t ou s c han ge s i n a n ati on w e re n o t b rou gh t

abou t su d d e n l
y . A t fi r s t N o r m an s an d S a x on s li v e d a
p ar t i n t h e r e l a

t ion of m a s te rs an d s e rvan t s w i th m or e o r l e s s c on t e m p t on o n e s id e
,

an d hatre d on t h e o the r
; b u t i n an a s ton i s hi n gl y S ho rt t i m e t h e s e tw o
rac e s w e r e d raw n o w e rfu ll t o ge t h e r li k e tw o m e n o f d i ff e r e n t d i s
p y ,

p o si ti on s w ho are oft e n l e d i n to a s t e ad fas t fri e n d shi p by t h e at trac

tion of opposit e qu aliti e s e ac h su pp ly in g w hat th e o the r lac ks The
, .
 48 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

Ang lo S a xon Chr on i cle ,

- t ic h
d for a c e n tu ry afte r
wh was c on in u e
H as tin gs fi n d s m u c h t o prai s e in th e c on qu e rors on th e othe r han d
,

t he N orm an s e ve n b e for e th e Con qu e s t h ad n o gre at l o v e for t he

, ,

Fr e n c h n at i on Aft e r c on qu e ri n g En glan d the y b e gan t o r e gard it as

.

hom e an d sp e e d ily d e ve l op e d a n e w s e n se of n ati on ali ty G e offr e y s

’
.

p po u l ar [i i s tory f w r i tt e n l e ss t han a c e n tu ry af t e r t h e Con qu e s t ,

m ad e c on qu e rors an d c on qu e re d alik e p rou d of th e i r c oun try b y

i t s s tor i e s of h e roe s w ho c u r i ou sly e n ou gh w e re n e i th e r Norm an
, ,

n o r Sax on b u t c r e ati on s of t h e n at ive Ce l ts Th u s d oe s li t e ratu re

,
.
,

w he the r i n a b attl e s on g or a h i story oft e n p l ay t h e c h i e f r Ol e i n the ,

d e v e l op m e n t of n ati on ali ty 2
O n c e t h e m u tu al d i s tr u st w as o v e r c om e
.

t he t wo rac e s grad u ally u n i t e d an d ou t of t hi s u n i on of S ax on s an d ,

No rm an s c am e th e n e w En gli sh life an d li t e ratu re .

Li te r ary I de al s of t h e Norm an s Th e c han ge i n th e life o f th e c on

ro m V
.

q u e r o r s f ro m N o rs e m e n t o N orm an s f i k i n gs t o Fre n c hm e n , ,

i s s hown m ost c l e arl y i n t h e li te ratu re w h ic h the y b rou gh t w i th th e m

t o En gl an d Th e ol d N ors e s tre n gt h an d gran d e u r t h e m agn ifi c e n t
. ,

sagas t e lli n g of t h e t ragi c s t ru ggl e s o f m e n an d god s w h i c h s til l s t i r ,

us p o r fo u n d ly — t h e s e ha v e al l d i sap p e ar e d
, I n t he i r p l ac e i s a .

b ri ght varie d t al kative li te ratu re w h ic h ru n s t o e n dl e ss ve rse s an d

, , , ,

w hi c h m ak e s a w on d e rfu l rom an c e ou t o f e v e ry s u bj e c t it t ou c h e s .

Th e t h e m e m ay b e r e ligi on o r l ove or c hi v al ry or hi s tory th e d e e d s ,

of Al e x an d e r o r t he m i s d e e d s of a m on k ; b u t t h e au thor s p u r p os e
’

n e v e r var i e s H e m u s t t e ll a ro m an t i c s tory an d am u s e h i s au d i e n c e
.

an d t h e m or e w on d e r s an d i m p o s s ibili ti e s h e r e l ate s t h e m o r e su r e l
y ,

i s h e b e li e ve d We ar e re m i n d e d i n r e adi n g of t h e n ative G au l s
. , , ,

w ho w ou ld s top e ve ry t rave l e r an d c om p e l h i m t o t e ll a s tory e re h e

p asse d o n T h e r e w as m or e of t h e G au l th an o f t h e N o r s e m an i n
.

t h e c on qu e ror s an d far m ore o f fan c y t han of t hou gh t or fe e lin g i n

,

t h e i r li te ra tu re I f you w ou ld s e e thi s i n c on c r e t e form re ad t he

.
,

Ch a n s on d c P ol a n d th e Fr e n c h n at i on al e pi c ( w hi c h t he Norm an s
,

1
Se e p. 1 .
i t
2 I t i s n e re s t n i
g t o n ote t h a t a l l t he ch ron c e r s of the pe r od, w he the r of E n g s h oril i li
i i i i
N or m a n b rt h, u n te i n a d m rat on of t he gre at gu re s of E n g s h h s t ory , a s i t w a s t he n fi li i
u n de r s t ood. B ru t u s , Ar t hu r , H e n g s t , H or s a , E d w a r d t he Con fe s s or , an d W
i am of illi
N or m an d y a re a ll a lik li
e s e t d ow n a s E n g sh h e r oe s . I n a F r e n ch poe m of t he t h rt ee n t h i
c e n t u ry , for i n s tan ce , we re ad t ha t
“
t h e re i s no l an d l
i n t he w or d w he re so m an y good
k i n gs an d s a n ts i ha v liv
e e d as i n t he il s e of t he E n g s h li s u ch a s t he s t ron g an d

v
b ra e Art hu r , Ed m u n d , Th s an d
”
ce e b ra t n g t h e
Cn u t . i
E n g sh i
n at o n a l
p oe m , l i li
E dw a r d , wa s w r t te n i n F re n c h b y a N or m an m on of We s t m n s t e r Ab b e y , a n d i t s rs t
i k i fi
l
h e roe s a re a Ce t , a S axon , an d a D an e . ( S ee J u s se ra n d , Li te r a r y H i s t ory of the E n g
li sh P e op l e , I , 1 12 ff .)
 TH E ANGLO NOR MAN PER I OD
—
49

fi rst p u t i n to li te rary form ) i n c on t rast w ith B e ow u lf w hic h vo ic e s

, ,

t h e Sa x on s thou gh t an d fe e li n g b e for e t he p r o fou n d m y s t e ry of

’

hu m an li fe It i s n ot ou r p u rpos e to d i sc u ss th e e v id e n t m e ri ts o r
.

th e se r i ou s d e fe c t s of Norm an Fr e n c h li t e ra tu r e b u t on ly t o p o in t
-
,

ou t t w o fac t s w h i c h i m p re s s t h e s tu d e n t n am e ly t hat An gl o Sa x on , ,
-

lite ratu re w as at on e ti m e e n orm ou sly su p e ri o r to t he Fr e n c h an d ,

t hat th e l atte r w i th i ts e v id e n t in fe riori ty ab sol u t e ly re p l ac e d the

, ,

sa y s P
“
form e r . Th e fac t i s too oft e n i gn or e d r ofe s so r Sc h o fie l d
,
1
,

th at b e for e 1 0 6 6 t h e An gl o S a x on s had a b ody of n at ive li t e ratu r e

-

di s tin c tly su p e rior to an y w hic h th e Norm an s or Fre n c h c ou ld boas t

at that t i m e t h e i r p rose e s p e c i ally w a s u n p arall e l e d for e x t e n t an d

p o w e r i n a n
y E u r op e an v e rn ac u l ar
”
W hy t h e n
. d o e s t h
, i s s u p e r i
, or

li te ratu re di sap p e ar an d for n e arly th re e c e n tu ri e s Fre n c h r e m ain

su p r e m e s o m u c h S O t ha t w ri t e rs on En gli sh so il e v e n w h e n t h e y d o
, ,

n ot u s e th e Fr e n c h l an gu age s t ill sl avi s h ly c op y th e Fr e n c h m od e l s ?

,

To u n d e rs ta n d th i s c u ri ou s p he n o m e n on i t i s n e c e s sar y o n ly t o
r e m e m b e r th e re l at i v e c on d i t i on s of t h e tw o r ac e s w h o li v e d S id e b y

S i d e i n En gl a n d On th e on e han d t h e An gl o Sax on s w e r e a c on
.
-

qu e re d p e op l e an d w i th ou t lib e rty a gr e at li t e ratu r e i s i m p o ss ibl e

, .

Th e i n road s of t h e D an e s an d t h e i r ow n t ribal w ars h ad a l r e ady

d e stroy e d m u c h of t he i r w ri tin gs an d in th e i r n e w c on di tio n of
,

se rvi tu d e t h e y c ou l d hardly p r e s e rve w hat r e m a i n e d Th e c on qu e r .

i n g N orm an s on t h e o th e r han d r e p r e s e n t e d th e c i v ili za ti on of

, ,

Fran c e w hi c h c ou n t ry d u ri n g t h e e arly Mi d dl e Age s w a s the li t e rary

, , ,

an d e d u c at i on a l c e n t e r of al l Eu r o p e The y c a m e t o En gl an d a t a
.

t i m e w h e n th e id e a of n a t i on ali ty w a s d e ad w h e n c u l t u r e h ad al m o s t
,

van i she d w he n En gli shm e n li v e d apart i n n arrow is ola tion an d th e y

,

brou gh t w i th the m l aw c u l tu re th e p r e s tige of su c c e s s an d abov e

, , ,

al l t h e s t ron
g i m p u l s e t o s h are i n t h e
gr e at w orl d s w o rk an d t o j o i n
’

i n the m o v in g c u rr e n t s of t h e w orld s h i st ory S m all w on d e r t h e n

’
.
, ,

that th e y ou n g An gl O S a x on s fe l t t h e q u i c k e n i n g of t hi s n e w life
-

an d tu rn e d n a t u r all t o t h e c u l tu e d an d p o i v e N o rm an s as
y r r g r e ss

th e i r li t e rary m od e l s .

I I . LI T E R A T U R E O F T H E N O R MA N PE R I O D

I n t h e Adv o c at e s L ib rar y
’
at E di n b u r g h
b e au ti th e r e is a

fu ll y ill u m i n at e d m an u s c r ipt w r itt e n ab ou t 1 3 3 0 which g iv e s

, ,

u s an e xc e ll e n t pict u r e o f t h e lit e r at u re of t h e N or m an p e r i od .

1 E n g l i s h Li te r a t u r e f r om the N or m a n Con q u e s t t o Ch a u cer .

50 ENGLI SH L I TERATURE

In e xam i n i n g it w e are t o r e m e m b e r th at lit e ratu r e w as i n

t h e h an d s of t h e C l e r gy an d n obl e s th at t h e com m on p e opl e
c ou ld n ot r e ad an d h ad o n l y a fe w s on g s an d b all ad s for th e ir
,

lit e rary p or ti on We are t o r e m e m b e r al s o th at p ar ch m e n t s

.

w e r e s c ar c e a n d v e ry e xp e n s iv e an d th at a s i n g l e m an u s c r ipt
,

oft e n c o n t a i n e d al l t h e r e a di n g m att e r of a c a s tl e or a vill ag e .

H e n c e thi s ol d m an u s c ript i s a s s ugg e s tiv e a s a m od e rn lib rary .

It c on t ai n s ov e r for t y di s ti n ct w ork s t h e g r e at b u lk of th e m
,

b e i n g r om an c e s Th e r e ar e m e t r ical or v e r s e rom an c e s of
.

"

C A N TE R B U R Y C A T H EDR A L A S I T W AS C O M PLETE D LON G

A F TE R T H E C O N Q UEST

F r e n ch an d Ce lt ic an d h e r oe s lik e R ol an d Ar th u r
En gli s h , ,

an d T r i s t ram ,an d B e vi s o f H am pt on T h e r e a r e s t or i e s of
.

”
A l e x an d e r t h e G r e e k rom an c e of F l or e s an d B lan c h e fl e u r
, ,

an d a c oll e cti on of Or i e n t al t al e s c all e d Th e S e v e n W i s e

Ma s t e r s ”
. Th e r e ar e l e g e n d s of t h e V
ir g i n an d t h e s a i n t s a
,

p araph ra s e of S cr ipt u re a t r e a ti s e on t h e s e v e n d e adl y s in s

, ,

s o m e B ibl e hi s t or a di s p u t e am o n g bi r d s c on c e r n i n g w om e n
y , ,

a l o v e s on
g or t w o a V i s i
, on o f P u r gat or
y a v u l gar s t o ry
,

with a G allic fl avor a ch r on icl e of En gli s h ki n g s an d N or m an

,

b ar on s an d a p olitic al s ati re Th e re ar e a fe w oth e r w ork s

, . ,
5 2 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

re cor d e d i n m i n u t e d e t ail an d with a gravit y which m ak e s it

cl e ar th at Ge offre y h ad n o c on s ci e n c e or e l s e w as a g re at
,

j ok e r A S hi s t ory t h e wh ol e thi n g i s r u bbi s h but it w as e x

.

t raor d i n ar i l y s u cc e s s fu l at t h e ti m e a n d m ad e al l w h o h e ar d it ,

w h e th e r N or m an s or S ax on s p r o u d of th e i r ow n c ou n t ry
,
It .

i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o u s b e cau s e it gav e a n e w di r e cti on t o t h e

li t e ra t ur e of En g l an d b y S h owi n g t h e w e alth of p oe t ry an d
r om an c e th at l a i n i t s ow n t ra diti on s of A r thu r an d h i s
y
k n i ght s S h ak e s p e are s K i ng L e a r Mal ory s M or te d Ar th u r
’ ’ ’
.
, ,

a n d Te n n s on s [dy l l s o f h K r e fou n d e d on t h e w or k
’

y t e i n
g w e

o f thi s m on k w h o had t h e g e n i u s t o put u n wr itt e n C e ltic t r a

,

diti on i n t h e e n d u r i n g for m of Lati n p ros e .

Work of t h e F r e n ch Wr i t e r s The F r e n ch lit e rat u r e of t he

.

N or m an p e r i od i s i n t e r e s ti n g chi e fl y b e cau s e of t h e avidity

with which for e ign w r it e r s s e i ze d u p on t h e n ativ e l e g e n d s an d
U n til G e offr e y s p re p os t e r
’
m ad e th e m p op u l ar i n En g l an d .

o u s ch r on icl e app e are d th e s e l e g e n d s had n ot b e e n u s e d t o

,

an
y e xt e n t a s lit e ra ry m at e r i al .I n de e d th
,
e
y w e r e s c ar c e l
y
kn own i n En g lan d th ou gh fam ili ar t o F r e n ch an d It ali an
,

m in s t r e l s. Le g e n d s of A rth u r an d h i s c ou r t w e r e p r obabl y
fi r s t t ak e n t o B r itt an y b y We l s h e m igran t s i n t h e fi fth an d
s ixth c e n t u r i e s Th e y b e c am e i m m e n s e l y p op u l ar wh e r e v e r
.

t h e y w e r e t old an d th e y w e r e s l owly c arr i e d b y m i n s t r e l s an d

,

s t or y t e ll e r s al l ov e r E u r op e
-
. Th at th e y h ad n e v e r r e c e iv e d
l it e rar y form o r r e c ogn iti on w as d u e t o a p e c u li ar it y o f m e di
ae v al lit e rat u r e which r e qu i r e d th a t e ve r y t al e S h o u ld h av e
,

s om e an ci e n t au th or it b e hi n d it G e o ffr e y m e t thi s d e m an d
y .

b y c r e ati n g an hi s t or ic al m an u s c r ipt of We l s h hi s t ory T h at .

w a s e n ou g h for t h e age W ith G e offr e y an d hi s all e g e d m an u

.

s c r ipt t o r e s t u p on t h e N orm an F r e n ch w rit e rs w e r e fr e e t o

,
-

u s e t h e fa s ci n ati n g s t or i e s which h ad b e e n for c e n t u r i e s i n t h e

po s s e s s i on of th e i r wan d e ri n g m i n s t r e l s G e offr e y s Lati n

.
’

hi s t or y w a s p u t i n t o F re n ch v e r s e b y Gai m ar (c 1 1 5 0) an d .

b y Wa c e (c I 1 5 . an d from th e s e F r e n ch v e r s i on s t he w o rk

w a s fi r s t t ran s l at e d i n t o E n g li s h F r om ab out 1 2 00 on war d

.
 TH E ANGLO NOR MAN PER I OD —
53

A r th u r G u i n e v e re an d t h e m at c hl e S S b an d of C e ltic h e roe s
an d

th at w e m e e t lat e r ( 1 4 70) i n Mal ory s M or t e d A r thu r b e cam e ’ ’

t h e p e r m an e n t p o s s e s s i on of ou r lit e r at u r e .

Lay am on s B r u t ( c Thi s i s t h e m os t i m p or t an t of
’
.

t h e En g li s h r i m i n g ch ron icl e s th at i s hi s t ory r e l at e d i n t h e , ,

form of d ogg e r e l v e r s e p r ob abl y b e c au s e p o e t ry i s m or e

,

e a s il y m e m or i ze d th an p ros e : W e g iv e h e r e a fr e e re n d e r i n g
of s e l e ct e d li n e s at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e p oe m which t e ll u s ,

a l l w e k n o w o f L a a m on t h e fi r s t w h o e v e r w rot e as an
y ,

E n g li s h m an for E n gli s h m e n i n cl u di n g i n t h e t e r m al l w h o ,

l ov e d En gl an d an d call e d it h om e n o m att e r wh e r e th e i r ,

a n c e s t or s w e r e b or n .

N o w t h e r e w as a p ri e s t i n th e l an d n am e d La y a m o n . H e w as s o n of

Le o v e n a th — m a y God b e g r a c i o u s u n to him . H e dw e l t at B ru l e y , at a

l
n ob e c h u rc h o n S e v e rn
’
s b an k . He r e ad m an y b oo k s , an d it c am e to
h i s m i n d t o t e l l th e n ob e l d e e ds of th e En gl i s h . T h e n h e b e g an t o
j ou rn e y far a n d w i d e o v e r th e l a n d to p r o c u r e n ob l e k y b o o s for a u th or i t .
H e t ook t h e E n g l i s h b o o k th a t S a i n t B e d e m ad e a n o t h e r i n La t i n th a t ,

S ai n t Al b i n m ad e an d a th i r d b oo k th a t a F re n c h c l e r k m ad e n am e d
1
, ,

Wa c e 2
. La y a m on l ai d th e s e w or k s b e fo re h i m a n d t u r n e d t h e l e a v e s ;
l ov i n g l y h e b e h e l d th e m Pe n h e t oo k an d w ro t e o n b oo k S k i n an d
.
,
-
,

m a d e t h e t h r e e b o ok s i n t o o n e .

The p oe m b e g i n s with t h e d e s t ru cti on of Tr oy an d t h e

“ ”
fl i g ht of fE n e a S t h e d u k e i n t o I t aly B ru t u s a g r e at .
,

g r an d s on o f fE n e aS
g a th e r
, s h i s p e o pl e a n d s e t s o u t t o fin d
a n e w l an d i n t h e W e s t T h e n foll ow s t h e fou n di n g of t h e
.

B rit on ki n gd om an d t h e l as t thi r d of t h e p oe m which i s ov e r

, ,

thi rt y th ou san d lin e s i n l e n gth i s t ak e n u p wit h t h e hi s t ory ,

of Ar th u r an d h i s k n i ht s I f t h B t h a d m it f i t s
g e r u . n o e r s o

ow n ,it w o u ld s till i n t e r e s t u s for it m ar k s t h e fi r s t app e ar ,

an c e o f t h e Ar th u r i an l e e n d s i n ou r ow n t on u e A S i n le
g g g .

s e l e cti on i s A
’

g iv e n h e r e f r o m r th u r s d i
y gn S p e e ch f a m ilia r ,

t o u s i n Te n n s on s M or te d Ar thu r
’ ’
T h e r e ad e r will n otic e
y .

h e re tw o thi n g s : fi r s t th at th ou g h t h e p oe m i s al m os t pu r e
,

1 Prob a b
y l a La ti n Cop y o f B e de .
2 Wace ’
s t ra n s l tia o n of Ge offre y .
S4 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE
A n g l o S a x on }
-
ou r fir St
p e e ch h as al re ady d roppe d m an y i n
S

Ifl e c t i on s a n d i s m or e e a s il r e ad th an B e ow u lf ; s e c o n d th a t
y ,

F re n ch i n fl u e n c e i s al r e ad y at w or k i n Lay am on s ri m e s an d
’
.

a s s on an c e s th at i s t h e h ar m on y r e s u lti n g fr om u s in g t h e
, ,

s am e v ow e l s ou n d i n s e v e r a l s u cc e s s iv e li n e s

An d i c h w u ll e v are n to Av a l u n : A n d I w i ll fare t o Av al u n ,
To v ai re s t a l r e m ai d e n e , T o fa i r e s t o f a ll m ai d e n s ,
T o Ar g a n t e th e re q u e u e , T o A r g a n te t h e q u e e n ,
Alv e n s w i th e s c e on e . y
An e l f v e r b e au t i fu l .

An d h e o s c a l m i n e w u n d e n An d s he S h a ll m y w ou n d s
M aki e n a ll e i s u n de , Mak e a l l s ou n d ;
Al h al m e m ak i e n All l
w ho e m e m a ek
Mi d h al e w e i y e d r e n c h e n . Wi th h e al i n g d r i n k s .

An d s e oth e i ch cu m e n w u ll e An d ag ai n w i ll I c o m e
T o m i n e ki n e r i c h e T o m y k i n g d om
An d w u n i e n m i d B r u t te n An d d w e ll w i th B r i ton s
Mid m u c h e l e re w u n n e . W i th m i c kl e joy .

[Efn e th an w or d e n E v e n ( w i th ) t h e s e w o r d s
T he r c om o f s e w e n de n T h e re c am e f ro m th e se a

T h at w e s a n s c e or t b at l i th e n , A S h or t l i t tl e b oat g l i d i n g ,
S ce ove n m i d u th e n , S h ov e d b y t h e w a v e s ;
An d t w a w i m m e n th e r i n n e , An d tw o w o m e n t h e re i n ,
W u n d e rl i che i d ih t e . W o n d ro u s l y a t ti re d .

An d h e o n o m e n Ar th u r an an An d th e y t ook Ar th u r an on
An d a n e o v s t e h i n e v e r e d e n An d b or e h i m h u rri e d l y ,

An d s o f t e h i n e a d u n l e i d e n , An d s o ft l y l ai d h i m d ow n ,
An d for th g u n n e n li th e n . An d for th g an g l i d e .

Me t r i cal R o m an ce s Lov e chival ry an d r e ligi on al l p e r

. , , ,

v ad e d b y t h e s pi r it of r om an c e th e s e are t h e th re e gr e at ,
—

lit e r ary id e al s which fin d e xpr e s s i on i n t he m e t r ical r om an c e s .

R e ad th e s e r om an c e s n ow with th e i r k n i g ht s a n d fa i r l adi e s
, ,

th e i r p e r il ou s adv e n t u r e s an d t e n d e r l ov e m aki n g th e i r m i n -
,

s tr e l s an d t ou rn am e n t s a n d g or g e o u s c avalc ad e s as if —
y ,

h u m an it y w e r e on p ar ad e an d li fe it s e l f w e r e o n e t u m u lt u ou s
,

h olid ay i n t h e o p e n air — an d y ou h av e an e pit om e of t h e

,

w h ol e childi s h c r e d u l ou s s ou l of t h e Middl e Ag e s The

, .

1 On l y on e w or d i n ab o u t t h re e hu n d re d an d fift y i s of Fre n ch or i gi n. A ce n tu ry lt
a er

R ob e rt Man n y n g u s e s on e F re n c h Wo r d i n e gh t y , w h e Chau c e r h a s on e i n s i x o r s e
i il ven.

i i l ii i i
T h s n c u d e s r e pe t t on s , a n d i s a fa r e st m at e r ath e r t h an a n e act c om p u tat on . x i
 TH E ANGLO NOR MAN PER I OD —
55

N orm an s fi r s t b rou g ht thi s t y p e of r om an c e i n t o E n g l an d an d ,

s o p op u l ar did it b e c om e s o th or o u g hl y did ,it e xp r e s s t h e

r om an tic s pi r it Of t h e t i m e t h at it s p e e dil y ov e r s h ad ow e d al l
,

o th e r for m s of lit e ra ry e xp r e s s i on .

Th ou g h th e m e t r ic al r om an c e s var i e d m u ch i n for m an d
su bj e ct m a tt -
e r t h e g e n e r,a l t y p e r e m a i n s t h e s a m e — a l o ng ,

ra m bli n g p oe m o r s e r i e s o f p o e m s t r e ati n g o f l ov e
F orm
or k n i g htl adv e n t u r e o r b oth I t s h e r o i s a k n i g ht ;
y .

i t s ch ara ct e r s a re fai r l adi e s i n di s t r e s s w arr i o r s i n a r m or , ,

i t d rag o n s e n ch an t e r s a n d v ar i ou s e n e m i e s of Ch u r ch
g a n s , , ,

a n d S t at e ; a n d i t s e m ph a s i s i s al m os t I n var i a bl y on l ov e ,

r e l ig i on an d d u t as de fin e d b chiv al r I t h e F r e n ch
, y y y n .

o r i gi n al s o f t h e s e r o m an c e s t h e li n e s w e r e a d e fi n it e l e n gth ,

t h e m e t e r e x a ct an d r i m e s a n d a s s on an c e s w e r e b oth u s e d t o
,

iv m l d I n En g l an d thi s m e t r ic al s s t e m c am e i n c on
g e e o
y .
y
t act with t h e u n e v e n li n e s t h e s t r on g a cc e n t a n d a llit e ra ti on ,

o f t h e n ativ e s o n g s an d it i s d u e t o t h e g r ad u al u n i on of t h e

t w o s y s t e m s F r e n ch a n d S a x on th a t o u r En g li s h b e cam e
, ,

c ap abl e o f t h e m e l od y an d am azi n g v ar i e t y of v e rs e fo rm s

w hich fi r s t fin d e xp r e s s i on i n Ch a u c e r s p oe t r y
’

I n t he e n or m ou s n u m b e r of th e s e v e r s e r om an c e s w e n ot e
t h r e e m ai n divi s i on s acc ordi n g t o s u bj e ct i n t o t h e r om an c e s
, ,

or t h e s o c all e d m att e r ) o f F ran c e R d

c y cl e s of ( -
om e a n , ,

“ m m“ B r it ai n 1
T h e m att e r of F r an c e d e al s l a rg e l y with
.

t h e e xpl oit s of Ch ar l e m ag n e an d h i s p e e r s a n d t h e chi e f of ,

t h e s e Car l ovi n g i an c y cl e s i s t h e Cha n s on d e R ol a n d t h e ,

n ati o n a l e pic which c e l e b rat e s t h e he ro i s m of R ol an d i n hi s

,

l as t fi ght a gai n s t t h e S ara c e n s a t R on c e v al O r i g i n all y th e s e .

r om an c e s w e r e c all e d Cha n s on s d e Ge s te ; an d t h e n a m e i s

s i n ific an t as i n dic ati n th t t h p m w i i ll h t

g g a e o e s e r e o r g n a
y S or
2
s on g s c e l e b rat i n g t h e d e e d s (g e s ta ) of w e ll k n own h e r oe s -
.

1 Th m t te f B it i
a er o f t i tl y t th A t h
r i i th W l h m
a n r e e rs s r c o ; de r u r an ,
. e . e e s ro a n ce s an
s o an o th d ivi i
er th m t t
s on ,
f E gl ed m y b a t d
er o T hi i n l d t l fp p
an , a e no e . s nc u es a es o o u

l
ar E gl i h h
n s li k B vi f H m p t G y f W w i k H C hil d t
e r oe s , e e s o a on ,
u o ar c , o rn ,
e c.
2 A d i g t m d i v l li t
c co r n o ye t m th ae a g w e r ar ly ig d L t w h
cu s o e se s on s e re rar e s ne . a e r, en
m an y g w
so n sm d v i t l g p m t h t h i g d hi m t t h t i
e re a e o er n o a on oe ,
e au or s ne s na e o e en re
w or k w it h t i di ti g w h t h h d b
, ou n ca n w d a e a orr o e .
56 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

La t e r t h e var io u s c on c e rn i n g on e he ro w e r e gath e re d
s on g s

t oge th e r an d t h e Ge s te b e cam e an e pic lik e t he Cha n s on d e ,

R ol a n d or a ki n d of c on ti n u e d b all ad s t or y h ar dl y d e s e r vi n g
, ,

t h e n am e of e pic lik e t h e Ge s te of R ob i n H ood

,
1
.

The m att e r of R o m e c on s i s t e d l ar g e l y of t al e s fr om G r e e k
an d R om an s ou r c e s ; an d t h e t w o g r e a t c y cl e s o f th e s e
r o m an c e s d e a l with t h e d e e d s of A l e x an d e r a fav or it e h e r o , ,

an d t h e S i e g e O f Tr o with which t h e B r it on s th o u g ht th e
y , y
h a d s om e hi s t o r ic c on n e cti on T o th e s e w e re add e d a l ar g e
.

n u m b e r o f t al e s fro m Or i e n t al s ou r c e s ; a n d i n t h e e x u b e r a n t

i m ag i n ati on o f t h e l att e r w e s e e t he i n fl u e n c e which t he

S ara c e n s —
th o s e n i m bl e wit s w h o g av e u s ou r fi r s t m od e r n
s ci e n c e s an d w h o s till r e v e l e d i n t h e A r a hi a n N igh ts h ad —

b e g u n t o e x e r ci s e on t h e lit e rat u r e of E u rop e .

T o t h e En g li s h r e ad e r at l e a s t t h e m os t i n t e r e s ti n g o f t h e
, ,

r om an c e s ar e t h os e which d e a l with t h e e xpl oit s of A r th u r

Th e Ma tt e r a n d h i s K n i g ht s o f t h e R o u n d T a bl e t h e r ich ,
—

°f B i t a i n
r
e s t s t or e h ou s e o f rom an c e which o u r lit e rat u r e has

e v e r f ou n d Th e r e w e r e m an y cy cl e s o f A r th u r i an r om an c e s ,
.

chi e f of which ar e th os e of G awai n L au n ce l ot Me r li n t h e , , ,

Q u e s t o f t h e H ol
y G r ail a n d t h e D e a th ,
o f A r th u r I n p r e .

c e di n g s e ct i on s w e h ave s e e n h ow th e s e fas ci n ati n g r om an c e s

w e r e u s e d b y G e offre y an d t h e F r e n ch w r it e rs a n d h ow , ,

th rou g h t h e F r e n ch th e y foun d th e i r w ay i n t o E n gli s h ap

, ,

’
p e ar i n g fi r s t i n ou r S p e e ch i n Layam on s B r u t Th e p oi n t t o .

re m e m b e r i s th at whil e t h e l e g e n d s ar e Ce ltic i n or i g i n th e i r
, ,

lit e rary for m i s d u e t o F re n ch p oe t s w h o or i g i n at e d t he m e t ,

r i c a l r o m an c e A l l ou r e ar l y En g li s h r om an c e s ar e e ith e r c opi e s
.

or t ran s l ati on s of t h e F r e n ch an d thi s i s t r u e n ot on l of t h e

y
m att e r o f F ran c e a n d R om e b u t of Ce ltic h e r oe s lik e A r th u r , ,

an d E n gli s h h e r oe s lik e Gu o f War wick an d R o bi n H ood

y .

1 A n E gli h b
n k i w hi h h m
s oo n w
c w i tt
su c w ro ll d G t J t
a n ce s e re r en as c a e a es or es

B k S
oo . l t th b gi i g f C
o a so a e e M
nn n di ( o
3 ) w d
u r sor un c. 1 20 e re a :

M y j ti f t h
en e rn e n es s or o e re

And m d i d ivro m a u n ce r e e n e rs e an e r e ,

a d th
n enf ll w
o o m m y f th g
s a su t y l
ar o f m e w hi h w
re a c id i g
c es o ro an c e ,
c e a r e c on s er n .
 TH E ANGLO NOR MAN PER I OD —
57

Th e m o s t i n t e re s ti n g of all Art hu r ian r om an c e s are th os e

o f S i r Ga w a i n
1
of t h e G aw ai n c y cl e an d o f th e s e t h e s t or , y
a n d the Gr e e n K n i h t i s b e s t W or th r e adi n g f or
S i r Gaw ai n g ,

an d th e Gre e n m an F I r s t th o u gh t h e m at e r i a l 15 t ak e n
y r e as on s . ,

Kn i gh t
fr om F r e n ch s ou r c e s t h e E n gli s h w or k m an s hip i s
2
,

t h e fi n e s t of ou r e a r l y r om an c e s S e c on d t h e u n k n ow n au th or . ,

“ ”
o f thi s r om an c e p ro b abl
y w r ot e al s o T h e Pe ar l an d i s t h e .
,

g r e a t e s t E n g li s h p o e t o f t h e N o r m an p e r i o d T hi r d t h e p o e m .
,

it s e l f with i t s d ram ati c i n t e re s t i t s vivid d e s c ripti on s an d i t s , ,

m oral p u rit y i s on e of t h e m os t d e light fu l old r om an c e s i n

,

an
y l an g u ag e .

I n form S i r Ga w a i n i s an i n t e r e s t i n g c o m bi n ati on o f
F r e n ch an d S ax on e l e m e n t s I t i s w r itt e n i n an e l ab orat e .

s t an za c om bi n i n g m e t e r an d allit e r at i on A t t h e e n d of e ach .

s t an za i s a r i m e d r e fra i n c all e d b y t he F r e n ch a t ail r i m e

, .

We g ive h e re a b r i e f ou t l i n e of t he s t ory ; b u t if t h e r e ad e r
d e s i r e s t he p oe m it s e l f h e i s advi s e d t o b e g i n with a m od e r n
,

ve r s i on a s t he ori g i n al i s i n t h e We s t Midl an d d i al e ct an d i s
,

e xc e e di n g l
y di f fic u lt t o foll ow .

On Ne w Y e ar s d ay , w h i l e Ar th u r an d k n i gh ts ke e p in g
’
hi s are th e
Y u l e ti d e fe as t at C am e l o t , a i
g g a n t i c k n i gh t i n g r e e n e n t e rs th e b a n q u e t
h a ll on h o rs e b a c k an d c ha ll e n ge s th e b ra v e s t k n i g h t p r e s e n t to a n
e x c h a n ge b l ow s ; th at i s , h e w i l l e x p os e h i s n e c k t o a b l o w o f h i s
of

o w n b i g b a t t l e ax , i f a n y k n i g h t w i l l a g r e e t o a b i d e a b l o w i n re t u rn
-
.

A fte r s o m e n a t u r a l c on s te r n a ti o n an d a fin e s p e e c h b y A r th u r , G a w a i n
a c c e p ts l l e n ge ta k e s th e b a t t l e ax an d w i th o n e b l ow s e n d s th e
the c h a ,
-
,

a n t s h e a d r o ll i n h ll G K h
’
g i g t h ro u
g h t h e a T h e r e e n n i g h t w o i s e v i .
,

d e n tl y a t e rr i b l e m ag i c i a n p i c k s u p h i s h e a d a n d m o u n ts h i s h o r s e
, .

H e h ol d s o u t h i s h e ad a n d th e g h as t l y l i p s s p e a k w ar n i n g Ga w ai n to ,

b e fa i thfu l t o h i s p r om i s e a n d t o s e e k th r ou g h th e w o r l d t ill h e fi n d s t h e
Gr e e n C h ap e l T h e r e o n n e x t N e w Y e ar s d ay t h e Gr e e n K n i gh t w i l l
.
,
’
,

m e e t h i m a n d re t u r n th e b l o w .

Th e s e c o n d c a n to o f th e p oe m d e s c r i b e s G a w a i n s l o n g j o u r n e y
- ’

th rou gh t h e w i l d e r n e s s o n h i s s te e d G r i n ol e t a n d h i s a d v e n t u r e s w i th
g ,

1 T
y enn
g f th th
s on M l y i m ki g G w i f l
oe s ar er an d i v t Th t
a or n a n a a n a se an rre e re n . a

se e m t bs mi t k ; f
o e ai ll th
s a li t m
e or G w i i
n a xt t A t h t h
e e ar es ro a n ce s a a n s, n e o r u r, e

no b l t f k i ght t h m t l v d
es o n s,d h e d f l l th h
os o e f th R an d T bl on ore o a e e r oe s o e ou n a e.
2 Th w v i F h
e re e re i f th
ar o u s t y ; b t i t c m o i gi ally f m t h e
re n c v e r s on s o e s or u a e r n ro
I i h wh
r s , th h e re w ll d C h li
e e ro a s ca e uc u nn.
 5 8 E NGLI SH L I TE R ATURE
s t or m an d co ld , l
w i th w i d b e a s ts an d m on s te rs , as he s e e ks i n v ai n for
th e Gr e e n Ch ap e l . On C h r i s t m a s e ve , i n th e m i d s t of a v as t fore s t, h e
offe r s p ra y e r to
a M ary , m i l d e s t m othe r s o cl e ar , an d i s r e w ard e d
“ ”

b y S i gh t o f a g re at c as tl e . H e e n t e r s a n d i s r o y al l y e n te r t a i n e d b y
‘
th e h os t, a n age d h e ro , a n d b y h i s w i fe , w h o i s th e m os t b e a u t i fu l
w o m an th e k n i ght e v e r b e h e l d . G aw a i n l e arn s th a t he i s at l as t n e ar

t he G re e n C hap e l a n d s e tt le s
,
d ow n for a l i ttl e c om fort a ft e r hi s
l on g q u e s t.
Th e n e x t c an t o S h ow s th e l i fe i n th e c as t e l , an d d e s c rib e s i
a c I ri o u s

c om p a c t b e tw e e n the h os t, w h o g oe s h u n ti n g d a i l y , a n d t h e k n i gh t, w h o
re m ai n s i n t h e c as tl e t o e n t e r t a i n th e y o u n g w i fe . T h e c o m p a c t i s th at

a t n i g h t e a c h m an s h al l g i v e t h e o th e r w h a te v e r g ood th i n g h e ob t ai n s

d u r i n g th e d ay . W h i l e th e h os t i s h u n t i n g , the y o u n g w o m an tri e s i n
v ai n to i n d u c e Gaw ai n to m a k e l o v e t o he r an d e n d s b y g i v i n g h i m a , _

k i s s Whe n the h os t r e t urn s an d g i v e s h i s g u e s t th e g a m e h e has k i ll e d

.

Gaw ai n re tu r n s th e k i s s On th e thi r d d ay h e r t e m p ta ti o n s h av i n g
. ,

tw i c e fai l e d th e l ad y o ff e r s G aw ai n a r i n g Whi c h h e re fu s e s ; b u t w h e n
, ,

s h e o ffe r s a m ag i c g re e n gi rd l e t h a t w i l l p r e s e r v e t h e w e a r e r fr o m
d e a th Gaw ai n w h o re m e m b e rs th e g i an t s ax s o s oon to fa ll o n hi s
’
, ,

ne ck a c c e p t s th e g i r d l e as a
,
“
j e w e l for the j e op ard y a n d p ro m i se s
”

th e l a d y t o k e e p t h e g i ft s e c r e t H e r e th e n a r e t w o c o n fl i c t i n g c om
. , ,

p a c t s W . h e n th e h os t r e tu rn s a n d o ffe r s h i s g a m e G aw a i n re tu rn s th e ,

k i ss b u t s ay s n o thi n g of th e g re e n g i r d l e .

T h e l as t c an to b ri n g s ou r k n i gh t t o th e Gre e n Ch ap e l a fte r h e i s ,

re p e a t e d l y w ar n e d t o t u r n b a c k i n th e fa c e o f c e r t ai n d e ath Th e .

C h ape l i s a t e r r i b l e p l a c e i n th e m i d s t of d e s o l a t i o n ; a n d a s G aw a i n
a pp r oa c h e s h e h e ars a t e r r i fy i n g s ou n d th e g r a t i n g o f s te e l o n s to n e , ,

w h e re th e g i an t i s s h arp e n i n g a n e w b a tt l e ax T h e G re e n Kn i gh t -
.

ap p e a r s a n d Ga w ai n t ru e t o h i s c om p a c t offe rs hi s n e c k for th e b l ow
, , , .

T w i c e th e ax s w i n g s h ar m l e s s l y ; th e th i rd t i m e i t f a l l s o n h i s S h o u l d e r
an d w o u n d s h i m Wh e r e u p on Gaw ai n j u m p s for h i s arm o r d raw s hi s
. ,

s w o r d a n d w arn s th e g i an t th at th e c om p a c t c a ll s for o n l y o n e b l ow
, ,

a n d th a t i f a n o th e r i s o ffe r e d h e w i ll d e fe n d h i m se l f
, , .

T h e n th e Gre e n Kn i gh t e x p l ai n s th i n gs H e i s l or d o f t h e c a s t l e .

w h e r e G aw ai n h as b e e n e n te r t a i n e d for d a y s p a s t T h e fi r s t t w o s w i n gs .

o f th e ax w e r e h ar m l e s s b e c a u s e G aw ai n h a d b e e n t r u e t o h i s c o m p ac t

an d t w i c e r e tu r n e d th e k i s s T h e l as t b l ow h ad w o u n d e d h i m b e c au s e
.

h e c on c e a l e d th e g i ft o f th e g re e n gi r d l e w h i c h b e l on g s t o th e Gre e n ,

Kn i g h t an d w as w o v e n b y hi s w i fe Mor e o v e r th e w ho l e th i n g h as b e e n
. , .

arran g e d b
y M o r a i n th e f a
g y w o m a n
( an e n e m y o f Qu e e n Gu i n e v e r e
-
,

w ho app e ars o fte n i n th e Ar th u r i a n ro m an c e s ) F u ll o f s h am e Gaw ai n . ,

th r ow s b ac k th e g i ft a n d i s r e ad y to a ton e for h i s d e c e p t i on ; b u t t h e
G re e n Kn i gh t th i n k s h e h as a l re a d y a to n e d an d p r e s e n ts the g r e e n ,

g i rd l e as a f re e g i f t G a w a i n re t u
. r n s to A r th u r s c o u r t t e ll s t he w h o le ’
,
60 ENGL I SH L I TERATURE

Fr om t h e th e se th r e e p oe m s an d fr om p e culiari
id e al s of ,

ti e s of s t y l e an d m e t e r it i s probabl e th at th e ir a u th or w r ot e
,

al s o S i r Ga wa i n a n d the Gr e e n K n ig h t I f s o t he u n k n own . ,

au th or i s t h e on e g e n i u s o f t h e ag e wh o s e p oe t r
‘
o f it s e l f
y
h as po w e r t o i n t e r e s t u s an d w ho s t an d s b e tw e e n Cy n e w u l f
,

an d Ch a uc e r as a w or th
y foll ow e r of t h e on e an d for e r u n n e r

of t h e oth e r .

Mi sce l l an e ou s Li t e r at u r e of t h e Nor m an Pe r i od I t i s w e ll .

n i gh i m p os s ibl e t o Cl a s s i fy t h e r e m ai n i n g lit e r at u r e of thi s

p e r i od an d v e ry littl e of it i s n ow r e ad e xc e pt b y a dvan c e d
, ,

stude n ts T h os e i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e d e v e l op m e n t of
. t ran s i
t i on En g li s h will fin d i n t h e An cr e n R i w l e i e R u l e of t h e ,
. .

An ch ore s s e s (c . t h e m o s t b e au ti fu l bit of ol d E n g li s h
p r os e e v e r w r itt e n I t i s a b ook of e xc e ll e n t r e li gi ou s advic e
.

an d c om for t w r itt e n for t h r e e l adi e s w h o wi s h e d t o liv e a

,

r e li g i ou s li fe with out h ow e ve r b e c om i n g n u n s or e n t e r in g
, , ,

an y r e li g i ou s ord e r s The a uth o r w as B i s h op Poor e o f S ali s :

.

b u ry a cc or di n g t o Mor t on w h o fi r s t e dit e d thi s old clas s ic

, ,

O rm s Orm u l u m w r itt e n s oon a ft e r t h e B r u t i s a

’
i n 1 85 3 . , ,

par aph rase of t h e g os p e l l e s s on s for t h e y e ar s om e wh at aft e r ,

’
t h e m an n e r of Cae d m on s P a rap h ra s e b u t with ou t a n y of ,

Cae d m on s p oe tic fir e an d or ig i n alit y Cu rs or M u n d i (c 1 3 2 0)

’
. .

i s a v e ry l on g p o e m which m a k e s a ki n d of m e t r ic al r om an c e
ou t o f B ibl e hi s t or an d S h ow s t h e wh ol e d e ali n g of God with
y
m an from Cr e ati on t o D om e s d ay I t i s i n t e r e s ti n g as s h ow
.

i n g a p arall e l t o t h e cy cl e s of m i r acl e pl ay s which att e m pt ,

t o c ov e r t h e s am e v as t g r ou n d T h e y w e r e for m i n g i n thi s
.

ag e b u t w e will s t u dy th e m l at e r wh e n w e t r y t o u n d e r s t an d
,

t h e r i s e of t h e d ra m a i n E n gl an d .

B e s id e s the s e g r e at e r w or k s an e n or m ou s n u m b e r of fabl e s
,
"

an d s ati r e s app e ar e d i n thi s ag e c opi e d or t r an s l at e d fr om

,

t h e F r e n ch lik e t he m e t r ic al r om an c e s Th e m os t fa m ou s o f
,
.

th e s e ar e Th e Ow l an d t he N i g ht i n gal e a l on g d e b at e ,
-

b e tw e e n th e t w o bir d s on e r e p r e s en tin g th e gay s id e of life

, ,

t h e oth e r t h e s t e r n e r s id e of law an d m ora l s an d Lan d

'

,
 TH E ANGLO NOR MAN PER I OD —
61

of Cockay gn e , i e
. . L ux u ry La n d , a ke e n sa ti r e on m on k s
1
an d m on a s ti c re lig i on .

Whil e m os tlit e ratu r e of t he t i m e w as a c opy of t h e

of the

F r e n ch a n d w as i n t e n d e d o n ly for t h e uppe r cl a s s e s h e r e ,

an d th e r e w e r e s i n g e r s w h o m ad e b all ad s for t h e

c om mon p e opl e ; an d th e s e n e xt t o t h e m e t r ical

Bal la ds
,

rom an c e s a r e t h e m os t i n t e r e s t i n g an d S i g n ific a n t o f al l t he
,

w or k s o f the N or m an p e r iod O n a cc ou n t of i t s ob s c u re or i .

i n d i t s oral t ra n s m i s s i on t h b all a d i s a lw a s t h e m o s t
g n a e y ,

diffi c u lt of lit e r ary s u bj e ct s We m ak e h e r e on ly th r e e su g

2
.

ge s ti on s which m ay w e ll b e b or n e I n m i n d : th at b all ad s w e re
,

p roduc e d c on ti n u all y i n E n gl an d from A n gl o S ax on ti m e s -

u n til t h e s e v e n t e e n th c e n t u ry ; th at for c e n t u r i e s th e y w e r e
t he on l y r e all y p op u l ar lit e ra t u r e ; an d th at i n t h e b all ad s
a l on e on e i s abl e t o u n d e r s t an d t h e c om m on p e opl e R e ad . ,

”
for i n s t an c e t he b allad s o f t h e
,
m e r r i e gr e e n w ood m e n ,

which g rad u all y c oll e ct e d i n t o t he Ge s te of R ohi n H ood an d ,

ou will u n d e rs t an d b e tt e r p e rh ap s th an fr o m r e adi n g m an y
y , ,

hi s t or i e s wh at t h e c om m on p e opl e o f En g l an d fe lt an d th ou ght
whil e th e i r l or d s an d m as t e rs w e re b u sy with i m p os s ibl e m e t
r ic al r om an c e s .

I n th e s e s on g s s p e ak s t h e h e a r t o f t h e En g li s h folk Th e re .

i s l awl e s sn e s s i n d e e d ; b u t thi s s e e m s j u s tifi e d b y t h e O pp re s

s i on of t h e t i m e s a n d b t h b ar b ar ou s s e v e r it of t h e g a m e
y e y
l aw s An i n t e n s e h at r e d o f S h am s a n d i n j u s tic e l u r k s i n e v e ry
.

s on g ; b u t t h e h at r e d i s s av e d fr o m bitt e r n e s s b t h e h u m or
y
w ith which c aptiv e s e s p e ci all r ich ch u r ch m e n a r e s ol e m n l y
y , ,

l e ct u re d b y t h e b an dit s w hil e th e y s q u i rm at S i ght o f d e vili s h

,

1 i i ll
Or g n a y Cocka y gn e ( v i
ar ou s l y S pe ll ed ) w as i n te n de d t o r i di l t h cu e e m y th i l ca

vl
c ou n t ry of A a on , s om e w hat as Ce rv a n te s
’
D on Qu i x ote l at e r r id i l t h
cu e s e ro m a n ce s o f

ch iv l a ry . I n Lu x ury L an d e v i w g
e ryth n g as oo d to e at; h ou s e s e re w
u b il t
of d a n t e s i i
a n d sh n i l
g ed i
w t h ca k e s ; u e re b tt d l k f ll i ar s e i
n ste a d o f r a n ; t h e s t re am s r an w t h g oo d i
Win e ; a n d r oa s t ge e s e pa sse s o d l w l y d w th o n i
e s t r e e t s , t u rn n g t h e m s e lv
e s a s t he y w e n t .
2 Ch d il ’
s E n g l i sh
d S cott i s h P op u l a r B a ll a d s i s t h e m ost s c h o a r
an a n d com p e te l ly l
ll i g g l
co e c t on i n o u r a n u a e . Gu m m e r e ’ s Old E n l i s h B a l l a d s i s a
g g oo d s h ort w or . k
i i
Profe s s or K t t re dge ’ s I n t rod u c t on t o t he Ca m b r d ge e d t on of Ch d ’s B a l l a d s i s t he i ii il
v j
b e s t s u m m a r y o f a e r y d ifl‘i c u l t s u b e c t . F or an e xt e n d e d d s c u s s on of t he t e ra ry i i li
cha r act e r of t he b alla d se e Gu m m e re ’ s The P o u l a r B a ll a d .
, p
62 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

t or t u r e s p r e par e d b e for e th e i r e y e s i n or d e r t o m ak e th e m
giv e u p t h e i r gold e n pu r s e s an d t h e s c e n e g e n e rally e n d s i n
a bit of wild h or s e pl ay -
Th e r e i s fi ghti n g e n ou gh an d a m b u s h
. ,

an d s u dd e n d e ath l u r k at e v e r y t u r n of t h e l on e l y r oad s b ut
th e re i s al s o a r ou gh h on e s t chival r y for w om e n an d a g e n e r
, ,

o u s s h ar i n g of plu n d e r with t h e p oor an d n e e dy Al l lit e r atu r e .

R E M AI N S O F T H E S C R I P T O R I U M OF F O U N T AI N S AB B E Y
( Fou rt e e n t h y)
ce n t u r

”
is but a d r e am e xp r e s s e d an d R obi n H ood i s t h e d r e am a t
,

an i g n or an t an d o pp r e s s e d b u t e s s e n ti all n obl e p e opl e s t r u g

y ,

g li n g a n d d e t e r m i n e d t o b e f r e e .

Far m or e p oe tica l th an t h e b all ad s an d m or e i n t e r e s ti n g

,

e v e n th an t h e r om an c e s ar e t h e littl e l y r ic s of t h e p e r i od
, ,

th ose t e ars an d s m il e s of l on g ag o th at c r y s t alli ze d

Ly ri cs
i n t o p oe m s t o t e ll u s th at t he h e ar t s of m e n ar e
,
“
alik e i n all age s . Of th e s e t h e b e s t k n ow n ar e t h e
,
Lu v e
R on ( l ov e r u n e or l e tt e r
) o f T h o m as d e H al e s
(c .
 TH E AN G LO N O R MAN PER I O D —
63

(
S p r i n g ti m e b e gi n n i n g L e n te n
( s pr i n g)
o.
"
y s c om e
”
with lu v e t o t ou n e an d t h e m e l o di ou s l ov e s on g A l y s ou n ,

w r itt e n at t h e e n d of t he thirt e e n th c e n t u ry b y s om e u n kn own

p oe t w ho h e rald s t he c om i n g of Ch auc e r
B y tu e n e M e rs h an d Av e r i l ,
W he n y
b i g i n n e t h t o s p ri n g e ,
s p ra

T he l u te l fou l h a th hi re w y l
1

O n h y re l u d t o s y n g e . 2

I c h l i b b e i n l o v e l on g i n g e
3

"
F or s e m l oke s t o f al l th i n g e .
S h e m ay m e b l i s s e b r i n g e ;
5 6
I c h a m i n h i re b au n d o u n .
An h e n d y h ap i c h ab b e yh e n t, ’
8
I c ho t from h e v e n e i t i s m e s e n t,

F r om a ll e w ym m e n m i l ov e is l e nt “

An d l yh t 10
on Al y s o u n

S u mm ary t h e Norm an Pe ri od . T h e N o rm an s w e re o ri gi n a ll y a h ard y

of
ra c e o f s e a r o v e rs i n h ab i t i n g S c a n d i n a vi a I n t h e t e n t h c e n t u r y t h e y c o n q u e re d .

a p a rt o f n o r t h e rn F ra n c e , w h i i d l y a d op t e d
ch is st ill c a ll e d N o rm an d y , a n d rap

F re n c h c ivi li za t i n a d t h e F e c h l o g gne T h e i r c q e s t r f A n gl o S a x o n
n an ua . on u o -

E gl a d n d r W illi m D k
n n u e f N rm d y b ga w i t h t h b a t t l e o f H as t i gs
a , u e o o an , e n e n

i n 1 06 6 T h e li t e a t e w h i c h t h e y b o gh t t o E g l a d i s r m a k ab l f o r
. r ur r u n n e r e

i ts b i gh t r m
r t i c t al e s
, o f l v e a d a d v e t re i n m k e d c o t as t w i th th e
an o o n n u , ar n r

st re n t h a n d s om b e e s f A g l o S a x n p
rn e t ry
s D ri g t h e t h re e c e t i s
o n o o u n n ur e
g
-
.

f ll ow i g H as t i gs N m a
o n a d S x
n , s g ad a ll y
or i t d Th e A gl S ax on
ns n a on r u un e . n o-

s p e e h s i m p lifi e d i t s e l f b
c
y d op p i n g m s t of i ts T t i c i fl c t i s ab s o rb e d
r o eu on n e on ,

ev en ut a ll y a l a g e p a t o f t h e F r e c h v o c ab l
r r y a n d b c m u r E g li s h n u ar , e a e o n

l g g E gli s h li t e a t u re i s al s o a c m b i t i n o f F e c h an d S axon
an ua e . n r o na o r n

e l m e ts Th e t h r e e c h i e f e ff e c t s o f t h e c s t w e e ( I ) th e b i i
e n .
q e g n g of on u r r n

R m a c ivili z t i n t
o n E g l an d ; ( 2 ) t h e g ro w t h f
a o o n t i n li ty i a s t on g o na o a , .e . r

ce t n rali ze d g v e n m e t i n s t ad f t h e l o o e i on f S axon t ri b e ; ( 3 ) th e
o r n , e o s un o s

n e w la n d li t e a t w hi ch w e c l i m e d i n C ha c e r
g ge ua an
p r u re , re ro a u .

At fi rs t t h e n e w li t t r e w as r e m a k ab l y v a i e d b t o f s m a ll i n t i s i c
e ra u r r , u r n

w o rth ; a d v e y li tt l e o f i t i s n w re a d
n r I n o r s t d y w e h av e n o t d o . u u e

( 1 ) Ge ff e y s H i s t o ry w h i c h i s v al ab l e a s a s k f li t e ra t
’
o r , ce b s in c e u ou r oo o u re ,

i t c o t a i s th e n at iv e C e l t i c l e g e d s f A t h r ( 2 ) T h e w o k o f t h e F e
n n n h o r u . r r nc

w ri t rs w h o m d e t h e A t h
e , i a l e g d p p l ar ( 3 ) R i m i g Ch ro n i c l e s i e
a r ur n en s o u . n , . .

h is t ry i n d gg e e l v e e lik e Lay m
o o r s B t rs
( )
4 M , e t ri c a l R m c s r a on
’
ru . o an e , o

t al e s i n v e s e Th e e w e n m r
r . s a n d o f fo r c l as s e s
s er
( ) t
u h e Ma t t e r
e ou , u : a

of F ran c e t a l e s c e n t e i n ab o t Ch a l e m gn e a d h i s p e e s c hi e f o f w h i c h i s
, g r u r a n r ,

i l bi
1 l tt e rd . 2 in he r l a n gu a ge . 3 I l iv e .
4 fa i re s t . 5 I am .
p ow e r , b o n da ge .
5

p lea v i k li
7a fate I h a e at ta n e d . gh te d.
sa n t 3 I n ow . 9 10 li t a
g on e . ,
64 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

t h e C h an s on d e R o la nd ; ( )
b Ma t t e r of G re e c e an d R om e , an e n d e s s l ser e s i
of f ab u l e s ab o t A l e x d e a d ab t th e F ll f T oy ; ( ) Mat t e r f
lo us ta u an r, n ou a o r c o

E gl n d s t o ri
an , of B vi s f H am p to
es G y o f W rw i c k R b i H o o d e t c ;
e o n, u a , o n , .

M a t t e r o f B ri t ai l vi h i h A k i
( )
d t h g f r t e o e s n, t h r a d h
a esi s
gh t s o f a n o e r r r u n n

t he R n d T ab l e
ou Th e b e t f t h e s e m ce
. i s S i r Gaw i a d t h e G e e n s o ro an s a n n r

K igh t ( 5 ) Mi s c e ll a e o s li t e t u e
n . th A c e R i w l e o r b e s t p i e c e of
n u ra r ,
-
e n r n , u

r l y E n g li s h p ro s e ; O m s O rm l m ; C s r M di w i th i t s s gg s t iv e
’
ea r u u ur o un , u e

p a ll e l t o t h e M i ac l e p l y s ; a d b a ll ad s lik e K i g H o
ar r an d t h e R o b in
a n , n rn

H o d s on gs w h i c h w e e t h o l y p e t ry o f t h e c m m o p e op l e
o ,
r e n o o n .

S e l e ct i on s for R e a d i n g . F o r a d v an c e d s t u d e n ts , a n d as a s tu d y o f l an g u age ,
a f e w s e l e c t i o n s as g iv e n i n Man l y s E n g li s h Po e t ry a n d i n Man l y s E n li s h
’ ’
g
Pro s e ; o r s e l e c t i on s f ro m t h e O rm u l u m , B ru t , An c re n R i w l e , an d K in g H o rn ,
e t c ., in Mo r ri s an d S k e at s ’
i S pe c m e n s of Ear ly En g lis h . Th e o rd i n ar y s tu de n t

w ill ge t a b e tte r id ea of t he li t e r a t u re of th e p e ri d o by -
us n i g t h e fo ll ow

i n g : S i r Ga w a i n , m o d e rn iz d b y J e . L . W e s t o n , i n Ar t h u r ia n R o m an c e s S e r i es

( N u tt) ; Th e Nun
’
s Ru l e ( An c re n R i w l e ) , m o d e rn v e rs i o n by J . M o rt o n i n ,

Ki n g s C l as s i c s
’
; Au c a s s i n N i c o l e t e , t ra n s l a t e d b y A. L an g ( C ro w e ll
an d Co .
)
i
T r s ta n an d I se u lt , in A r t h u ri a n R o m an c e s ; E v an s s T h e H i gh H i s t o r
’
y of th e
Ho l y G il ra , i n Te m p le
las s ic s ; Th e P l v i s m o d e rn v i s i pC e ar , ar o u e rs o n n ro s e

an d ve s e ; r e f t h b e s t i s J e w t t s m e t ri c a l v e s i o ( C w e ll
on o e Th e
’
r n ro e

S o g o f R o l a d i K i g C l as s i c s a d i n R iv e i d e L i t e t e S i Ev
’ ’
n n , n n s s s , n rs ra u r er es an

t ra s l at i o f G e ff e y s H i s t ry i n T e m l e C l s s i c ; G e s t s T h M ab i o gi
’ ’
n on o r o a s u e n on ,
p ,

i E v e ry m a s L ib ry o r S L a i e s B y s Mab i o g i on ( i e W l s h f i ry t a l e s
’ ’ ’
n n ra ,
. n r o n . . e a

a d
n om r c s ) ; S e l e c t e d B ll d s i
an e At h ae m P S e i e s a d i Po c k e t
a a , n en u re s s r , n n

C l a s s i c s ; C ay l e y d F l a h e rty s Po e t ry o f t h e Pe p l e B t e s s A B a ll a d B o o k
’ ’
an o ,
a .

B i b l i ograp y h 1 H is tor T t b h M t m y 8 — 8 6 r C he y e y
y x . o g o e pp 5 . o e oo , n r , . , n ,

pp 88
. 1 4
—
4 F o f ll
. e r t e atm e t G e e
r u ch 2 T a ill ; G r d i e e tc J e w e tt 5
n , r n , .
a
r ar n r, .
’

S t ry of t h e N o m an s ( S t o i s of t h e N a t i n s S i ) ; F e m a s S h rt
’
o r r e o er es re n o

H i s t ry f t h e N o rm an C o q e s t ; H t t o n s K i g an d B a r ( O x f d ’
o o g no u u n on a e r

Ma nual s o f E gli s h H i s t o ry ) n .

Li terature G l W h
. J s s e ran d ; T e n B ri n k ; Mi tc h e ll v o l I F o m
en era or s. u , .
, r

Ce l t t T d o ; T h e C am b ri d ge H i s t o ry o f E gli s h L i t e
u or t e n ra u r .

Sp e i l W h S c h fie l d s E g li s h L i t a t f o m t h e N o rm C q e st
’
c a or s. o n er u re r an on u

t o C h a c e ; L e w i s s B gi i gs of E n gli s h Li t e a t ; K e s E p i c d R o
’ ’
u r e nn n r u re r an

m ance ; S i t b y Th e F l o ri s h i g of R m a c e a d t h e R i e o f A ll g ry ;
a n s ur
’
s u n o n n s e o

N w e ll s K i g A t h
e
’
n a d th Ro rd T ab l e ; May ad i e
ur n Th e A t h r f t h e e un n r, r u o

E g li s h Po t s ; R h ys S t d i s i t h e A t h ri a L ge d s
’
n e s u e n r u n e n .

C h il d s E n g li h a d S c o t t i s h Po p l B a ll d s ; G m m e e s O l d
’
B ll d
’
a a s. s n u ar a u r

E gli s h B ll a d s ( o e v l m e ) ; H a zli t t s E a r l y Pop l r P e t y f E g l d; ’

n a n o u u a o r o n an

G ayl e y a d F l ah e rt y s Po e t ry o f t h e Pe o p l e ; P e rc y s R e li q e s o f An c i e n t
’ ’
n u

E n gli s h P o e t ry i E v e ry m a s L ib a y
’
, n n r r .

T xt e T s, l ti t
r an s a Mo rri s a d S k e at s S p e c i m e s f E a l y E g li s h ;
on s , e c . n
’
n o r n

Mo rri s s S i r Gaw ai
’
d t h e G re e K n i gh t i
n E l y E g li h T e x t S e ri e s ;
an n ,
n ar n s

1 F t itl
or d p b l i he
e s an f fe b ks u G s l B ib li g aphy at t he en d of
rs o re re n ce oo se e e ne ra o r

t hi b ook
s .
 TH E AN G LO N O R MAN PE R I OD -
65

Ma d d e n ’
s Layam on
’
s B ru t , t e t x an d t r an s lat i o n ( a s t an d a r d w or k , b ut ra r e
) ;
Th e Pe a r l , te xt an d t ra n s a t l i on , b y Go ll an c z ; th e s am e p o e m , p ro s e ve s i r on ,

e rs o n s b e w e t t, W e r M tc h e
i lv i ll a d M e ad ; Ge o ff y s J i i ’
b y O s go o d , m e t r c a y , n re

y ’
l i li
H i s t o r , t ran s a t on , i n Gi l e s s S i x Ol d E n g s h C h ro n i c l e s ( R o h n s An t i q a i a ’
u r n

L ib a y ) ; M l e y s E ar l y
En g li sh Pros e R o m c e s ; J oyc e s O l d C e l tic R
’ ’
r r or an o

c e s ; G e s t s Th e Mab i n gi on ; Lan i e s B y s Mab i n o g i o ; A th i an

’ ’ ’
m an u o r o n r ur

R o m a c s S e ri e ( t ra s l at i o s ) Th e B e ll e s L e tt e s S e i e s s e c 2 ( an n o n c e d )
n e s n n . r r , . u ,

w ill c tai t h e t e x t s o f a l arg e n m b e

on n o f w o rk s f t h i s p e i o d w i th te s u r o r , no

an d i t o d c t i o s
n r u n .

L g u g e M ars h s Le c t re s o n t h e E gli s h La g age ; B a d l e y s Maki n g

’ ’
an a . u n n u r

o f E g li s h ; L
n n sb y s H is t o ry o f t h E gli s h L g age ; E m e s o n s B ri e f
ou ur
’
e n an u r
’

H i s t o y o f t h e E g li s h La g age ; G e a d K i tt e d g e s W ds a d
’
r g h n n u re n ou n r or n

t h e i W ay i E n gli s h S p e e c h ; W e l s h s D e v e l op m e n t o f E n g li s h Li t e ra t r e
’
r s n u

an d L an gu a ge .

S u gge s t i v e Q ue s t i on s . I . What di d th e N o r th m e n or i gi all y

n ha ve in
c om m o n w th t h e i An gl o S a xon s an d t h e D an e s ? W h at b ro u gh t ab o u t t h e
-

re m ar k ab l e c h an ge f r o m N o r t h m e n t o N o r m an s ? T e ll b r i e fl y t h e s t o ry o f

t h e N o rm an C on q u e s t . H ow di d t h e C o n q u e s t aff e c t th e life an d li t e ra t u r e

of En g la n d ?

2. W h at t yp e sli t e rat e w e re p ro d c e d ft e t h e C q s t ? H w d
of ur u a r on ue o o

t h e y c o m p are w i t h A g l o S a x o n li t e t r e ? W h at w n k s of t h is p e i d a e
- ra u or r o r

c on s i d e e d w o th y of a p e m
r re t p l ac e i li t e t re ? r an n n ou r ra u

3 W .h t i s mea t b a
y t h e R im i g Ch n ic l s ?
n W h a t p a r t d i d t h e y p l ay i n ro e n

d v e l o p i g t h e i d e a o f a t i o a li t y ? W h a t l e d h i s t o i a
e n n f t h is p i d t o
n r ns o er o

w ri t e i v e s en ? D e s c i b e G e off y s H i s t o ry
r W h a t w i t s m o s t v al ab l e
r re
’
. as u

e l e m e t f o m t h e vi e w p o i t o f li t e a t r
n r n r u e

4 W .h a t i s L y a m o s B t W ha
y d i d L y a m o
n n c h
’
o s e t h i
rus n a m e f hi s a o or

Ch i l ? W h at p e c i a l li t e ry i t e e s t at t c h e s t t h p e m ?
ro n c e s ra n r a o e o

5 W .h at w e th M e t ic a l R m a c
er ? We h a t re s o s l d t o t h
r g e at o n es a n e e r

i te t i n th e c l s s e s f r m c s i M tte s f Fr c e R m a d
n re s r e a o o an e ,
. e . a r o an ,
o e , n

B ri t a i ? W h t e w a d i m p t
n a t e le m e t
n t sn li t e r t i t h i s t yp e ?
o r an n en e r our a u re n

Re d a e f t h e M e t i c l R o m a c e s i E gli s h an d c o m m e t f re e l y p o i t
on o r a n n n n u n ,

as t i t e e s t s t c t e i d a a d li t e ary q li ty
o n r , ru ur , e s, n r ua .

6 T e ll t h e s t y f S i G w i
. d th G
or o a gh t W h t F e c h a d
r a a n an e r een . a r n n

w h a t S ax on e l e m e t a fo d i t h e p o e m ? C o m p e i t w i t h B w lf t
n s re un n ar eo u o

h w t h p i t s f i f e i o i t y a d s p e i i ty C m p a e B e w l f s fi g h t w i t h
’
s o e o n o n r r n u r or . o r o u

G re n d l o th e F i e D r k e a d S i Ga w i
e r r e n co at e w i th t h G e e n K i gh t r a n s
’
un r e r n n ,

h vi g i m i d ( I ) t h e vi rt s o f t h e h e
a n n n
( 2 ) th e q li t i e s of t h e e
ue m y (3 ) ro , ua ne ,

t h m th d
e e f w arfa e ( 4 ) t h e p rp os e f t h e s t ggl e
o s o r ,
R ad s l e c t i o s f o m u o ru . e e n r

Th P e l ear d c m p a r e w i th D
an L m
o t W h a t a e th e p e s on a l a d t h e e or s
’
a en . r r n

un iv e al i t e s t i e ac h p e m ?
rs n er s n o

7 T ll s m t yp i c l t o y f o m t h e Mab i o g i on
. e o e a W h e d i d th A th i
s r r n . re e r u r an

l e g d i gi t e a d h w di d t he y b e c o m e k ow n t o E g li s h e a d e r ? W h t
en s or na , n o n n r s a

m de o w it e s h v e
rn rs e d th s e l e e n d s ?
r
g a W h a tu fi n e e l e m e n ts d o y o u fin d i n
e

th m t h at a
e n ot fo d i n An gl o S ax o p o e t y
re un -
n r
 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

8 . Wh at p a r t ly i y l y
d i d Ar t h u r p a i n t h e e a r i i l on g
h s t o r o f B r ta n ? H o w
di d t h e s t ru gg l e i b e tw e e n B r t on s an d S a o n s as t ? Wh at C e t c n am e s
x l li a d n

e l e m e n t s e n t e re d i n t o En g li s h l a g ag e an d li t e ra t re ? n u u

9 W h at i s a b a ll ad an d w h a t d i s t i g i s h e s i t f o m o th e fo rm s o f p o e t ry ?
.
, n u r r

D e sc ri b e t h e b a ll ad w h i c h y o lik e b e s t W h y di d t h e b a ll ad m o e t h an a y .
u . , r n

o t h e r f or m o f li t e at r e ap p e a l t r t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e ? W h at m o d e n p
u , o ms r oe

s u gge s t t h e o l d p o p l ar b a ll ad ? H o w d o t h e s e c o m p are i n fo rm a n d s b j e c t
u u

m at t e r w i th t h e R ob i n H o o d b a ll ad s ?

C H R O N O LO G Y

H I ST O R Y LI T E R A T U R E

9 1 2 . N o rt h m e n se tt le i n N o r m an d y
1 066. B at t l e of H as t gs . i n W illi am ,

ki n g of En g an d l
1 086. D om e s d a y B oo k l
c om p e te d

1 6 87. W illi am R u fu s
1 093 . An s e l m , arc hb s h o
p i of C an t e r
b ur y An s e l m ’
s Cu r D e us H om o
F i rs t C ru s ad e
1 1 00 . Henr y I 1 1 1 0. F i rs t r e c o rd e d Mi rac l e p l ay in
1 13 5 . S te phe n En g la nd
(s e e c h ap t e r o n th e
D r am a
)
Ge o ffr e y i s to ry
’
1 1 4 7. S e c on d C r u s ad e s H
1 1 5 4 . H e nr I I y
1 i
1 89 . R c h a rd I . i
T h rd C r u s a d e
1 1 99 . J ohn Layam on
’
s B ru t
121 5 M a n a Ch arta
.
g
1 2 1 6. H enr y III 1 22 An c re n R i w l e
Un iv e rs ity of C am b r d gei
c h a rt e re d
1 265 . Be g i i nn ng of H ou s e of C om
m on s . i
S m on d e Mon tfo rt 1 2 6 7. R o ge r B ac o n
’
s Op u s Maj u s
1 2 72 . E d w ar d I
1 2 95 . F i rs t c o m p l e t e P a r li am e n t 1 3 00- 1 4 00. Y rk a d W a k e fi e l d
o n .

Mi ac l e p l y s
r a

1 3 0 7. E d w ar d I I . C rs or M
u di un

1 3 2 7 E d w a rd I I I
.

i i
1 3 3 8. B e g n n n g o f H u n d r e d Ye a rs
’

W a r w th F ran c e i B i rth o f C h au c e r
S i r Gaw a i n . T h e P e ar l
 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

e n orm ou s ly . Foll ow in g t rad e , as t he V

iki
had foll ow e d gl ory , the
n gs

En gli sh b e gan t o b e a c on qu e r i n g an d c ol on i zi n g p e o p l e , like th e An gl o

Sa x on s . Th e i v e s h e d s om e thin g of hi s i n su lari ty an d b e c am e a
n at

trav e l e r goin g fi rst t o vi e w t h e p la c e s w h e r e t rad e h ad op e n e d t h e

,

w ay an d r e tu rn in g w i th w id e r in t e r e s t s an d a l arge r h or izon
, Above .

al l t h e fi rs t d awn of t he R e n ai ssan c e i s h e rald e d i n En gl an d as i n

, ,

S p ain an d I taly b y th e ap p e aran c e of a n ati on al li te ratu re

, .

Fi v e Wri t e r s of the Age . Th e

lit e r ar y m ov e m e n t of t he age
cl e arl y r e fl e ct s t h e s ti r r i n g li fe of t h e ti m e s T h e r e i s Lan g .

l an d v oici n g t h e s oci al di s c on t e n t p r e achi n g t h e e q u alit y of

, ,

m e n an d t h e di g n it y of l ab or ; Wy cli f gr e a t e s t of En gli s h ,

r e li g i ou s f e for m e r s g ivi n g t h e G os p e l t o t h e p e opl e i n th e i r

,

o w n t on g u e an d t h e f r e e d om of t h e G o s p e l i n u n n u m b e r e d
,

t ract s an d add r e s s e s ; G o w e r t h e s ch ol ar an d lit e rary m an , ,

c ritici s i n g thi s vig orou s li fe an d pl ai n l y afraid of i t s c on s e

e n d Man d e vill e t h t v l m ci b t t h
q u n ce s a e ra e e r ro an
, n
g a o u e ,

w on d e rs t o b e s e e n ab r oad A b ov e al l th e r e i s Ch au c e r .
,

s ch o l ar t rav e l e r b u s i n e s s m an c ou r t i e r s h ar i n g i n al l t h e s ti r
, , , ,

r i n g li fe o f h i s ti m e s a n d re fl e cti n g it i n lit e r at u r e a s n o o th e r
,

b u t S h ak e s p e are ha s e v e r d on e O u t s id e o f En gl an d t h e gr e at .

e s t lit e rar y i n fl u e n c e of th e a ge w a s th at of D an t e Pe t ra r ch , ,

an d B o cc a cci o wh o s e w or k s th e n at t h e s u m m it of t h e i r i n d u
, ,

e n c e i n It al p r ofo u n dl affe ct e d t h e lit e rat u r e of a l l Eu rop e

y , y .

CH AU CE R ( 1 3 40
— 1 4 00
)
W hat m an a r tow
q u o d he
‘
T h ou l o k e s t as th ou w old e s t fin d e a n h a r e ,
F or e ve r u p on t h e g ro u n d I se e th e e s t a r e .
Ap p ro ch é n e e r, a n d l oke up m e ri l y .
He se m e th e lv i s h b y his c on te n a u n c e .
’

T h e H os t d e s c r i p t i on of Ch a u c e r ,
(
’
s

P ro l og u e , S i r Th of as
)
On re adi n g di ffic u lti e s of re adi n g Ch au c e r
Ch au ce r . Th e
ar e m or e app are n t th an r e al b e in g d u e l arg e l y t o ob sol e t e ,

s p e lli n g an d th e r e i s s m all n e c e s s it for u s i n g an y m od e r n

, y
v e r s i on s of t he p oe t s w or k which s e e m t o m i s s the q u ie t
’

,
 GE OFFR E Y CH AU C E R

Aft e r the R aw lin son Pas te l Port rai t , Oxford

 TH E AGE O F C H AU C ER ~
69

ch ar m an d d ry h u m or of t he or i g i n al I f t he r e ad e r will .

o b s e r v e t h e fo ll owi n g g e n e r al r u l e s ( which o f n e c e s s it i g n o r e
y
m an y di ffe r e n c e s i n p ron u n ci ati on of fou r t e e n th c e n t u ry En g -

li s h) he m ay i n an h ou r or t w o l e ar n t o r e a d Cha u c e r al m os t
, , ,

as e a s il
y a s S h ak e s p e ar e :
( )
1 G e t t h e lilt of t he li n e s a n d l e t ,

t h e m e t e r it s e l f d e cid e h ow fi n a l s y ll abl e s a r e t o b e p r o

n ou n c e d . R e m e m b e r t h at Ch au c e r i s am on g t h e m o s t m u
s i c al of p o e t s a n d th a t th e re i s m e l o d i n n e ar l e ve r li
, y y y ne .

I f t he v e r s e s e e m s r o u gh it i s b e c au s e w e d o n ot r e ad it
V
,

c or r e ctly ( 2 ) ow e l s i n Ch au c e r h av e m u ch t h e s am e val u e
.

as i n m o d e r n G e r m a n ; c o n s on an t s are p ra ctic all t h e s am e

y
as i n m od e r n En gli s h ( 3 ) Pro n ou n c e al ou d an y s t ran g e
.

l ooki n g w ord s W h e r e t h e e y e fa il s t h e e ar will o ft e n r e c og

. ,

n i ze t h e m e a n i n g I f e y e a n d e ar b oth fa il th e n c on s u lt t h e
.
,

l f u n d in e ve r o od e diti o n o f t h e p oe t s w or k s
’

g o s sar
y o
y g
V
.

( )
4 F i n a l e i s u s u a ll y s o u n d e d ( lik e a i n i r g i n i a) e xc e pt wh e r e

t h e foll owi n g w o r d b e g i n s with a v o w e l o r with h I n the .

l att e r c a s e th e fi n al s y ll abl e of on e w or d a n d t h e fi r s t of t h e
w or d foll owi n g a r e r u n t o g e th e r a s i n r e adi n g i r g il A t , V .

t he e n d of a li n e t h e e i f li ghtl y p r on o u n c e d a dd s m e l od y
, ,

1
t o t h e ve r s e .

I n d e ali n g with Ch au c e r s m a s t e r pi e c e t h e r e ad e r i s u r ge d
’

t o r e ad wid e l y a t fi r s t for t h e s i m pl e pl e a s u r e o f t h e s t or i e s
, ,

an d t o r e m e m b e r th a t p oe t r an d r o m an c e a r e m o r e i n t e r e s ti n g
y
a n d i m p o r t an t th a n Middl e E n li s h
g W h e n w e like a n d app r e .

ciat e Ch au c e r h i s p oe t ry h i s h u m or hi s g ood s t or i e s h i s
—
, , ,

ki n d h e ar t — i t will b e ti m e e n ou gh t o s t u d y h i s l an g u age .

Life of Ch au ce r . For v e n i e n c e the l ife of Chau c e r i s di v id e d

ou r c o n

in to thre e p e ri od s Th e fi rs t o f t h i rty y e ars in c l u d e s hi s y ou th an d

.
, ,

e arly m an h o od i n w h i c h t i m e h e w as i n fl u e n c e d al m o s t e x c l u s i v e l
, y
by Fre n c h li te rary m od e l s Th e s e c on d p e r i od of fift e e n y e ar s
.
, ,

c o v e r s Ch au c e r s ac t i v e l i fe a s d i l o m a t an d m an o f a ffa i rs an d i n
’

p ;
t hi s th e I tal i an i n fl u e n c e s e e m s s t ron ge r t han t h e F r e n c h Th e .

1 Th d
e re a m y p h p b m
er a i t t d i t h fi l l tt w h i h
er a s e or e m
n e re s e n e se na e e rs , c a re so e
t im d d
e s s ou n e d g i
an il t if h m m b th t th y p
a a n s en ,
t th d
e re yi g i fl e e rs a e re re se n e e ca n n ec

ti f l d A gl S x p e h
on s o ou r o n o- a on s e c .
70 E NG LI S H LI TE RATU R E

th ird , of fi ft e e n lly kn ow n as th e En gli sh p e riod i s the

y e ars , g e n e r a ,

t i m e of Chau c e r s r i c h e s t d e v e l op m e n t H e li v e s a t hom e obs e r v e s

’
.
,

l ife c l ose ly b u t kin d ly an d w h il e th e Fre n c h in fl u e n c e i s still s tron g

, ,

a s s h own i n t h e Ca n te r hu ry Ta l e s , h e se e m s t o grow m o r e i n d e p e n d
e n t of fo r e i gn m od e l s an d i s d o m i n at e d i l by the vigorou s life
ch ef
y of

hi s ow nEn gli sh p e op l e .
Chau c e r s b oy hood w as t i n Lon d on , Th a m e s S t r e e t
’
sp e n on n e ar

th e r iv e r , w h e r e t h e w or ld ’
s c om m e rc e w a s i
c on t n u a lly i
c o m n g an d

goin g. T he r e h e saw d aily t h e

i p m an of the Ca n te r sh
F i r s t P ri od e
hu ry Ta l e s j u s t h o m e in hi s good shi p Mau d e l ayn e w i th ,

t h e fa sc i n a t i on o f u n kn ow n l an d s i n h i s c l o th e s an d c on ve r sat i on .

Of h i s e d u c at i on w e kn ow n ot h in g e x c e p t t hat h e w as a gre at r e ad e r , .

H i s fat h e r w as a w i n e m e rc han t p u r v e y or t o t h e r o y a l h ou s e hold

, ,

an d fro m t h i s a c c i d e n tal r e l a t i on b e tw e e n t rad e a nd roy al ty m ay

h av e a ri s e n t h e fac t that a t s e v e n t e e n y e ar s Chau c e r w a s m ad e p age
t o t h e Pr i n c e ss Eli za b e th Thi s w a s t h e b e gin n i n g of h i s c on n e c t i on
.

w i th t h e b r il li an t c ou rt w h i c h i n t h e n e x t for ty y e ar s u n d e r th r e e
, ,

kin gs h e w as to kn ow s o in tim ate l y

, .

At n i n e t e e n h e w e n t w i th th e kin g on on e of th e m an y e x p e d i
t i on s of t h e H u n d re d Y e ars Wa r an d h e r e h e s aw c hi v al ry an d all
’
,

t h e p a ge an t ry of m e d i ae v al w ar at the h e i gh t of t h e i r o u t w ard s p l e n
d or Tak e n p ri s on e r at th e u n su c c e ssfu l s i e ge of R h e i m s h e i s said
.
,

t o h a v e b e e n ran s om e d b y m on e y o u t of t h e r oy al p u r s e R e tu rn in g .

to En gl an d h e b e c am e aft e r a fe w y e ar s s q u i r e of th e r oy al hou s e
,

h ol d t h e p e r son al a t t e n d an t an d c on fid an t of t h e ki n g It w as d u r
,
s

i n g t h i s fi r s t p e ri od t hat h e m ar r i e d a m aid of hon or t o t h e qu e e n .

Thi s w a s p r obably Ph ili pp a R o e t s i st e r t o th e w ife of j ohn of Gau n t

, ,

t h e fam o u s D u ke o f Lan c as t e r From n u m e rou s w h i m si c al r e fe r e n c e s

.

i n hi s e arly p o e m s i t has b e e n thou gh t t hat th i s m arr i age in to a

,

n ob l e fam ily w a s n o t a hap p y o n e ; b u t t hi s i s p u r e ly a m atte r of

su p p o s i t i on o r o f d ou b tfu l i n fe r e n c e .

I n 1 3 70 Chau c e r w as s e n t ab road on t h e firs t of th os e d i p l o m at i c

m i ss i on s t hat w e r e t o o c c u p y t he gr e at e r p a r t of t h e n e x t fift e e n y e ars .

Tw o y e ars l a te r h e m ad e h i s fi r s t o ffic i al v i s i t t o I taly t o a rran ge

'

a c o m m e r c i a l t r e aty w i th G e n oa an d fro m t h i s t i m e i s ,
S co d Pe ri od
e n
n oti c e abl e a rap id d e v e l op m e n t i n h i s li t e r ary p ow e r s

an d t h e p ro m i n e n c e of I tali an li t e rary i n fl u e n c e s D u r i n g t h e i n te r .

val s b e tw e e n h i s diffe r e n t m i ss i on s h e fill e d vari ou s offi c e s at hom e ,

c h i e f of w h i c h w as Co m p t r oll e r o f Cu st o m s at t h e p o rt o f Lon d on .

An e n orm ou s am ou n t of p e r son al l abor w as in volve d ; b ut Chau c e r

 TH E AGE O F C H AU C ER 71 “

i ll i it in to fi e ld s
’

se e m s to hav e fou n d t m e to fo ow hi s sp r th e n ew of

Ital ian lite ratu re :

F or w h an th y l ab o u r d oon al i s ,
An d h a s t y -m aa d thy r e ke n i n g e s ,
I n s te de o f re s te an d n e w e th i n g e s ,
T h o u g os t h oom t o th y h o u s an oon ,
An d , a l s o d om b as an y s t o on ,
T h ou s i tte s t a t an o th e r b ok e
T i l fu ll y d as w e d i s th y l o k e ,
An d l i v e s t th u s as an h e r m y te .1

In 1 3 86 Ch au c e r w a s d m e m b e r of Parliam e n t from Ke n t
l
e e c te ,

an d t h e di st i n c tly En gli s h p e r i od of hi s l i fe an d w o rk b e gin s Th ou gh .

e x c e e d in gly bu sy in p u bli c a ff a i rs an d as r e c e i v e r of c u s
Th ir d P e ri od
to m s h i s h e ar t w as s t ill w i th hi s b ook s fro m w hic h on ly
, ,

n atu r e c ou ld w i n hi m

An d asfor m e , th ou g h th a t m y w i t b e l y te ,

On b o k e s fo r t o re d e I m e d e l y t e ,
An d to h e m y e v e I fe y th an d fu l c r e d e n c e ,
An d i n m y n h e r te h a v e h e m i n re v e re n c e
S o h e r te l y , th a t th e r i s g am e n oon
T h a t fro m y b o k e s m a k e th m e to g oon ,
B u t hi t b e se l d om , on t h e h ol d a y y;
S av e , c e r te y n l y , w h a n th a t th e m on th o f M ay
I s c om e n , an d th a t I h e r e th e fo u le s s i n ge ,

An d th a t th e fio u re s g i n n e n fo r to s p r i n g e
F arw e l m y b ook a n d m y d e v oc i ou n 2

I n t he fou rte e n th
'
c e n tu ry po litic s
v be e n fo r hon e s t se e m s t o ha e ,

m e n a v e r y u n c e r ta i n b u s i n e s s
, Ch au c e r n atu rally ad he r e d t o th e
.

p arty of J ohn of G au n t an d h i s fo rt u n e s r os e or fe ll w i t h t hos e of h i s

,

l e ad e r Fro m thi s t im e u n til hi s d e ath he i s u p an d d ow n on the

.

p oli t i c al l ad d e r ; t o d ay w i th m on e y an d good p ro s p e c t s t o m or row

- -
,
”
i n p o v e rty an d n e gl e c t w ri ti n g h i s Co m p l ai n t t o H i s Em p ty Pu rs
, ,

w hic h he hu m or ou sly c all s hi s s av e ou r d ou n i n t h i s w e rl d e h e re .

Th i s p o e m c all e d t h e ki n g s a t t e n t i on t o t h e p o e t s n e e d an d i n c r e ase d
’ ’

hi s p e n s i on b u t h e h ad b u t fe w m o n t h s t o e n jo y t h e e ffe c t of t h i s
u n u su al Co m p l a i n t Fo r h e d i e d t he n e x t y e ar 1 4 0 0 an d w a s
. ,
,

bu ri e d w ith hon or i n We stm in s t e r Abb e y Th e last p e riod of hi s life . ,

t h ou gh ou tw ardly m o s t t rou bl e d w as t h e m os t fru i tfu l of al l ,

H is .

1 H
f F m I I 6 5 ff T h p
ou se o a e, , g i m 2 l . t b i g ph i l
e a s sa e s or e o r e ss au o o ra ca .

2L
g ed f G d W m
en o P l g
oo ll 9 ff
o en . ro o u e , . 2 .
 E NG LI S H LI T ERATU R E

Tru th , G oo d Cou n se l r e v e al s th e qu i e t b e au tifu l

or , , i i t of h i s
sp r

life ,
u n sp oil e d e i the r by t h e gr e e d o f trad e o r t h e t r i c k e ry o f p oli ti c s

F l e e fro th e p re e s , a n d d w e ll e w i th s o th fa s tn e ss e ,
S u ffy c e u n to thy g ood , t h o u gh h i t b e s m a l ;
F or h ord 1
l i m b i n g t i ke l n e s se
h a th h a te , an d c ,

Pr e e s h a th e n v y e a n d w e l e b l e n t ov e ra l ;
2 3 4
,

S a v ou r n o m o r e t h a n t h e e b i h ov e s h a l ;
W e r k w e l th y s e l f th a t o th e r folk c an s t re de ;
5
,

An d t ro u th e s h a l d e l i v e re h i t i s n o d r e d e , .

6
Te m pe s t t he e no
g h t a l c r ok e d t o r e d re ss e ,
7
I n tru s t of hi r th a t t u rn e th a s a b al
Gr e t r e s te s t a n t in l i te l b e s i n e s se
An d ee k b e w ar t o s p o rn e
8
g e y n an al
a
9

S tr y v e h t as d o th t h e
no c ro kk e w i th th e w al .
g ,

D au n te 1°
th y s e l f, th a t d a u n te s t o th e r e s de de ;
An d t r o u th e s ha l d e l i v e re , h i t i s no d re d e .

T h a t the e i s s e n t , re c e y v e i n b u xu m n e s s e ,
T h e w r as tl i n g fo r th i s w o r l d e a xe th a fal .

Her n i s n on h oo m , h e r n is b u t w i l d e rn e s s e
F o r th , p i l g ri m , fo r th F or th , b e s te , o u t o f th y s t al l
Kn ow th y c on tre e , l oo k u p , th a n k G od o f a l ;
H ol d th e h y e w e y , an d l a t th y g o s t th e e l e d e
An d t rou th e s h a l d e l i v e r e , h i t i s n o d re d e .

Wo r k s of Ch au ce r , Fi r s t Pe ri od . Th e
w or k s of Ch au c e r
ar e r ou g hl divid e d i n t o th r e e cl a s s e s c orr e s p o n di n g t o t h e
y ,

th r e e p e r i od s o f h i s li fe I t s h o u ld b e r e m e m b e r e d h ow e v e r
.
, ,

th at it i s i m p os s ibl e t o fi x e x a ct d at e s for m o s t o f h i s w or k s -
.

S om e of h i s Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s w e r e w r itt e n e ar li e r th an t h e
E n gli s h p e r i od a n d w e r e on l y gr ou p e d wit h t h e oth e r s i n h i s
,

fi n al ar ran g e m e n t .

Th e b e s t k n o w n t h o u gh n ot t h e b e s t p o e m of t h e fi r s t
, ,

11
p e ri od i s th e R on za u n t of the R os e a t r an s l ati on fr om t h e ,

F r e n ch R om a n d e l a R os e t h e m os t p op u l ar p oe m o f t h e ,

1 w l th
ea 2 th . wd 3 e c ro4 b li d .
5 t 6 t bl
s u c ce s s . n s. ac . rou e.
7i t h g dd F t e 8 ki k e ss 9 wl 1 j d 0 u e
e.
. o or u n e .
g c . a . .

11 F t h t y p g p hy f t i t l
or e th o thra h d pt d t h p l
o f p tt i g t h t i t l
es e au f or as a o e e an o u n e es o

all b k oo sd f ll i m p t t w k g
,
an o a ll y g d d i gl b k i i t li I d i
or a n or s e n e ra re ar e as s n e oo s, n a cs . n

vi d l p m
ua oe y t s , e s sa i R m l t t w it h q t t i m k T h w h v
s, e c ., a r e n o an e e rs uo a on ar s. us e a e

th e K i gh t T l
n
’
ths t y a e,
”
f P l m or d A it e i th C
s or t h y T l
o a a on an rc e,
”
n e an er ur a e s.

T hi ytm m
s s s e th w h l t h b t t h
se e s on gh i te m y l t i
o e m i e i t es i e
,
ou a re s u n so e n co n s s e n c s.
74 E NG LI SH LI T ER ATUR E

by a g r e a t e ag el fr om th e
b r ittl e t e m pl e of e n u s in a V ,

san d wild e r n e s s u p t o t h e h all o f fam e T thi h c om e

y , o s ou s e .

a l l r u m o r s o f e ar th as t h e s p ar k s fl upw rd T h h
y
, a e ou s e .

s t an d s o n a r ock o f i ce

w r i t e n fu l o f n am e s

Of fo lk th a t h a dd e n g r e te fam e s .

Man y of th e s e h av e di sa pp e a r e d a s t h e i c e m e lt e d ; b u t t h e
o ld e r n am e s ar e cl e ar as wh e n fi r s t w r itt e n F or m an y of h i s
V
.

id e as Ch au c e r i s i n d e bt e d t o D an t e Ovid an d i r g il ; b u t , ,

t h e u n u s u al c on c e pti on a n d t h e s pl e n did w or k m an s hip are al l

hi s ow n .

Th e thi r d g re a p e r i od i s t he L ege n de of Goode

t p oe m of t he

Wzrn m e n A s h e i s r e s ti n g i n t h e fi e ld s am on g t h e dai s i e s
’

.
,

h e fall s a s l e e p an d a g ay p r oc e s s i on d r aw s n e ar F i r s t c om e s .

t h e l ov e g od l e adi n g b y t h e h an d A lc e s ti s m od e l of al l wi fe l y
, ,

vi rt u e s wh o s e e m bl e m i s t h e d ai sy ; an d b e hi n d th e m foll ow
,

a t rou p of gl or i ou s w om e n all of wh om h av e b e e n fa ith ful i n

,

l ov e Th e y gath e r a b ou t t h e p oe t t h e god u pb raid s h i m for

.

h avi n g t ran s l at e d t h e R om a n ce of the R os e an d for h i s e ar ly ,

p oe m s r e fl e cti n g on t h e van it y an d fic k le n e s s of w om e n .

A lc e s ti s i n t e r c e d e s for h i m a n d o ffe r s p ard on i f h e will at on e

”
fo r h i s e rr or s b y w r iti n g a gl o r i ou s l e g e n d o f good w om e n .

Ch au c e r p rom i s e s a n d a s s oon a s h e a wak e s s e t s hi m s e l f t o

,
“
t h e t as k N i n e l e g e n d s w e r e w r itt e n of which Thi s b e
. is ,

p e r h ap s t h e b e s t I t i s p rob abl e that Ch au c e r i n t e n d e d t o

.

m ak e thi s h i s m a s t e r pi e c e d e v oti n g m an y y e ar s t o s t o r i e s of
,

fam ou s w om e n w h o w e r e t r u e t o l ov e ; b u t e ith e r b e c au s e h e
w e ar i e d of hi s th e m e or b e c au s e t he pl an of t h e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s
,

w as g row i n g i n hi s m i n d h e ab an d on e d t h e t as k i n t h e m iddl e
,

of h i s n i n th l e g e n d — fo rt u n at e l y p e r h ap s for t h e r e ad e r will
, , ,

fin d t h e Prol og u e m or e i n t e r e s ti n g th an an y of t h e l e g e n d s .

Th i r d Pe r i o d Ch au c e r s m as t e r pi e c e t h e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s
’
. , ,

on e of t h e m os t fam ou s w or k s i n all lit e rat u r e fill s t h e thi r d ,

or E n gli s h p e r i o d o f h i s li fe Th e pl an of t h e w or k i s m ag n ifi
.

c e n t t o r e p re s e n t t h e wid e s we e p of En g li s h life b y ga th e r i n g
 T H E AGE O F C H AU C ER 75

a m otl e y comp an y t oge th e r an d l e tt i n g e ach cl as s of s oci e t y

t e ll i t s ow n fav or it e s t or i e s T h ou gh th e g re at w or k w as n e v e r
.

fi n i s h e d Ch au c e r s u c ce e d e d in hi s p u r p os e s o w e ll th at i n t he
,

Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s h e ha s g iv e n u s a pict u re of c on t e m p orary
En g li s h li fe i t s w or k an d pl ay i t s d e e d s a n d d r e am s i t s fu n
, , ,

an d s m p ath
y y an d h e ar t
yj y o o f livi n g s u ch a s n o o th e r s i n g l e
,

w or k of lit e ra t u r e has e v e r e q u al e d .

Pl an of t h e Can t e rb u ry Tal e s .O pp o s it e ol d Lon d on at ,

t h e s outh e r n e n d of Lon d on B r idg e on c e s t ood t h e Tab ar d

,

T AB A R D I NN

I nn of S ou thw ar k , a q u ar t e r m ad e fam ou s n ot on l y b y t h e
Ca n te r b u fj f Ta l e s b u t al s o b y t h e fi r s t pl ay h ou s e s wh e r e
,

S h ak e s p e ar e had hi s t r ai n i n g Thi s S ou thwar k w as t h e p oi n t

.

o f d e p ar t u r e of al l t rav e l t o t h e s o uth of E n l an d e s p e ci all

g , y
of th os e m e di ae v a l pil r i m a e s t o t h e h r i n e o f T h om a s a
g g s

B e ck e t i n Can t e r b u r y On a S p r i n g e v e n i n g at t h e i n s pi r i n g
. ,

ti m e of t h e y e ar wh e n l on ge n folk t o goon on pil g r i m age s ,

Ch au c e r ali g ht s a t t h e Ta b ar d I n n a n d fi n d s it o cc u pi e d b y
,

a v ar i o u s c om p an
y o f p e opl e b e n t o n a pil r i m a e
g g . C h a n ce

al on e had b ro u ht th e m t o e th e r f or it w a s t h e c s t o m o f
g g ; u
76 EN G LI S H LI TER AT U R E

pilg r i m s t o w ait at s om e fri e n dl y i n n u n til a s u ffici e n t c om ~

p an y w e r e g ath e r e d t o m ak e t h e j ou r n e y pl e asan t an d s afe

from r o bb e r s th at m i ght b e e n c ou n t e re d on t h e w ay Ch a u c e r
’

j oi n s thi s c om p an y which i n cl u d e s all cl as s e s of En gli s h s o ci

,

et
y ,f r om t h e O x fo r d s ch ol ar t o t h e d r u n k e n m ill e r an d a cc e pt s ,

g l a dl y th e i r i n vit ati on t o
g o with th e m o n t h e m or ro w .

At s u pp e r t h e j ovi al h os t of t h e Tab ard I n n s u g g e s t s th at

'

t o e n liv e n t h e j ou rn e y e ach of t h e c om p an y s h all t e ll fou r

,

t al e s t w o g oi n g an d t w o c om i n g o n wh at e v e r s u bj e ct s h all
, ,

s u it h i m b e s t Th e h os t will t rav e l with t h e m a s m as t e r of

.

c e r e m on i e s an d wh oe v e r t e ll s t h e b e s t s t ory s h all b e g iv e n a
,

fin e s u pp e r at t h e g e n e r al e xp e n s e wh e n th ey al l c om e b a ck
aga i n , a s h r e wd bit of bu s i n e s s an d a fin e id e a a s t h e pil
—
,

g r i m s a l l a g r e e .

Wh e n th e y d raw l ot s for t h e fi r s t s t ory t h e ch an c e fall s t o

t h e K n i g ht w h o t e ll s on e o f t he b e s t o f t h e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s
, ,

t h e chiva l r ic s t or y of Pal am on an d A r cit e Th e n t h e t al e s

.

foll ow rapidl y e ach with i t s p r ol ogu e an d e pil ogu e t e lli n g h ow

, ,

t h e s t ory cam e a b ou t an d i t s e ff e ct s on t h e m e r r y c om p a n y
,
.

I n t e rr u pti on s are n u m e r ou s ; t h e n ar rat ive i s f u ll of li fe an d

m ov e m e n t a s wh e n t h e m ill e r g e t s d r u n k an d i n s i s t s on t e l ]
,

i n g h i s t al e ou t of s e as o n or wh e n th e y s t o p at a fr i e n dly i n n
,

for t h e n i g ht or wh e n t h e p o e t with s ly h u m or s t ar t s h i s s t ory

,

”
of S i r Th Op a s i n d r e ar y i m it ati on of t h e m e t r ic a l r o m an c e s
,
“
o f t h e d ay an d i s ro ar e d at b t h h os t for h i s d r as t
, y e y
r m in g
y W . ith C h auc e r w e l au g h at hi s ow n e xp e n se an d ,

ar e r e ad
y f or t h e n e xt t al e .

Fr om t h e n u m b e r o f p e r s on s i n t he c om pan y thi r t y t w o i n ,
-

all it i s e vid e n t th at C h au c e r m e dit at e d an i m m e n s e w o r k o f

,

on e h u n d r e d an d tw e n t e i ght t al e s which s h o u ld c ov e r t h e
y
-
,

wh ol e life of En gl an d On l y tw e n t y fou r w e r e w r itt e n s om e

.
-

o f th e s e ar e i n c om pl e t e a n d oth e r s a r e t ak e n fr om h i s e ar li e r
,

w or k t o fill ou t t h e g e n e ra l pl an of th e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s .

I n com pl e t e as th e y are th e y c ov e r a w id e r an g e i n cl udi n g

, ,

s t ori e s of l ov e an d chiv al ry of s a i n t s an d l e g e n d s
, t rav e l s , ,
78 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

so ci e t y m an n e r s t he s por ti n g m on k an d t he fat f riar t he di s

, ,

c r e c t m an of l aw t h e w e ll fe d c ou n t ry s q u i r e t h e s ail or j u s t
,
-
,

h om e fr om s e a t h e can n y d oct or t h e l ovabl e p ari s h p ri e s t

, ,

w h o t au g ht t ru e r e lig i on t o h i s fl o ck b u t fi r s t h e fol w e d
,

it hi m s e lve ; t h e c oar s e b u t good h e art e d Wy f of Bath t he

”
-
,

thi e vi n g m ill e r l e adi n g t he pil gr i m s t o t h e m u s ic of hi s b ag

pip e all th e s e an d m an oth e r s fr om e v e r w a lk of E n g li s h
, y y
li fe an d all d e s c r ib e d with a q u i e t ki n dly h u m or which s e e k s
, ,

in s ti n ctiv e l y t he b e s t i n h u m an n at u r e an d which has an ,

am pl e g ar m e n t of ch ar it t o c o v e r e v e n i t s fau lt s an d faili n gs
y .

” ”
H e re i n d e e d as D ry d e n s ay s i s G od s pl e n t y Pro b abl y
’

, , , .

n o k e e n e r or ki n d e r c r itic e v e r d e s c r ib e d h i s fe ll ow s ; an d in

thi s i m m or t al Pr ol ogu e Ch au c e r i s a m od e l for all th os e

w h o w ould p u t ou r h u m an lif e i n t o w r iti n g Th e s t u d e n t .

s h ou ld r e ad it e n ti r e a s a n i n t rod u cti on n ot on l t o t h e p oe t
, y
b u t t o al l ou r m od e rn lit e ratu r e .

Th e Kn i gh t s Tal e
’
A s a s t or y
. Pa lam on an d Ar cit e
, is ,

i n m an y r e s p e ct s t h e b e s t of t h e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s r e fl e cti n g
, ,

a s it d oe s t h e id e al s of t h e ti m e i n re ar d t o r om an tic l ov e
g
a n d k n ig htl d ut T h o u g h i t s di al og u e s an d d e s c r ipti on s
y y .

ar e s om e wh at t o o l o n
g a n d i n t e r ru pt t h e s t or
y y e t it s h ow s ,

C h au c e r at h i s b e s t i n h i s d ram at ic p ow e r hi s e xq u i s it e , ,

a pp re ci a ti on of n at u r e an d h i s t e n d e r e t p r ofou n d phil osoph

, y y
o f livi n which c ld v l k m ch f h m n fra ilt i t h
g , o u o e r o o u o u a
y n e

t h ou ght th at
I n fi n i te b e e n th e s orw e s a n d th e t e re s
O f o l d e fol k a n d fo lk o f t e n d r e y e re s
, .

The I d e a of tt he w a s b or ro w e d fr om B occ acci o

s or
y b u t p ar t s
of t h e ori g i n al t al e w e r e m u ch o ld e r an d b e l on g e d t o t h e c o m

m on lit e r ar y s t o ck of t h e Middl e Ag e s L ik e S h ak e s p e ar e . ,

Ch au c e r t ook t he m at e r i al for hi s p oe m s wh e r e v e r he fou n d

it an d h i s or i gi n alit y c on s i s t s i n g ivi n g t o an old s t ory s om e
,

p r e s e n t h u m an i n t e r e s t m aki n g it e xp r e s s t h e li fe an d id e al s
,

I n thi s r e s p e ct t h e K n i g ht s Tal e i s r e m ar k
’
of hi s o w n ag e .

abl e .I t s n am e s are th os e of an an ci e n t civili zati on b u t i t s ,

 TH E AGE O F CH AU CER 79

ch ar a ct e r s are m e n an d w om e n of t h e En gli s h n obilit y as

Chau c e r k n e w th e m I n c on se q u e n c e t h e s t ory ha s m an y
.

an a ch ron i s m s s u ch a s t he m e di ae v al t o u r n am e n t b e for e t h e
,

t e m pl e of Mar s ; b u t t h e r e ad e r s c ar c e ly n otic e s th e s e thin g s ,

b e i n g a b sor b e d i n t h e d r am at ic i n t e r e s t of t h e n arrativ e .

”
B r i e fl y t h e K n i ght s Tal e i s t h e s t or y of t w o y ou n g m e n
’
, ,

fas t fr i e n d s w h o ar e fou n d w ou n d e d on t h e b attl e fi e ld an d

,

t ak e n p r i s on e r s t o Ath e n s Th e r e fr om th e i r d u n g e on w i n
.

d ow th e y b e h old t h e fai r m aid Em il y ; b oth fa ll d e s p e rat e l y

i n l ov e with h e r an d th e i r fr i e n d s hip t u rn s t o s t re n u ou s
,

r iva l r
y . O ne i s p ar d on e d ; t h e oth e r e s c ap e s ; an d t h e n

k n ight s e m pi r e s n at u r e
, ,
t h e wh ol e u n iv e r s e foll o w s th e i r
,
-

d e s p e r at e e ffor t s t o w i n on e s m all m aid e n w h o p r ay s m e an ,

whil e t o b e d e liv e r e d fr om bo th h e r b oth e r s om e s u it or s A s .

t h e be s t of t h e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s ar e n ow e a s il y a cc e s s ibl e ,

w e om it h e r e all q u ot ati on s T h e s t or y m u s t b e r e ad e n ti r e
.
,

with t he Pr i or e s s t al e of H u gh o f Li n c ol n t h e Cl e r k s t al e
’

,
’

of Pati e n t G r i s e ld a an d t h e N u n s Pr i e s t s m e rry t al e of
,
’ ’

Ch an t icl e e r an d t h e F ox i f t h e r e ad e r w ou ld app r e ci at e t h e
,

v ar i e t y an d ch ar m of o ur fi r s t m od e r n p oe t an d s t ory t e ll e r -
.

For m of Cha u c e r s Po e t r y
’
T h e r e ar e th r e e p r i n cipal m e t e r s
.
.

t o b e fo u n d i n Ch au c e r s v e r s e I n t h e Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s h e
’
.

u s e s li n e s of t e n s ll abl e s a n d fiv e a cc e n t s e a ch an d t h e li n e s
y ,

ru n i n c o upl e t s

H is e ye n tw i n kl e d i n h i s he e d ar i gh t

AS d oon th e s t e rr e s i n th e f r o s ty ni
gh t .
The s am e m u s ic a l m e as u r e , ar ra n g e d in se v e n li n e-
t
s an za s ,

b ut with a di ffe re n t r i m e c all e d t h e , R im e R oyal i s ,

fou n d i n
it s m os t p e r fe ct for m i n Tr ozl u s
'

O b li s fu l l i gh t o f w h i c h e , th e b e m e s l
c e re

A d o rn e th al th e th r i d d e b e y e ne fa i r e !
O s on n e s le e f , O J ov e s d o u gh t e r d e r e ,
Ple s a u n c e of l o ve 0 g o od l y d e b o n a i r e ,
,

I n
g l
e n ti b e r te s ay r e d y to r e p a i r e

O v e r ra y c au s e o f he l e an d o f g l a d n e sse ,

Y-h e r i e d b e th y m i gh t an d t h y g ood n e s s e l
80 E NG LIS H LI TER ATU R E

I n he v e n e an d h e ll e , i n e r th e a n d s a l te se e

I s fe l t th y m i g h t , i f th a t I w e l d e s c e rn e ;
As m an , b r i d , b e s t, fis h , h e rb e an d g re n e t re e
T h e e fe le i n t y m e s w i th v ap ou r e te rn e .
G od l o v e th , an d t o l ov e w ol n ou gh t w e rn e ;
An d i n th i s w or l d n o l y ve s c r e atu re ,
W i th o u te n l ov e
-
, i s w or th , or m ay e n d u re
1
.

Th e thi rd m e t e r i s the e ig ht sy ll abl e li n e with fou r acc e n t s

-
, t he
“
'
’
li n e s r i m i n g i n c oupl e t s a s i n th e B ok e of t h e D u ch e s s e
,

T h e r e to s h e c ou d e s o w e l p le y e ,
W h an th at h i r l i s te , th a t I d ar s e ye
T h at s he w as l y k to t o r c h e b r i gh t ,
T h at e v e ry
m an m ay t a k e of l i gh t
-

Yn ou gh , a n d hi t h ath n e v e r the l e s se .

B e s id e sth e s e p r i n cip al m e t e rs Ch a uc e r i n his s h or t po e ms ,

u s e d m an oth e r p oe tic al f o r m s m od e l e d aft e r t h e Fr e n ch w h o

y ,

i n t he fou r t e e n t h c e n t u r y w e r e cu n n i n g w or k e r s i n e v e ry form
of v e r s e Chi e f am on g th e s e are t h e di ffi cult b u t e xq u i s it e
.

" ”
r on d e l N ow w e l com S om e r with t hy s on n e soft e
, which ,

”
cl os e s t h e Par liam e n t of F owl s an d t he b allad F l e e fr o , ,

t h e pr e e s which has b e e n al r e ady q u ot e d I n th e Mon k s

, .
’

”
Tal e th e r e i s a m e l odi ou s m e as u r e which m ay h ave fu rn i s h e d
t h e m od e l for S p e n s e r s fam ou s s t an za 2
Ch au c e r s p oe t ry i s
’ ’
.

e xt r e m e ly m u s ic al an d m u s t b e j u d g e d b y t h e e ar r ath e r th an

b y t h e e y e To t h e m od e rn r e ad e r t h e li n e s app e ar b r ok e n
.

an d u n e v e n b u t i f on e re ad s th e m ov e r a fe w t i m e s he s oon ,

c atch e s t h e p e rfe ct s wi n g of t h e m e as u r e an d fi n d s th at h e i s ,

i n t h e h an d s of a m as t e r wh o s e e ar i s d e lic at e l y s e n s itiv e t o
t h e s m all e s t a cc e n t Th e r e i s a lilt i n a ll hi s li n e s which i s
.

m ar v e l ou s wh e n w e c on s id e r th at h e i s t h e fi r s t t o S h ow u s
th e p oe t i c p o s s ibiliti e s of t h e l an g u age H i s cl ai m u p on ou r .

g r atit u d e i s tw o fo ld :
3
fi r s t for di s c ov e r i n g t h e,
m u s ic th at i s

i n o u r En gli s h s p e e ch ; an d s e c on d for h i s i n fl u e n c e i n fixi n g ,

t h e Midl an d di al e ct a s t h e lit e ra ry l an g u ag e of En g l an d .

1 Tr oi l u s an d Cr i s e y d e , I I I . 2
S e e p . 1 0 7.
3 F or a s u m m a r y of Cha u ce r s w or
’
k l
an d p ac e i n ou r li
te r at u re , se e t h e Com p ar son i
i
w t h S pe n s e r, p . 1 1 1 .
82 E NG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

vi s i on s c all e d The S ea r ch for D ow e l D ob e t D ob e s t (do w e ll , , ,

b e tt e r b e s t ) The e n ti re p oe m i s i n s t ron g l y acc e n t e d all i t e r

, .
,

ativ e lin e s s o m e thi n g lik e B e ow u lf an d i t s i m m e n s e p op u lar it

, y ,

s h ow s th a t t h e c om m on p e opl e s till ch e r i s h e d thi s e as il m em

y
or i ze d for m of S ax on p oe t r y I t s t r e m e n d ou s app e al t o j u s tic e
.

an d c om m on h on e s t y i t s cl ar i on c all t o e v e r m an wh e th e r
, y ,

kin g p r i e s t n obl e or lab or e r t o d o h i s C h r i s tian dut y t ak e s

, , , , ,

from it an y t r ac e of p r e j u dic e or bigot ry with which s u ch

w or k s u s u all y ab ou n d I t s l oyalt y t o t he C h u rch whil e d e
.
,

n ou n c i n g abu s e s th a t h ad c r e pt i n t o it i n th a t pe r i od w as ,

on e of t h e g re a t i n fl u e n c e s which l e d t o t h e R e form ati on i n

En g l an d I t s t w o g r e at p ri n cipl e s t he e qu alit y of m e n b e fo r e
. ,

God an d t h e di gn it y of h on e s t l ab or r ou s e d a wh ol e n ati on ,

of fr e e m e n Alt oge t h e r it i s on e of t h e w or ld s gr e at w ork s

’
, ,

p art l y b e c au s e o f i t s n ati on al i n fl u e n c e p ar tl y b e c au s e it i s ,

t h e v e r y b e s t pictu r e w e p os s e s s o f t h e s oci al li fe of t h e fou r

t e e n t h c e n t u ry

B ri e fl y , ll e go r y o f l i fe I n the fi rs t v i s i on th at
P i e r s P l ow m a n i s an a . ,

o f th e F i e l d F u ll o f F o lk th e p oe t l i e s d ow n o n th e M alv e rn H ill s o n
”
,

a Ma m o r n i n g a n d a v i s i o n c om e s to h i m i n s l e e p O n t h e p l ai n b e n e a th
y , .

hi m g a th e r a m u l ti tu d e o f fo lk a v as t c row d e x p re s s i n g th e v ari e d l i fe
,

o f th e w o r l d Al l c l as s e s a n d c o n d i ti o n s a r e th e re ; w ork i n g m e n a r e
.

toi l i n g th a t oth e rs m ay s e i ze a l l th e fi r s t f ru i ts o f th e i r l ab o r an d
l i v e h i gh o n the p ro c e e d s ; a n d th e ge n i u s o f th e th ro n g i s Lad y
B r i b e r y a p ow e r fu ll y d r aw n fi g u re e x p r e s s i n g th e c o rr u p t s o c i a l l i fe
, ,

o f th e t i m e s .

T he ne x t v i s i on s a r e th o s e o f the S e v e n D e ad l y S i n s all e g o ri c al fig ,

u re s b u t p ow e r fu l as th o s e o f P i l r i m s P r o r e s s m a k i n g t h e a ll e g o ri e s
’
, g g ,

o f th e R om a u n t o h e R os e s e e m l i k e s h a d ow s i n c o m p ari s o n T h e s e al l
f t .

c a m e to Pi e rs as k i n g t h e w ay t o T ru th ; b u t Pi e rs i s p l o w i n g h i s h a l f

a c r e a n d re fu s e s t o l e a v e h i s w o r k an d l e ad th e m H e s e ts t h e m a l l t o .

h o n e s t toi l as th e b e s t p os s i b l e r e m e d y for t h e i r v i c e s an d p re a c h e s th e ,

g po s e l o f w o r k a s a p p
r e a r a ti o n f o r s a l v a t i o n T h r o u g h o u t t h.e p oe m
Pi e rs b e a rs s tron g re s e m b l a n c e t o J oh n B ap ti s t p re a c h i n g to t h e c ro w d s
i n th e w i l d e rn e s s T h e l a te r v i s i on s a r e p r oc l am a t i o n s o f the m or a l
.

an d s p i r i t u a l l i fe o f m a n T h e p oe m g r ow s d r a m a ti c i n i ts i n te n s i t y
. ,

r i s i n g to i t s hi g h e s t p ow e r i n Pi e rs s t r i u m p h o v e r D e ath An d t h e n
’
.

th e p oe t w a k e s fro m h i s v i s i o n w i th th e s o u n d o f E as te r b e ll s ri n gi n g
i n hi s e ars .
 TH E AGE O F CH AU CER 83

H e re ar e a fe will u s t rat e t h e s t y l e an d l an gu age ;

li n e s to

but t he w hol e p oe m m u s t b e r e ad if on e i s t o un d e r s t an d i t s
c ru d e s t re n g th an d p roph e tic s pi r it
I n a s om e r s e s u n , w h o n s o f te w as th e s on n e ,
I s c h op
1 m e i n to a s h ro u d , as I a s c he e p w e re ,
I n h ab i te as a n h e re m i te , u n ho ly of we r ke s ,

We n t w yd e i n t h i s w o r l d , w on d r e s t o h e r e .
B ote i n a M ay e s m o rn y n g e , on M alv e r n e h u ll e s ,
M e b y fe l a fe r l y , 2
of f a i r i e m e th o u g h t e .

I w as w e r y , forw an d r e d , an d we nt m e to re s te

U ndur a b rod b an k e , b i a b ou r n e 3
side
’

An d as I l a y a n d l e n e d , an d l o k e d on th e w a t re s ,
I s l u m b re d i n a s l e p y n g — 4
h i t s w y e d s o m u ri e .

J O H N WY C LI F ( 1 3 2 4 — 1 3 4)
8

Wy cli f ,
as a m an , i s b y far t h e m o s t p ow e r ful En gli s h fig
u re of t he fo u r t e e n th c e n t u r y The i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e of hi s
.

p re achi n g i n t h e n ativ e t on g u e an d t he p ow e r of h i s L ollar d s ,

t o s ti r t h e s ou l s of t h e c om m on folk ar e t oo w e ll k n ow n h i s ,

t or i c all y t o n e e d r e p e titi on T h o u g h a u n iv e r s it y m an an d a
.

f u n d s ch ol ar h s id e s with Lan g l an d an d h i s i n t e r e s t s
-

p r o o e , ,

are with t h e p e o pl e r ath e r th an with t h e p r ivil e ge d cl a s s e s ,

for wh om Ch au c e r wr it e s H i s gr e at w or k w hich e arn e d h i m . ,

h i s titl e of fath e r of E n gli s h p ro s e i s t he t r an s l ati on o f t h e ,

B ibl e . Wy cli f hi m s e l f t ran s l at e d t h e g os p e l s an d m u ch m or e

‘

of t h e N e w T e s t a m e n t t he re s t w as fi n i s h e d b y h i s fo ll o w e r s ,

e s p e ci all
y yb N ich ol a s o f H e r e for d T h e s e t r an s l a ti on s w e r e

V
.

m ad e fr om t h e L ati n u l gat e n ot fro m t h e or i i n al G r e e k

g ,

an d H e b r e w an d t h e wh ol e w or k w a s r e vi s e d i n
, 1 3 88 b y

J o h n
, P u r v e y a di s,cipl e o f W y cli f I t i s i m p o s s ibl e t o o v e r .

e s ti m at e t h e i n fl u e n c e of thi s w or k b oth o n o u r En li s h p r os e
g ,

an d on t h e l i v e s o f t h e En g li s h p e opl e .

Th ou gh Wy cli f s w ork s ar e n ow u n r e ad e x c e pt b y o cc a
’

s i on al s ch ol ar s h e s till occ u pi e s a v e r y hig h pl a c e i n ou r

,

lit e rat u re H i s t ran s l ati on of th e B ibl e w as s l owl y c opi e d al l

.

l
1 c ad . 2 w on de r. 3 b roo k .
4 s ou n d e d .
 84 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

v
o er E n g l an d , an d s o
fix e d a n ati on al s t an dar d o f En g li s h p r os e
t o r e pl a c e t h e v ar i ou s dial e ct s Por ti on s of thi s t r an s l ati on i n
.
,

t h e fo r m of favo r it e p as s ag e s from S c r ipt u r e w e r e c opi e d b

y ,

tho u sa n d s an d for t he fi rs t ti m e i n o u r hi s t ory a st an d ar d of p u r e

,

Engli s h w a s e s t abli s h e d I n t h e h om e s of t h e c om m o n p e opl e .

A s a s u g g e s ti on o f t h e l an g ua g e of th at day w e q u ot e a ,

fe w fam ilia r s e n t e n c e s from t h e S e r m on on t he Mo u n t as ,

iv n i n t h e l a t e r v e r s i on
g e

o f W cli f s G o s p e l
’

y
An d h e op e n y d e h i s m o u th ,
a n d t an h t e h e m , an d s e i d e ,
g
B l e s s i d b e n p ore m e n i n s p i r i t ,
fo r t h e k y n gd o m o f h e v e n e s
1
i s h e rn e . B le s si d b e n m yld e
m e n , fo r th e i s c h u e n w e d e 2
l l
th e e r th e . B le s s i d ben the i
th at m or n e n , fo r t h e i s ch u e n l
be c ou m fo r t i d . B le s s i d ben
t h e i th a t h u n g r e n an d t h r i s te n

gh tw i s n e s s e , for th e i s c h u l e n
8
ri

b e fu lfilli d B l e s s i d b e n m e r c i
.

fu l m e n , for th e i s chu e n l g e te

m e rc i . B l e s s i d b e n t h e i th a t
ben of cle n e h e r te , fo r th e i
l
s chu e n se G od B l e s s i d b e n .

pe si b le m e n , fo r t h e i s c h u l e n

j oH N WY C L I F b e Cl e p i d 4
G od d i s Ch i l d re n .

B l e s s i d b e n t h e i th at s u ff re n
1
p e rs e c u s i ou n for r i g h t fu l n e s s e , for th e k y n gd om o f h e v e n e s i s h e r n e .
E fts o o n e y e h a n h e r d , th at i t w as s e i d to e l d e m e n , T h o u s c h a l t n ot

f or s w e r e , b u t t h ou s cha l t y e l de 5
th in i
oth s to th e Lor d . B u t Y se ie
6
to

y o u , th a t y e s w e re n ot fo r on y th i n g ; but b e y ou r e w or d e , y h e ,

y h e na
y , na
y; an d t h at t h at i s m o r e t h an th e s e , i s o f yve l
Ye h a n h e r d th a t i t w as s e i d , T h ou s c h al t l o v e t h i n e i gh b o r e , a n d h a te
thi n e n e m y e B u t Y s e i e t o y o u , l ov e y e y o u r e e n e m y e s , d o y e w e l t o h e m 7
.

8 9 10
th a t h a t i d e n y ou , a n d p re
y f
y o
e r h e m t h at p u r s u e n
e an d s c l a u n d r e n

y o u ; th a t y e b e th e s o n e s o f y ou re F ad i r tha t i s i n h e v e n e s , t h a t m aki th
hi s su nne t o ri s e p
u on
g oo d e a n d y v e l e m e n , a n d r e y n e t h 11
o n j u s t m e n

a n d u n u s te
j . T h e re fo r e b e y e p ar fit , as y ou r e h e v e n li F ad i r i s p ar fit .
1 t he i rs 2 ru el 3 r i gh t e ou s n e ss 4 ca ll d
e 5 yi ld
e 6 sa
y
7 t he m 8 h at e 9
pe rse c u te l
1 0 s an d e r i
1 1 ra n s
86 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

wo r k i n m od e rn En g li s h h avi n g a di s ti n ctly lit e rary s t y l e an d

fl av or O th e r wi s e it i s a m o s t i n t e r e s ti n g c om m e n t ar y o n t h e
.

e n e r a l c u lt u r e an d c r e d u lit f t h f t t h c t
g y o e ou r e e n e n u r
y .
C

S u m m a ry of t h e Age of Ch au ce r . T h e f o u rt e e n th c e n tu r y is re m ar k ab l e
h is t ri c ll y
o a f or th e d e c li ne of fe u d a li s m ( o r ga n ze i d b y t h e N o rm an s ) , f o r
t h e g ro w t h of t h e En g li s h n at o n a i l p i it d is r ur ng the i
w a rs w t h F ra n c e , f o r t h e

p ro m i n e n ce o f the H o u s e i g p ow e f t h l b
of C om m on s , an d fo r t h e g row n r o e a or

ing c l s s w h h d he t f e b
as e ,
o i
a ii re l y ab v e t h t of s l v y
o or een n a c o n d t on h a r d o a a er .

Th g e
e p a d c d fi w
ro i t s u f n tee f vew h m G e o ff
r y C erh a ce is o o ,
on e o o , re u r,

on e o f t h e g a t e s t of E g li s h w i t s H i s p o t ry i
re n m k ab l f i t s v i ty r er . e s re ar e or ar e ,

i ts t y i t a d it d e f l m e l od y Ch s wo k d W y c lif s
’ ’
s or st n e re w , n s on r u . au c e r r an

t a
r l ti
ns a f t h e B ib l e d v l p d t h e M i d l
on o d d i l c t i t th e n at i o
e e o e l l an a e n o na an

g a g e f E gl
u o d n an .

I n our s t dy w h av e n o t d ( I ) Ch a c e
u e h i lif e a d w o k ; hi s e l y r
e : u r, s n r ar o

F re n ch p i d i w hi h h t
er o , l t d Th e R m c o f th e R e
n c e r an s a e d w te o an e os an ro

m an y m i r p m s ; his m id d l
no oe I t li p i d f w h i c h t h e c h i
e f p ore m s a an er o , o e o

T il s a d C e s s i d a f Go d W m e l te
“ ” ”
a e r ro u n d Th e L g r d an ; hi e en o o o n s a

o r E g li h p e i d i
n s w hich h w r o k d a t hi m s t p i e e t h e f m s C t
, n e or e s a er c , a ou an er

b y T l
ur
( 2 ) La gl a d t h p o e t a d p p h e t f
a es. n n ,i l r fo m s H i h i f
e n ro o s oc a e r . s c e

w or k i Pi s Pl w m er s
(3) W y c li fo t h e r e li g
an i s . e f rm e r w h o fi s t t s , ou r o , r r an

l t e d t h e g p e l i t E g li h a d b y h i s t a s l t i fix d a c o m m n s t d a d
a os s n o n s , n r n a on e o an r

o f E g li s h p e c h ( 4 ) M
n s ed vill e t he a ll e g d t v l
. an w h re p e e ts t h n w , e ra e e r, o r se n e e

E g li h i t e s t i d i s t
n s n er tl d f ll o w i g t h e d v l p m e t f f
n an an ig t d H e
s o n e e o n o o re n ra e .

is f m s f r M l a b o k w hi h b o t th e w o de s
’
a ou d vi l l
o T an e e s m s r a ve s , o c ro an c e a u n r

t o b e ab
se en d T h e fi f t h w i t r f t h e ag i s G w r w h w t i t h e
ro a . r e o e o e ,
o ro e n re

l g g F e c h La t i
an ua e s, r d E g li s h H i s c h i e f E g li h w k i t h C f
n ,
n , an n i . n s or s e on ess o

Am ti
an a l
gp
s, oe m co t i i
on
g h d d d t w e lv
n a n n t l s O f th e l y
on e un re an e a e . es on

the K i gh t F l o e n t a d tw o o r t h e e o t h s a e i t e s t i g t a m d e
n r n ad e r r er r n re n o o rn r e .

S e l e ct i on s for R e ad i n g C h c e s P l og e t h e K i gh t s T l N ’ ’ ’
. au s r ro u , n a e , un

P ie s t T l P i o e s s Ta l C l k s Tal e e f d m l c om
’
Th s
’ ’
r s a e , r r e , er . e e ar oun ,
o re or e ss

p l e t e i , S t nd d E an
g li s h C l ar i c s K i g C
n l s s ic s R iv e s ide L i t
as s t e , n
’
s a ,
r e ra u r

S e ie s S k t s s ch l d i t i o o f t h e P l g K i gh t T al e e t i e p e
’ ’
r tc , e . ea oo e n ro o ue , n s ,
c ., s s

c i ll
a
y g d a d
oo i c l , d s an s t d y o fn f t e u t h e t ry E g li s h u M i s c e ll e ou r en -
cen u n . an

i n M a l y s E gli s h P t y r W a d s E g li s h P e t
’
m s of C h
’
ou s p oe ce au r n n oe r o r n o s.

Pi s Pl w m Ki g C l as s i cs Ma d e v i l l s T av e h m o d e i ze d i n
’ ’
er oi an , n n s . n e r ,
rn ,

E g li s h C l as s i c s a d i n C as s e ll s N t i a l L i b a ry
’
n , n a on r .

F o t h e a d v an c e d s t d
r t a d as a s t d y o f l a g a ge c o m p are s l e c t i
u en , n s u n u ,
e on

f m W y c li f C h a c e r s p wo k M d e vill e tc i M a l y s E g li h P
’ ’
ro , u ro s e r e an e . n n n s ro s ,
, , ,

Mo r i s d S k e at S p im f E l y E gli h C ik s E g li h P s e
’ ’
or r an s ec ens o ar n s or ra n s ro
,

S e le c ti S e le c ti m W y c li f s B ib l e i E g lis h C l s s i c s S e i s ’
s on . s f on ro n n a r e .

l
B i b i ograp h y 1 H is tory T x t b b Mon t g m e ry p p 1 1 5 1 4 9
. . r C h e yn e y
e -
oo , o , .
—
,
o ,

pp .1 8 6 2 6 3 F
— o r f ll e. t e a t m e t G e eu ch
5r ; T illr ; G a di e n , r n, . ra r n r.

1 F t it l
or d p b li he s an f f w u k s G e rs o l B ib li g phy t th d f
re e r e n ce or s se e e n e ra o ra a e en o

t hi b s koo .
 TH E AGE O F C H AU CER 87

Sp e ci al Wor hs ; H u t ton ’
s Kin g an d B a r on ag e ( O f x
o rd Man u a l s ) ; J u ss e
ra n d s
’
Wa y fa ri n g Life i n t h e F o u rt e e n t h C e n t u r y; C o u l to n
’
s C ha u c e r an d his
l an d ; li s Pi c t fro m O l d E n g a n d ; W r gh t s H s t o r o f D o m e s t c l i i y i
’ ’
En g Pa u u re s

Man n e rs an d S e n tim e n t s i n E n g an d d u r n g t h e M dd e Age s ; T r e v e l ya n s

l i i l
’

l i n t h e A ge of W c f y li J k
e n s s I n t h e D a s o f C h a u c e r ; F ro i s s a rt s y
’ ’
En g an d

C h ro n ic l e , i n E e r m an s L b rar
’
v y ; th e s am e , n e w i y e d i t i o 1 89 5 ( Macm ill ) ;
n, an

Lan ie r s
’
y i l of
B o s F r o i s s a rt ( i e . F ro i s s a r t s C h ro n c e
’ ’
. H is to ic l Ev t 132
5r a en s,

N e w b o l t s S t ori e s f ro m F o i s s rt ; B lfi c h s
’
r a u n
’
Ag e f C h iv a l ry m y b e
o a

rea d i co n e c tio w i th t h is a n d th e p e c e d i n g p e io d s
nn n r r .

G l W h J s s e ra d ; T e n B in k ; M i tc h e ll ; Mi t o s ’
Li terature . en era or s. u n r n

C h ara c t e ri s t i cs f E g li s h Po e t s ; C o t h o p e s H i s t ry o f E n g li s h Po e t ry
’
o n ur o .

Ch ( 1 ) Li f e
a u ce r b y L
. sb y i S t d i e s i n Ch a c e
: v l I b y W
o unar d ur , n u u r, o . ,

E g li s h Me n o f Le t t e rs S e i e s ; Po ll a d s C h au c e r P i m e r ( 2 ) A i ds t
’
in n r r r . o

s t dy
u F J S e ll s Th Ag o f C h a c e ; L o
: . . n
’
sb y s S t d i e s i Ch c e r
e e u r un ur
’
u n au

o t s T h e Po t y o f C h a L o w e ll s E s s a y i n M
y S t dy Wi
’ ’

(3 R o e ; e r uc r , u n

d o w ; H m m n d s Ch a c e a Bi a p h i c l Ma l H
’ ’ ’
s a o g ; e m p l
u s C h r :
a ce s o r a n ua u r

P n
ro c ia t i on ; I n t ro d c t i
un s to s cho l d i ti o s o f C h a c u b y S k e a t Li d
on o e n u e r, ,

d e ll an d Ma t h e
, (3 ) T x t an d s e l e c t i
r. o n s T h e O x f o d C h a ce r
e 6s v o l s : r u , .
,

e d it e d b S k i s t he s t an d a d ; S k e a t s S t d e n t s Ch a c e r ; T h e G l o b e
’ ’
e at r
y , u u

C h a c e r ( Mac m ill a ) ; W o rk s o f C h a c e r e d i t e d b y L
u n s b ry
( C r w e ll ) ; u , oun u o

P lla d s T h e C a n t e b ry T a l e s E v e s l e y e d i t i o ; S k e a t s S e l e c t i o s f o m
’ ’
o r r u , r n n r

Ch a c e r ( C l a e d P e s ) ; C h a c e r s Pro l o g e a d v a ri s t a l e s i n S ta d
’
u r n on r s u u , n ou , n

ar d E g li s h C l a s s i c s ( G i n a d C m p a y ) a d i n o t h e r s c h oo l s e ri e s
n n n o n , n .

Mi r W it r no M r ri s a d S k e a t s S p e c i m e s o f Ea l y E g li s h P o s e
r e s. o n
’
n r n r .

J s s e ra d s Pi e s Pl o w m a ; S k e a t s Pi e s Pl o w m an ( t e x t gl os s a ry a d n te s )
u n
’
r n
’
r , n o

W e s Pi e s Pl o w m a i Mo d e n Pro s e Arn o l d s W y c li f s S e l e c t E gli s h

arr n
’
r n n r .
’ ’
n

W o k s ; S e rg e an t s Wy c lif ( H e o e s o f t h e N at i n S e ri e ) ; Le B as s Li fe o f
r
’
r o s
’

J o h W yc li f T rav e l s o f S i J o hn Man d e vill e ( m o d e n s p e lli n g) i n Lib rary of

n . r r ,

E gli s h C l as s i cs ; Mac a l ay s Go w e r E n gli s h W o k s ’ ’

n u s r .

S u gge s t i ve Q u e s t i on s . 1 . W hat ar e t he ch e f i h i s t ri c l e v e n t s o f t h e f o r
o a u

t e e n th y ? W hat s oc i l m ve m e t i s o ti c e
c e n tu r a o n n a b l e ? W h t w r i t e s re fl e c t a r

p li t i l
o d s oc i a l c n d i t i
ca an o on s

T ll b i e fl y t h s t y o f C h a c e r s l ife W h a t f o e i g n i n fl e c e s are n t i c
’
2 . e r e or u . r u n o e

ab l N a m a f w p m s ill t ra t i g h i t h e e p i d s o f w o k W h t q
e e e oe li t i e sus n s r er o r . a ua

h av y e n o ti c d i
ou hi s p o e t y ? W h y i s h c a ll e d o r fi s t at i
e n al p o e t ? r e u r n on

3 G iv.e t h e p l a f th C t b y T l F o r w h a t i s t h e Pro l o g e e
n o e an er ur a es. u r

m a k ab l ? W h t li gh t d e s i t t h w p
r e E g li s h li f e o f t h e f
a te e th c eo ro u on n ou r n n

tur y ? Q t e o r a d s o m e p s s ag e s t h a t h a v i m p e s s e d y
uo re W h ic h c h c t e r a e r ou. ara

d o
y lik eou b s t ? A e a y o f t h e c h arac t e s lik e e rt a i m
e a d w m
r n r c n en n o en

w hom y k n w ? W h a t c l s s e s o f s o c i e t y a re i n t d c e d ? I s Ch c e s at t i
ou o a ro u au r
’

t d s ym p th e t ic o r m e e l y c i tic a l ?
u e a r r

4 T e ll i y
. own w d t h e t a l e yo lik e b e s t W h i c h t l e s e e m s t e s t
n ou r or s u . a ru

to lif as y k w i t ? M ti a y o th e r p e t w h t ll s t i s i v e e
e ou no en on n o s o e or e n rs .

5 Q ot e ad p a s age s w hi c h s h w C h a c e s ke e f b s e v tio ’
. r u e o r e ss s o u r nn o o r a n,

hi h m o
s uh i ki n d e s s i r, j d gm e n t h i s d e li gh t i n n a t e W h at s i d e o f
s n n u , ur .
88 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

h u m an n a t u re d oe s he e m p h as i ze Mak e a li t t l e c om i
p a r s o n b e tw e e n C h a u c e r
an d S hak e s p e a e h vi g r , a n in m i d ( 1 ) t h c h ac t
n e ar e rs i
d e s c r b e d b y b o th p o e t s .
( 2 ) t h e i k n o w l e dg e o f h
r u m an n a t u re , (3) t h e s o u rc e s of the i r p l o ts ( 4 ) , the
i n t e re s t f t h i r w o k s
o e r .

6 D e c ib e b i fl y P i
. s r r e ers P l ow m a n an d i ts a u t h o r. W hy i s the p o e m ca ll e d
t h e go p e l s f the p o oor
”
? W h at m e s s ag e d o e s i t c on ta iil y l ab r ?
n fo r d a o

D oe s i t pply t a
y m o an o d e rn ii
c o n d t on s ? N ote an
y re s e m b la c e i i d e as n n

b e t w e e n P i e r s P l ow m a n an d s u c h m o d e rn w o r ks as C ar l y le s P t d P ’
as an r es

e n t, K i n gs l e y ’
s A l ton L oche , M o r ri s
’
s D r e am fj
o oh n B a ll, e tc .

7. F o r w h a t i s W y c li f re m ar k b le
a in li t te ra u re ? H ow d i d hi s w o r k affe c t

ou r l
an g u a e ?
g N ote re s e m b l an c e s a n d d i ffe e r n ce s b e tw e e n Wy c li f an d the
i
Pu r t a n s .
8. W h at is M a n d e vi l l e ’
s Tr a v e l s 9
. W h at li gh t d o e s i t t h ro w on th e m e n ta l
ii
co n d t on of th e age ? W h at e sse nt a i l d iffe re n c e d o yo u n ote b e tw e e n th is
b oo k a n d Gu ll i v e r
’
s Tr a v e l s ?

C H R O N O LO G Y , F O U R TE EN TH C EN TU R Y

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

1
3 2 7. E d ward I I I
1 3 3 8. Be g i i nn n
g of H u n d re d Ye a rs
’

Wa r i
w t h F ran c e B i rt h o f Ch au c e r
1 3 4 7. C a p t u re of Ca l isa

1 34 8— 1
3 49 . B l ac k D e at h 1
3 56 . M an d e v i ll e ’
s T ra v lse

135 9 . Ch au c e r i n F re n c h War
3
—
’
1 60 1 3 70 . Ch a u c e r s e a r ly o r F re n c h

p e fiod
1 3 73 . W in c h e s t e r ll e ge fi Co , rs t
gre a t
pu b li c s c h o o l 13 70—1 8
3 5 C h au ce r
.
’
s Mi d d l e or I ta li a n

pe r i od

Ri c h a d I I W yc lif an d th e
r .

L ll d b gi
o arR e fo rm a t i on
s e n 1 3 62 — 1 3 9 5 . P i e rs Pl ow m an

i E gl
n d n an

Pe as a t R e b e lli
n W a t Ty l r on . e 1 3 85 — 1 4 00 . C an t e rb u r y T le s a

1 3 82. F i rs t c o m p e l te B i b l i E gli
e n n sh

D e p os t i io n of R ic h a rd II 1 4 00 . D e a t h of C h au c e r
Vh
.

H e n ry I c os e n b y Pa r li am e nt ( D an t e s
’
D ivi na Com m e d ia , c.

P e t ra rc h ts an d
’
1 10 ; s s on n e
3
p o e m s , 1
3 2 5 — 1 3 74 ; B o c c ac
cio s
’
l
ta e s , c.
 9 0 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

I n th e l on g re ign of H e n ry V
I II the l e s s viol e n t b u t
c h an ge s are ,

have m o r e p u rp os e an d s i gn ifi c an c e H i s age i s m ark e d by a s t e ad y

.

in c r e ase in th e n ation al p ow e r at h om e an d abroad by th e e n tran c e ,

of the R e fo r m at i on by a s id e d oor an d by the fin al s e p aration o f

”
,

En glan d from al l e c c l e si ast i c al b on d a ge i n Par li am e n t s fam ou s Ac t

’

of S u p re m ac y I n p re viou s re i gn s c hival ry an d t h e old fe u d al sy s

.

t e m h ad p rac t i c ally b e e n b an i s he d ; n ow m on as t i c i s m t h e t hi rd ,

m e d iae val in s t i tu t i on w i t h i t s m i x e d e vil an d good r e c e i v e d i t s d e at h ,

blow in the w hol e sal e su p p r e s sion of the m on ast e ri e s an d the r e

m oval of a bb o t s from t h e H ou s e of Lo rd s N otw i ths tan d i n g t h e e v il .

c harac t e r of t he k i n d t h h i f l i m i h
g a n e yp o c r sy o p r o c a n
g s u c a c r e a

tu re th e h e ad of an y c hu r c h o r t he d e fe n d e r of an y fa i th w e ac qu i e sc e ,

c i m an m u am mm
mmgtpaw p m
h i n t ng nf j upn tb pm ot om mucous; C
o

m fizagm of tlm ym 05 119119 s

m n erm a uaee am m
m um
1 4 86
’
S P E C I M E N O F C AX T O N S P R I N T I N G I N T H E Y E AR

1
s il e n tly i n S tu bb
’
s d e c l arati on tha t th e w or ld ow e s so m e of i ts
”
gr e at e s t d e b t s to m e n fr om w hos e m e m o ry t h e w o rl d il s re c o .

Whil e En gl an d d u ri n g this p e ri od w as i n c on s tan t p oli tic al strife ,

t ri s i n g s l ow ly lik e t h e s p i ra l fl i gh t of an e agl e t o h e i ght s of

y e , ,

n ati on al gr e atn e ss i n t e ll e c t u ally i t m o v e d fo rw ard w i th b e w ild e ri n g

,

r ap id i t y . Pri n ti n g w a s b rou ght t o En gl an d by Ca x t on ( c an d .

for t he fi rs t t i m e i n h i s tory i t w as p oss ibl e for a b ook or an i d e a to

r e ac h t h e w hol e n at i on S c h ool s an d u n i v e r s i ti e s w e r e e stabli sh e d i n
.

p l ac e o f t h e o l d m o n a st e ri e s ; G r e e k i d e as a n d G r e e k c u l t u r e c am e

t o En gl an d i n t h e R e n ai s san c e an d m an s s p i r i tu al fr e e d om wa
’
, s

p roc la im e d i n t he R e form ation Th e gre at n am e s of t he p e riod are

.

n u m e rou s an d s i gn i fic an t , b u t lit e rat u r e i s s t ran ge ly S il e n t Pr ob a .

bly th e v e r y tu rm oil of the age p re v e n te d an y li te rary d e ve l o p m e n t ,

for li t e ratu r e i s on e of t h e art s of p e ac e ; i t r e qu i re s qu i e t an d

m e di ta t ion rathe r t han ac t ivi ty an d t h e s ti rr in g life o f th e R e n ai s
,

san c e had fi rs t t o b e live d b e for e i t c ou ld e x p r e ss i t s e l f i n th e n e w

l it e rat u re of t he Eli zab e t han p e ri od .

1 Con s ti t u ti on a l H i st or y E ng l a n d .
f
o
 TH E R E IV
V AL O F LEAR N I N G 9 1

The R e vi v al of Le ar ni n g . Th e R e v i v al of Le arn i n g d e n ot e s , i n i ts
broad e st se n s e t hat grad u al e n l ight e n m e n t of th e hu m an m i n d afte r
,

th e d arkn e s s of t h e M idd l e Age s Th e n a m e s R e n ai ssan c e an d

.

H u m an i sm w hi c h are oft e n ap p li e d t o t h e sa m e m o v e m e n t h a v e
, ,

prope rly a n a rrow e r si gn ific an c e The t e rm R e n aissan c e thou gh . ,

u s e d b y m an y w ri t e rs to d e n ot e t h e w hol e t ran s i t i on from t h e

” 1
Middl e Age s t o the m od e rn w orld i s m or e c orr e c tly app li e d to
,

th e r e vival of a rt r e su l ti n g from t h e d i sc ove ry an d i m i tat ion of

c l ass i c m od e l s i n th e fou r t e e n t h an d fi ft e e n th c e n tu r i e s H u m an i sm .

ap p li e s t o th e r e viva l of c l ass i c li te ratu r e an d w as so c all e d b y i t s

,

l e ad e rs follow in g the e x am p l e of Pe trarc h b e c au se t h e y h e ld that

, ,

t he s t u dy o f t h e c l as s i c s l i te r ce
,
h u m a n i or e s — i e the m or e h u m an
, . .

w ri ti n gs ,
r at he r t han t h e ol d t he o l o gy w as t h e b e s t m e an s of
,
—

p rom o t i n g the l arge s t hu m an i n t e r e s t s W e u s e t h e t e r m R e v ival of

.

Le arn i n g t o c o v e r t h e w h ol e m ov e m e n t w ho s e e s se n c e w a s ac c ord , ,
”
i n g to Lam art i n e t hat m an d i sc o v e re d h i m s e l f an d t h e u n i v e rs e
, ,

an d a, c c o rd i n g t o Tai n e that m an s o l on g blin d e d

, ,
h ad su d d e n ly ,

o pe n e d h i s e y e s an d s e e n .

We shall u n d e rstan d thi s b e tt e r if w e re m e m b e r t hat i n the Middl e

Age s m an s w hol e w orld c on s i s t e d of th e narrow Me d i t e rran e an an d
’

th e n at i on s tha t c l u s t e r e d ab ou t it ; an d t hat t h i s li t tl e
Th e Wor l d
w orld s e e m e d b ou n d e d b y i m p assabl e barr i e r s as if God ,

had said t o t h e i r sai l ors H i th e rt o s halt t hou c o m e b u t n o far th e r

, , .

Man s m in d al s o w a s b ou n d e d b y the sam e n a rrow lin e s H i s c u l tu r e

’
.

a s m e as u r e d b y t h e gre a t d e d u c t iv e s y s t e m of S c h ol a s ti c i s m c on

s i s t e d n ot i n d i s c ov e ry b u t ra the r i n ac c e p t i n g c e rta i n p r i n c ipl e s an d

,

t radi t i on s e s tabli sh e d b y divi n e an d e c c l e s i as ti c al au thor i ty as t h e

basis of al l tru th Th e se w e re h i s Pill ars of H e rc u l e s hi s m e n tal an d
. ,

s p i ri tu a l bou n d s that h e m u st n o t ass an d w i t h i n t h e s e lik e a c h il d

p , ,

p yin g w i th l e tt e r e d bl oc ks h e p roc e e d e d to bu ild hi s i n t e ll e c tu al

l a ,

sy ste m . On ly as w e r e m e m b e r t h e i r li m i tat i on s c an w e ap p re c i at e
t he h e ro i sm of t h e s e t o il e rs of t h e M id d l e Age s gi an t s i n i n t e ll e c t , ,

y t p l ayi n g w i th c h ild re n s t o y s ; i gn oran t o f t h e l aw s an d fo rc e s

’
e

of t h e un i v e rs e w hil e d e b at i n t h s e n c e an d l o c o m o ti on o f an ge l s
, g e e s

e age r t o l e arn e t f o rbi d d e n t o e n t e r fre s h fi e l d s i n th e r ight of

y ,

fre e e x pl o ra t i on an d t h e j oy of i n di v id u al d i sc o v e ry .

The R e vi v al s t i rr e d t h e s e m e n as t he vo y age s of D a G am a an d
Col u m bu s st i rr e d t h e m ar i n e r s of t he M e d i t e rran e an F i rs t c am e .

t he s c i e n c e s an d i n ve n t i on s of t h e Ara b s m ak i n g t h e i r w ay s l o w l y ,

1 S ym d R i on l f Ls, ev va i g o earn n .
9 2 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

i
aga n s t j u dic e o f th e au thori ti e s an d op e n in g m e n s e y e s to
t he p r e ,
’

t h e u n e x p l or e d re al m s of n atu r e Th e n c am e t h e fl ood of G r e e k
.

li te ratu re w h ic h the n e w art of p rin tin g c arri e d sw iftly t o e v e ry

s c h ool i n Eu ro e v li w w l d f t d h il h y
p r e e a n g a n
, e o r o p o e r
y a n p o s o
p .

Sc h ol ar s fl oc k e d t o t h e u n i v e r s i t i e s a s ad v e n t u r e rs t o th e n e w w o rld
,

of Am e r i c a an d t h e r e t he o ld au th o r i ty r e c e i v e d a d e at hbl ow
, Tru th .

o n ly w as au t hori ty ; t o s e arc h fo r t ru t h e v e r y w h e re as m e n so u gh t ,

for n e w l an d s an d gol d an d t h e fou n tai n of y ou t h t h at w a s t h e

,
-

n e w spi r it w hi c h aw o k e i n Eu rop e w i th t h e R e v i val o f Le arn in

g .

II . LI T E R AT U R E OF T H E R E VI V
AL

Th e h u n d r e d an d fi ft y y e ar s o f t h e R e viva l p e r i od are s i n
g u l ar l y d e s t itut e o f g o o d lit e rat u r e M .
’
e n s m i n d s w e re t o o

m u ch o cc u pi e d with r e lig i o u s an d p olitic al ch an g e s an d with

t h e r apid e n l arg e m e n t of t h e m e n t al h or i zo n t o fin d t i m e for
th at p e ac e an d l e i s u r e which ar e e s s e n ti al for lit e rary r e s u lt s .

Pe r h ap s al s o t h e fl ood s of n e wl y di s c o v e r e d cl a s s ic s which
, , ,

o cc u pi e d s ch o l ar s an d t h e n e w p r i n ti n g p r e s s e s a lik e w e re b y ,

th e i r v e ry p ow e r an d ab u n dan ce a di s c ou r ag e m e n t of n ative
t al e n t R og e r As ch am ( 1 5 1 5
. a fa m ou s cl a s s ic a l s ch olar ,

w h o p u bli s h e d a b ook c a ll e d Toccop h i l u s ( S ch o ol o f S h ooti n g )

i n 1 5 45 e xp r e s s e s i n h i s p re fa c e or
,
a p ol og
y ,
a ve r
y wid e ,

s p re ad di s sati s fa cti o n o v e r t h e n e g l e ct of n ativ e lit e ra t u r e

"
wh e n h e s ay s An d as for y e La ti n or g re k e t on g u e e ve r y
, ,

thi n g i s s o e x ce ll e n tl y d on e i n th e m th at n on e c an d o b e tt e r :
,

I n t h e En gl y s h t on g e c o n t ra ry e v e r y t hi n g e i n a m an e r s o
,

m e an l y b oth f or t h e m att e r an d han d e ly n g e th at n o m an ca n

, ,
”
d o w or s e .

O n t he Co n ti n e n t al s o thi s n e w i n t e re s t i n t h e cl a s s ic s
, ,

s e r v e d t o ch e ck t h e gr owth of n ativ e lit e rat u re s I n It aly .

e s p e ci all f or a fu ll c e n t u r aft e r t h e b r illi an t ag e of D an t e

y , y
an d Pe t r ar ch n o g r e a t lit e r at u r e w a s p r od u c e d an d t h e It ali an
, ,

1
lan g u ag e it s e l f s e e m e d t o g o b ackwar d Th e t r u th i s th at .

1 i i i i fi k l l
S s m on d att r b u t e s th s t o t w o c a u se s : rs t , t h e l ac of ge n e ra c u t u re ; an d s e co n d ,

i l y i iy
t h e ab s o r p t on of t he s ch oo s i n t he n e w st u d of an t q u t . S e e Li te r a t u r e f
o the S ou th
of E u r op e , I I , 400 ff.
94 ENG LI S H L I TER ATU R E

su cc e s s fu l b ook which r e c e n tl y s e t p e opl e t o thi n ki n g of th e

,

u n n e c e s sar
y c r u e lt
y o f m od e rn s o ci a l c on dit i on s M o r e l e arn s

V
.

fr om a s ail or on e of A m e r i g o e s p u cci s c om p a u
’

,
U t op ia
i on s of a w on d e r fu l K i n gd om of N owh e r e i n which
, ,

a l l q u e s ti on s of l ab o r g ov e rn m e n t s o ci e t an d r e li i on h av e
, y , g ,

b e e n e as il y s e ttl e d b y s i m pl e j u s tic e an d c om m on s e n s e I n .

thi s U top i a w e fin d for t h e fi r s t ti m e a s t he fou n d ati on s of ,

civili ze d s o cie t y t he th r e e g r e at w or d s L ib e rt y F rat e rn it y

, , , ,

E q u alit y wh ich re t ai n e d th e i r i n s pi ra ti on th r ou gh al l t h e v i o
,
s

l e n c e of t h e F r e n ch R e v ol u ti on an d which are s till t he u n re al .

i ze d id e al of e v e r y fr e e g ov e r n m e n t A s h e h e ar s of thi s
.

w on d e rfu l c o u n t ry Mor e w on d e rs w hy aft e r fi ft e e n c e n t u r ie s

'

of Ch r i s tian it
y h i s o w n l an d i s s o littl e civili ze d ; an d as w e
,

r e ad t h e b o o k t o d a w e a s k ou rs e lv e s t h e s am e q u e s ti on
y
-
.

T he s pl e n did d r e am i s s t ill far from b e i n g r e ali ze d ; y e t it

s e e m s as i f an n at i on c ou ld b e c om e U t opi a i n a s i n gl e g e n
y
e rat i on ,s o s i m pl e an d j u s t a r e t h e r e q u i re m e n t s .

G re at e r th a n e ith e r of th e s e b ook s i n i t s i n fl u e n c e u p on ,

i s Ty n dal e s t r an s l ati on o f t he N e w
’
t h e c om m on p e opl e ,

T e s t am e n t which fix e d a s t an d ar d of g ood En g li s h an d ,

at t h e s am e ti m e b r ou g ht th at s t an d a r d n ot o n l
Ty n dal e 8
, y
N e w Te s t a t o s ch ol ar s b u t t o t h e h om e s of t h e c om m on p e opl e .

m e nt
Ty n d al e m ad e h i s t r an s l ati on fr om t h e or igi n a l
Gr e e k an d l at e r t ran s l at e d p ar t s of t h e O l d Te s t am e n t from
,

t h e H e b r e w Mu ch of Ty n d al e s w or k w a s i n cl u d e d i n Cr an
’
.

m e r s B ibl e k n ow n al s o as t h e G r e a t B ibl e i n 1 5 3 9 an d w a s
’

, , ,

r e ad i n e v e r p r i s h ch u r ch i n E n l an d I t w a s t h e fo u n d a
y a g
V
.

t i on for t h e A u th or i ze d e r s i on which a pp e ar e d n e ar ly a
,

c e n t u ry l at e r an d b e c am e t h e s t an d ar d for t he wh ol e E n g li s h
s p e aki n g rac e .

Wy at t an d S u rr e y I n 1 5 5 7 appe ar e d p r ob ably t h e fi r s t
.

p r i n t e d c oll e cti on of m i s c e ll an e o u s En gli s h p o e m s k n ow n as ,

Tot te l s M i s ce l l a ny It c on t ai n e d t h e w or k of t h e s o c all e d
’
-
.

c ou r tl y m ak e r s or p oe t s which had hith e rt o ci r c u l at e d i n

, ,

m an u s c r ipt for m f or t h e b e n e fit of t h e c ou r t A b out h al f of .

 TH E R E V
IVAL O F LEAR N I N G 95

th e s e p oe m s We r e w or k of S ir Th om as Wy att ( 1 5 0 3 t he
1 5 4 2 ) a n d o f H e n r y H o w ar d Ear l of S u rre y ( 1 5 1 7 ,

B oth t og e th e r w r ot e am orou s s on n e t s m od e l e d a ft e r t he It a l
i an s i n t rod u ci n g a n e w v e r s e form which alth ou g h v e ry d if
, ,

1
fic u l t ha s b e e n a fa v or it e e v e r s i n c e with o u r E n g li s h p oe t s
,
.

S u rr e y i s n ot e d n ot fo r an y e s p e ci al w or th or or i g in alit y of
,

h i s ow n p oe m s b u t r ath e r for h i s t ran s la ti on of t w o b ook s

V
,

f‘ ”
of i rg il i n s t ran g e m e t e r The s t ran ge m e t e r w as t h e bl an k .

v e r s e which had n e v e r b e for e app e ar e d i n En g li s h The chie f

, .

lit e rary w or k of th e s e t w o m e n th e r e for e i s t o i n t r od u c e t h e , ,

s on n e t a n d t he bl an k v e r s e o n e t h e m os t d ai n t
y t h e oth e r ,
—
,

t h e m os t fl e xibl e an d ch ar a ct e r i s tic f or m of E n g li s h p oe t ry ,

which i n t h e h an d s of S h ak e s p e are an d Milt on w e r e u s e d t o

m ak e t h e w or ld s m as t e r pi e c e s
’
.

Mal ory s Mor t e d Ar t h u r T h e g re at e s t E n g li s h w or k of

’ ’
.

thi s p e r i od m e as u re d b y i t s e ffe ct on s ub s e qu e n t lit e r at u r e

, ,

i s u n d oubt e dl y t h e M or te d A r th u r a c oll e cti on of th e A r thu

’

ri an rom an c e s t old i n s i m pl e an d vivid p r os e O f S i r T h o m as .

Mal ory t h e a u th or Caxt on i n h i s i n t r od u cti on s ay s th a t h e

,
2
,

w as a k n i g ht an d c om pl e t e d h i s w or k i n 1 4 70 fi f t e e n y e ar s
, ,

b e for e Caxt on p r i n t e d it T h e r e c or d add s th a t h e w as t he .

”
s e r v an t o f J e s u b oth b d an d n i ght B e on d th at w e
y a
y y .

3
k n ow littl e e xc e pt wh at m ay b e i n fe r r e d from t h e s pl e n did
w or k it s e l f .

Mal ory g rou p s t h e l e ge n d s ab out t h e c e n t ra l id e a of t h e

s e ar ch for t h e H ol G r ail T h ou g h m an o f t h e s t or i e s lik e
y y .
,

Tr i s t ram an d I s old e are p u r e l y p ag an Mal ory t r e at s th e m , ,

all i n s u ch a w a as t o p r e s e r v e t h e wh o l e s pi r it of m e di ae v a l
y
Ch r i s tian it y a s it h as b e e n p r e se r v e d i n n o o th e r w or k It .

1 S W d w th
ee t O th S
or s t
or F ’
d t il d t dy f t h i m t p f t
s s on n e ,
n e on n e . or a e a e s u o s os er ec

v f m
e r se or T m li , Th S
se e t [t O ig i
o St t
n s on s d Pl
’
i P t y e on n e ,
s r n ,
r u c u re, an a ce n oe r .

Willi m C xt ( 4
2 a 49 ) w at h fi t E gli h p i t
on c. 1 H l 2 2— 1d th t 1 as e rs n s r n e r. ,
e e ar n e e ar

a b d p b b ly t C l g
roa ,
ro B g
a d ba t th y 4 76
o o n e or t p t h fi t w od ru e s , an a ou e e ar 1 se u e rs o en

p i ti g p
r n n i E gl d Hi i fl
re s s n i fixi gn ti
an l l g g t p d th
. s n u e n ce n n a na on a an ua e o su e rse e e

v ri d i l t
a ou s d i p p i g th w y f
a e c s , an t h li t n y i re f t h E li b t h
ar n e a or e e ra r re n a s san ce o e za e an

g i b y
a e, s d l l ti
e on c a cu a on .
3 M l yh i a or w d y b i d tifi d w ith
as , n ou r o E gli h t y ge t l m
n a , een en e an n s cou n r n e an
an d l d i w h w m m b f P li m t f W w i k hi i 445
so e r, o as e er o ar a en or ar c s re n 1 .
9 6 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

w as t o Mal ory rath e r than t o Lay am on or t o t he e ar ly F r e n ch

w r it e r s th at S h ak e s p e a r e an d h i s c on t e m p or ar i e s tu rn e d for
th e ir m at e r ia l an d i n ou r ow n ag e he has s uppli e d T e n n y s on
an d Matth e w Arn old an d S wi n b u r n e an d M or r i s with t h e
”
i n s pi rati on for t he Id y ll s of t h e K i n g an d t he D e ath of
Tr i s t r am an d t h e oth e r e xq u i s it e p oe m s which c e n t e r a b out .

A r thu r an d t h e k n ight s of hi s R ou n d Tabl e .

I n s ubj e ct m att e r t h e b ook b e l on g s t o t h e m e di ae val ag e ;

-

but Mal ory hi m s e l f with h i s d e s i r e t o p r e s e r v e t h e lit e rary

,

m on u m e n t s of t h e p as t b e l on g s t o t h e R e n ai s s an c e ; a n d he ,

d e s e rv e s ou r l as ti n g gr atitud e for att e m pt i n g t o p r e s e r v e t h e

l e ge n d s an d p oe t ry of B r it ain at a ti m e wh e n s ch ol ar s w e r e
chi e fl y bu sy with t h e cl as s ic s of G r e e c e an d R om e A S t h e .

Ar thu ri an l e g e n d s a r e on e of t h e g r e at re c u rr i n g m otiv e s of
En gli s h lit e r at u r e Mal ory s w or k s h ou ld b e b e tt e r k n own
’

, .

H i s s t or i e s m ay b e an d s h o uld b e t old t o e v e ry child a s par t

of h i s lit e r ar i n h e r it an c e T h e n Mal or m b e r e a d for h i s
y y a
y .

s t l e an d h i s E n gli s h p ro s e an d h i s e xp r e s s i on of t h e m e di ae
y
v al s pi r it An d th e n t h e s t or i e s m ay b e r e ad aga i n i n Te n n y
. ,

" ’ ”
s on s Id y ll s t o S h ow h ow t h ose e xq u i s i t e old fan ci e s app e al
,

t o t he m i n d s of ou r m o d e r n p oe t s .

S um m a ry of th e R e v i v al of Le arn i n g Pe r i od . T h i s tran s i t i o n p e ri o d i s a t
fi rs t on e of d e c li n e fro m t h e Age of Cha u c e r , an d t h e n of i n t e ll e c t u a l p re p ara
t i o for t h e Age of E li z b e t h F or a c n t ry a d a h a lf aft e r Ch a c e o t a
n a . e u n u r n

s i n gl e gre a t E n gli s h w o k ap p e a e d an d t h e g e n e ra l s t a d a rd o f li t e ra t
r r , e w as n ur

v e ry l ow Th e e a e t h e e c h i e f c a s e s t o ac c o t for th i s ( I ) th e l n g w a
. r r r u un : o r

w i t h F ra c e an d t h e c ivil W ars o f t h e R o s e s d i s t ra c t e d t t e t i o fr o m b o o k s
n a n n

a d p o e t ry
n a n d d e s t ro y e d o r r i n e d m an y n o b l e E g li s h fa m ili e s w h o h ad
, u n

b e e fri e n d s a d p a t o s o f li t e ra t e ; ( 2 ) t h e R e f o rm a t i on i n t h e l a tt e r p a rt
n n r n ur

o f t h e p e ri o d fill e d m e s m i n d s w i t h r e li gi o u s q u e s t i o n ; ( 3 ) t h e R e viva l o f
’
n s

Le a i g s e t s c h o l a s an d li t e ra ry m e n t o an e a ge r s t d y of t h e c l as s i cs ra t h e r
rn n r u ,

t h an t o t h e c r e a t i o o f n a t iv li t e ra tn e H i s t o i ca ll y t h ag i s o t i c e b l e f r
e ur . r e e n a o

i t s i n t e ll e c t u a l p ro g e s s f r t h e i n t o d c t i o of p ri t i g f o t h e d i c o v e ry of
r , o r u n n n , r s

Am e ri c a fo t h e b e g i n i n g o f t h e R e f o rm at i on
, r n d f o r t h e g w t h o f p o li t i c a l , an ro

p ow e r a m on
g t h e c o m m on p e op l e .

I n o r s t d y w e h av e n o t e d
u u
( )
1 t h e R e viv l o f Le a : i g w h t i t w as a rn n , a ,

an d t h e s i n ifi c a c e o f t h e t e rm s H i i
g n m s m a d R a s c e ; ( )2
u t h
anre e i n en s an n

fl t i a l li t e a ry w o k s E sm s P f M d T
’
U
’
ue n r r ,i — F l
raly o re
u t p
s i a r a se y n o o , s o a, n

d a l e s t a s l a t i on o f t h e N e w Te s tam e n t ; ( 3 ) Wy att an d S rre y a d t h e

’
r n u ,
n
98 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

5 . W h at w or k of th is pe r io d h ad t h e g re at e s t e ff e c t on t h e E n g s h l aw li
g u a ge . x l
E p ain w h y.
6. W h at w as t h e c h i e f lit e rary i fl e n u n ce e x e rte d by W y a tt an d S u rr e y?
D o
y ou kn ow an y l at e r p o e ts w ho m ad e u se of th e ve rs e fo rm s w h ich th e y ~

i n t ro d u c e d ? 0

7 . Wh ic h of Mal o ry ’
s i
d o yo u
s to r e s e b e st ? W h e re did t h e s e s t o rre s
lik
or i gi n at e ? H a ve t he y i i l ani y h s tor c a f l
o u n d a t on ? W h at t w o
g r e a t e e m e n ts
di d M l o ry c m b i n e i
a o k n hi s w o r ? W h a t i s t h e m p o r t an c e o f hi s b o o t o a t e r
i k l
E g li s h li t e a t e ? C o m p a e T
n r ur ys n s I d y ll s o f t h K i g a d Ma l ory s
r e nn o
’
e n
”
n
’

st ori e s w i t h e g a d to m a te ri a l e xp e s s i o n a d i t r s t N o t e t h e m a k e d e s m
r r , r , n n e e . r r e

b l an ce s an d d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n t h e M te d A th an d t h e M b l
'
’

g L i
or ed r ur e un en .

C H R O N O LO G Y

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

14 1 3 . H enr Vy
141 5 B at t l f Agi
e o n c o u rt

yV
.

1 4 2 2. H enr I 1 4 70 . Ma l o ry ’
s Mo r t e d Art h u r ’

1 4 2 8. S i e ge of Or le a ns. J oa o f A n rc C a ton , x at B ru ge s , p r n t s t h e i
1 45 3 . En d of H u n d re d Ye a s W r
’
ar fi rs t b oo k i n En g s h , th e li
1 45 5
-
1 4 85 . Wa rs of R os e s R e c u ye ll of t h e H i s t o ry e s of

1 46 1 . E d w ar d I V T ro ye
1 4 83 . R ic h d III
ar 1 4 77. F i rs t b oo k pr i n te d in En g l an d

1 4 85 . H e n r yV II 1 4 85 . Mo rt e d Ar t h u r p r
’
i n te d by
Ca ton x
1 49 2 . Co l um b us d is c o v e rs A m e ri c a 1 4 99 . l e t E ra m s a d Mo e
Co s u n r

yV
, ,

1 5 09 . H e nr III b i g t h e N e w Le a rn i g t o
r n n

O xf o d r

E ras m s P a i s e o f F o ll y
’
1
5 0 9 . us r

1 5 1 6. Mo e s U t p i
r
’
o a

1 5 25 . Ty n d a l e ’
s N e w T e s t am e n t
1 53 4 . Ac t o f S u
p re m ac y Th e
. R e fo r ion
I n t ro d u c t of th e s on n e t

m a t on ac c o m p i li s h e d a d bl k ve
n an rs e by Wy at t
an d S re y ur

1 5 39 Th e G a t B i b l e re

VI
.

. E d w ard
1 5 4 7
M a ry Mi s c e ll an y
’
. To t t e l
1 5 53 . 1 55 7 s

1 5 5 8 E li zab e th
.
 C H A PTE R V
I

THE AGE OF ELI Z AB ETH ( 1 5 5 0-

1 020)

I . H I S TOR Y O F T H E PE R I O D

Pol i t i cal S u m m ary . I n th e Age of Eli zab e th all d ou bt s e e m s to

van i sh fro m En gli s h h i sto ry . Afte r t h e r e ign s of Ed w ard an d Mary ,
w i th d e fe at an d hu m ili a t i on ab road an d p e rs e c u t i on s an d r e b e lli on
at hom e , t h e i
a c c e s s on of a p o pu l ar so e re v i gn
like the su n ri se
w as
afte r a l on g n i ght an d i n M il ton s w o rd s w e s u dd e n ly s e e En gl an d
’
, , , ,

a n obl e an d p u i s san t n a t i on r ou s i n g h e rs e l f lik e a s t ron g m an aft e r

, ,

Sl e e p an d s haki n g h e r i n v i n c ibl e l oc ks
,
. Wi th t he qu e e n s c harac te r ’
,

a s t ran ge m i n gli n o f friv oli ty an d s t r e n gth w h i c h r e m i n d s on e of

g
that i ron i m age w i th fe e t of c l ay w e h a v e n o t hi n g w h at e v e r t o d o
, .

I t i s th e n at i on al life t ha t c on c e rn s t h e li t e rar y s tu d e n t s in c e e v e n a ,

b e gin n e r m u st n o t i c e t hat an y gr e at d e v e l o p m e n t of th e nat i on al

life i s i n v ariably assoc iate d w i th a d e ve l op m e n t of th e n ation al lite ra n

tu r e . I t i s e n ou gh fo r ou r p u r p os e t h e r e fo r e t o p o i n t ou t tw o fac ts
, ,

that Eli zab e t h w i th all h e r van i ty an d i n c on s i s t e n c y s t e adily l o v e d

, ,

En gl an d an d E n gl an d s gre atn e s s ; an d t hat s h e i n sp i re d all h e r

’

p pe o l e w i t h t h e u n b o u n d e d p a t r i o t i s m w h i c h e x u l t s i n S h ak e s p e ar e ,

an d w i th t h e p e rs on al d e v ot i on w h i c h fi n d s a vo i c e i n t h e F a e r
y
Qu e e n U n d e r he r ad m i n i s trat i on th e En gli sh n ati on al life p ro
.

gre ss e d b y gi gan t ic l e ap s ra th e r t h an b y sl o w h i s to r i c al p r oc e s s an d ,

En gli s h li t e ratu r e r e ac h e d the v e ry h i gh e s t p o i n t of i t s d e v e l op m e n t .

I t i s p oss ibl e t o i n d i c a t e on ly a fe w ge n e ral c ha rac t e ri s t i c s of t h i s

g e at age w h i c h h ad a d i re c t b e ar in g u p on i ts li te ratu r e
r .

Char act e ri s t i cs of t h e El i zab e t h an Age T h e m o s t c h ara c t e r i s t i c

.

fe atu r e of t h e age w a s t h e c o m p ara t i v e r e li gi ou s t ol e ran c e w h i c h ,

R li gi ou s w as d u e l arge l y t o t h e qu e e n s i n fl u e n c e Th e fr i ght
’
e .

T°1e afi °3
f
fu l e x c e s s e s o f t h e r e ligi ou s w ar kn own as t h e Th i r ty
Ye ars War on t h e Con tin e n t fou n d n o p arall e l i n En gl an d U p on
’
.

he r ac c e ss i on Eli zab e t h fou n d t h e w h ol e ki n gd o m di v id e d agai n s t

i tse l f ; the N orth w as l arge ly Catho lic w h il e th e s ou th e rn c ou n t i e s
,

w e re as s tron ly Pr ot e st an t S o tl an d h ad foll ow e d t h e R e fo rm a
g . c

tion i n i ts o wn in t e n se w ay w hil e I re lan d re m ain e d t ru e to i ts old

,

99
I 00 EN G LI SH LI T ER ATU R E

re ligi ou s tradition s an d both c ou n tri e s w e r e O p e n ly r e b e lliou s The

, .

c ou rt , m ad e u p of b o t h p arti e s w i tn e s s e d t h e r i v al in t ri gu e s of
_ ,

thos e w ho sou ght t o ga i n t he ro y a l fa v o r I t w as d u e p artly to t he .

in t e n se ab sorp tion o f m e n s m in d s i n r e ligiou s qu e stion s that the

’

p r e c e d in g c e n t u ry t hou
, g h an ag e o f ad van c i n g l e ar n in g p r o d u c e d ,

s carc e ly an y li t e ratu re w o rthy of t h e n am e Eli zab e th favor e d b o th .

r e li gi ou s p arti e s , an d p r e s e n tly t he w o rl d saw w i th am aze m e n t

Catholi c s an d Prot e s tan t s ac tin g t oge th e r as tru s te d c ou n s e lor s of a

e a t s o v e r e i gn T h e d e fe at o f t h e S p an i s h Arm ad a e s tabli sh e d th e
g r .

R e form at i on as a fac t i n En gl an d an d a t t h e s am e t i m e u n i te d al l ,

En gli shm e n i n a m agn ifi c e n t n at i on al e n t hu sia sm For th e fi rs t t i m e .

s i n c e t h e R e form at i on b e gan t h e fu n d am e n t al qu e sti on of r e li gi ou s

,

t ol e rat i on se e m e d t o b e s e ttl e d an d t h e m i n d of m an fr e e d from

-

, ,

r e li gi ou s fe ars an d p e r s e c u ti on s t u rn e d w i t h a gre at c r e ati v e i m p u l s e

,

to o th e r form s of ac t ivi ty I t i s p ar tly from t h i s n e w fr e e d om of t h e

.

m in d that t h e Age of Elizab e t h r e c e i v e d i t s gre at li t e rary st i m u l u s .

2
. I t w as an age of c o m p arat i v e s oc i al c on t e n t m e n t in s tron g ,

c on tra st w i t h t h e d ay s of Lan gl an d The rap i d in c r e as e of m an u

.

S oci al Con fac tu ri n g t ow n s gav e e m p l oy m e n t t o th ou s an d s w ho

t e n t m e nt had b e for e b e e n i d l e an d di sc on t e n t e d I n c re as i n g t rad e .

brou ght e n orm ou s w e al th to En gl an d an d t hi s w e al th w as s hare d to ,

thi s e x t e n t at l e as t that for t h e fi r s t t i m e s om e s y s t e m at i c c ar e for

, ,

t h e n e e dy w as att e m p t e d Pa ri s h e s w e re m ad e r e sp on s ibl e fo r t h e i r
.

ow n p oor an d t h e w e althy w e r e t ax e d t o su p p or t t h e m o r gi v e t h e m
,

e m p l oy m e n t . Th e i n c re ase of w e al th t he i m p r o v e m e n t in li v i n g th e
, ,

o p p ortu n iti e s for l abor t he n e w soc i al c on t e n t

,
t h e se al so ar e fac ,

t or s w h i c h h e l p to ac c ou n t for t h e n e w li t e rary ac t i v i ty .

3
. It i s an age o f d r e am s of adv e n tu r e of u n b ou n d e d e n thu s ras m
, ,

sp r in gi n g from t he n e w l an d s of fabu l o u s ri c he s r e v e al e d by En gli s h

e x p l or e r s D rake sail s arou n d t he w orl d shap in g t he

. ,
En t h u s ias m
m i gh ty c o u r s e w h i c h E n gli s h c o l o n i ze r s sh a l l foll o w
th rou gh th e c e n tu r i e s ; an d p r e s e n tly t h e y ou n g p h il o so p h e r B ac on
"
i s sayin g c on fid e n tly I hav e take n al l kn ow l e d ge for m y p ro v
,
”
in c e . Th e m i n d m u st s e arc h fart h e r t han t h e e y e ; w i t h n e w r ic h ,

l an d s Op e n e d to the s i ght the i m agin ation m u s t c re at e n e w form s

H aklu y t s fam ou s Col l e c ti on of V
,

t o p e op l e th e n e w w orld s
’
. oy ag e s ,

an d P u r cha s ,
Hi s P i lg r i m age w e r e e v e n m ore s t i m u l at i n g t o t h e
.
,

En gli sh i m agi n at i on than t o t h e En gli sh ac qu i s i tive n e s s Whil e he r .

e x p l o r e r s s e arc h t h e n e w w o rl d fo r t he Fou n tai n o f Y ou t h he r ,

po e ts are c re atin g lite rary w orks that are youn g fore ve r Marston .
 u
ENGLI SH '

LI TER ATU R E

v ise
th a t I w o n t d e ,

T o fe e d y o u th s f a n c y a n d th e fl o c ki n g fry
’
,

D e li gh te n m u c h w h a t I th e b e t fo r th y ?
—

T h e y h an th e p l e as u r e I a S l e n d e r p r i ze
,

I b e a t th e b u s h , th e b i rd s t o th e m d o fl y
W h a t g o o d t h e re o f t o C u d d i e c a n a r i s e ?
( P i e rs )
C u dd i e , th e p ra i s e i s b e t te r th an th e p r i c e ,
T he g l o r y e ke m u c h g re a te r th an th e g ai n

S hep he r d Ca l e n d a r , O c tob e r
’
s

In th e s e w ord s with th e i r s or r owf u l s u gge s ti on of D e or

, ,

S p e n s e r r e v e al s h i s o w n h e art u n c on s ci o u s l y p e r h ap s as n o
, ,
'

bi ograph e r c ou ld p os s ibl y d o H i s li fe an d wor k s e e m t o c e n

.

t e r a b ou t th r e e g r e at i n fl u e n c e s ,

s um m e d up i n th r e e n am e s
Cam b r id g e wh e r e he g re w a c ,

q u a i n t e d with t h e cl a s s ic s a nd

t h e I t ali an p oe t s ; Lon d on wh e r e ,

h e e xp e r i e n c e d t h e g l am ou r an d
t h e di s app oi n t m e n t o f c ou r t li fe

an d I r e l an d which s t e e p e d h i m ,

i n t h e b e au t y an d i m ag e ry of ol d
Ce ltic p oe t ry a n d fi r s t g a v e h i m
l e i s u r e t o w rit e h i s m a s t e rpi e c e .

E D M U N D S PE N S E R
ly li fe an d
Life . Of Sp e n se r
’
s e ar

p ar e n tage w e k n ow li ttl e e x c e p t ,

t hat h e w as b o rn i n Eas t S m i thfie l d n e ar t h e Tow e r of Lon d on an d

, ,

H i s e d u c at i on b e gan a t t h e M e rc han t Tai l ors Sc hool i n

’
w as p oo r .

Lon d on an d w as c on ti n u e d i n Cam b rid ge w h e r e as a p oo r s i zar an d

,

fag for w e al thy s tu d e n ts h e e arn e d a s c an t li v i n g H e re i n t h e gl or i .

o u s w o rl d t h a t o n l y a p oo r s c h ol ar kn ow s how t o c r e a t e fo r h i m se l f

h e r e ad th e c l assi c s m ad e ac qu ai n tan c e w i th the gre at I tali an p o e t s

, ,
'

an d w rot e n u m b e rl e ss l i ttl e p oe m s o f h i s ow n Thou gh Cha u c e r .

w as hi s b e l o v e d m ast e r h i s am bi t i on w as n ot t o r i val th e Ca n te r b u ry
,

Ta le s b u t rath e r to e x p r e s s th e d r e am o f En gli s h c hi v al ry m u c h as
, ,

Ariosto had d on e for I taly i n Or l a n do F u r i os o .

Afte r l e avi n g Cam b rid ge ( 1 5 76 ) S p e n s e r w e n t to the n orth of

En gl an d on som e un kn own w ork or qu e st H e re hi s c hi e f oc c u p at i on
, .
 TH E AGE O F E LIZ ABET H 1 03

w as to fal l i n l ove an d to r e c or d hi s m e l an c holy o erv l os t

th e

R o salin d i n t he S hep he r d Ca l e n da r . U p on h i s fri e n d H a rv e y s

’ ’
s

ad v ic e he c am e to Lon d on , b rin gin g h i s p oe m s ; an d h e re he m e t

Le ic e s t e r t he n a t t he h e i ght o f ro y a l favo r an d t h e l at t e r t ook hi m
, ,

t o li v e at Le i c e s t e r H ou se H e re h e fi n i sh e d t h e S hep he r d s Ca l e n
’
.

da r an d he re h e m e t S idn e y an d all th e qu e e n s favo ri t e s Th e c ou r t

’
.
,

w as fu ll of in tr i gu e s ly i n g an d fl a tt e ry an d Sp e n s e r s o p i n i on of h i s
’
, ,

o w n u n c om fo rtabl e p o s i t i on i s b e s t e x p re ss e d i n a fe w li n e s from

Mothe r H u bbard s T al e ’

F u ll l i ttl e k n ow e s t th o u th a t h as n ot t ri e d , ,

Wh at h e ll i t i s i n s u i n g l on g t o b i de
,

T o l os e g ood d a y s th a t m i g h t b e b e t te r s p e n t ;
,

T o w as te l o n g n i gh t s i n p e n s i v e d i s c o n te n t ;

T o fr e t t h y s ou l w i th c r os s e s a n d w i th c a re s ;
T o e a t t h y h e a r t t h r o u g h c o m f o r t l e s s d e s p a i rs ;
T o faw n , t o c r ou c h , t o w a i t , t o r i d e , t o r u n ,
To s pe n d , v
t o g i e , t o w an t, to be u n d on e .

In h rou gh Le i c e s te r i n fl u e n c e S p e n s e r w ho w as u tte rly

’
1 5 80 ,
t s , ,

w e ary of h i s d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i on w a s m ad e s e c re tar y t o Lo rd G re y , ,

t he qu e e n s d e p u ty i n I re l an d an d t h e t hi rd p e r i o d of h i s life b e gan
’
. , .

H e ac c om p an i e d hi s c hi e f th rou gh on e c am p ai gn of sa v age b ru tali t y

i n pu tti n g d ow n an I r i sh re b e lli on an d w as gi v e n an i m m e n s e e s tat e ,

w i t h t he c as tl e o f K il c ol m an i n Mu n s t e r w h i c h had b e e n c on fis
, ,

c at e d fro m Ea rl D e s m o n d o n e o f th e I r i s h l e ad e rs
, H i s li fe h e r e .
,

w h e r e ac c ordi n g t o t h e t e rm s o f hi s gran t h e m u s t re sid e as an En g

lish se ttl e r h e re gard e d as l on e ly e x il e

,

My l u c kl e s s l ot ,

T h a t b an i s h e d h a d m y s e l f l i k e w i g h t for l o r e , ,

I n to th at w as te w h e r e I w as q u i te fo rgo t
, .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e h e r e a ge n tl e p o e t s V i e w of t h e u n happy
’

Aft e r n e a rly s i x t e e n y e ar s r e s i d e n c e h e w r o t e h i s V
”
i sl an d .
’
i e w of
the S ta te of I r e l a n d h i s on ly p ro s e w o rk i n w h i c h h e su b ,
" ”
m i ts a p lan for p a c i fyi n g t h e o pp r e ss e d an d r e b e lli o u s e
p p o l e .

Thi s w as t o b rin g a hu ge fo rc e of c a v al ry an d i n fan t ry i n t o th e

c o u n t ry i v t h I i h b i f t i m t u b m i t an d aft e r t hat t o hu n t
,g e e r s a r e e o s ,

t he m d own lik e w i ld b e as t s H e c al c u l at e d t hat c old fam i n e an d

.
, ,

si c kn e s s w ou ld h e l t h e w o k o f t h e s w o r d a n d t h at aft e r t h e r e b e l s
p r ,

had b e e n w e ll hou n d e d fo r t w o w in t e rs th e fo l l ow i n g su m m e r w ou ld
1 Th Vi w we eot p b li sh d t ill 63 3
as n u e 1 .
 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

fin d t h e c ou n ry t p e ac e fu l
Th i s p l an , from th e p oe t of harm on y
. .

an d be au ty ,
w as s om e w hat m ild e r t h an t h e u su al t re atm e n t of a

brav e p e op l e w hos e o ffe n s e w as that th e y l o v e d lib e rty an d r e li

i S t ran ge as i t m ay s e e m t h e V i e w w as c on s id e r e d m o s t s ta te s
g o n
. ,
;
m an like an d w as e x c e ll e n tly w e l l r e c e i v e d i n En gl an d
,
.

I n Kil c ol m an su rrou n d e d b y gr e at n a tu ral b e au ty S p e n se r fin

, ,

i sh e d t h e fi rs t t hre e b ooks of t h e F a e ry Qu e e n I n 1 5 89 R al e i gh .

visi te d him h e ard the po e m w ith e n thu si asm hu rri e d the p o e t o ff

, ,
'

t o Lon d on an d p r e s e n t e d h i m to Eli zab e th

, Th e fi rst t hre e bo ok s
.

m e t w i th i n stan t s u c c e s s w h e n p u bli sh e d an d w e r e ac c l ai m e d as t h e

g r e a t e s t w o rk i n t h e En gli s h l an gu age A y e arly p e n s i on of fi ft

.
y
p o u n d s w as c o n fe r re d b y Eli zab e t h b u t rar e l
y p a i d
, an d the
p o e t ,

tu rn e d b ac k to e x il e that i s to I re l an d again
, , .

S oon aft e r hi s r e tu rn S p e n s e r fe ll i n l o v e w i th h i s b e au ti fu l
,

Eli zab e th an I ri sh gi rl ; w r o t e hi s A m or otti or s on n e t s i n h e r

, , ,

h on or ; an d aft e rw ard s r e p re s e n t e d h e r i n t h e F a e ry Qu e e n a s th e
, ,

b e au t ifu l w om an d an c in g am on g the G rac e s I n 1 5 9 4 h e m arr ie d .

”
Eli zab e th c e l e b rat i n g h i s w e d d i n g w i t h hi s
, Ep ithalam i o n on e of ,

t h e m os t b e au t ifu l w e dd i n g hy m n s i n an y l an gu age .

Sp e n se r s n e x t v i sit t o Lon d on w as i n 1 5 9 5 w h e n h e p u bli sh e d

’
,

an e l e gy on t h e d e at h o f hi s fri e n d S id n e y
”
As trop h e l ,
an d th re e ,

m or e b ooks of t h e F a e fy Qu e e n On t hi s v i sit h e li v e d again at

.

Le i c e ste r H ou s e n ow oc c u p i e d b y t h e n e w fav or it e Ess e x w h e r e h e

, ,

p r o b a bl y m e t S h ake s p e ar e an d t h e o t h e r li t e rar li
y g h t s o f t h e E l iza

b e than Age S oon afte r h i s r e tu rn t o I re lan d Sp e n s e r w as ap poin te d

. ,

S he riff of Cork a qu e e r offic e for a p o e t w h i c h p robably b rou gh t

, ,

ab ou t h i s u n d o in g Th e sam e y e ar Ty ron e s R e b e lli on b roke ou t i n

’
.

Mun st e r Kil c ol m an t he an c i e n t h ou s e of D e sm on d w a s on e of th e
. , ,

fi rst pl ac e s attac k e d b y th e re b e l s an d Sp e n s e r b ar e ly e s c ap e d w i th
,

hi s w i fe an d tw o c h ild r e n It i s su p pos e d that som e u n fin i sh e d p arts

.

of t h e P a e i y Qu e e n w e r e b u rn e d i n t h e c as tl e .

Fro m t he sh oc k o f t hi s fr i ghtfu l e x p e r i e n c e S p e n s e r n e v e r r e c ov
e re d . H e r e tu rn e d t o En gl an d h e artb roke n an d i n the foll ow in g ,

y e ar ( 1 5 9 9 ) h e di e d i n an in n at We stm in ste r Ac c o rd in g to Be n .

”
J on s on h e di e d for w an t of b re ad ; b u t w h e the r t hat i s a p o e ti c
w ay of sayi n g t hat h e had l o st hi s p r op e r ty or that h e ac tu ally d i e d
of d e s ti tu t i on w ill p rob abl y n e v e r b e k n own
, H e w as b u r i e d be s id e
.

hi s m ast e r Chau c e r i n We stm i n st e r Abb e y th e p o e ts o f t hat a ge ,

thron gin g t o hi s fu n e ral an d ac c ordin g to Cam d e n ,

c as t in g th e i r ,
”
e l e gi e s an d the p e n s t hat had w ri tt e n t h e m i n to hi s t om b .
 1 06 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

t he su bj e ct s of t h e s e ve ra l b ook s Th e fi r s t r e c oun t s th e
.

adv e n t u r e s of t h e R e dc r os s K n ight re p r e s e n ti n g H o li n e s s
, ,

an d t h e l ad y U n a r e p r e s e n ti n g R e li g i on
, T h e ir c on t e s t s ar e
.

s y m bo lica l of t h e w or ld wid e s t r u gg l e b e tw e e n vi rtu e an d faith

-

on t h e on e h an d a n d s i n a n d h e r e s y on t he oth e r
, The s e c on d .

b ook t e ll s t h e s t ory of S ir G u y on or T e m p e ran c e ; t he thi rd

, ,

of B rit o m ar ti s r e p r e s e n ti n g Chas tit ; t h e f ou r th fi fth an d

, y , ,

s ixth of Cam b e l an d Tr i am on d ( F r i e n d s hip ) Ar t e gal l ( J u s tic e )

, , ,

an d S i r Cal i d or e ( C ou r t e s y ) S p e n s e r s pl an w as a v e ry e l as
’
.

t i c on e an d h e fill e d up t h e m e a s u r e of hi s n ar ra tiv e with

e v e r
y thi n g th a t c a u g ht h i s fa n c y
— hi s t,o r ic al e v e n t s a n d p e r

s on ag e s u n d e r a ll e g ori c al m as k s b e au ti fu l l adi e s chival rou s

, ,

k n i g ht s gi an t s m on s t e r s d rag on s s i r e n s e n chan t e r s an d
, , , , , ,

adv e n t u re s e n o u gh t o s t o ck a lib r ary of ficti on I f y ou r e a d

V
.

H om e r or i rg il y o u k n ow h i s s u bj e ct i n t h e fi rs t s t ron g l in e
,

if y ou re a d Cae d m on s P a rap h ra s e or Milt on s e pic t h e i n t r o

’ ’

duction giv e s y ou t h e th e m e ; b u t S p e n s e r s gr e a t p oe m ’

with t h e e xc e pt i on of a s i n gl e li n e i n t he p rol og u e Fie rc e ,

”
w ar r e s an d faith fu ll l ove s s h a ll m or ali ze m y s on g — giv e s
h ar dl y a hi n t of wh at i s com i n g .

A s t o t h e m e an i n g of t h e all e g or ic al fi g u r e s on e i s ge n e rally ,

i n d o u bt I n t h e fi r s t th re e b oo k s t h e S h ad owy F ae ry Q u e e n
.

s om e ti m e s r e p re s e n t s t h e g l or of God an d s om e ti m e s E li za
y
b e th w h o w as n at u rally fl att e r e d b y t he p ar all e l B r it om art i s
, .

i s al s o E li zab e th Th e R e dc r o s s K n i g ht i s S id n e y t h e m od e l
.
,

E n g li s h m an . Ar thu r w h o alway s app e ars t o r e s c u e t h e op

,

p re s s e d i s Le ic e s t e r which i s an oth e r ou t rag e ou s fl att e ry

, , .

U n a i s s om e ti m e s r e ligi on an d s om e tim e s t h e Prot e s t an t

Chu r ch ; whil e D u e s s a re p r e s e n t s M ary Q u e e n of S c ot s or ,

g e n e r a l C a th o lici s m I n t h e l as t th r e e bo ok s E li zab e th app e ar s

V
.

ag ai n a s Me r c i lla ; H e n r I of F ran c e as B ou r b on t h e w ar
y
i n t he N e th e r l an d s as t he s t ory of Lady B e l g e ; R al e i g h as
T i m ias ; t h e e ar l s o f N o rth u m b e rl an d an d We s t m or e l an d
( l o v e r s o f M ar
y o r D u e s s a ) a s B l an dam ou r an d Pa r i d e ll ; a n d

s o on th ro ugh t h e wid e r an g e of co n t e m p orary ch ar act e r s an d

 TH E AGE O F ELIZ AB ETH

e v e n t s till t h e all e gory b e c om e s as di ffic ult t o foll o w as t h e

,
’
s e c on d p ar t o f G oe th e s Fa u s t .

Poe t i cal F orm F or t he Fa e ry Qu e e n S p e n s e r in v e n t e d a

.

n e w v e r s e for m which has b e e n c all e d s i n c e h i s d ay t h e

,

S p e n s e r ian s t an za B e c au s e of i t s r are b e a ut y it has b e e n

.

m u ch u s e d b y n e ar l y al l ou r p o e t s i n th e i r b e s t w or k Th e .

n e w s t an za w a s a n i m p r o v e d fo r m o f A r i o s t o s otta va r i m a
’

( i e . .

e i ght li n e s t a n za ) an d b e ar s a cl os e
-
re s e m bl an c e t o o n e of

M on k s T a l e
”
Ch a u c e r s m os t m u s ica l v e r s e fo rm s i n t h e
’ ’
.

S p e n s e r s s t an za i s i n n i n e li n e s e i ght of five fe e t e a ch an d
’

t he l a s t of s i x fe e t r i m i n g a ba bbc bcc ,
A fe w s e l e cti on s fr om .

t h e fi rs t b ook which i s b e s t w orth r e adi n g ar e r e p r oduc e d

, ,

h e r e t o S h o w t h e s t y l e a n d m e l od y o f t h e v e r s e .

A Ge n t l e K n i gh t w a s p r i c k i n g o n th e p l ai n e ,

Yc l a d d i n m i gh ti e a r m e s a n d s i lv e r s h i e l d e
1
,

W he re i n ol d d i n ts of d e e p e w ou n d e s d i d re m ai n e .
T he c rue ll m ar ke s of m an y b l ood y fie l d e ;
a

Ye t ar m e s ti ll th a t ti m e d i d he n e v e r w i e l d
H is an g r y s te e de d id ch i de hi s fom i n g b i t t,
As m u c h d i s d ay n i n g to th e ou rb e t o y i e ld
F u l l i o ll y k n i gh t h e s e e m d an d fai re d i d s i t t
2
, ,

As on e fo r k n i g h t l y g i u s t s a n d fi e r c e e n c ou n te rs
3
fit t .

An d on h i s b re s t a b l oo d i e c r os s e h e b o re ,
T he d e a r e re m e m b ra n c e of h i s d y i n g Lord ,
F or w h os e swe e te sa k e t h a t g l o r i ou s b a d g e h e w ore ,
An d d e a d , as li vi ng e v e r h i m a d or d
,
’

U p on h i s s h i e l d th e l i k e w as al s o s c o r d ’
,

F or s ov e r ai n e hop e , w h i c h i n h i s h e l p e h e h ad ,

R i gh t fai th fu ll t r u e h e w as i n d e e d e an d w ord ;
B ut of hi s c h e e re
4
did se e m e to o so e l m ne s ad ;
Ye t n o thi n
g d i d h e d r e a d , b ut e v e r w as y d r a d 5
.

Thi s s eel py bit , f r om t h e dw e lli n g of Mor ph e u s i n vit e s , us to

li n ge r
An d , m or e to l u ll e hi m i n h i s s l u m b e r s oft ,
A t ri c kl i n g s t r e am e fr o m h i gh r oc k t u m b l i n g d ow n e ,
An d e v e r d r i zl i n g r ai n e u p on th e l oft,
-

Mi x t w i th a m u r m u r i n g w i n d e , m u ch li k e th e s ow n e
O f s w ar m i n g b e e s , d i d c as t him in a s w ow n e .

l
1 c ad . 2 ha n d s o m e . 3 j ou s t s , t ou rn am e n t s . 4 c ou n t e n a n ce . 5 d re ade d.
1 08 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

N 0 o th e r n oy s e , n o r p e o p l e s t rou b l ou s c ry e s , ‘

As s ti ll are w o n t t an n o y th e w a ll e d t o w n e ,
’

M i gh t th e r e b e he ar d : b ut c are l e s s e Qu i e t l y e s ,

W rap t in l
e te r n all s i e n c e farr e fr o m e n i m ye s .

of
’
d e s c ripti on U na s h ow s t he p oe t s s e n s e of id e a l
O n e d ay , n i g h w e ar i e of the y rk e s o m e w ay ,
F r o m h e r u n h a s ti e b e as t s h e d i d a l i gh t ;
An d on th e g r as s e h e r d a i n ty lim b s
d i d l ay
I n s e c re te s h ad o w , fa r f r om all m e n s s i h t ;
g
F r o m h e r fa y r e he ad h e r fill e t s h e u n d i gh t ,
1

An d l ay d h e r s to l e as i d e H e r a n g e l s fa ce ,
.

As the g re at e y e o f h e a v e n s h y n éd b r i gh t , ,

An d m ad e a s u n s h i n e i n th e s h a d y p l ac e
D id ne ve r m o rt al l e ye b e h ol d s u ch he av e n l y g r ace .

I t for tu n ed , ou t o f th e t hi c ke st w ood
A ra m l y on r u s h ed s u d d e i n l y
i
p gn ,

H u n ti n g fu ll g re e d y a ft e r s a lv ag e b l o od
S oon e a s th e r o y a l l V i rg i n h e d i d s p y ,

W i th g ap i n g m ou th a t h e r r an g re e d i l y ,

T o h a v e a tt on c e d e v ou r d h e r t e n d e r c o r s e
B u t t o th e p r a y w h e n as h e d re w m ore n y ,

H i s b l ood y rage a s w a ge d w i th r e m ors e 2

,

An d , w i th th e si h
g t a m azd , f o r g a t h i s f u ri ou s fo r s e .

I n s te ad th e r e o f h e kis t he r w e a ri e fe e t ,
An d l i c k t h e r l i ll y h a n d s w i th faw n i n g t on g ;
As h e h e r w r on g ed i n n o c e n c e d i d w e e t 3
.

0 how b e a u t i e m a i s t e r t h e m os t s t ron g ,
c an

A n d s i m p l e t r u th s u b d u e a v e n g i n g w r o n g 1

Mi n or Poe m s . N e xt t o h i s m as t e r pi e c e , t h e S hep he r d
’
s

Ca l e n d a r f S
’

( 5 79)1 b e sis
t k nth e
o w n o p e n s e r s p o e m s ;

th ou gh a s hi s fi r s t w or k it i s b e l ow m an y oth e r s i n m e l od y
, ,
.

I t c on s i s t s of tw e lv e p as t oral p oe m s o r e cl og u e s on e for e ach , ,

m on th of t h e y e ar Th e th e m e s are g e n e ra ll y ru r al li fe n at u r e
. , ,

l ov e i n t h e fi e ld s ; an d t h e s p e ak e r s a re s h e ph e r d s an d s h e p
h e rd e s s e s To i n c re as e t he r u s tic e ffe ct S p e n s e r u s e s s t ran g e
.

for m s of s p e e ch an d ob s o l e t e w or d s t o s u ch an e xt e n t th a t ,

J on s on c om pl ai n e d hi s w or k s are n ot En gli s h or an y oth e r

1 t k ff oo o .
3 k w no .
1 10 E N G LI S H LI TER AT U R E

Ch aract e r i s t i cs of S pe n s e r Poe t r y . Th e fiv e m ai n qu aliti e s

’
s
’
of S p e n se r s p oe t r y ( ) p
ar ee r1fe ct m
a e l od y ( )
2 a rar e s e n s e

of b e au t y ; ( 3 ) a S pl e n did i m ag i n at i on which c ou ld gath e r ,

i n t o on e p o e m h e roe s kn ight s l adi e s dwar fs d e m on s an d

, , , ,

d rag on s cl as s ic m y th ol og y s t or i e s of chival r y an d t h e th r on g
, , ,

i n g id e al s of t h e R e n a i s s an ce — al l p a s s i n g i n g or e o u s
, g p r o

c e s s i on a cr os s an e v e r ch an g i n g an d e v e r b e au ti fu l l an d s cap e ;
- -

( )
4 a l o f t y m o ra l pu r it y a n d s e r i ou s n e s s ;
(5) a d e lic a t e id e a l
i s m which c ou ld m ak e al l n at u r e an d e v e r y c om m on thi n g
,

b e au ti ful I n c on t ras t with th e s e e xc e ll e n t q u alit i e s t h e r e ad e r

.

will p r obably n ot e t h e s t ran g e app e aran ce of h i s li n e s d u e t o

h i s fon d n e s s for o b s ol e t e w or d s lik e ey n e ( e y e s ) an d s he n d ,

( s h a m e ) , an d hi s t e n d e n c y t o c o i n o th e r s lik e m e r c i
fy t o s u it , ,

h i s ow n p u r p os e s .

’
It i s S p e n s e r s id e ali s m hi s l ov e of b e au t y an d hi s e x
, ,

u i s i t e m e l od which h av e c a u s e d h i m t o b e k n ow n a s t h e
q y
”
p o e t s p oe t N e ar l y all o u r s u b s e q u e n t S i n g e r s a ck n owl e d g e
’
.

th e i r d e light i n hi m an d th e i r i n d e bt e d n e s s Ma cau l ay al on e .

am on g c r itic s v o ic e s a fau lt which al l w h o ar e n ot p oe t s

q u ickl y fe e l n am e l y th at with all S p e n s e r s e xc e ll e n c e s h e i s

, ,
’

di ffic u lt t o r e ad The m od e rn m an l os e s hi m s e l f i n t h e c on
.

f u s e d a ll e gory of t he Fa e ry Qu e e n s kip s al l b u t t h e m ar k e d ,

p as s age s an d s oftly cl os e s t h e b ook i n ge n tl e w e ar i n e s s

,
.

E v e n t h e b e s t of h i s l on g e r p oe m s whil e of e xq u i s it e w or k ,

m a n s hip an d d e lig ht fu lly m e l odi ou s g e n e rall y fa il t o h old t h e ,

’
r e ad e r s att e n t i on Th e m ov e m e n t i s l an g u id ; th e r e i s littl e
.

d ram atic i n t e r e s t an d on l y a s u gg e s ti on o f h u m or Th e v e ry
, .

m e l od y of h i s v e r s e s s om e ti m e s g r ow s m on ot on ou s lik e a ,

S t r au s s walt z t oo l on g c on t i n u e d We s hall b e s t app re ciat e

.

S p e n s e r b y r e adi n g at fi r s t on l y a fe w w e ll ch os e n s e l e cti on s -

from t h e Fa e ry Qu e e n an d t h e S hep he r d s Ca le n d a r a n d a fe w
’

o f t h e m i n or p oe m s which e x e m pli f h i s w on d e r fu l m e l od
y y .

Co m p ar i s on b e t w e e n Ch au ce r an d S p e n se r A t t he o ut s e t .

it i s w e ll t o r e m e m b e r th at t h ou g h S p e n s e r re gard e d Ch auc e r
,

a s h i s m as t e r t w o c e n tu r i e s i n t e r ve n e b e tw e e n th e m an d th at
, ,
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ AB ETH

th e i r w r itin g s h ave al m o s t n othi n g i n com m on We s h all .

app re ci at e thi s b e tt e r b y a b r i e f c om p ar i s on b e tw e e n ou r fi rs t

t w o m od e rn p oe t s .

Ch auc e r w a s a c om bi n e d p oe t an d m an of affai r s with t h e ,

l att e r p r e d om i n ati n g Th ou g h d e ali n g l arge ly with an ci e n t or

.

m e di ae va l m at e ri al h e has a c u r i ou s ly m od e rn w ay of looki n g
,

at li fe . I n d e e d he i s ou r on l y auth or p r e c e di n g S h ak e s p e ar e
,

with wh om w e fe e l th or ou ghl y at h om e H e th r e w as id e t he .

out g r ow n m e t r ic al r om an c e which w as p racticall y th e o n l y

,

form of n arrativ e i n h i s d ay i n v e n t e d t h e ar t of s t ory t e lli n g

'

-
,

i n v e r s e an d b rou g ht it t o a d e g r e e of p e rfe cti on which h as

,

p robabl y n e v e r s i n c e b e e n e q u al e d Th ough a s t u d e n t of t h e
.

cl as s ic s h e liv e d wh olly i n t h e p re s e n t s t u d i e d th e m e n an d
, , ,

w om e n of h i s ow n t i m e p ai n t e d th e m as th e y w e r e b u t add e d
, ,

alw a s a t ou ch of ki n d l h u m or or r om an c e t o m ak e th e m
y y
re i n t e r e s ti n g S o hi s m i s s i on a pp e ar s t o b e s i m pl y t o
.

am u s e hi m s e l f an d h i s r e ad e r s H i s m as t e ry of var i ou s an d
.

m e l odi o u s v e r s e w as m ar v e l ou s an d has n e v e r b e e n s u rp as s e d
in ou r l an g u ag e ; b u t t h e En gli s h of hi s day w as ch an g i n g
r apidl an d i n a v e r f ew e ar s m e n w e r e u n abl e t o app r e ci at e
y , y y
hi s ar t s o th at e v e n t o S p e n s e r an d D r y d e n for e x am pl e h e
, , ,

s e e m e d d e fici e n t i n m e t r ic al s kill On thi s a cc ou n t hi s i n fl u

.

e n c e on o u r lit e r a t u r e h as b e e n m u ch l e s s th an w e s h o u ld

e xp e ct fr om t h e q u alit of h i s w or k an d fr om h i s p os iti on a s
y
o n e of t h e t t f E g li s h p t
g r e a e s o n oe s .

Lik e Ch au c e r S p e n s e r w as a b u s y m an of affa i rs but i n

, ,

h im t he p oe t an d t h e s ch olar al w ay s p r e d om i n at e s H e w r it e s .

as t h e id e ali s t d e s c r ibi n g m e n n o t as th e a r e but a s h e thi n k s

, y
th e y s h ou ld b e ; h e has n o hum or an d hi s m i s s ion i s n ot t o
,

am u s e but t o r e for m Lik e Ch auc e r h e s tudie s t h e cl as s ic s

.

an d c on t e m p orar F r e n ch an d It al i an wr it e r s ; b u t i n s t e ad of
y
ad apti n g h i s m at e r i al t o p r e s e n t da c on diti on s h m k e s
y e a
-
,

p oe t r y as i n h i s E cl og u e s for i n s t an c e m or e artifi cial e v e n

, ,

th an h i s for e i gn m od e l s Wh e re Chau c e r l ook s ab ou t h im an d

.

d e s cr ib e s life as h e s e e s it S pe n se r alw ay s l ook s backw ar d for

,
 1 I 2 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

his i n s pi ration ; h e live s d r e am ily i n t h e p as t i n a r e alm Of ’

p u r e l y i m ag i n ary e m oti on s an d a dv e n t u r e s H i s fi r st q ualit y .

i s i m agi n ati on n ot ob s e r v ati on an d h e i s t h e fi r s t of ou r p oe t s

, ,

t o c r e a t e a w or ld of d r e am s fan ci e s an d ill u s i on s
, H i s s e c on d
, .

q u alit y i s a w on d e rfu l s e n s itiv e n e s s t o b e a u t y which s h ow s ,

it s e l f n ot on l y i n h i s s u bj e ct m att e r b u t al s o i n t he m an n e r of
-

h i s p oe t r y L ik e Chau c e r h e i s a n a l m os t p e r fe ct w or k m an ;
.
,

b u t i n r e adi n g Ch au c e r w e thi n k chi e fl y of h i s n at u ral ch ar

a c t e r s or h i s id e a s whil e i n r e adi n S p w thi k of t h e
, g e n s e r e n

b e au t y of e xpre s s i on Th e e xqu i s it e S p e n s e r ian s t an za an d

.

t h e r ich m e l ody of S p e n s e r s v e rs e h av e m ad e hi m t h e m od e l
’

of al l ou r m od e rn p oe t s .

MI N OR PO E T S

Th ou g h S p e n se r i s t h e on e gr e at n on d ram atic p oe t of t he -

E li zab e th an A g e a m u ltit u d e of m i n or p oe t s d e m a n d at t e n
,
v

ti on of t h e s t u d e n t w ho w o u ld u n d e r s t an d t h e t r em e n d o u s
lit e rary activit y of t h e p e r i od O n e n e e d s on l y t o r e ad The
.

P a r a dy s e f
o D ay n ty D e vis e s
( 5 I or A Gorg e ou s Ga l l e ry
of Ga l la n t I n v e n ti on s
( 5 Iy or a ni s c e ll a n e o th e r of th e m
o u s c oll e cti on s t o fin d h u n d r e d s of s on g s m an o f th e m o f
y ,

e xqui s it e w or k m an s hip b y p oe t s wh os e n am e s n ow awak e n

,

n o r e s p on s e . A g l an c e i s e n ou g h t o as s u r e on e th a t ove r all
En g l an d t h e s we e t s pi r it of s on g h ad ar l s e n lik e t h e fi r s t ,

”
chir pi n g o f bi rd s a ft e r a s t or m N e ar l y t w o h u n d r e d p o e t s
.

ar e re c or d e d i n t h e s h or t p e r i od from 1 5 5 8 to 162 5 an d ,

m an y of th e m w e r e p r olifi c w r it e r s I n a w ork lik e thi s w e . ,

c an h ar dl y d o m or e th an m e n ti on a fe w of t h e b e s t k n o wn

w r it e r s an d s p e n d a m om e n t at l e as t with t h e w or k s th at
,

s u gg e s t Mar l ow e s d e s c r ipti on of i n fi n it e r ich e s i n a littl e

’

”
room . Th e r e ad e r will n ot e for hi m s e l f t he i n t e r e s ti n g u n i on
of a cti on an d th ou ght i n th e s e m e n s o ch ara ct e r i s tic of t h e ,

Eli zab e th an A ge ; for m os t of th e m w e r e e n gage d chi e fl y i n

b u s i n e s s or w ar or p olit ic s an d lit e rat u r e w as t o th e m a pl e as
,
e

an t re c re atio n rath e r th an a n ab s or bi n g p r o fe s s io n .
1 14 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

w as i m it at e d h u n d re d p oe t s T he Ap olog i e f or P oe tr i e
by a .

ll c ll e d t h e D ef e n s e o f P e s ie pp e a d i
g e n e ra y a o a re n ,

an s w e r t o a p am phl e t b y S t e ph e n G o s s on c all e d The S ch ool

of A b u s e
( 1 5 i n which t h e p o e t r
y o f t h e a g e a n d i t s u m
b ridl e d pl e as ur e w e re d e n ou n c e d with Pu r it an th or ou gh n e s s
an d c on victi on Th e Ap ol ogi e i s on e of t h e fi r s t c r itic al e s s ay s
.

i n En gli s h an d th ou g h i t s s t y l e n ow s e e m s l ab ore d an d u n n at
u ral —,
t h e p e rn ici ou s r e s u lt of E uphu e s an d hi s s ch ool it ,
-

i s s till on e of t h e b e s t e xp r e s s i on s of t he pl a c e an d m e an i n g
of p oe t ry i n an y l an gu ag e As t r op he l a n d S te ll a i s a col
.

l e cti on of s on gs an d s on n e t s add r e sse d t o Lady Pe n e l op e

D e v e re ux t o wh o m S id n e y h ad on c e b e e n b e t roth e d Th e y
, .

a b ou n d i n e xq u i s it e li n e s an d p as sag e s c on t ai n i n g m o r e p oe tic ,

fe e li n g an d e xp r e s s i on th an t he s on gs of an y oth e r m i n or wr it e r
of t h e age .
Ge or ge Ch ap m an ( 559 1 p e n t h i s l on g Ch apm an s ,

qui e t life am on g t he d ram ati s t s an d w rot e chi e fl y for t h e ,

s t a ge . H i s pl ay s which w e re for t h e m os t p ar t m e r e l y p oe m s
,

i n di al og u e fe ll far b e l ow t he hi gh d ram atic s t an d ar d o f h i s

,

ti m e an d ar e n ow al m os t u n re ad H i s m os t fam ou s w or k i s .

t h e m e t r ic al t r an s l ati on of t h e I l i a d ( 1 6 1 I ) an d of t h e Ody s s ey
'
Ch ap m an s H om e r th ou g h l a cki n g t h e s i m plicit y a n d
,

dig n it y of t he or igi n al h as a for c e an d r apidit y of m ov e m e n t

,

which m ake s it s u p e r i or i n m an y r e s p e ct s t o Pop e s m or e ’

fam ili ar t ran s l ati on Ch ap m an i s r e m e m b e r e d al s o as t h e

.

fi n i s h e r of Mar l owe s H e r o a n d L e a n d e r i n which ap ar t from

’

, ,

t h e d ram a t h e R e n ai s s an c e m ov e m e n t i s s e e n at p e r ha p s i t s
,

hi gh e s t p oi n t i n En gli s h p oe t r y O u t of s c or e s of l on g p oe m s
.

of t h e p e ri od H e r o a n d L e a n d e r an d t h e Fa e ry Qu e e n ar e t h e
,

on l t w o which ar e e v e n s li ghtl k n ow n t o m od e rn r e ad e r s
y y .

Mi ch ae l D r ay ton ( 1 5 6 3 1 6 D r ay t on i s t h e m os t v ol u
—

m i n ou s an d t o an tiq u ar i a n s at l e as t t h e m o s t i n t e r e s ti n g of th e
, ,

m i n or p oe t s H e i s t h e Lay am on of t h e Eli zab e th an Ag e an d

. ,

vas tl y m o r e s ch ol ar l y th an h i s p r e d e c e s s or H i s chi e f w ork .

i s P oly ol b i on an e n o r m ou s p oe m of m an y thou san d c ou pl e t s

, ,
 TH E AGE O F E LIZAB ETH 1

1 1 5

d e s c r ibi n g t he t ow n s m o u n t ai n s an d r iv e r s of B r it ai n with
-

, , ,

t h e i n t e r e s t in g l e ge n d s c on n e ct e d with e a ch It i s an e xt r e m e l y
.

v alu abl e w or k an d re p r e s e n t s a li fe ti m e of s t u dy an d r e s e ar ch .

Tw o oth e r l on g w or k s a r e t h e B a r on s Wa rs an d t h e H e r oi c
’

Ep i s tl e of E ng la n d ; an d b e s id e s th e s e w e r e m an y m i n or
p oe m s One of t h e b e s t of th e s e i s t he B all ad of Agi n c ou r t
.
”
,

a b all ad w r itt e n i n t h e liv e l y m e t e r which T e n n y s o n u s e d with

s om e v ar i ati on s i n t h e Ch ar ge of t h e Li g ht B r i g ad e an d ,

which s h ow s t h e ol d E n gli s h l ov e o f b rav e d e e d s an d of t h e

s on g s th at s ti r a p e opl e s h e a rt i n m em or y of n obl e an c e s to r s
’
.

III . T H E F I R S T E N G L I S H D R A M AT I S T S

Th e Ori gi n of t h e D r am a . F i r s t t he d e e d , th e n t h e s t ory ,
th e n t h e pl ay ; th at s e e m s t o b e t h e n at u ral d e v e l o p m e n t of
t he d r am a i n i t s S i m pl e s t for m T h e g re a t d e e d s of a p e opl e
.

ar e t re as u re d i n i t s lit e ra tu re an d l at e r ge n e rati on s r e p re s e n t
,

i n pl ay o r p an t o m i m e c e r t ai n p ar t s of t he s t o ry which a pp e al
m os t p ow e r fu ll y t o t h e i m ag i n ati on A m on g p r i m itiv e r ac e s
.

th e d e e d s of th e i r go d s an d h e r oe s ar e o f t e n r e p r e s e n t e d at
t h e y e ar l y fe s tiv al s an d a m on g child r e n wh os e i n s ti n ct s ar e
,

n ot e t bl u n t e d b a r tifici al h abit s o n e s e e s th e s t or th at
y y , y
w as h e ar d a t b e dti m e r e p e at e d n e xt d ay i n vi go rou s a cti on ,

wh e n o u r b oy s tu rn s c ou t s an d ou r g i rl s p r i n c e s s e s p re ci s e l y ,

as ou r fi r s t d r am ati s t s t u rn e d t o t h e old l e e n d s a n d h e roe s

g
o f B r it ai n for th e i r fi r s t s t ag e p ro d u cti o n s To ac t a p ar t .

s e e m s as n at u ral t o h u m an it
y as t o t e ll a s t or
y; a n d o r i g i
n all t h e d r a m a i s b u t a n old s t o r r e t o ld t o t h e e e a s t or
y y y y ,

p u t i n t o acti on b y livi n g p e rfor m e r s w h o fo r th e m o m e n t

,
”
m ak e b e li e v e o r I m agl n e th e m s e lv e s t o b e t h e ol d h e r oe s .

To illu s t r at e t he m att e r S i m pl y th e r e w as a g re at li fe liv e d

,

b y h i m w ho w as c al l e d t he Ch r i s t I n e vit abl y t he li fe fou n d

.

i t s w ay i n t o lit e rat u r e an d w e h av e t h e G os p e l s A ro u n d t h e
, .

li fe an d lit e r at u r e s p ran g u p a gr e at r e li g i on I t s w ors hip .

w as at fi rs t s i m pl e ,
t h e c o m m on p r ay e r t h e e v e n i n g m e al
—
,

t oge th e r t he re m e m b e re d w ord s of t he Mas t e r an d t he

, ,
I 16 E NG LI SH LI TE R ATU R E

cl os i n g hy m n Grad u ally a r itu al w as e s t abli s h e d which gre w

.
,

m o re e l ab or at e an d i m p r e s s iv e a s t he c e n t u r i e s w e n t b y .

S c e n e s fro m t he Mas t e r s li fe b e gan t o b e r e p re s e n t e d i n t he

’

ch u r ch e s e s p e ci ally at Ch r i s t m as ti m e wh e n t he s t ory of
, ,

Ch r i s t s bi r th w as m ad e m ore e ffe ctiv e t o t he e y e s of a

’

p e o pl e w ho c ou ld n o t r e ad b y a b ab e i n a m an ge r Su rrou n d e d ,

b y m ag i an d s h e ph e rd s with a ch oi r of an g e l s ch an ti n g th e ,

Gl or i a i n E x ce l s i s 1
O th e r i m p r e s s iv e s c e n e s f rom t he G os p e l
.

f oll ow e d ; th e n t he Old T e s tam e n t w as c all e d u p on u n til a ,

c om pl e t e c y cl e of pl ay s from t he C r e ati on t o the F i n al J u d g

m e n t w as e s t abli s h e d an d w e h av e t h e My s t e r i e s an d Mi racl e
,

pl ay s of t he Mi d d le A ge s Ou t of th e s e c am e di re ctly t he .

d ram a of t he Eli zab e th an A ge .

PE R I O D S I N TH E D E V
E L O P M E NT O F TH E D R AMA

1 . Th e R e l i gi ou s Pe ri od . I n G r e e c e t he Eu ro p e , as in ,

2
d ram a h ad a di s ti n ctly re li gi ou s or i gi n The fi r s t ch aract e r s .

w e re d raw n from t he N e w Te s t am e n t an d t he obj e ct of t he ,

fi rs t pl ays w as t o m ak e t he ch u r ch s e rvic e m o re i m p re s s iv e ,

o r t o e m ph a s i ze m o ral l e s s o n s b s h o wi n g t h e r e w ar d o f t h e
y
g oo d a n d t h e p u n i s h m e n t o f t h e e vil d oe r I n t h e l a tt e r d a
y s .

o f t h e R o m an E m pi re t h e Ch u r ch f ou n d t h e s t ag e p o s s e s s e d

b y fri ght fu l pl ay s which d e b as e d t he m o ral s of a p e opl e

,

al re ad fall e n t oo l o w R f r m s e e m e d i m p o s s ibl e ; t h e c o r
y e o .

r u pt d ra m a w a s d r iv e n f r o m t h e s t ag e an d pl a s of e v e r
y y ,

ki n d w e re fo r bidd e n B u t m an ki n d l ov e s a S p e ct acl e an d
.
,

i l i l
The m os t d ra m at c p a rt of the e ar y r t u a ce n t e re d ab ou t Ch r s t s d e at h an d re s u r
1 i ’

i i y y
r e c t on , on Good F r d a s a n d E a s t e r d a s . A n e xq u s t e accou n t of t h s m os t m p re ss ii e i i iv
vi v
ce i s p r e s e r e d i n S t . E t he l w ol d s L at n m a n u a o f c hu r ch s e r
’
i l
ce s , w r tt e n a b ou t vi i
V
se r

6
9 5 . T h i
e L at n a n d E n g s h li v i
e r s on s are f ou n d i n Ch a m b e r s s M e d i e v a l S t ag e ,
’
ol . I I .

i i i i i
For a b r e f, n t e re s t n g d e s c r pt on , se e Ga y le y , P l ay s of Ou r F or ef a the r s , pp . 1 4 ff.
2 H ow m u ch w e a re i n d e b te d t o t he N o r m a n lv
o e of y
p a ge a n t r for t he d e e op m e n t vl
of t he d ra m a i n E n g l an d is ti i
a n u n a n s w e re d q u e s on . D u r n g t he M d d e Age s i t w as i l
c u s t o m ar y , in we l com n g ai l i l
m on a rc h or i n ce e b rat n g a ro y a w e dd n g , t o r e p r e se n t i
a ll e gor ca i l an d m yth o l gi l
o ca s ce n e s , lik
e t h e c o m b at of S t . Ge orge a n d t h e d ra gon , for

i n s t an ce
, on a s t a ge con s t r u c t e d
fo r t h e u
p pr ose . T h e se p g
a e a n t s w e r e po p u a r a ll o e r l v
l i
E u ro p e a n d d e ve o pe d d u r n g t he R e n a ss an ce n t o t he d ra m at c for m i n ow n as t he i i k
li i
Mas q u e . Thou gh t he d ra m a w a s of re g ou s or g n , w e m u s t n ot o e r oo t he se se c u ar i i v l k l
i
page an t s as an m port an t fa ct or i n t he d e e op m e n t of d ra m at c art . vl i
I I 8 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

which it h ad it s e l f i n t r o d u c e d an d which at fi r s t h ad s e rv e d a
,

p u r e l y r e li gi o u s p u r p os e 1
B u t b y thi s ti m e t h e Mi racl e s had
.

t ak e n s t ron g h old u p on t h e En g li s h p e opl e an d th e y c on ti n u e d ,

t o b e i m m e n s e l y p op u l ar u n til i n t h e s ixt e e n th c e n t u ry th e y .
, ,

w e re r e pl ac e d b y t he Eli zab e th an d r am a .

Th e e ar l y Mi racl e pl ay s o f E n gl an d w e r e divid e d i n t o t w o
cl as s e s : t h e fi r s t g iv e n at Ch r i s t m as i n cl u d e d all pl ay s c on
, ,

Cy c e s o
l f n e c t e d with t h e bi r th o f C h r i s t ; t h e s e c o n d at ,

Play s Eas t e r i n cl u d e d t h e pl ay s re l a ti n g t o h i s d e ath

,

an d t r iu m ph B y t he b e g i n n i n g of t h e fou r t e e n th c e n t u ry al l
.

th e s e pl ay s w e r e i n v a ri o u s l oc aliti e s u n it e d i n s i n gl e c y cl e s
, ,

b e gi n n i n g with t h e Cre ati on an d e n di n g with t he F i n al J u d g -

m e nt T he c o m pl e t e c y cl e w a
. s p re s e n t e d e ve r
y s pr i n g b e ,

i n in n Co r p u s Ch r i s ti d a d t h p t ti f
g n g o
y ; a n a s e r e s e n a o n o s o

m an y pl ay s m e a n t a c on ti n u ou s o u td oo r fe s tiv al o f a w e e k or
m o r e thi s d ay w as l ook e d for w ar d t o a s t h e h appi e s t of t he
,

wh ol e y e ar .

Prob abl y e v e ry i m p or t an t t ow n i n E n gl an d had i t s o w n

c y cl e of pl ay s fo r i ts o w n g u ild s t o p e rform but n e arl y all ,

h av e b e e n l os t A t t he p re s e n t d ay on l y fou r c y cl e s e xi s t
.

( e xc e pt i n t h e m o s t f r ag m e n t a r
y c o n diti o n
) a n d th e s,
e th o u gh ,

th e y f u rn i s h an i n t e r e s ti n g c o m m e n t ary o n t he ti m e s ad d ,

v e ry littl e t o o u r lit e r at u re The fou r c y cl e s are t h e C he s

.

t e r an d Y o r k pl ay s s o c all e d f ro m t h e t ow n s i n which th e y
,

w e re g iv e n ; t h e Tow n e l e y o r Wak e fi e ld pl ay s n am e d for t he ,

Tow n e l e y fa m il y which for a l o n g ti m e ow n e d t h e m an u

,

s c r ipt ; a n d t h e Co v e n t r pl a s which on d ou bt fu l e vid e n c e

y y ,

h av e b e e n as s oci at e d with t he G re y F ri ar s ( F ran ci s c an s ) of

Cov e n t ry Th e Ch e s t e r c y c l e has 2 5 pl ay s t he Wak e fi e ld 3 0
.
, ,

t h e C o v e n t ry 4 2 a n d t h e Y o r k 4 8
,
I t i s i m p os s ibl e t o fix
.

e ith e r th e d at e or t he a uth ors hip o f an y of th e s e pl ay s ;

w e o n l y k n o w c e r t ai n l th a t th w re i n g r e at fav or fr om
y e
y e

t h e tw e l f th t o t h e s ixt e e n th c e n t u ry Th e Y or k pl ay s a r e
.

1 S e e J u s s e ran d, A Li te r a ry H i s tory of the E n g l i s h P e op le , 1, iii vi ,

. F or our e ar lie st
p la y i
s a n d t he r au t h or s se e Ga y l e y , P l ay s o
f Ou r F or ef a the r s .
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ ABETH 1 19

ge n e rall y c on s rde re d t o b e t he b e s t ; but th os e of Wak e fi e ld

s h ow m ore h u m or an d v ar i e ty a n d b e tt e r w o r k m an s hip
,
T he
.

form e r c y cl e e s p e ci all y s h ow s a c e r t ai n u n ity r e s u lti n g fro m

i t s ai m t o r e p re s e n t t he wh ol e o f m an s li fe f r o m bi r th t o
’

d e ath The s am e thi n g i s n o tic e abl e i n Cu r s or M u n d i

.
,

which with t he Y or k an d Wak e fi e ld c y cl e s b e l on g s t o t he

, ,

fou r t e e n th c e n t u ry .

A t fi rs t t he a ct ors as w e ll as t he au th or s of t h e M i ra cl e s
w e re the p r i e s t s an d th e i r ch os e n as s i s t an t s La t e r wh e n
.
,

t he t ow n g u ild s t oo k u p t h e pl ay s a n d e a c h g u ild
b e c am e r e s p on s ibl e fo r o n e o r m or e of the s e r i e s ,

t h e act or s w e r e c ar e fu ll y s e l e ct e d an d t r ai n e d By .

fou r o cl o ck o n t he m o r n i n g of C or p u s C h r i s ti al l t he pl ay e r s
’

ha d t o b e i n th e i r pl ac e s i n t h e m ov abl e th e at e r s which w e r e
,

s c a tt e r e d th ro u g h o u t the t o w n i n t h e s q u a r e s an d o p e n pl a c e s .

Each of th e s e th e a t e r s c on s i s t e d of a t w o s t ory pl a t for m

-
,

s e t on wh e e l s . The l o w e r s t o ry w as a d re s s i n g ro om for th e
act or s t he u pp e r s t o ry w a s t h e s t ag e p ro p e r a n d w a s re a ch e d
,

b y a t r apd oo r fr o m b e l o w Wh e n t h e pl ay w as ov e r t h e pl at
.

for m w as d rag ge d aw ay an d t he n e xt pl ay i n t h e c y cl e t o ok i t s
,

pl ac e S o i n a S i n gl e s q u are s e v e ral pl ay s w o u ld b e p r e s e n t e d
.

i n r apid s e q u e n c e t o t h e s a m e a u di e n c e . Me a n whil e t h e fi rs t
pl ay m ov e d o n t o an o th e r s q u are wh e re a n oth e r au di e n c e
,

w as w aiti n g t o h e a r it .

Th ou g h t h e pl ay s w e re di s ti n ctl y re li g i ou s i n ch ar act e r ,

th e re i s h ar dl y on e with o u t i t s h u m o r ou s e l e m e n t I n t h e .

pl ay of N oah for i n s t an c e N oah s s h re wi s h wi fe m ak e s f u n

, ,
’

for t he au di e n c e b y w ran g li n g with h e r h u s b an d , I n t he

Cru cifixi on pl ay H e r od i s a p ran ki s h ki n d o f t y ran t w h o
l e ave s t h e s t age t o r an t a m on g t he au di e n c e ; s o th at t o
" ”
o u t h e r od H e r o d
-
b e c am e a c o m m on p rov e r b I n all t he
.

pl ay s t he d e vil i s a fav o r it e ch ar act e r an d t h e b u tt of e v e ry

j ok e H e al s o l e av e s t h e s t age t o pl ay p ran k s or fr i g ht e n t h e
.

w on d e r i n g child r e n O n t h e s id e o f t h e S tage w as oft e n s e e n

.

’
a hu e d ragon s h e ad with pi g d j w b lchi g f th
g g a n r e a s , e n o r
I 20 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E :

fire “

an d s m ok e o u t of which p ou r e d a t u m u lt u ou s t roop of
,

d e vil s with cl u b s an d pitch fo rk s an d g r idi ron s to pu n i s h t h e

wick e d charac t e r s an d t o d rag t he m aw ay at l as t h owli n g ,

an d s h r i e ki n g i n t o h e ll m ou th as the d ragon s h e ad w as ’
-
, ,

c all e d S o t he fe ar of h e ll w as i n g rai n e d i n t o an i g n oran t

.

pe o pl e fo r fou r c e n t u r i e s A lt e rn ati n g with th e s e h orr ors

.

we re bit s of r ou g h h o r s e pl ay an d d om e s tic s c e n e s of p e ac e
-

an d ki n dli n e s s r e p re s e n ti n g t h e li fe o f t h e En li s h fi e ld s an d
, g
h o m e s With th e se w e re s on gs an d c arol s like th at of t h e
.
,

N ativity for i n s t an c e :
,

As I ou t r od e thi s e n de re s l( as t) n i gh t,

O f th r e e j oll y s h e ph e rd s I s aw a s i gh t ,

An d al l ab o u t l
th e i r fo d a s tar s h on e b ri gh t ;
Th e y s an g t e r l i t e r l ow ,
So m e rry ly t h e s h e p h e r d s th e i r p i p e s b l ow .
’

can
-

D ow n from he av e n , from h e av e n so h i gh ,
Of an g e sl th e r e c am e a g r e at c om p an y e
W i th m i r th , an d
j oy , an d gre at s ol e m n i ty e ;
The y s an g t e r l i t e r l ow ,
S o m e rryly th e S h e ph e rd s th e i r i
p pe s c an b l ow .
'

S uch s on g s w e re t ake n hom e b y th e au di e n c e an d s u n g for a

s e as o n as a p o p u l ar t u n e i s n o w c a u g ht f r o m t h e s t ag e an d
,

s u n g on t h e s t r e e t s ; an d a t ti m e s t h e wh ol e au di e n c e w ou ld

v e ry lik e l y j oi n i n t h e ch oru s .

A ft e r th e s e pl ay s w e r e w r itt e n acc o r di n g t o the ge n e ral

o u tli n e of t h e B ibl e s t or i e s n o ch an ge w a s t ol e rat e d t h e
, ,
”
a u di e n c e i n s i s ti n g lik e child re n at
,
Pu n ch an d J ud y up on ,

s e e i n g t h e s a m e thi n g s
y e ar aft e r
y e ar N o or i gi n alit
y i n pl o t .

or t r e a t m e n t w a s p os s ibl e th e re fo re t he o n l y v ari e t y w as I n
,

n e w s on g s a n d j ok e s a n d i n t h e p ra n k s o f t h e d e vil
, Child .

i s h a s s u ch pl ay s s e e m t o u s th e y a r e p ar t of t he r e l i g i ou s
,

d e v e l op m e n t of al l u n e d u c at e d p e opl e Eve n n ow th e Pe rs i an .

pl ay of th e Mar t y r d o m of Al i i s c e l e b rat e d y e ar l y an d ,

a t ru e Mi ra cl e
”
t h e f a m ou s Pas s i o n Pl ay ,
i s giv e n e v e ry ,

t e n y e ars at Ob e r am m e rga u
I 22 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

sum m on i n g of e ve r y m an b y D e a th ; an d th e m or a l i s that n oth i n g c an

k
t a e aw a y th e t e r r or o f th e i n e i t ab v le s um m on s b u t an h on e s t l i fe an d

th e c om for t s o f re l i g i on . I n i ts d ram a t i c u nit y it su

gg e s ts th e p re
u

G re e k d ra m a ; t h e re i s n o c h a n g e o f t i m e or s c e n e , an d th e s ta
ge i s
n e v e r e m p t y fr o m th e b e g i n n i n g t o th e e n d of th e p e r fo r m a n c e . O th e r
we ll k n o w n M ora l i ti e s are th e Pr i d e o f Li fe
-
H y c ke s c o rn e r an d ,
” “
,

Cas te l l o f Pe rs e v e r an c e I n th e l a tte r m an i s r e p r e s e n te d as s h u t u p
”
. ,

i n a c as t l e g a r r i s on e d b y the v i r tu e s a n d b e s i e g e d b y th e v i c e s .

Lik e t h e Mi ra cl e pl ay s m os t of t he o ld M or aliti e s are of

,

u n k n ow n d at e an d or i gi n Of t he k n ow n au th o r s of Moral .

iti e s t w o of t he b e s t are J o h n S k e lt on w h o w ro t e Mag

,
"
,
”
n i fic e n c e a n d p ro b a bl al s o T h e N e c ro m a n c e r d S i
, y ; a n r

D avid Li n d s ay ( 1 4 9 0 t h e p oe t of t h e S c o tch R e for

m ati on wh os e re li gi ou s b u s i n e s s it w as t o m ak e r u l e r s u n
,

c om for t abl e b y t e lli n g th e m u n pl e as an t t ru th s i n t h e form

of p o e t r
y W ith th.e s e m e n a n e w e l e m e n t e n t e rs i n t o the

Moraliti e s T h e y s ati r i ze o r d e n ou n c e abu s e s of Ch u r ch an d

.

S t at e an d i n t r od u c e livi n g p e rs on age s thi n ly di s g u i s e d as

,

all e g o r i e s ; s o th at t h e s t ag e fi r s t b e c o m e s a p ow e r i n s h ap

i n g e v e n t s an d c o rr e cti n g a b u s e s .

Th e I n t e r l u de s I t i s i m po s s ibl e t o d raw an y acc u rat e li n e

.

of di s ti n cti on b e tw e e n t h e Mor aliti e s a n d I n t e r l u d e s I n ge n .

e r al w e m ay thi n k o f t h e l a tt e r a s d ram a tic s c e n e s s om e ,

ti m e s giv e n b y th e m s e lve s ( u s u ally with m u s ic an d s i n g i n g) at

b an q u e t s an d e n t e r t ai n m e n t s wh e re a littl e fu n w as w an t e d ;
a n d ag a i n s lipp e d i n t o a Mi r acl e pl a t o e n liv e n t h e au di e n c e
y
a ft e r a s o l e m n s c e n e Th u s o n t he m a r g i n of a p age of on e
.

of t h e o l d Ch e s t e r pl a s w e r e ad T h e b o e a n d pi gge wh e n
y y ,

t h e ki n ge s a r e g o n e Ce r t ai n l y thi s w as n o p ar t of t h e
.

o r i g i n al s c e n e b e tw e e n H e r o d a n d t h e th r e e ki n g s S o al s o .

t h e q u arr e l b e tw e e n N oah an d hi s wi fe i s p ro b abl y a l a t e

additi o n t o an ol d pl a T h e I n t e r l u d e s o r i g i n a t e d u n d o ubt
y .
,

e dl i n a s e n s e o f h u m or ; an d t o J oh n H e y w oo d ( 1 4 9 7
y ,

1 5 80 a fav or it e re t ai n e r an d j e s t e r a t t h e c ou r t of Ma ry i s ,

d u e th e c r e dit for rai s i n g t h e I n t e rl u d e t o th e di s ti n ct d ram atic

for m k n ow n as c o m e dy .
 TH E AGE O F E LIZABETH

H e yw oo d s I n te r l u d e s w e r e w r i tte n b e tw e e n 1 5 2 0 a n d H is
’
1 5 40 .

”
m os t fa m o u s i s T he F ou r P s , a c o n te s t o f w i t b e tw e e n a Pa r d o n e r,
’

Pa l m e r, Pe d l ar Po ti c ar y . ly
”
an d a T he c h a ra c te r s he re s tr on g
a a
g
su

g e st th os e o f C h au c e r .
1
A n o th e r i n t e r e s t i n g ll e d I n te r l u d e is ca Th e
Pl a y o f th e We a th e r I n thi s J u p i te r a n d th e g o d s as s e m b l e to l i s te n
”
.

to c o m p l a i n ts ab o u t th e w e a th e r a n d t o r e for m ab u s e s N a t u ra ll y e v e r y .

b od y w a n ts h i s ow n k i n d o f w e a th e r T h e c l i m a x i s r e a c h e d b y a b o y
.

w h o a n n o u n c e s th a t a b o y s p l e as u r e c on s i s ts i n tw o thi n gs c a t c h
’
,

i n g b i rd s an d th ro w i n g s n ow b a ll s a n d b e g s for t h e w e a th e r to b e s u c h
,

th a t h e c an a l w a y s d o b o th J u p i te r d e c i d e s t h at h e w i ll d o j u s t as h e
.

p l e as e s ab ou t th e w e a t he r a n d e v e r y b od y g oe s h o m e s a ti s fi e d
, .

All th e s e l y pl ay s w e r e w r itt e n fo r t he m o s t p ar t i n a
e ar , ,

m i n gli n g o f p r os e an d w re tch e d d ogg e r e l a n d ad d n o thi n g ,

t o o u r lit e ra t u r e Th e i r g r e a t w o r k w a s t o t r a i n a c t o r s t o
.
“

ke e p aliv e t h e d ra m atic s pi ri t an d t o p r e p are t h e w ay fo r,

the t ru e d ra m a .

3 Th e Ar t i s t i c Pe r i od of t h e D r a m a
. Th e a r ti s tic i s t h e .

fi n al s t age i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e En gli s h d ram a I t d i f .

fe rs radic ally f rom t h e o th e r t w o i n th a t i t s chi e f p u r p os e

i s n ot t o p o i n t a m o r al b u t t o r e p re s e n t h u m an li fe a s H i s .

The ar ti s tic d ram a m ay h av e p u r p o s e n o l e s s th an t h e Mi r ,

acl e pl a but t h m o tiv e i s alw a s s u b o r di n a t e t o t h e chi e f

y ,
e
y
e n d of re p re s en ti n li f it l f
g e s e .

The fi r s t t r u e pl ay i n En gli s h with a re g u l ar pl o t divid e d , ,

i n t o act s an d s c e n e s i s p r o b abl y t h e c om e d y R alph R oy s t e r

, ,
”
Th e Fi r s t D oy s t e r I t w as w r itt e n b y N ich ol as U d all m as
.
,

COm e dY t e r of E t o n a n d l a t e r of W e s t m i n s t e r s ch o ol a n d
, ,

w as fi r s t a ct e d b h i s s ch o o lb o s s om e ti m e b e for e 1 5 5 6
y y .

The s t o ry i s th at of a c on c e it e d f op i n l ov e with a wid ow w ho ,

i s al re ad y e n gage d t o a n o th e r m an Th e pl a i s a n a d apt a ti on
y .

o f t h e M i l es Gl or i os u s a cl a s s ic c o m e d b P l au t u s a n d t h e
, y y ,

En gli s h ch ara ct e r s ar e m o re o r l e s s ar tifici al ; b u t a s fu r n i s h

i n g a m o d e l of a cl e ar pl o t a n d n a t u r al di al o g u e t h e i n fl u e n c e ,

of thi s fi r s t c o m e d with i t s m ixt u re of cl a s s ic a n d En gli s h

y ,

e l e m e n t s c an h ar dl b e o v e r e s ti m a t e d
, y .

"
1
i
I n fact , H e y w ood “ c r b b e d ” from Ch au ce r’ s Tal es i n an oth e r I n te r l u de l
ca l e d
The Par d on e r a n d t h e F re re .”
 1 24 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

T he xt pl ay G am m e r Gu r t o n s N e e dl e (c i r
ne , is
’
.

a d o m e s tic c o m e d a t r u e bit o f E n gli s h r e ali s m p t

y , r e r e s e n ,

i n g t h e li fe o f t h e p e as an t cl as s .

G am m e r C u r t o n i s p a t c h i n g th e l e ath e r b re e c h e s o f h e r m an H od ge ,
w h e n G i b , t h e c a t , g e t s i n t o th e m i l k p a n W hi l e Gam m e r c h as e s th e .

c a t th e fa m i l y n e e d l e i s l os t , a v e r i t ab l e c a l a m i t y i n t h o s e d a y s T he .

w h o l e h o u s e h o l d i s t u rn e d u p s i d e d o w n , a n d th e n e i ghb o rs a r e d r agg e d
i n t o th e affa r . i Via r ou s c o m i c al s i t u a t i o n s a re b r ou g h t a b ou t b y D i c c o n ,
a vi n g
th i e va
g ab o n d, w h o te ll s
Gam m e r th a t h e r n e i g h b or , D a m e Ch a tte ,
h as ta k e n h e r n e e d l e , a n d w h o th e n h u rri e s t o t e ll D a m e C h a t te th a t
she is ac c u s e d b
y G a m m e r o f s t e a l i n g a f a v o r i t e r oo s t e r N a t u r a ll y .

l e row
’

th e re i s a te rr i b w h e n t h e tw o i r a t e ol d w o m e n m e e t an d m isu n
d e rs tan d e a c h o th e r . D i c c on a so l d r ag s D o c t or R a t , th e c u r a te , i n to
l ll
th e q u a rr e b y t e i n g hi m th a t, i f h e w i ll but c re e p i n to D am e C h a t te
’
s

c o ttag e b y a h i dd e n w ay , h e w i fin d h e r ll u si n
g l
th e s t o e n n e e d e . T h e n l
D i c c on s e c re t ly w a rn s D a m e C h a t te th a t Ga m m e r G u r t o n
’
s m an H od g e
is com i ng to s te a l he r ch i c ke n s ; an d th e o l d w o m an h i d e s i n th e d a r k
p a s s age an d c u d e s
g l th e c u ra te s o u n d ly w i th t h e d o o r b ar . All th e p ar ti e s
a re fi n all y b r o u g h t b e fo re th e j ust cei , w he n H od ge s u dde n ly an d p ai n
fu ll y fi n d s th e l os t ne e dle — w hi ch i s al l th e w h i le s tu c k in his l e ath e r
b re e c h e s an d th e s c e n e e n d s u p r o ari o u s l y fo r b o th au d i e n c e a n d a c t o rs .

Thi s fi r s t wh oll y En gli s h c om e d y i s fu ll o f f u n an d c oars e

h u m or an d i s w on d e rfu lly t ru e t o t h e li fe it re p re s e n t s I t
,
.

w a s l o n g a tt r ib u t e d t o J oh n S till aft e r wa r d s bi s h o p o f B a th ; ,

b u t t he au th or s hip i s n ow d e fi n it e l y a s s i g n e d t o Willi am
1
S t e ve n s on O u r e ar li e s t e diti on of t h e pl ay w as p ri n t e d i n
.

D y c c on o f B e dl am
" ”
1 5 75 ; b u t a s i m il ar pl ay c all e d w as

lic e n s e d i n 1 5 5 2 tw e lv e y e ar s b e fo re S h ak e s p e are s bi r th
,
’
.

To s h o w t h e s pi r i t an d t h e m e t r ic al fo r m of t h e pl ay w e
iv f n t of t h e b o d s c r ipti on o f t h e d u ll ar d H od ge
’

g e a r a g m e
y s e

t ry i n g t o li ght a fir e o n t h e h e ar th fro m t h e c at s e y e s an d ’

an o th e r f r ag m e n t of t h e ol d d ri n ki n g s on g at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f

t he s e c o n d ac t .

At l as t in a d ar k c o rn e r tw o s p ar ke s h e t h ou g h t h e se e s

Whi c h w e re , i n d e d e , n ou gh t e l s b u t Gy b o u r c a t s tw o e y e s .
’

Pu ffe q u o d H od ge , th i n k i n g th e r b y t o h a v e fy re w i th o u t d oub t ;
Wi th tha t Gyb shut he r tw o e y e s , a n d s o th e fy re w as o u t .

1 S che l li n g, E l i za be th a n D r am a I 86.
 I 26 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

ex t i n c t w i th the d e ath of Gorb od u c th e c ou n tr y fa ll s i n to an arc h y w i th

, ,

re b e l s n o b l e s a n d a S c o t ti s h i n v a d e r a ll fi gh t i n g for th e ri gh t o f s u c c e s
'

, ,

Si o n Th e c u r tai n fall s u p o n a s c e n e o f b l o o d s h e d a n d u t te r c on fu s i on
. .

The ar ti s tic fi n i s h of thi s fi rs t t rage d y i s m ar re d b y t h e

’
a u th ors e vid e n t p u r p o s e t o p e r s u a d e Eli zab e th t o m ar r I t
y .

ai m s to s h o w t h e d an ge r t o which En gl an d i s e xp os e d b t h e
y
u n c e rtai n t y of s u cc e s s i on O th e r wi s e t h e pl an of t he pl ay
.

foll ow s t he cl as s ic al r u l e of S e n e c a Th e r e i s v e ry littl e acti on

.

o n t he s t ag e ; bl ood s h e d an d b a ttl e ar e an n ou n c e d b y a
m e s s e n ge r ; an d t h e ch or u s o f fou r ol d m e n of B r it ai n s u m s
, ,

up the s i tu ati o n with a fe w m oral o b s e rv ati on s at t he e n d of

e ach of t h e fi r s t fou r a ct s .

Cl as s i cal I n fl u e n ce u pon t h e D ram a The r e viv al of Lati n .

lit e ra t u re had a d e cid e d i n fl u e n c e u p on t h e En g li s h d ram a as

i t d e v e l o p e d fro m the Mi r acl e pl ay s I n t he fi ft e e n th c e n t u ry
.

En gli s h t e a ch e rs i n o r d e r t o i n c r e as e t h e i n t e re s t i n Lati n
, ,

b e gan t o l e t th e i r b oy s ac t t he pl ay s which th e y h ad r e ad as
lit e ratu r e p re ci s e l y as ou r c oll e g e s n ow p re s e n t G r e e k o r
,

Ge r m an pl ay s at t he y e ar l y fe s tival s S e n e c a w as t h e fav or
.

i t e La ti n au th or an d al l hi s t r age di e s w e r e t ra n s l at e d i n t o
,

En gli s h b e tw e e n 1 5 5 9 a n d 1 5 8 1 Thi s w a s t h e e x act p e ri od

.

i n which t he fi r s t En g li s h pl ay w r i ght s w e r e s h api n g th e i r ow n

id e as ; but t h e s e v e re s i m plicit y of th e cl as s ic al d ram a s e e m e d
at fi rs t o n ly t o h am p e r t h e e xub e ran t En g li s h s pi r it To .

u nd e rs t an d thi s o n e has on ly t o c om p are a t rage dy of S e n e c a

,

or of E u r ipid e s with on e o f S h ak e s p e are an d s e e h ow wid e l

, y
t h e t w o m as t e r s di ffe r i n m e th o d s .

I n t h e cl as s ic pl ay t h e s o c all e d d r am a tic u n iti e s o f ti m e

-
,

pl ac e an d acti on w e re s t r ictl y o b s e rv e d Ti m e an d pl ac e m u s t
,
.

D ram ati c r e m a i n t h e s am e t h e pl ay c o uld r e p r e s e n t a p e r i od

U ni fi e s of o n l a fe w h ou r s an d wh at e v e r a cti o n w as i n
y ,

t r od u c e d m u s t t ak e pl a c e at t h e s p o t wh e r e t h e pl ay b e gan .

The ch arac t e r s th e re f o re m u s t r e m ai n u n ch an ge d th r ou g h
, ,

o u t ; th e r e w as n o p o s s ibilit o f t h e child b e c o m i n g a m an
y ,

or of t he m an s g rowth with ch an g i n g ci r cu m s t an c e s A s t he
’
.
 TH E AGE OF ELIZAB ETH 1 27

pl ay w as withi n d oo rs all vig orou s acti o n w as d e e m e d o ut a

,

pl ac e on t h e s t age an d b attl e s an d i m p or t an t e v e n t s w e re
,

s i m pl an n o u n c e d b a m e s s e n ge r T h e cl as s ic d r am a al s o
y y .

d re w a s h ar p li n e b e tw e e n t rage d y an d c o m e dy al l fu n b e i n g ,

r ig or o u s l e xcl u d e d fro m s e r i o u s r e p r e s e n t a ti on s
y .

The E n gli s h d r am a on t he o th e r h an d s t r ov e t o r e p re s e n t
, ,

t h e wh ol e s w e e p of li fe i n a s i n g l e pl ay The s c e n e ch an g e d .

r apidl
y ; t h e s am e a c t o r s app e are d n ow a t h om e n ow a t ,

c o u r t n ow on t h e b attl e fi e ld ; an d vigoro u s acti on fill e d t he

,

s t age b e for e t he e y e s o f t h e s p e ct a t o rs T he child of on e ac t .

app e ar e d as t he m an o f t h e n e xt an d t h e i m agi n ati o n o f t h e

,

s p e ct a t o r w as c all e d u p on t o b rid g e t h e g a p s f ro m pl ac e t o

pl ac e an d fro m y e ar t o y e ar S o t he d ram ati s t h ad fr e e s c o p e

.

t o p r e s e n t al l li fe i n a s i n gl e pl ac e an d a s i n gl e h o u r More
“

o v e r s i n c e t h e w o r ld i s alw a s l au ghi n g an d alw a s c r i n g at

, y y y .

t h e s a m e m om e n t t r ag e d y an d c o m e d y w e r e p r e s e n t e d s id e b y
,

s id e a s th e
, y a re i n li fe it s e l f A s H a m l e t s i n g s af t e r t h e pl a
.
y ,

th at am u s e d t he c ou r t b u t s t ru ck t h e ki n g with d e adl y fe ar °

W hy , l e t th e s tr i c ke n de e r g o w eep,
T h e h ar t u n g a ll e d p l a y ;

For s om e m u s t w a tc h , w h i le s om e m ust l
s ee p
So ru n s th e w o r d l aw a y .

Nat u r all y with th e s e

,
id e al s s t r u ggli n g t o m as t e r t he
tw o
E n gli s h d ram a t w o s ch ool s of w r it e r s a ro s e
,
Th e U n iv e rs ity .

TW O S ch oo l s W it s a,
s m e n o f l e a rn i n g w e re c a ll e d g e n e r a ll y ,

Of D ram a
uph e ld th e cl as s ic al id e al an d r idic u l e d t he c r u d e ,

n e s s o f th e n e w En g li s h pl a s S a ckvill e a n d N o r t o n w e r e
y .

of thi s cl as s a n d,
G o r b od u c w as cl as s ic i n i t s c on s t r u cti on .

I n the D e fe n s e o f Poe s i e S id n e y u ph old s t h e cl as s ic s an d

ridic u l e s t h e t o o am biti ou s s c o p e o f t he En g li s h d ram a .

A gai n s t th e s e w e re t he p op u l a r pl ay w r i g ht s Ly l y Pe e l e , , ,

G re e n e Mar l ow e a n d m a n y o th e r s w ho r e c og n i ze d t he En g
, , ,

l i s h l ov e o f ac ti o n an d di s r e g ard e d t h e d ra m atic u n iti e s i n

th e i r e n d e av o r t o p re s e n t li fe a s it i s I n t h e e n d h e n ativ e
t
.

d ram a p re v ail e d aid e d b y t he p op u l ar t as t e which h ad b e e n

,
 I 28 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

t rai n e d c e n tu ri e s of Mi racl e s O u r fi rs t pl ays e s pe

b y fo u r .
,

c i ally o f t h e r o m an tic t p e w e r e e xt re m e l c ru d e an d o f t e n
y , y
le d t o ridic u l ou s l y e xt ra v agan t s c e n e s ; an d h e r e i s wh e re t h e
cl as s ic d ram a e x e r ci s e d an i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e for g ood b y i n ,

s i s ti n g up on b e aut of fo r m an d d e fin i t e n e s s of s t r u ct u r e a t
y
a ti m e wh e n t h e t e n d e n c w as t o s ati s f a t as t e for s t a e
y y g
S p e ct a cl e s with ou t re gar d t o e ith e r .

I n t he y e ar I 5 74 a roy al p e r m it t o L or d Le ic e s t e r s a ct or s
’

all o w e d th e m t o giv e pl ay s an y wh e r e th r o u g h o u t ou r r e al m
’

of E n g l a n d an d thi s m u s t b e
,
r e g ard e d as t h e
Th e Th e at e r
b e gi n n i n g of the re gul ar d ram a Tw o y e ar s l at e r .

”
t he fi r s t pl ay h ou s e k n ow n as ,
Th e Th e at e r w as b u ilt fo r
,

th e s e act ors b y J am e s B u r b age i n F i n s b u ry F i e ld s j u st n or th ,

of Lo n d o n I t w as i n thi s th e at e r th at S h ak e s p e are p rob a

.

b ly fou n d e m p l oy m e n t wh e n he fi rs t c am e to t he cit y The

'

s u cc e s s o f thi s v e n t u re w as i m m e di a t e an d t he n e xt thi r t
, y
e ar s s aw a s c o re o f th e a t r ic al c o m p an i e s a t l e as t s e v e n r e
y , g
u l ar th e a t e r s an d a d oze n or m o re i n n ar d s p e r m an e n tl
, y y
fitt e d for the g ivi n g of pl ay s — all e s t abli s h e d i n t h e cit y
,

an d i t s i m m e di at e s u b u r b s T he g rowth s e e m s al l t he m or e
.

r e m a rk abl e wh e n w e r e m e m b e r th a t t h e L o n d on of th o s e
-

d ay s w ou ld n ow b e c on s id e re d a s m all city h avi n g ( i n 1 600) ,

on l ab ou t a h u n d re d th ou s an d i n h abit an t s
y .

A D u tch t r a v e l e r J oh an n e s d e Witt w h o vi s it e d L on d on
, ,

i n 1 5 9 6 h as g iv e n u s t h e on l y c on t e m p or ary d rawi n g w e
,

p os s e s s of t h e i n t e r i or of on e o f th e s e th e at e rs Th e y w e r e .

b u ilt of s t on e a n d w ood r o u n d or o ct agon al i n S h ap e an d

, ,

with o ut a roof b e i n g s i m pl y an i n cl os e d c ou r t y ar d A t on e
,
.

s id e w as t h e s t age an d b e f or e it on t he b ar e g r o u n d o r pit
, , ,

s t oo d th a t l a r g e p ar t of t h e au di e n c e w ho c ou ld affo r d t o p ay

on l an ad m i s s i o n fe e T h e pl ay e r s a n d th e s e g rou n dli n g s
y .

w e re e xp o s e d t o t he w e ath e r ; th os e th a t p aid for s e at s w e r e

i n gall e r i e s S h e lt e re d b y a n ar r o w p or ch ro o f p r oj e cti n g i n
-

w ar d s fro m t he e n ci r cli n g wall s ; whil e t h e y ou n g n obl e s an d

g a ll an t s w h
,
o c a m e t o b e s e e n a n d w h o c o u ld a ffor d t h e e xt ra
I 3 0 ENG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

H owe ve r th at m ay b e t he s t age w as d e e m e d u n fit for ,

w om e n an d act re s s e s w e re u n k n ow n i n En gl an d u n til aft e r

,

t he R e s t o ra ti on .

S h ak e s pe are s Pr e de ce s s ors i n t h e D r am a The En gli s h

’
.

d ram a as it d e v e l o pe d fro m t he Mi racl e pl ay s h as an i n t e r

e s ti n g hi s t ory I t b e gan with s ch ool m as t e r s lik e U d all w h o
.
, ,

t ran s l at e d an d ad apt e d La ti n pl ay s for th e i r b oy s t o ac t an d ,

w h o w e r e n atu rall y g o v e rn e d b y cl as s ic id e al s I t w as c on .

t i n u e d b y t h e ch oi r m as t e r s of S t Pau l an d t h e R oy al an d .

t h e Q u e e n s Ch ap e l wh o s e c o m p an i e s of ch o i r b oy ac t ors
’
-
,

w e r e fam ou s i n Lo n d on an d r iv al e d t h e pl ay e r s of t h e re gu
1
l ar th e a t e r s Th e s e ch oi r m as t e r s w e r e o u r fi rs t s t age m an
.

ag e r s Th e y b e gan with m as q u e s an d i n t e r lud e s an d t h e d ra

.

m atic p re s e n t a ti on of cl as s ic m y th s m o d e l e d aft e r th e I t ali an s ;

b u t so m e o f th e m lik e R ich ar d Ed w ard s (ch o i r m as t e r o f t he,

n s Ch ap e l i n f f
Q dd d c E li h c
’
u e e s oon a e ar e s r o m n g s ou n

t ry li fe an d d ram ati ze d som e of Ch au c e r s s t or i e s F i n all y t he

’
.
,

re g u l a r pl a w ri g ht s K d N as h L l P e e le G r e e n e an d Mar
y y yy , , , , , ,

l ow e b ro u ght t h e En gli s h d ram a t o t he po i n t wh e r e S h ake

,

s pe are be g an t o e xp e r i m e n t u p on it .

Each of th e s e pl ay w r i g ht s add e d o r e m ph as i ze d s o m e
e s s e n ti al e l e m e n t i n t h e d r am a which appe are d l a t e r i n t he ,

w o r k of S h ak e s p e ar e Thu s J oh n Lyl y ( 1 5 5 4 . w ho i s

n o w k n o w n chi e fl y a s h avi n g d e v e l o p e d t h e p e r n ici ou s lit e r

2
ar
y s t l e c all e d e u ph u i s m
y i s o n e of t h e m o s t i n fl u e n ti al of ,

t h e e ar l y d r am a ti s t s H i s c ou r t c o m e di e s a r e r e m a r k abl e fo r
.

th e i r witt y di al ogu e an d for b e i n g ou r fi r s t pl ay s t o ai m

h i m t h d y l p m it t t k b y f g d v i wh v f d
1 Th e se c o r a s e rs a ro a er s o a e o s o oo o ce , e re er ou n ,

an d t i th m
ra n i g ed t Th b y w
as s n t k f m th i p
e rs a n t
ac or s .d w e o s e re a en ro e r ar e n s a n e re

o ft enh lf t v d
a d m t b t l ly t
s ar e t d Th
an b f thi
os t l p ivil g l d
ru a re a e . e a u se o s u n n a u ra r e e e

t th fi
o e l w it hd w l f l l h p m i t
na ra a o a su c er s.
2 S ll d f m E ph
o ca e th h ro f Ly l y t w p u w k E ph
ue s, th A
e t my
e ro o
’
s o rose or s, u u es , e n a o

o f Wi t d E ph d hi E g l
an d u Th u esty l i ff t d
an d v s n an e s e s a ec e an o er

l g t b d i dd
e e an , a ou n it s d nh p l o ly i v lv d t
c on ce It i f
s , an d u se s o e e ss n o e s e n e n ce s . s oun

in n e ar ly ll E li b th pa w it za e d p t i ll y an t f th i g
r os e lt d y
r e r s , an ar a acc ou n s or e r e n e ra en e nc

to ar t i fi i li t y Sh k p
c a . ti i ph i m i
a es th h e ar et f Dsa Ad i
r ze s f eu u s n e c ara c e r o on r an o o

L ove s L b
’
L t b t i h i m lf t i
a ou r
’
s m ly
os , ph i t i u t ti m
s p i ll y i h i
se a ly re s o e eu u s c a e s, e s ec a n s e r

or L yl i m di an Ly l y b y t h e w ay di d
co e t i v t th
e s. t yl ,
b t did m th ,
no n en e s e, u ore an

an y th
o t d i ff
er e it o us .
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ AB ETH 13 1

d e fi n it e ly at u n it y ti s tic fi n i s h Th om as Ky d s Sp a n i sh
an d ar .
’

Trag e dy ( c 1 5 8 5 ) fi r s t g iv e s u s t h e d ram a o r r a th e r t h e
. ,

m e l o d r a m a of p as s i o n c opi e d b y Marl ow e an d S h ak e s p e ar e
, , .

Thi s w as t he m os t p opul ar of t he e a rl y Eli zab e th an pl ay s ;

it w as re vi s e d agai n an d agai n an d B e n J on s on i s s aid t o
,

h av e w ritt e n on e v e rs i on an d t o h av e ac t e d t he chi e f p ar t of
H i e r on i m o 1
A n d R o b e r t G re e n e ( 1 5 5 8 ? 1 5 9 2 ) pl ay s t he
.
—

chi e f p ar t i n t he e arl y d e v e l o p m e n t of ro m an tic c om e d y a n d ,

iv e s u s s o m e e xc e ll e n t s c e n e s of E n gli s h c o u n t ry li fe i n pl ay s
g
lik e Fr i a r B a con a n d Fr i a r B u ng ay .

Ev e n a b r i e f gl an c e a t t he li fe a n d w or k of th e s e fi rs t
pl ay w ri ght s s h ow s th re e n ot e w o r th y thi n g s which h av e a
e ar i n g o n S h ak e s p e ar e s c are e r : ( 1 T
’

Me th od s of
b ) h e se m e n

t h e Ear l y w e re u s u ally act o r s as w e ll as d ram ati s t s Th e y .

D ram afi s m
k n e w t he s t age an d t h e a u di e n c e an d i n w r iti n g ,

th e i r pl ay s th e y r e m e m b e re d n o t o n l y t he ac t o r s p ar t but al s o ’

’
th e au di e n c e s l o v e fo r s t o r i e s an d b ra v e s p e ct acl e s
"
Will .

”
it ac t w e ll an d will i t pl e as e ou r audi e n c e w e re t h e q u e s ti on s
, ,

of chi e f c o n c e r n t o o u r e ar l 2 ) Th e i r t r a i n i n g
y d ram a ti s t s
( .

b e gan as a ct or s ; th e n th e y r e vi s e d old p l ay s an d fi n all y b e

'

c am e i n d e p e n d e n t w r it e r s I n thi s th e i r w or k s h ow s an e x act
.

p arall e l with th a t of S h ak e s p e are ( 3 ) Th e y oft e n w o rk e d .

t oge th e r p rob abl y as S h ak e s p e ar e w o r k e d with Mar l ow e an d

,

F l e tch e r e ith e r i n re vi s i n g o ld pl ay s o r i n c r e ati n g n e w on e s

, .

Th e y h ad a c o m m o n s t or e o f m a t e r i al fro m which th e y d e r iv e d
th e i r s t or i e s an d ch ara ct e r s h e n c e th e i r fre qu e n t re p e titi on of
,

n am e s ; an d th e o ft e n p r o duc e d t w o or m o r e pl a s on t he
y y
s am e s u bj e ct Mu ch of S h ak e s p e are s w o r k d e p e n d s as w e
.
’

S h all s e e on p r e vi ou s pl a s ; a n d e v e n hi s H a m l e t u s e s t h e
, y
m a t e r i al of an e ar li e r pl ay of t h e s am e n am e p ro b abl y b y Ky d , ,

which w as w e ll k n ow n t o t he Lon d o n s t age i n 1 5 89 s o m e ,

tw e lv e ye ar s b e for e S h ak e s p e are s g re at w or k w as w ri tt e n
’
.

A ll th e s e thi n g s a r e s i g n ific an t i f w e are t o u n d e rs t an d

,

t he Eli zab e th an d r am a an d t h e m an w h o b ro u g ht i t to

1 S S h lli g I
ee c 1e n , ,
21 .
 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

p e r fe ctio n S h ak e s p e ar e w as n o t s i m pl y a g re at ge n iu s ; he
.

w as al s o a g r e a t w ork e r an d h e d e v e l op e d i n e x actl y t he s am e
,

w ay as did al l hi s fe ll ow c raf t s m e n A n d c o n t rary t o t he .

,

p r e v al e n t opi n i on the Eli zab e th an d ram a i s n o t a Mi n e rv a

,

lik e c re ati on s p r i n gi n g fu ll g r ow n from t he h e ad of on e m an ;

,

i t i s rath e r an or d e rl y th ou gh rapid d e v e l op m e n t i n which ,

m an y m e n b ore a p a r t A ll ou r e ar l y d ram ati s t s a re w or th y

.

of s t u d
y f or t h e p ar t th e
y pl a e d i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e
y
d ram a b u t w e c an h e r e c o n s id e r on ly on e t he m os t t y pic al of ,

al l wh os e b e s t w o r k i s o ft e n r an k e d with th at o f S h ak e s p e a re
,
.

MAR L OW E ( 1 5 6 4 1 5 9 3 )
C H R I S T O PH E R —

Marl ow e i s on e of t he m os t s u gge s tive fi g u re s of th e En g

li s h R e n ai s s an c e an d t he g re at e s t of S h ak e s p e a re s p re d e
,
’

c e s s ors .Th e gl ory of t he Eli zab e th an d ram a d at e s fro m hi s

Ta m b u r la i n e wh e re i n t he wh ol e r e s tl e s s t e m p e r of the
age fi n d s e xp re s s i on

N a tu re , th a t fra m e d u s o f fou r e l e m e n ts
W a r ri n g w i th i n ou r b re as ts for re gi m e n t,
D oth te a c h u s al l v
t o h a e as p i r i n g m i n d s
Our s ou s — l w h os e fa c u l t i e s c a n c o m p re h e n d

T h e w o n d rou s a r c hi te c t u r e o f th e w or d , l
An d m e as u re e ve ry l an e t s c ou rs e
w an d e r i n g p
’
,

S t i ll c l i m b i n g a fte r k n o w l e d g e i n fi n i te ,

A n d a l w ay s m o v i n g a s th e r e s t l e s s s p h e r e s
Wi l l u s to w e ar ou rse l ve s an d n e v e r re s t .

Ta m b u r l a i n e , P t I . , II , vii .

Life . Marl ow e w as i n Can t e rbu ry , on ly a fe w m on th s b e fore

b orn
S hake s p e a re . H e w as th e son of a p oor s ho e m ak e r, b u t t hrou gh t h e
kin d n e s s of a t on w as e d u c a te d at th e t own gram m ar s c h ool an d
p a r

the n at Cam b rid ge . Whe n h e c am e t o Lon d on ( c. his sou l

w as i
s u rg n g w th i t h e i d e al s of ic h l at e r fou n d
th e R e n a i ssan c e ,
wh

e x p r e ss i on i n Fau stu s t h e s c h ol ar l on gi n g for u n li m i t e d kn ow l e d ge

,

an d for p ow e r t o grasp t h e u n i v e rs e U n fortu n at e ly Marl ow e h ad

. ,

al s o t h e u n b ridl e d p assi on s w h i c h m ark t h e e arly o r Pagan R e n ai s ,

san c e a s Ta i n e c all s i t an d t h e c on c e it of a y ou n g m an ju s t e n t e r
, ,

i n g the r e al m s of kn ow l e d ge H e b e cam e an acto r an d live d i n a

.
I 34 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

k n owl e d ge an d w ho tu r n s from Th e ol ogy Philo s ophy Me di

, , ,

ci n e an d Law t he fo u r s ci e n c e s of t h e ti m e t o t he s tudy of
, , ,

m agic m u ch as a child m i g ht t u r n fr o m j e w e l s to
,
Fau s t u s
ti n s e l an d c ol or e d p ap e r I n o rd e r t o l e arn m agic .

he s e ll s hi m s e l f t o t he d e vil on c on diti on th at h e s h all h av e ,

twe n t y fou r y e ar s o f ab s ol u t e p o we r a n d k n owl e d ge The pl ay

-
.

i s t he s t o ry of th o s e tw e n t y fou r y e ar s Lik e Ta m b u r l a i n e -
.
,

1
it i s l acki n g i n d ram atic c on s t r u cti on b u t has an u n u s u al ,

n u m b e r of p a s s ag e s of r are p oe tic b e au t
y M ilt on s S at a n s u g .
’

t t n gl th at t h e au th o r of P a r a d i s e L os t had acc e s s t o
g e s s s r o
y
Fa u s t u s an d u s e d it as h e m ay al s o h av e u s e d Ta m b u r l a i n e
, ,

for t h e m ag n ific e n t p an o ra m a di s pl ay e d b y S at an i n P a ra d i s e
R eg a i n e d F or i n s t an c e m ore th an fi ft y y e ar s b e fore Milt on s
’
.
,

h e ro s ay s Wh ich w ay I t u r n i s h e ll m y s e l f am h e ll Mar
,
”
, ,

l ow e had w r itt e n
Faust . H ow c o m e s i t th e n th a t th o u a rt ou t O f he ll ?
M ep hi s to Wh y th i s i s he ll n o r a m I ou t o f i t
. , .

H e ll h a th no l i m i ts , n or is c i rc u m s c ri b e d
I n on e s e l f p l ac e for w h e r e w e a re i s h e ll ,
An d w h e re h e ll i s th e re m ust we e ve r be .

Marl ow e s thi r d pl ay i s The f e w of M a l ta a s t u d y of t he

’

lu s t fo r w e alth which c e n t e rs a b ou t B arab as a t e r r ibl e old

, ,

m on e y l e n d e r s t ro n g ly s u gge s tiv e o f S hy l o ck i n Th e M e r cha n t

V
,

of e n i ce Th e fi rs
. t p ar t o f t h e pl a
y i s w e ll c o n s t r u ct e d ,

s h o wi n g a d e cid e d a dv a n c e b u t t h e l as t p ar t i s a n ac c u m u ,

l ati on of m e l od ram atic h or rors B arab as i s ch e ck e d i n hi s .

m u r d e rou s c a r e e r b y falli n g i n t o a b oili n g c ald ro n which h e

had p r e p are d fo r an o th e r a n d di e s bl a s ph e m i n g hi s on l y , ,

r e g re t b e i n g th a t h e h as n o t d o n e m o r e e vil i n hi s li fe .

Mar l ow e s l as t pl ay i s E d w a r d I I a t ra gic s tud y of a ki n g s

’

,
’

w e ak n e s s an d m i s e ry I n p oi n t of s t y l e an d d r am atic c on
. .

s t r u cti o n it i s b far t h e b e s t of Marl o w e s pl ay s a n d i s a

’

,y ,

w or th y p re d e c e s s o r of S h ake s p e are s hi s t oric al d ram a ’

.

1 W m e t m mbus h w v th t
re e t v i
e r, o f F e t i s v y m ch
e r, a ou r re se n e r s on o au s us er u
p
m t il t d
u a e d d
,
an t p v th pl y M l w w t it
oe s n o re se r e e a as ar o e ro e .
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ AB ETH 1 35

Marl ow e i s t he ly d ram ati s t of t he ti m e who i s e ve r

on

c om p are d with S h ak e s p e ar e 1
W h e n w e re m e m b e r th at h e
.

Mar l ow e an d di e d a t tw e nt
y n i n e p r o b a bl y b e-
for e S,
h a k e s p e a r e

S h a k e s p e ar e h ad p r od u c e d a s i n l e t pl w m t w d
g g r e a a
y e u s on e r ,

wh at he m ight h av e d o n e h ad he ou tliv e d h i s w re tch e d y ou th

an d b e c om e a m an H e re an d th e r e h i s w or k i s re m ar k abl e
.

fo r i t s S pl e n did i m agi n a ti on fo r t h e s t at e li n e s s of i t s v e r s e
, ,

an d for i t s r a re bit s of p oe tic b e au t y b u t i n d r am ati c i n s ti n ct ,

i n wid e k n owl e d g e of h u m an li fe i n h u m o r i n d e li n e ati on o f , ,

w om an s c h arac t e r i n t he d e lic at e fan c y which p re s e n t s an

’

A r i e l as p e rfe c tl y as a Macb e th i n a w o r d i n all th a t m ak e s

, ,

a d r am atic g e n i u s S h ak e s p e ar e s t an d s al o n e
,
Mar l ow e s i m pl y .

p re p are d t h e w ay fo r t h e m as t e r w h o w as t o foll ow
V
.

ar i e ty of t h e Earl y D r am a The thi r t y y e ar s b e tw e e n .

ou r fi r s t re g u l ar E n gli s h pl ay s a n d S h a k e s p e are s fi r s t c om
’

2
e dy wit n e s s e d a d e v e l op m e n t of t h e d ram a which as t on i s h e s
u s b o th b
y i t s r a pidit
y an d v a r i e t
y W e s h all b e tt e r ap p r e c i .

S h ak e s p e are s w o rk i f w e gl an c e for a m o m e n t at t h e
’
at e

pl ay s t h at p re c e d e d hi m an d n o t e h ow h e c o v e r s t h e w hol e
,

fi e ld an d w rit e s al m os t e v e ry for m an d v ar i e t y of t h e d ram a

k n ow n t o hi s age .

F i r s t i n i m p o r t an c e o r at l e as t i n p op u l ar i n t e r e s t a r e t h e
, ,

n e w Ch ro n icl e pl a s fo u n d e d u p o n hi s t o r ic al e v e n t s an d ch ar
y ,

Ty p e s of a c t e r s T h e
y S h o
. w t h e s t r o n
g n a ti o n a l s pi r i t o f t h e

D ram a Eli zab e th an A g e a n d th e i r p op u l ar it y w a s d u e

,

l arge l y t o t h e fac t th a t au d ie n c e s c am e t o t h e th e a t e r s
p ar tl y t o g rati fy th e i r awak e n e d n ati o n al s pi r it an d t o ge t
th e i r fi r s t k n owl e d ge o f n ati o n al hi s t o ry S om e of t h e Mo ral .

iti e s lik e B ay l e s K i ng j oha n ( I 5

,
’
a re c r u d e Ch ro n icl e
pl ay s an d t he e a rl y R obi n H oo d pl ay s an d t h e fi r s t t rag
,

e d y Gor b od u c S h o w t h e s am e aw ak e n e d p op u l ar i n t e r e s t i n
, ,

1 i v g
The t w o d ra m a t s t s m ay h a e w orke d t o e th e r i n s u ch d ou b t fu p a s a s R i ch a r d l ly
I I I , the h e ro o f w h c h i si lik i li
e T m u r i n a n E n g s h d re s s , an d Ti t u s A n d r on i c u s , w t h i
i tsvi l o e n ce a n d h o r r or . I n m an y s t r on k
g s ce n e s i n S h a e s pe a re s w or s Ma r ow e s i n fl u
’ ’
k l
e n ce i s m an fe s t . i
2 G am me r G
u r ton s
’
N e e dl e a p pe a re d c . 1
5 62 ; Love
’
s L a b ou r ’
s Lost , c. 1 591 .
I 3 6 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

En gli s h hi s t ory D u ri n g t he r e i gn o f Eli zab e th t he p op u l ar

.

C h r o n icl e pl ay s i n c re as e d till w e h av e t he r e c o rd of o v e r t w o
h u n d re d an d tw e n t y h al f of which are s till e xt an t d e ali n g
, ,

with al m os t e v e ry i m p or t an t ch aract e r re al o r l e ge n d ary i n

, ,

Of S h ak e s p e are s thi r t y s e v e n d ram as t e n

’
En g li s h hi s t ory .
-
,

a re t ru e Ch ro n icl e pl a s of E n gli s h ki n g s ; th re e are fr o m

y
t h e l e ge n d a ry an n al s of B r it ai n ; an d th re e m or e ar e f ro m t h e
hi s t o ry o f o th e r n ati on s .

O th e r t y p e s of t h e e ar l y d ra m a a re l e s s cl e arl y d e fi n e d ,

b u t w e m ay s u m th e m u p u n d e r a fe w g e n e ral h e a d s ( )
1 Th e

D om e s tic D ram a b e gan with c ru d e h o m e s c e n e s i n t rod u c e d

i n t o t he Mi racl e s an d d e v e l op e d i n a s c o re of di ffe r e n t w ay s ,

fro m t h e c oars e h u m o r o f Ga m m e r Gu r ton s N e e d le t o t he

’

Com e d y of Man n e r s of J on s o n an d t h e l at e r d ram a ti s t s .

S h ak e s p e are s Ta m i ng of the S hr e w an d M e r ry Wi v e s of
’ '

Wi n d s or b e l on g t o thi s cl as s ( 2 ) T he s o c all e d Cou r t C om

.
-

e d y i s t h e o pp os it e o f t h e for m e r i n th at it r e p r e s e n t e d a d i f

fe re n t ki n d of li fe a n d w as i n t e n d e d fo r a di ffe r e n t au di e n c e .

I t w as m ar k e d b y e l ab o rat e di al og u e b y j e s t s r e t or t s an d
, , ,

e n dl e s s pl ay s on w ord s ra th e r th an b a cti o n I t w a s m ad e
, y .

p o p u l ar b y Ly ly s s u cc e s s an d w as i m it at e d i n S h ake s p e a re s
’

,
’

” ’
fi r s t o r Ly li an c om e di e s s u ch a s L ove s L a bou r s L os t an d ’

V
, ,

t h e c om plic at e d Tw o Ge n t l e m e n of e r on a
( )
3 R o m an ti c
.

Co m e d y an d R om an tic T r ag e d y s u gge s t t h e m os t a r ti s tic an d

fi n i s h e d t y p e s of t h e d ram a which w e re e xp e r i m e n t e d u p on
,

b y Pe e l e G r e e n e an d Mar l o w e an d w e re b rou ght t o p e rfe c

V
, , ,

ti on i n The M e rcha n t of e n i ce R om e o a n d j u l i e t an d Th e
, ,

Te mp e s t ( 4 ) I n a dditi on t o t h e ab ov e t y p e s w e r e s e v e r al
.

o th e r s — ,
t h e Cl as s ic al Pl ay s m o d e l e d u p on S e n e c a a n d fa
,

v or e d b c u ltiv a t e d a u di e n c e s ; t h e Me l od r a m a f av or it e o f
y ,

t he g r ou n dli n gs which d e p e n d e d n ot on pl ot o r ch a ra ct e r s
,

but u p on a v ari e t y of s t r iki n g s c e n e s an d i n cid e n t s ; an d t h e

T r age d y of B l oo d alw ay s m or e o r l e s s m e l od ram atic lik e
, ,

K y d s Sp a n i s h Trag e dy which g re w m ore bl ood an d th u n d e ry

’
- -
,

i n Mar l ow e an d r e ach e d a cli m ax of h orro rs i n S h ak e s p e ar e s

’
 138 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

s till u n r ival e d i n an y l an g u age F o r al l thi s g re at w ork the

.

au th o r app are n tl c a r e s littl e s i n c e h e m ak e s n o a tt e m pt t o

y ,

c oll e c t or p re s e r ve hi s w riti n g s A th ou san d s ch ol ar s h ave

.

e ve r s i n c e b e e n b u s c o ll e cti n g id e n ti f i n cl i f i h
y , y g ,
a s s
y g n t e

w ork s which thi s m ag n ific e n t w ork m an t o s s e d as id e s o c ar e

l e ss l y wh e n he ab an
d on e d t h e d ram a a n d
re ti r e d t o hi s n a t i v e
v ill ag e . H e h as a m ar
v e lou s l i m a g i n a ti v e
y
an d c r e a tiv e m i n d ; but

he i n v e n t s fe w if an y
, ,

ne w pl ot s or s t ori e s
.
.

H e S i m ply t ak e s an ol d
pl ay o r an old p oe m ,

m ak e s it ov e r q u ickl y ,

an d 10 l t hi s old fam ili ar

m a t e ri al g l ow s with th e
d e e p e s t th o u ght s an d
t h e t e n d e re s t fe e l i n gs
th at e n n obl e o u r h u
m an ity ; an d e ach n e w
WI LL I AM S H AK E S PE AR E
ge n e rati o n of m e n fi n d s
it m ore w on d e rful th an t he l as t H ow did he d o i t ? Th a t i s
.

s till an u n a n s w e re d q u e s ti on an d t h e s o u r c e o f ou r w o n d e r .

Th e r e a r e i n ge n e ral t w o th e o ri e s t o a cc o u n t for S h ak e
, ,

s p e ar e . T he r o m a n tic s ch oo l o f w r it e r s h av e alw ay s h e ld
”
Ge ni u s or th a t i n h i m a l l c a m e f r o m withi n ; th a t hi s g e n

T ai i n g
r n
i u s w as hi s s u ffic i e n t g u id e ; a n d th a t t o t he ov e r
m as t e ri n g p ow e r o f h i s g e n i u s al o n e w e ow e all hi s g r e a t
w o rk s Practic al u n i m ag i n ativ e m e n on t he o th e r h an d
.
, , ,

as s e r t th a t i n S h ak e s p e a r e al l c am e f ro m with o u t ,
an d th at

w e m u s t s t u d y hi s e n vi ron m e n t ra th e r th a n hi s ge n i u s if w e ,

a re t o u n d e rs t a n d hi m . H e liv e d i n a pl ay l ovi n g ag e ; h e
-

s t u di e d t h e c rowd s g av e th e m wh at th e y w an t e d an d s i m pl y
, ,
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ ABETH 1 39

re fl e c t e d th e i r o w n th o u g ht s an d fe e li n g s I n r e fl e cti n g t h e .
\

En g li s h c rowd ab ou t h i m h e u n c o n s ci ou s ly r e fl e ct e d all c rowd s ,

which are alike i n al l age s ; h e n c e hi s c on ti n u e d p op u l arit y .

A n d i n b e i n g g u id e d b y p u blic s e n ti m e n t h e w as n o t s i n g u l ar ,

but foll ow e d t he pl ai n p ath th at e v e ry g ood d ram ati s t h as

alw a s fo ll ow e d t o s u cc e s s
y .

Pr ob ably t h e t ru th o f t h e m a tt e r i s t o b e fo u n d s o m e wh e r e
b e tw e e n th e s e t w o e x t r e m e s Of hi s g re at ge n i u s th e re c an
.

b e n o q u e s ti on ; but t h e r e a r e o th e r thi n g s t o c on s id e r A s .

w e h av e al r e ad y n o ti c e d S h ak e s p e ar e w a s t r a i n e d lik e h i s
, ,

fe ll ow w ork m e n fi r s t a s a n a ct or s e c o n d a s a re vi s e r o f ol d
, ,

pl ay s an d l as t as an i n d e p e n d e n t d ram ati s t H e w o rk e d with

,
.

o th e r pl a w r i ht s an d l e arn e d th e i r s e c r e t
y g L ik e th e m h e .
,

s tudi e d an d fo ll o w e d t h e p u blic t a s t e a n d hi s w o r k i n dic at e s ,

a t l e as t th re e s t a e s f m h i fi t m wh a t c r ud e e xp e ri
g ro s rs ,
s o e

m e n t s t o h i s fi n i s h e d m as t e rpi e c e s S o it w o u ld s e e m th at i n .

S h ak e s p e ar e w e h av e t he r e s u lt o f h ar d w o r k an d o f o r d e r ly
hu m an d e v e l op m e n t q u it e as m uch as of t ran s c e n d e n t g e n i u s
,
.

Li fe ( 1 5 64 Tw o d i
o u tw ar n fl u e n c e s w e re
p ow e rfu l i n

d e v e l op in g t he ge n iu s of S hak e sp e ar e — th e li ttl e v il l age of S trat ,

ford c e n t e r of t h e m os t b e au t i fu l an d rom an t i c d i s t r i c t i n ru ral

,

En gl an d an d t h e gr e at c i t y of Lon d on th e c e n t e r o f t h e w o rl d s
’
, ,

p liti c al ac t ivi ty I n o n e h e l e arn e d to kn ow t h e n atu ral m an i n hi s

o .

n atu ral e n v i r on m e n t ; i n t h e o th e r t h e s o c i al , t h e art ifi c i al m an i n ,

t he m ost u n n at u ral of s u rr o u n d i n gs .

From th e r e gi s t e r o f t h e li ttl e p ar i s h c hu rc h at S trat fo rd on Avon - -

w e l e arn t hat Willi am S hak e sp e are w a s bap t i ze d t h e r e o n t h e t w e n ty

s i x th of Ap ril o l d s tyl e A s it w as c u s t om ar y t o b a t ize
1 5 64
, ( ) .
p
c h ild r e n on t he t h i r d d a a f t e b i th t h e t w e t y t h i d o f A i l
y r r n r p r -
,

( M a
y 3 ,a c c o rdi n
g t o o u r p r e s e n t c a l e n d a r
) i s g e n e r a ll y ac c e p t e d a s

t he p o e t s bi r thd ay
’
.

H i s fath e r J ohn Sh ake sp e ar e w as a farm e r s son fro m th e n e i gh

, ,
’

b orin g v il lage of Sn i tt e rfie ld w ho c am e to S tratford abou t 1 5 5 r an d

, ,

b e gan to p rosp e r a s a trad e r i n c o rn m e at l e a the r an d oth e r agri , , ,

c u l t u ral
p r o d u c t s H i s .m o t h e r M a r y , A r d e n w as th e d au gh t e r of a ,

prosp e rous farm e r d e sc e n d e d fro m an ol d Warw ic ksh i r e fam ily of

,
 140 E NG LI S H LI TERATU R E

m i x e d An gl o- S ax on an d N orm an bl ood . In 5 5 9 thi s m arri e d c ou pl e

1

so ld a p i e ce of l an d ,
an d the d ocu m e n t is s i gn e d , Th e m ark e of

J ohn S hac ksp e r . Th e m arke of Mary S hac ksp e r an d from t hi s

i t h as be e n gelly in fe rre d t hat like the vast m aj ori ty of t he ir
n e ra ,

c ou n try m e n n e i th e r of t h e p o e t s p ar e n ts c ou l d r e ad o r w ri te Thi s
’
, .

w as p robably tru e of hi s m oth e r ; b u t the e vid e n c e from Stratford

d oc u m e n ts n ow i n d i c at e s t hat h i s fath e r c ou l d w ri te an d t hat h e ,
~

al s o au d i t e d t he t o w n ac c ou n ts ; t hou gh i n att e sti n g d oc u m e n t s h e

s om e t i m e s m ad e a m ark l e avi n g hi s n am e to b e fill e d i n b y th e on e

,

w h o d r e w u p t he d oc u m e n t .

Of Shake sp e are s e d u c ati on w e kn ow li ttl e e xc e p t t hat for a fe w

’
,

y e ar s h e p rob ably a tt e n d e d t h e e n d ow e d gram m ar sc h o ol a t S tratfo rd ,

”
w he re h e p ic k e d u p t h e s m all La t i n an d l e s s G r e e k t o w h i c h hi s
l e arn e d fri e n d Be n J on son r e fe rs H i s r e al t e ac h e rs m e an w hil e
'
.
, ,

w e re t he m e n an d w om e n an d t h e n atu ral i n fl u e n c e s w h i c h s u r
ro u n d e d h i m S t ratford i s a c harm i n g li t tl e vill age i n b e au tif u l War
.

w i c k s h i r e an d n e ar at h an d w e r e t h e For e s t of Ard e n th e old c as tl e s

, ,

o f Warw ick an d K e n il w o rth an d the o ld R om an c am p s an d m ili tary

,

r oad s to ap p e al p ow e rfu lly to t h e b oy s liv e l y i m agi n at i on E v e ry

’
, .

p hase of th e n atu ral b e au ty of thi s e x qu i sit e re gion i s r e fl e c t e d in

S hak e sp e ar e s p o e t ry ; j u st a s h i s c harac t e rs r e fl e c t t h e n obi li ty an d
’

t h e lit tl e n e ss th e gos sip vi c e s e m oti on s p re j u dic e s an d t rad iti on s

, , , , ,

of th e p e op l e ab ou t h i m .

I s aw a s m i th s ta n d w i th hi s h am m e r , th u s ,
Th e w hi l s t h i s i r o n d i d on th e an v i l c ool ,

W i th o pe n m ou t h sw a ll ow i n g a t a i l or s n e w s ;
’

W ho , w i th h i s s h e ar s a n d m e as u re i n hi s h an d ,
S tan d i n g on s l i p p e rs , w hi c h h i s n im b l e h as te
H a d fa l s e l y th r u s t y fe e t
u p on c on t r ar ,

T ol d o f a m an y th o u s an d w ar l i k e F r e n c h
T h a t w e r e e m b a t tai l e d a n d r a n k e d i n Ke n t 1
.

Su c h passage s ly ge n iu s b u t al so a ke e n sy m pathe tic

s u gge st n ot on ,

ob s e r v e r w h o s e e y e s s e e e ve r y s i gn ifi c an t d e tail
, S o w i th t he n u rs e .

i n R om e o a n d j u l ze t w hose e n dl e s s gossi p an d vu l gari ty c an n ot qu i t e

'

h i d e a ki n d h e art S he i s s i m pl y t h e r e fl e cti on of som e fo rgo tt e n

.

n u rs e w i th w hom S hake s p e ar e had talke d b y t h e w ay s id e .

No t on ly the goss i p b u t al so t he d re am s the u n c on sc i ou s p oe t ry ,

that sl e e ps in the he art of the c om m on p e op l e app e al tre m e n d ou sly ,

1
n j o/ m, I V ,
2.
142 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Whe n S hake sp e ar e w as b ou t fou rte e n y e ars old h is fathe r l o st

a

h i s li ttl e p p
ro e rty an d fe l l i n t o d e bt an d t h e b oy p,ro b abl y l e f t
sc hool t o h e l p su p p o rt t he fam ily o f y ou n ge r c h ild r e n What oc c u .

a t i on h e f o ll o w e d for t he n e x t e i gh t y e ars i s a m att e r of c on j e c t u r e

p .

Fr o m e vi d e n c e fou n d i n hi s p l ay s i t i s all e ge d w i th s om e sh ow o f
,

au t ho r i ty t hat he w as a c o u n t ry s c h o ol m as t e r an d a l aw y e r s c l e rk
’
,

t h e c h arac te r o f H ol ofe rn e s i n L ove s L a é ou r s Los t b e i n g t h e w a r

’ ’
, ,

an d S hak e s p e ar e s kn ow l e d ge o f l aw t e r m s for t h e
’
ran t for on e ,

o th e r. B u t if w e t ak e su c h e v i d e n c e t h e n Shak e s p e ar e m u st ha v e
,

b e e n a b otan i s t b e c au s e of hi s kn ow l e d ge of w il d fl ow e rs ; a sailor
, ,

A N N E H AT H AW AY CO T TAGE

b e c au s e h e k n ow s t h e rop e s a c o u rt e r ,i
b e c au s e of h i s e x traordin ary
fac ili ty i n qu i p s an dc o m p li m e n t s an d c ou r tly l an u a e ; a c l ow n
g g ,

b e c au se n on e o t h e r i s s o d u ll an d fooli s h ; a ki n g b e c au s e R i c hard ,

an d H e n ry ar e t r u e t o li fe ; a w om an b e c au s e h e has s o u n d e d t h e
,

d e p ths of a w om an s f e e lin gs an d su r e ly a R o m an b e c au s e i n Cor i

’
,

zs Cae s a r h e h as s how n u s t h e R om an s p i r i t b e t t er
'

ol a n u s an d
j u l zz

th an ha v e th e R om an w r i t e r s t h e m s e l v e s H e w a s e v e ry t h i n g i n h i s
. ,

i m agin ati on an d i t i s i m p ossibl e from a s tu d y o f hi s s c e n e s an d

,

c h arac t e rs t o fo r m a d e fi n i t e o p i n i on a s t o hi s e arly o c c u p ati on .

I n 1 5 82 S hak e s p e ar e w as m arr i e d t o An n e H at haw ay t he d au gh ,

t e r o f a p e asan t fa m ily of S hott e ry w ho w as e i gh t y e ar s o ld e r t han

‘

h e r b oy hu s ban d From n u m e rou s sarc asti c r e fe r e n c e s to m arri age

.

m ad e b y t h e c harac te rs i n hi s p l ays an d from t h e fac t th at h e s oon

,
 TH E AGE O F ELIZABETH 143

le ft hi s wife an d fam ily an d w e n t to Lon d on it i s ge n e rally all e ge d ,

that th e m arriage w as a hasty an d u n happ y on e b u t he re again the

e vid e n c e i s e n ti r e ly u n t ru stw o r thy I n m an y Mi rac l e s as w e l l a s i n
.

late r p l ay s it w as c u st om ary to d e pict t h e se am y s id e of d o m e stic

life for t he am u s e m e n t of the c row d ; an d Shak e sp e are m ay have
foll ow e d th e p u bli c t ast e i n t hi s as he did i n o th e r t h i n gs Th e r e f .

c re n e e s to l ove an d hom e an d q u i e t j oys i n S hak e s p e ar e s pl ay s ar e

’

e n ou gh i f w e t ak e s u c h e vid e n c e
,
t o e s t abli s h fi r m l y t h e o p p osi t e
,

s u pp os iti on t hat h i s l ove w as a v e ry happy o n e An d the fac t

, .

t hat aft e r h i s e n o rm ou s su c c e ss i n Lon d on h e r e ti re d to S trat

, ,

ford to live qu i e tly w it h h i s w i fe an d d au ght e rs t e n d s to t h e sam e ,

c on c l u s i on .

Ab ou t the y e ar I 5 87 S hak e sp e are l e ft hi s fam ily an d w e n t t o

Lon d on an d j o in e d h i m s e l f t o Bu rb age s c om p an y o f p l ay e rs A p e r
’
.

s i s t e n t t radi ti on say s t hat h e had i n c u rr e d th e an ge r of S i r Th o m as

Lu c y fi rs t b y p oac hi n g d e e r i n t hat n obl e m an s park an d the n

’
, , ,

w he n hal e d b e fo re a m agi st rat e b y w ri ti n g a sc u rr il ou s b al lad a b ou t

,

S i r Tho m as w hi c h s o arou s e d t he ol d ge n tl e m an s i re that S hak e

’
,

s p e are w as o bli ge d t o fl e e t he c o u n t ry An old re c o rd s a y s that

1
.
"
th e po e t w as m u c h give n t o a ll u n l u c ki n e s s i n s t e ali n g v e n i s on
”
an d rabbi ts th e u n l u c ki n e s s p rob ably c on s i s ti n g i n ge tti n g c au gh t
,

h i m s e l f a n d n ot i n an y l ac k o f l u c k i n c at c h in g t h e rabbi ts The
r idi c u l e h e ap e d u p on t he Lu c y fam ily i n H e n ry I V
, .

e M e r ry
an
d t h
I/V f W i i v i t i s trad ition N ic hol as
'

zve s o n d s or g e s so m e w e g h t o t h .

R ow e w ho p u bli sh e d t h e fi rst li fe of S hake s p e ar e

,
2
i s t he au t h ori ty ,

fo r th i s s to ry b u t th e re i s s om e re ason t o d ou bt w h e t h e r at t h e t i m e ,

w he n S hake sp e are i s sa id t o ha v e p oac h e d i n the d e e r p ark of S i r

Thom as Lu c y at Charl e sc o te t h e r e w e re an y d e e r or p ark at th e
,

pl ac e r e fe rre d to Th e su bj e c t i s w o rthy of som e sc an t att e n t ion if

.
,

on ly to s how h ow w o r t hl e ss i s t h e a t t e m p t t o c on s t r u c t ou t o f ru m o r

t he s tory o f a gr e at li fe w h i c h fo rtu n at e ly p e r hap s h ad n o c on, ,

t e m p orary bi ograp he r .

Of hi s li fe i n Lon d on from I 5 87 t o 1 6 1 I t h e p e ri od of h i s gr e at ,

e s t lit e ra ry ac t ivity w e kn ow n ot hi n g d e fin i t e ly
, We c an j u d ge o n ly .

from h i s p l ay s an d from t h e s e it i s e vid e n t t hat h e e n t e r e d i n to t h e

,

sti rr i n g l ife of En gl an d s c ap i ta l w i th t h e s am e p e rfe c t s y m p athy an d

’

u n d e r stan d i n g th at m arke d h i m am o n g t h e l ai n o l o f h i s n at i v e
p p p
e e

Warwic ksh ire The fi rst au th e n tic r e fe r e n c e to hi m i s in 1 5 9 2 w he n

.
,

1 B
y A hd D vi
rc i th ve t th t y
e a c on a e s, n e se n ee n ce n u r .

2 I
7 9 n ly
1 0 t y ft
,
n e ar th p t de th
a ce n u r a er e oe
’
s a .
 1 44 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

1
G re e n e ’
s bitt e r at a t ck app e ar e d , s h ow n g i
p la i n ly t hat S hake spe are
had i n fiv e y e ars assu m e d an i m p ortan t p os i t i on am on g p l ay w ri ght s .
Th e n ap p e ar e d t h e ap ol ogy of t he p u bli sh e rs of G r e e n e s p am p hl e t ,
’

w i th th e i r tribu t e to t h e p o e t s s t e rli n g c harac t e r , an d o c c as i on al li t

’

e rary r e fe r e n c e s w h c h i
kn own am on g hi s fe ll ow s
s h ow t hat h e w as
"
as th e ge n tl e S hak e s p e are B e n J on son say s of hi m : . I lov e d
t h e m an an d d o hon or h i s m e m ory on t h i s s id e id ol at ry a s m u c h as , ,
”
an y . H e w as in d e e d h on e st an d of an O p e n an d fr e e n atu re , To .

j u d ge from on ly thr e e of hi s e arli e st pl ay s i t w ou ld s e e m r e ason ably

2

e v i d e n t t hat i n th e fi rst fiv e y e ar s of hi s Lon d on li fe h e had gai n e d

.

e n t ran c e t o t h e s oc i e t y of ge n tl e m e n an d s c h ol ars h ad c au gh t t he i r ,

c h ar ac t e r i s t i c m an n e ri s m s an d e x p r e ss i on s an d s o w a s r e ad y by ,

kn ow l e d ge an d ob s e rv ation a s w e ll as by ge n iu s t o w e av e i n to h i s
d ram as th e w h ol e s ti rr i n g l ife of t h e En gli s h p e op l e The p l ay s .

t he m se l ve s w i th t h e t e s t i m on y of c on t e m p orar i e s an d h i s b u s in e s s
,

su c c e s s a r e s tron g e vi d e n c e agai n s t th e t rad i ti on t hat hi s l ife i n

,

Lon d on w as w i ld a n d di ssol u t e like t hat of th e typ i c al ac tor an d ,

p l ay w r i ght o f hi s t i m e .

S hake s p e are s fi rst w o rk m ay w e ll ha v e b e e n t hat of a ge n e ral

’

h e l p e r an od d job m an ab ou t t he t he at e r b u t h e soon b e c am e an
,
-
,

ac t or an d t h e r e c o rd s o f t he ol d Lon d on t h e at e r s s h ow t hat i n th e
,

n e x t t e n y e ar s h e ga i n e d a p ro m i n e n t p l ac e th ou gh t h e re i s li t tl e ,

r e as on t o b e li e v e t hat h e w as c ou n t e d am on g t h e s tar s
”
Wi thin .

tw o y e ars h e w a s at w ork on p l ay s an d hi s c ou rs e h e r e w as e x ac tly ,

like that of o th e r p l ay w rights of h i s t im e H e w orke d w ith o the r .

m e n an d b e r e v i s e d ol d p l ay s b e for e w ri t i n g h i s own an d s o gai n e d

H e n ry V
, ,

a p r ac t i c al kn ow l e d ge of h i s a rt ] ( e 1 5 9 0 1 5 9 1 ) i s an . .
—

e x a m p l e of t h i s t i n k e r i n g w o rk i n w h i c h how e v e r h i s n a t i v e p ow e r

i s u n m i s takably m an i fe s t T h e t hr e e p art s of H e n ry V
, , ,

. ] ( an d R i cka r d
w h i c h b e l on gs w i th th e m ) ar e a s u c c e s s i on of s c e n e s from
En gli s h Ch ron i c l e h i s tory s tru n g t oge th e r v e ry l oos e ly ; an d on ly i n
t h e l as t i s t h e r e an y d e fin i t e a t t e m p t a t u n i t y That h e s oon fe ll .

u n d e r Marl ow e s i n fl u e n c e i s e v i d e n t from t h e a tro c i t i e s a n d b o m

’

bas t of Ti tu s An d r on zon s an d R i cha r d H ] T he form e r m ay hav e

'

b e e n w ri tte n by b oth p l ayw ri gh ts i n c oll aboration o r m ay b e on e of ,

1 R b t G o er f th p p l p l y w
r e e n e , on e o i gh t f t h t i me ow h tt
u ar k d S h k a r s o e e, o a ac e a e

sp e ar ei p m n a
p h l t ll ad A G t e W t
cah f W i t
e B g h "
t w i t h
r oa M illi ’
f
s R p t
or o ou a on o e en

a n ce
”
. Th p m p h l t e id f m i t j l y f S h k p
a e , as e i ro d pi t
s f m
e a ou s f o a es eare , s a sa c u re o a an o

g i en us d yi g f d i i p t i
n o d t i
ss w ai g t t h p l yw i ght f t h t i m
on , a n c on a n s a a rn n o o er a r s o e e,

wh liv w t ly l m t b d th t f G
V
o se es
pp e re a are n a os as a as a o re e n e .

2 Love ’
s L a b ou r ’
s Lost , Com e dy f
o E r r or s , Tw o Ge n t le m e n f
o e r on a .
I 46 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

p p ar
o u l
in Lon d on , an d i ts d e dic at i on to the Earl of Sou tham pton
brou ght , ac c ord in g t o traditi on , a su b stan ti al m on e y gift, w hic h m ay
hav e l aid t h e fou n d at i on for S hak e sp e are s b u si n e ss s u c c e ss . H e
’

app e ars t o h ave s h r e w d ly i n v e st e d h i s m on e y , an d s oon b e c am e

p ar t own e r of t he Gl ob e an d B lac kfri ars the ate rs ,

i n w hi c h hi s p l ay s
w e r e p re s e n t e d b y hi s o wn c om pan i e s . H is s u c c e s s an d p o p u l arity

gr e w a m a z n
gy i . l
t h Wi in a d e c ad e of h i s u n n oti c e d arri v al i n Lon don
h e w as on e of the m os t fam ou s ac tor s an d li t e rary m e n i n En gl an d .

F oll ow i n g hi s e x p e ri m e n tal w ork th e r e c am e a su c c e s s i on of w on

d e rfu l p l ay s ,
M e r cli a n t of V
— e n i ce As You L i ke I t Tw e lft/i Ni gh t
, , ,

cs Ca s a r H a m l e t M a co e tlz Othe ll o K i ng l e a r An tony a n d

f u li z , , , , ,

Cl e op a tr a Th e gr e at t rage d i e s of thi s p e ri od are assoc i a te d w i th a

.

ri od o f gl o om an d so rrow i n th e p o e t s li fe ; b u t o f i t s c au s e w e
’

p e

hav e n o kn ow l e d ge I t m ay h a v e b e e n t hi s u n kn own s o rrow w h i c h

.

t u rn e d h i s t hou ght s b ac k t o S t ratford an d c au s e d ap p ar e n tl y a d i s , ,

sati sfac t i o n w i th hi s w ork an d p rofe s si on b u t t h e l at t e r i s ge n e rally

att rib u t e d t o o th e r c au s e s Ac tor s an d p l ay w ri ght s w e re i n hi s d ay
.

g e n e r a ll y l o o k e d u p o n w i th s u s p i c i on or c o n t e m p t an d S h ak e s p e a r e ,

e ve n i n t h e m id s t of su c c e s s s e e m s t o ha v e l oo k e d fo rw ard t o th e
,

t i m e w h e n h e c ou l d r e ti r e to Stratford to li ve th e li fe of a farm e r
an d c ou n t ry ge n tl e m an H i s ow n an d h i s fa t h e r s fam ili e s w e r e fi rst
’
.

r e l e as e d from d e b t t h e n i n 1 5 9 7 h e b ou ght N e w Pl ac e t he fi n e st
, , ,

h ou s e i n S tr a tford an d s o on add e d a t rac t of farm i n g l an d t o c om

,

p l e t e h i s e s t a t e H .i s
p r o f e s s i o n m a
y h a v e p r e v e n t e d hi s ac q u i ri n g
”
t h e t i tl e of g e n t l e m a n o r h e, m a
y h a v e o n l y fo ll o w e d a c u s t o m o f
the t i m e w h e n h e app li e d for an d ob tai n e d a c oat of arm s for h i s
1

fathe r an d so i n d i r e c tly s e c u re d t h e t i tl e b y i n h e r i tan c e

, H i s h om e .

vi si ts gre w m ore an d m ore fre qu e n t till ab ou t t he y e ar 1 6 1 1 h e l e ft , ,

Lon d on an d r e t i r e d p e rm an e n tly t o S tratford .

Th ou gh st ill i n th e p ri m e of life S hak e sp e ar e soon ab an d on e d hi s ,

d ram ati c w ork for t h e c o m fortabl e life of a c ou n try ge n tl e m an Of .

h i s l ate r p l ay s Cor i ol a n zcs Cy m oe l i n e Wi n te r s Ta l e an d Pe r i cl e s

, , ,
’
,

s how a d e c id e d falli n ff f m hi v i u s w ork a n d i n d i c at e

g o r o s p r e o ,

an o th e r p e r i od o f e x e r i m e n t at i on ; t h i s t i m e n o t to t e st h i s ow n
p
pow e rs b u t to c atc h the fi c kl e hu m or of t he p u blic As i s u su ally .

t h e c a s e w ith a t he at e r goi n g p e op l e the y s oo n tu rn e d from se r i ou s

-
,

d ram a to s e n ti m e n tal o r m ore qu e sti on abl e sp e c tac l e s ; an d w ith

Fl e tc h e r w h o w ork e d w i t h S hak e sp e ar e an d su c c e e d e d hi m as t h e
,

1 S e e Le e Lif e f W i ll i a m S na ke sp e a r e , pp . 1 88- 1 96 .
’
s o
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ AB ETH 147

first playw right of Lon d on the d e c lin e of th e d ram a had l

,
a r e ad
y
\

b e gu n I n 1 6 0 9 how e ve r oc c u rre d an e ve n t w hi c h gave S hake

. , ,

s p e ar e h i s c han c e for a far e w e ll to t h e p u bli c An E n gl i sh shi p

.

d is ap pe are d an d all on board w e re give n u p for l ost A y e ar l at e r

, .

th e sa il or s r e tu rn e d hom e an d t h e i r a rr ival c re at e d in t e n s e e x c i t e
,

m ent . The y had b e e n w re c k e d on t h e u n kn own Be rm u d as an d ,

TR I N I T Y C H U R C H , S T R AT F O R D -O N -A VO N

had live d t he re for t e n m on th s , t e rrifi e d b y m y st e ri ou s n o i s e s w hi c h

t h e y t hou gh t c am e fro m s p i ri ts an d d e vil s .Fi v e d i ff e re n t ac c ou n t s
of t h i s fas c i n at i n g s hi p w r e c k w e r e p u bli s h e d , an d t h e B e r m u d as
”
be c am e kn ow n as th e I l e of D iv e l s S hak e s p e are took t h is st ory
.

— w hic h c au s e d as m u c h p op u l ar i n t e r e s t as t hat l a t e r s h i p w re c k
w h i c h gave u s R ooi n s on Cr u s oe an d w o v e i t i n to Tb e Te mp e s t
—
fi
.

I n th e sam e y e ar ( 1 6 1 1 ) h e p r ob abl y sold h i s i n t e re s t i n t h e

Glob e an d Blac kfriars the at e rs an d hi s d ram atic work was e n d e d
, .
1 48 E NG LI S H LI TERATU R E

1
A fe w p l ays w e re bably l e ft u n fin i sh e d an d w e re tu rn e d ove r
p ro

to Fl e t c h e r an d othe r d ram at i s ts .

That S hak e sp e are t hou gh t li t tl e of h i s su c c e s s an d had n o i d e a

t hat hi s d ram as w e r e t h e gr e at e s t t hat th e w orld e ve r p rod u c e d
s e e m s e v id e n t from t h e fac t t h at h e m ad e n o a tt e m p t t o c ol l e c t or

p u bli s h h i s w o rks o r e ve n t o sa v e h i s m an u sc r i p t s w h i c h w e r e c a re
, ,

l e ssly l e ft t o s tage m an age rs of the the ate rs an d so fou n d the i r w ay ,

u l t i m at e ly t o t h e ragm an Aft e r a fe w y e ar s o f qu i e t lif e o f w h i c h

.
,

w e hav e l e ss r e c ord t han of hu n d r e d s of s i m pl e c ou n try ge n tl e m e n

of t h e t i m e , S hake s p e ar e di e d on th e p robabl e an n ive rsary o f h i s
birth Ap r il 2 3 1 6 1 6 H e w as gi v e n a t om b in th e c han c e l of the
, , .

p ari sh c hu rc h n ot b e c au s e of h i s p r e em i n e n c e i n li t e ratu r e b u t
, ,

b e c au se of hi s i n te re st i n th e affairs of a c ou n try village An d in th e .

s ad i ron y o f fat e t he b road s t on e t hat c o v e r e d hi s t o m b —

, n ow an

obje c t o f ve n e rat i on t o t h e t hou san d s t hat e arl vi s it t h e li t tl e

y y
c h rc
u h — w as i n sc r ib e d as foll o w s

Goo d fr i e n d fo r J e s u s s ak e forb e ar e
,
’

T o d i g t h e d u s t e n c l os e d h e a r e
B l e s te b e th e m an t h a t s p a re s th e s e s ton e s ,

An d c u rs t b e h e th a t m o v e s m y b on e s .

Thi s w r e tc h e d
d o gge re l o v e r the w orld s gre ate st p o e t w as in t e n d e d ’
, , ,

n o d ou b t as a w arn i n g t o so m e s tu p id s e x ton l e s t h e s ho u l d e m p ty
, ,

t he gra v e an d gi v e t h e h on o r e d p l ac e to som e a m i abl e ge n t l e m an

w ho had gi v e n m or e ti th e s to t h e p ar i s h .

Work s of S h ak e s p e ar e . A t t he
ti m e of S h ak e s p e are s d e at h ’

tw e n t y on e pl ay s e xi s t e d i n m an u s c ript s i n t he v ari ou s th e at e r s
-
.

A fe w o th e r s h ad al re ad y b e e n p r i n t e d i n q u ar t o fo r m an d ,

t he l att e r a r e t h e o n l y p u blic a ti o n s tha t c o u ld p o s s ibl y h av e

m e t with t h e p o e t s ow n app r ov al
’
Mor e p r ob abl y th e y w e re
.

t ake n d ow n i n s h or th an d b y s o m e li s t e n e r at t h e pl ay an d th e n
pi r at e d b y s om e p u bli s h e r fo r h i s o w n p ro fit Th e fi rs t .

p r i n t e d c oll e cti on of hi s pl ay s n ow c all e d t he F i r s t Foli o

,

w as m ad e b y t w o act ors H e m i n g a n d Con d e ll w h o , ,

as s e r t e d th a t th e h ad acc e s s t o t h e p a p e r s of t h e p o e t an d
y
had m ad e a p e r fe ct e diti on i n o rd e r t o k e e p t h e m e m ory of
,

s o w or th a fri e n d a n d fe ll o w a liv e T hi s c o n t ai n s thi r t y s i x

y
-
.

y V
1 L ik H III
e d pen rib l y t h l t C d i
an o ss e os ar en o.
,
1 50 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

a re t heb e s t of h i s l at e r pl ay s ; b u t th e y al l s h ow a falli n g off

fro m hi s p re vi ou s w o rk a n d i n dic at e a s e c on d p e ri od of e xp e ri
,

m e n t a ti on with t he t as t e o f a fickl e p u blic .

T o r e ad i n s u cc e s s i on fou r pl ay s t aki n g a t y pic al w or k ,

from e a ch of t he ab ov e p e r i od s i s on e of t he v e ry b e s t way s ,

of g e tti n g q u ickl at t h e r e al li fe an d m i n d of S h ak e s e are

y p .

F o ll o wi n g i s a c o m pl e t e li s t with t he app ro xi m at e d at e s of hi s
w or k s cl as s ifi e d acc o rdi n g t o t h e ab o v e fou r p e r i od s
, .

F I R S T PE R I O D E AR L Y E X P E R I M E N T . V en us an d A d on i s , R ap e of
V
,

Ti tu s A n a r on i c u s , H
'
L u cr e ce , 5 94 ;
1 e n ry ] ( h t re e p a r ts ) ,
I 5 9 0 — 1
591
E r r or s , Tw o Ge n t l e m e n
’
L a b ou r
’
L ov e s s L os t , 5 90 ; Com e dy
1 o
f of
V e r on a , 1 59 1 — 1
5 92 R i ck a r d H I , 1 5 9 3 R i ck a r d I ], Ri ng
'

j ok n , 1 5 94
1 5 95
S E C O N D PE R I O D , D VE L OP M E N T R om e o and j u l i e t, M i ds u m m e r
V( fi
E

Vi
.

N zgk t 5 9 5 M e r ck a n t
’
s D r ea m 1 f
o e n ce , H e n ry 1 rs t 5 96p ar t) , 1

V
,

H e n ry [ ( s e c o n d p ar t , M e r r
) y Wi n e s of W i n ds or 1 5 9 7 ; M u ck A d o

V
,

Ab ou t N otk i ng , 5 9 8 ; A s You L i k e I t , H e n ry
1 , 1 5 99 .

T H I R D P E R I O D , M AT U R I T Y AN D GL O O M S on n e ts ( 1 60 0 Tw e lf tk .

N zgk t , 1 6 00 Ta m i ng of t k e S k r e w , j u l i u s Ca s a r , H a m l e t, Tr oi l u s a n d ’

Cr e s s i d a , 1 60 1 — 1 6 0 2 ; A ll ’
s We l l Tk a t E n ds We l l M e a s u r e f or M e a s
,

u r e , 1 60 3 ; Otk e l l o, 1 604 ; K i ng L e a r , 1 6 0 5 ; M a cke tk , 1 606 ; A n tony

and Cl e op a tr a , Ti m on o
f A tke n s , 1 60 7.
F O U R T H PE R I O D , LAT E E X P E R I M E N T . Cor i ol a n u s , P e r i cl e s , 1 60 8 ;
Cy m b e li n e , 1 6 0 9 ; Wi n te r ’
s Ta l e , 1 6 1 0— 1 6 1 1 ; Tk o Te mp e s t , 161 1 ;
H e n ry V
I ]! ( u n fi n i s h e d ) .

Cl as s i ficat i on Sou rce I n hi s t ory l e ge n d an d

acc rdi n g o to .
, ,

s t o ry S h ak e s p e ar e fou n d t h e m a t e r i al fo r n e ar l y al l hi s d ram as ;
,

an d s o th e a r e o ft e n divid e d i n t o th r e e cl a s s e s c all e d h i s t or
y
V
,

ic al pl ay s lik e R i cka rd [H an d H e n i y ; l e ge n d ary or p ar tl y

,

hi s t or ic al pl ay s lik e M a cke tk K i ng L e a r an d j u l i u s Cws a r ;

, , ,

a n d ficti o n al pl a s lik R om e o a n d j u li e t an d Tk e M e rcka n t

y e

V
,

e n i ce S h k p i v t d f i f f t h e pl o t s o r
of a e s e.a r e n e n e e w a n
y o , ,

s t or i e s up on whic h hi s d ram as a re fou n d e d b u t b or ro w e d ,

th e m f re e l y aft e r the c u s t o m of h i s age wh e re v e r h e fou n d

, ,

the m F o r hi s l e ge n d ary an d hi s t or ic al m at e ri al h e d e p e n d e d
.

l arg e l y on H ol i n s ke d s Ck r on i c l e s of E ng l a n d S c ot l a n d a n d
’

, ,

I r e l a n d an d on N or th s t ran s l ati on of Plut ar ch s fam ou s L i v e s

’ ’
.
,
 Pr op e r t y of th e M e trop ol i tan M u se u m of Ar t

PO R TI A

Af te r th e p ortrait b y J ohn E ve re tt Millais

I 52 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

the b e s t of S h ak e s p e ar e s pl ay s i n e ach of t he th re e cl as s e s ;
’

but t he o rd e r i n dic a t e s m e r e l y the au th or s p e rs on al opi n i on ’

o f t h e re l a tiv e m e r it s of t h e pl a s i n e ach cl as s
y T hu M
V
s e r .

cka n t o e n i ce w o uld b e t he fi r s t of t he c o m e di e s fo r t h e
f
b e gi n n e r t o r e ad an d j u l i u s Cws a r i s an e xc e ll e n t i n t rod u c
,

ti on t o t he hi s t or ic al pl ay s an d t he t rage di e s .

CO M E D I E S . M e r cka n t of Vi
M i ds u m m e r N zgkt s D r e a m A s
en ce ,
’
,

You L i k e I t Wi n te r s Ta l e Tke Te mp e s t Tw e lf tk N zgk t

’
, , , .

T R AG E D I E S R om e o a n d j u l i e t M ac b e tk H a m l e t K i ng L e a r
.
, , , ,

Otke l l o.
H I S T O R I C AL PL AY S . j uli us Caes a r , R i cka r d [I ], H e n ry I VH , e n ry V
,

Cor i ol a n u s , A n tony an d Cl e op a t r a .

D ou b tf u l Pl ay s . I t i s r e as on ably c e r t ai n t h at s o m e of t h e
pl ay s g e n e rall y a tt r ibut e d t o S h ak e s p e are are p ar tl y t h e w ork
o f o th e r d ram ati s t s The fi rs t of th e s e d ou bt fu l pl ay s oft e n
.
,

c al l e d t he Pre S h ak e s p e ar i an G rou p ar e Ti ta s An d ron i cu s an d

V
-
,

t h e fi r s t p ar t of H e n ry ] S h ak e s p e are p r ob abl y w o r k e d with

V
.

Mar l owe i n t he t w o l as t p ar t s of H e n ry ] an d i n R i cka r d H I .

Th e th r e e pl ay s Ta m i ng of tke S kre w Ti m on a n d P e r i cl e s
, , ,

S ak e s p e ar e s w ork but t he o th e r a uth o r s are

’
a re o n l p ar tl h
y y
V
,

u n k n ow n H e n ry 1 ]! i s the w or k of Fl e tch e r an d S h ak e
.

s p e ar e,
O pi n i on b e i n g d ivid e d a s t o wh e th e r S h ak e s p e ar e

h e lp e d F l e tch e r o r wh e th e r it w as an u n fi n i s h e d w or k of
,

S h ak e s p e ar e which w as p u t i n t o F l e tch e r s h an d s for c o m

’

l t i T w o N okl e K i n s m e n i s a pl a t di aril f nd
p e o n.
y n o or n
y ou

i n e diti on s of S h ak e s p e ar e b u t i t i s oft e n pl ac e d am on g hi s
,

d ou bt fu l w ork s The g re a t e r p ar t of the pl ay i s u n d ou bt e dl y

.

b y F l e tch e r E d w a r d [H i s o n e of s e v e ral c r u d e pl ay s p u b
.

l i s he d at fi r s t an on y m ou s l y an d l a t e r att r ib u t e d t o S h ak e s p e ar e
b y publi s h e rs w h o d e s i re d t o s e ll th e i r w ar e s I t c on t a i n s a fe w .

p as s age s th at s t ron gl y s u gge s t S h ak e s p e are but t he e xt e rn al

e vid e n c e i s al l agai n s t hi s au th o r s hip .

S h ak e s p e are s Poe m s
’
I t i s g e n e rally as s e rt e d th at if
.
,

S h ak e s p e are h ad w ritt e n n o pl ay s h i s p oe m s al o n e w ould

’

h ave giv e n hi m a c om m an di n g pl ac e i n t he Elizab e th an A ge .

 TH E AGE O F E LIZ ABETH 1 53

Ne v e r th e l e s s , i n v ar i o u s hi s t o r i e s of ou r lit e ra tu re th e re
t he

i s app are n t a d e s i re t o p r ai s e an d p a s s ov e r al l b u t t he S on n e ts
as rapidly as p os s ibl e ; an d t h e r e a s on m ay b e s t a t e d fr an kl y

V
.

H i s t w o l on g p oe m s e n u s an d A d on i s
,
an d T h e R ap e
”
of Luc re c e ,
c on t ai n m u ch p oe tic fan cy ; but i t m u s t b e s aid
of b oth th at t he s ubj e ct s a re u n pl e as an t a n d th a t th e y a r e ,

d ragg e d o u t t o u n n e c e s s ary l e n gth i n o rd e r t o s h ow t he pl ay

of
y o uth ful i m ag i n ati on T h e y w e re
. e xt r e m e l y p op u l ar i n

S h ak e s p e are s d ay b u t i n c om p ar i s on with hi s g re a t d ra m atic

’

w or k s th e s e poe m s are n ow of m i n or i m p or t an c e .

S h ak e s p e are s S on n e ts o n e h u n d r e d an d fift y fo u r i n n u m
’
-
,

b e r are t he on l y di re c t e xp re s s i on o f t h e p oe t s ow n fe e li n g s
’
.
,

th at w e p os s e s s fo r hi s pl ay s are t he m os t i m p e rs on al i n all
lit e rat u re Th e y w e re p u bli s h e d t oge th e r i n 1 6 0 9 ; b u t i f th e y
.

h ad an y u n it y i n S h ak e s p e are s m i n d th e i r pl an a n d pu r p os e
’

ar e h ar d t o di s c ov e r B y s om e c r itic s th e y a re re g ard e d as
.

m e r e lit e rary e x e rci s e s ; b y o th e rs as t h e e xp r e s s i on o f s o m e

p e rs on al g r i e f d u ri n g t h e thi r d p e ri od of t he p oe t s lit e r ary ’

c ar e e r S till o th e r s t aki n g a hi n t fro m t h e s o n n e t b e g i n n i n g

.
,
“
Tw o l o v e s I h av e o f c o m fo r t an d d e s p ai r
,
divid e th e m al l
,

i n t o t w o cl as s e s add re s s e d t o a m an w h o w a s S h ake s p e are s

,
’

f r i e n d an d t o a w om an w ho di s d ai n e d hi s l o v e T h e r e ad e r
,
.

m ay w e ll av oid s u ch cl as s ific a ti on s an d re ad a fe w s on n e t s ,

lik e t he tw e n ty n i n th f o r i n s t an c e a n d le t th e m s p e a k th e i r
-
, ,

o w n m e s s ag e A fe w ar e t r ivi al an d a r ti fici al e n ou g h s u g
.
,

g e s t i n g t h e e l a b o r a t e e x e r ci s e s o f a pi a n o pl a
y e r ; b u t t h e

m aj o r it y ar e r e m ar k abl e for th e i r s ubtl e th o u ght a n d e x q u i s it e

e xp re s s i on . H e re an d th e r e i s o n e lik e th a t b e g i n n i n g
,

W h e n t o t h e s e s s i o n s o f s w e e t s i l e n t th o u g h t
I s u m m o n u p r e m e m b r an c e of th i n g s p as t ,

which will h au n t t he r e ad e r l on g aft e r w ard s lik e t he re m e m ,

b ran c e of an old G e r m an m e l od y .

S h ak e s p e ar e s Pl ace an d I n fl u e n ce
’
S h ak e s p e are h old s b y
.
,

l ccl ti t h e fo r e m os t pl ac e i n t h e w o rld s lit e ra

’

g e n e r a a a m a o n ,

t u r e an d h i s o v e r wh e l m i n g g re at n e s s r e n d e rs it di fficult t o
,
1 54 ENG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

c r itici se or e v e n t o p rai s e hi m T w o p oe t s o n l y H o m e r an d
.
,

D an t e h av e b e e n n am e d with hi m
,
b u t e a ch of th e s e w ro t e
withi n n a rrow li m it s whil e S h ak e s p e are s ge n i u s i n cl u d e d all
,
’

t he w or ld of n at u re a n d of m e n I n a w o rd h e i s t he u n i
.
,

v e rs al p oe t To s t u d y n a t u r e i n h i s w ork s i s lik e e xpl o ri n g a

.

n e w an d b e au ti fu l c o u n t r t t d m i h i w k i lik
y ; o s u
y a n n s or s s e

g o i n g i n t o a g r e a t cit
y vi e wi n g t h,
e m o tl e
y c r o wd a s o n e vi e w s

a g re a t m as q u e rad e i n which p as t an d p r e s e n t m i n gl e f r e e l
y
an d fam ili a r l
y as i f t h e d e a d w e r e al l livi n g ag ai n
,
A n d t he .

m ar v e l ou s thi n g i n thi s m a s q u e r ad e of all s o r t s an d c on di

,

ti on s of m e n i s th a t S h ak e s p e are li ft s t he m as k fro m e v e ry
,

fac e l e t s u s s e e t h e m an a s he i s i n hi s o w n s ou l an d s h ows
, ,
”
u s i n e ach o n e s o m e g e r m o f g oo d s o m e s ou l of g ood n e s s
,

e v e n i n thi n g s e vil F or S h ak e s p e are s t r ik e s n o u n c e r t ai n

.

n o t e a n d ra i s e s n o d o ubt s t o a d d t o t h e b u r d e n o f y ou r o w n
,
.

G oo d alw ay s o v e r c o m e s e vil i n t h e l o n g r u n ; an d l ov e faith , ,

w ork an d d u t y ar e th e fou r e l e m e n t s th at i n all age s m ak e

,

t h e w o r ld r i g ht To c r itici s e or p r ai s e t h e g e n i u s th at c r e at e s
.

th e s e m e n an d w o m e n i s t o c r itici se o r p rai s e h u m an ity it s e l f .

O f h i s i n fl u e n c e i n lit e rat u re it i s e q u all y di ffic u lt t o s p e ak .

G oe th e e xp r e s s e s t h e c o m m on lit e rary j u d gm e n t wh e n he
“
sa s
y ,
I d o n o t r e m e m b e r th a t an
y b ook or p e rs on or e v e n t

i n m y li fe e v e r m ad e s o g re a t an i m p r e s s i o n u p on m e a s t h e
”
pl ay s of S h ak e s p e are H i s i n fl u e n c e u p on o u r ow n l an g u age
.

an d tho u g ht i s b e o n d c alc u l a ti on S h ak e s p e are an d t h e K i n

y .
g
J am e s B ibl e are the t w o g r e a t c on se rv a t o rs of t he En gli s h
s p e e ch ; an d o n e w h o h abit u all r e ad s th e m fi n d s hi m s e l f
y
p os se s s e d Of a s t y l e an d v oc ab u l ary th at are b e y o n d c r itici s m .

Ev e n th os e w ho r e ad n o S h ak e s p e are a r e s till u n c o n s ci o u s l y
g u id e d b y hi m f o r,
hi s th ou g ht an d e xp r e s s i on h av e s o p e r

v ad e d ou r li fe an d lit e ra t u re th at it i s i m p o s s ibl e s o l on g as ,

on e s p e ak s t he E n g li s h l an g u age t o e s c ap e h i s i n fl u e n c e
,
.

H is l i fe w as g e n t l e , an d th e e l e m e n ts
So m i xe d i n h i m , t h at N a tu r e m i g h t s ta n d up

An d say t o al l the w orl d , T hi s w as a m au l

I 5 6 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

VS H AKE S PE AR E S
.
’
C O N T E M P O R AR I E S AN D
S U CC E S S O R S I N T H E D R A MA

D e cli n e of I t w as i n e vit abl e th at the d ram a

t h e D r am a .
s h ou ld d e cli n e aft e r S h ak e s p e a r e for the s i m pl e re as on th a t
,

th e re w as n o o th e r g re at e n ou gh t o fill hi s pl ac e A s id e from .

thi s o th e r c au s e s w e re at w ork an d t he chi e f of th e s e w as

, ,

at t h e v e ry s ou r c e of t h e Eli zab e th an d ram as I t m ust b e .

r e m e m b e r e d th at ou r fi r s t pl ay w r i g ht s w r o t e t o pl e ase th e i r

au di e n c e s ; th a t t h e d ram a ro s e i n E n gl an d b e c au s e of t he

d e s i r e of a p at ri o tic p e o pl e t o s e e s om e thi n g of t he s ti r ri n g
li fe of t h e ti m e s re fl e ct e d on t h e s t age F o r th e r e w e re n o .

p ap e rs o r m ag azi n e s i n th os e d ay s an d p e opl e c am e to t he ,

th e at e r s n o t on l y t o b e am u s e d b u t t o b e i n for m e d Lik e
'

child re n th e y w an t e d t o s e e a s tory act e d ; an d lik e m e n th e y

, ,

w an t e d t o k n ow wh a t i t m e an t S h ak e s p e ar e fu l fill e d th e i r
.

d e s i re H e g av e th e m th e i r s t ory an d hi s g e n i u s w as g re at
.
,

e n ou g h t o S h o w i n e v e ry pl ay n o t o n l y th e i r ow n li fe an d
‘

p as s i on s b u t s om e thi n g of t h e m e an i n g of all li fe an d o f th at ,

e t e rn al j u s tic e which u s e s t h e w ar o f h u m a n p as s i on s for i t s

o w n g re a t e n d s T h u s g ood an d e vil m i n gl e fr e e l y i n hi s
.

d ram as ; b u t t he e vil i s n e v e r att ractive an d t he good t ri u m ph s ,

as i n e vit abl y as fa t e T h ou gh hi s l an g u age i s s om e ti m e s c o a r s e

.
,

w e a re t o r e m e m b e r th a t i t w as t he c u s t om of hi s age t o s p e ak
'

s o m e wh a t c oar s e l a n d th at i n l an g u ag e as i n th o u ght an d
y , ,

fe e li n g S h ak e s p e ar e i s far a b ov e m os t o f h i s c o n t e m p o r ar i e s
,
.

W ith hi s s u cc e s s ors all thi s w as ch an ge d T he au di e n c e .

it s e l f h ad g rad u all y ch an ge d an d i n pl ac e of pl ai n p e opl e

,

e ag e r fo r a s t o r an d f or i n fo r m a ti on w e s e e a l a r g e r an d
y ,

l arge r p rop o r ti on of th o s e w ho w e n t t o t h e pl ay b e c au s e th e y
had n o thi n g e l s e t o d o T h e y w an t e d a m u se m e n t o n l y an d
.
,

s in ce th e y had bl u n t e d b y idl e n e s s t h e d e s i r e for s i m pl e

a n d wh ol e s o m e a m u s e m e n t th e y c all e d for s om e thi n g m ore
,

s e n s a ti on al S h ak e s p e a r e s s u cc e s s or s c a t e r e d t o t h e d e
’
.

p r a v e d t as t e s of thi s n e w au di e n c e T h e
y l ack e d n o
. t on l y
 ‘

TH E AGE OF ELIZABETH 1 57

S h ak e s pe are
’
ge n iu s but hi s b road ch arity hi s m oral i n s ight
s , ,
“

i n t o li fe With the e xc e pti on of B e n J on son th e y n e g l e ct e d

.
,

t h e s i m pl e fac t th at m an i n h i s d e e p e s t n a t u r e i s a m or al b e i n g ,

a n d th at o n l a pl a which s a ti s fi e s t h e wh ol e n at u r e of m an
y y
b y s h owi n g t h e t r i u m ph of t h e m oral l aw c an e v e r wh oll y
s ati s f an audi e n c e or a p e o pl e B e au m on t an d F l e tch e r
y .
,

forg e tti n g t h e d e e p m e an i n g of li fe s t rov e fo r e ffe ct b y i n

,

c re as i n g t he s e n s a ti on ali s m of th e i r pl ay s ; We b s t e r re v e l e d
i n t r ag e di e s of bl ood an d th u n d e r ; Mas s i n ge r an d F or d m ad e
an o th e r s t e p d ow n w ar d p r od u ci n g e vil an d lic e n ti ou s s c e n e s
,

for th e i r ow n s ak e m aki n g ch ar ac t e rs an d s it u ati on s m ore

,

i m m or al till n otwith s t an di n g th e s e d ram ati s t s abilit y the

,
’

s t age h ad b e c o m e i n s i n c e re fr iv ol o u s an d b ad B e n J on son s
’
.
, ,

od e , Co m e Le av e t h e Loa th e d S t ag e i s t h e j ud g m e n t of a
,

l arge an d h on e s t n a t u re g r ow n w e ary of t h e pl ay s an d t he
pl ay e rs of th e ti m e We re ad with a s e n s e of r e li e f th at
.

i n 1 6 4 2 o n l y tw e n t y s i x y e ar s aft e r S h ak e s p e are s d e a th
’
-
, ,

b o th h o u s e s of Parli am e n t v o t e d t o cl o s e the th e at e rs as
b re e d e rs of li e s an d i m m or alit y .

BENJ O N S ON ( 1 5 73 3 - 1 6 3 7)
Pe rs o n all y J on s on i s t h e m os t c om m a n di n g lit e ra ry fi g u re
a m on g t h e Eli zab e th an s F o r tw e n t y fiv e y e ars h e w a s t he
.
-
.

lit e rary dict at or of Lon d on t he chi e f of all t he wit s th at

,

g a th e re d n i g htl y a t t h e o l d D e vil T a v e r n W ith h i s .g r e a t

l e ar n i n g hi s abilit y an d hi s c om m an di n g p os iti on a s p oe t
, ,

l au r e at e h e s e t hi m s e l f s q u are l y agai n s t hi s c on t e m p or ar i e s
,

an d t h e r o m an tic t e n d e n c of t h e a g e F o r t w o thi n g s h e
y .

fou ght b rav e l y ,

t o re s t ore t h e cl a s s ic for m of t h e d r am a ,

an d t o k e e p t h e s t a e fr o m i t s d ow n w ar d c ou r s e
g A pp ar e n tl y .

h e fail e d ; t h e r om an tic s ch oo l fix e d i t s h o ld m ore s t r on g l y

than e v e r ; t he s t age w e n t s wi ftl y t o an e n d as s ad as th a t
of t h e e ar l d ram a ti s t s N e v e r th e l e s s hi s i n fl u e n c e liv e d an d
y .

g w m o r e p ow e rfu l till aid e d l arg e l y b y F r e n ch i n fl u e n c e it

r e , ,

r e s ult e d i n t h e s o c all e d cl as s ici s m of t h e e i ht e e n th c e n tu r

y
-
g .
 1 58 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Li fe . J on son born at We s tm in ste r ab ou t the y e ar I 5 73

w as .

H i s fathe r an e d u c at e d ge n tl e m an had h i s p rop e r ty c on fi sc at e d

, ,

an d w a s h i m s e lf t hrow n in t o
p r i son b y Q u e e n M a ry ; so w e in fe r

t h e fa m ily w as of so m e p ro m in e n c e F r om h i s m o t h e r h e r e c e i v e d
.

c e rtain s tron g c haract e ri sti c s an d b y a s i n gl e s hort r e fe r e n c e

, in
J on s on s w orks w e are l e d to se e th e kin d of w om an she w as I t i s
’
.

w h il e J on son i s t e lli n g D ru m m on d of t h e o c c as ion w he n h e w as

t hrown i n to p r i son b e c au s e s o m e p assage s in th e c om e d y of E a s t
,

w a r d H o gave off e n se t o K in g J am e s an d h e w a s i n d an ge r o f a ,

horribl e d e ath aft e r h av i n g ,

his e ars an d n os e cu t o ff .

H e t e ll s us h ow , aft e r hi s
pard on h e w as ban qu e tin g
,

w i th hi s fri e n d s w h e n hi s ,
" ”
ol d m o th e r c am e in
an d s how e d a p ap e r fu ll
of l u sty s tro n g p ois on,

i
w h c h she i n t e n d e d t o m ix
w i th h i s d r i n k j u s t b e fo r e
the e x e c u t i on An d t o .

s h ow t hat she w as n o
c h u rl she
,
i n t e n d e d fi rs t
t o d ri n k of th e p oi son h e r
‘

s e lf T h e i n c id e n t i s al l
.

t h e m or e su gge s t ive fro m

t h e fac t t hat Chap m an an d
BEN j o N S ON
Mars ton , on e h i s fri e n d an d

t he the r
o hi s e n e m y, w e re fi rst c as t i n to p i
r s on as the au t h or s o f

E a s tw a r d H o an d rou gh B e n J on son at on c e d e c l ar e d t hat h e t o o

h ad h ad a s m all b an d i n th e w r i ti n g an d w e n t t o j oi n th e m i n p ri s on .

J on s on ’
s fat h e r c am e o u t of
p r i
s o n, havin g gi v e n u p h i s e st ate , an d
b e c am e a m in i ste r H e di e d j u st . b e fo re th e s on s bi rth , an d tw o
’

e a r s l at e r th e m o th e r m arr i e d a b r i c kl ay e r o f Lon d on T h e b oy
y .

w as s e n t t o a p ri v a t e s c hool an d l at e r m ad e h i s own w ay t o We s t
,

m i n s t e r S c ho ol w h e r e th e su b m ast e r Cam d e n s t ru c k b y t h e b o y s
’

, , ,

ab i li ty t au ght an d l ar e l su o rte d h im F o r a s h ort ti m e h e m ay

, g y pp .

hav e s tu d i e d a t th e u n i v e rs i t y i n Cam b rid ge ; b u t hi s s t e p fat h e r

so o n s e t h i m t o l e arn i n b r i c kl a e r s t rad e H r an aw ay fro m
’

g t h e y e .

t hi s an d w e n t w i t h t h e En gli s h a rm y t o fi ght S p an i ard s i n t h e Low

,

Cou n tri e s H i s b e st kn own e x pl o it th e r e w as to fi gh t a d u e l b e tw e e n

.
1 60 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

i
a s ng e l day He
v e r t ak e s lib e r ti e s with hi s t oric al fact s
. ne ,

a s S h ak e s p e ar e d oe s b u t i s a cc u rat e t o t he s m all e s t d e tail

, .

H i s d ram as ab ou n d i n cl as s ic al l e arn i n g ar e c a r e fully an d ,

l ogic ally c on s t ru ct e d an d c om e d y an d t rage d y ar e k e pt ap ar t

, ,

i n s t e ad of c rowdi n g e ach o th e r as th e y d o i n S h ak e s p e ar e
an d i n li fe I n o n e r e s p e ct hi s c om e di e s ar e w o r thy of c are
.

f l re di g
u a n — th e y are i n t e n s e l y re ali s tic p r e se n ti n g m e n
, ,

a n d w o m e n of t h e ti m e e x actl y a s th e w e re F r om a fe w
y .

of J on s on s s c e n e s w e c an u n d e rs t an d b e tt e r th an fro m all
’

t he pl a
y s o f S h a k e s p e ar e — h o w m e n t alk e d an d act e d d u ri n g

t h e A ge o f Eli za b e th .

J on s on s fi rs t c om e dy E v e ry M a n i n H i s H u m ou r i s a ke y
’

, ,

”
t o all h i s d ra m as The w o r d . h u m ou r i n hi s age s t ood for
Eve ry Man i n s om e ch a r a ct e r i s tic whi m or qu alit
y o f s o ci e t
y .

3 18 11 0 01“
3 1
J on s on g iv e s t o h i s l e adi n g ch ar act e r s om e p r om
i n e n t hu m or e x agge ra t e s i t as t he c ar t oon i s t e n l ar g e s t h e
, ,

m o s t ch ara ct e r i s tic fe at u r e o f a fac e an d s o h old s it b e for e o u r ,

a tt e n ti o n th at al l o th e r q u aliti e s a r e l o s t s i g ht o f which i s
t h e m e th o d th at D ick e n s u s e d l at e r i n m an y o f hi s n ov e l s .

E v e ry M a n i n H i s H u m ou r w as t h e fi r s t of th r e e s a ti re s .

I t s S p e ci al ai m w as t o r idic u l e t h e h u m o rs o f t h e city T he .

Cy n tk i a s R e ve l s s ati ri ze s t h e hu m o r s of the c ou r t ;
’
s e c on d , ,

whil e t h e thi rd Tke P oe ta s te r t h e r e s u lt of a q u arre l with

, ,

h i s c o n t e m p o ra r i e s w a s l e v e l e d a t t h e fal s e s t an d ar d s of t he
,

p o e t s o f t h e ag e
V
.

T h e th r e e b e s t k n ow n of J on s on s c om e di e s ar e ol on e
’

p ,

or tke Fox , Tke Al cke m i s t , an d Ep i cce n e , or tke S i le n t Wom a n

Vlp
.

o on e k e e n an d m e r cil e s s an al y s i s of a m an g o v e r n e d
is a

b y an o v e rwh e l m i n g l ov e of m on e y fo r i t s o w n s ak e T he .

fi rs t w or d s i n t he fi r s t s c e n e a re a k e y t o t he wh ol e c om e d y
( Vlpo on e
)
Good m orn i n g t o th e d ay ; an d n e x t , m y g o l d !
Op e n th e s h ri n e th at I m ay s e e m y s ai n t .

( M os ca w i tkd r a w s a c u r ta i n a n d d i scov e rs p i l e s f
o

a te , j e w e l s ,
g ol d , fil )
e tc .

H a i l th e w or l d l an d m ine !
’
s s ou ,
 161
'

TH E AGE O F ELIZ ABETH

Vl po
o ne s
’
i n c re as i n g hi s w e alth i s t o pl ay up on t he
m e th od of

av a r ic e of m e n H e p re t e n d s t o b e at t he poi n t of d e ath an d
.
,
”
h i s s uit or s w h o k n o w h i s l ov e o f g ai n an d th a t he ha s n o
,

h e i rs e n d e av or hy poc ritic all y t o s w e e t e n hi s l as t m om e n t s

,

b y givi n g hi m rich p re s e n t s s o th a t h e will l e av e th e m al l hi s ,

w e alth The i n t r i g u e s of th e s e s u it or s fu rn i s h t he s t ory of

.

t h e pl ay an d s h ow t o wh a t i n fam ou s d e pth s a v a r ic e will l e a d

,

a m an .

Tk e Al cke m i s t i s tud y of qu ack e ry on on e s id e an d of

a s

g llibilit y o n t he o th e r fo u n d e d on t he m e di ae v al id e a of t he
u ,

1
phil o s oph e r s s t on e an d appli e s a s w e ll t o t he p at e n t m e di
’

ci n e s a n d ge t rich q u ick s ch e m e s of ou r d ay as t o t he p e c u l
- -

i ar for m s o f q u ack e ry with which J on s on w as m ore fam ili ar .

I n pl o t an d a r ti s tic c on s t r ucti on Tk e A l cke m i s t i s an al m os t

p e rfe c t s p e ci m e n of t he b e s t En gli s h d ram a I t has s o m e .

re m ar k abl
y g oo d p a s s ag e s a n d i s t h e m os t r e ad a b l e of J on ,
'

’
s on s pl a s
y .

Ep i coen e or tke S i l e n t Wom a n i s a p ros e c o m e d y e xc e e di n gl y

, ,

we ll c on s t ru ct e d f u ll of li fe a b ou n di n g i n fu n a n d u n e xp e ct e d
, ,

s i t tI at i o n s H e re i s a b r i e f o u tli n e f rom which t he re ad e r m ay

.

s e e o f wh a t m a t e r i al s J on s o n m ad e up hi s c o m e di e s .

Th e chi e f c h ara c t e r is Moros e , a r i c h ol d c o dg e r w h os e h u m or i s a

h orro r o f n oi s e . He li ve s in a s tr e e t so n ar r ow th a t i t w i ll ad m it no

Th e S i l e n t c a rr i age s k e y h o l e ; p u ts m a t
; h e p ad s th e d oo rs ; p u g s th e l
Wom an t re s s e s o n th e s tai rs . s e r v a n t w h o w e ars
H e d is m i s se s a
s q u e a k y b oot s ; m a k e s al l th e re s t g o ab ou t i n t hi c k s to c k i n g s ; an d

th e y m u s t an s w e r h i m b y s i g n s s i n c e h e c an n o t b e ar to h e a r a n y b od y ,

b u t h i m s e l f tal k H e d i s i n h e ri t s hi s p o or n e p h e w E u ge n i e an d to m ak e
. , ,

s u r e t h at th e l a t te r w i l l n o t
g e t an
y m o n e y o u t o f h i m r e s o lv e s t o m a r ry ,
.

H i s c on fi d an t i n th i s d e l i c a te m a tte r i s C u tb e a r d th e b arb e r w h o u n l i k e , ,

h i s k i n d n e v e r s p e a k s u n l e ss s p o k e n t o a n d d oe s n o t e v e n k n i c k h i s
, ,

s c i s s ors as h e w or k s Cu tb e a rd ( w h o i s s e c r e t l y i n l e a g u e w i th the
.

n e ph e w e ll s h i m o f E p i c oe n e s i l e n t w om a n a n d M o r os e i s s o
) t a r a re , , ,

d e l i gh te d w i th h e r s i l e n c e tha t h e r e s olv e s to m ar r y h e r o n th e s p ot .

Cu tb e a rd p r od u c e s a p a rs on w i th a b ad c o l d w h o c an s p e a k o n l y i n a ,

w h i s p e r t o m a rr y th e m
, a n d w h e n th e p ars o n c ou h s a fte r th e c e r e m o n y
g
1 A s i m ila r s tor y of q u ac k e ry i s foun d i n Chau ce r, The Can on
’
s Ye oma n s
’
Ta le ”
.
1 62 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

Moros e d e m an d s b ac k fiv e l l i n gs o f th e fe e T o s av e i t the p arson

s hi .

c ou g h s m o r e a n d i s h u r r i e d l y b u n d l e d o u t o f th e h o u s e
,
Th e S i l e n t .

w om an fi n d s h e r v o i c e i m m e d i a te l y a f te r th e m ar r i ag e b e g i n s to t a lk ,

l ou d l y an d t o m a k e r e form s i n th e h ou s e ho l d d ri v i n g Moros e t o d i s t r a c
,

ti on . A n o i s y d i n n e r p ar t y fro m a n e i gh b or i n g h ou s e w i th d r u m s a n d ,

t ru m p e t s a n d a q u a r r e li n g m a n a n d w i fe i s s k i ll fu ll y g u i d e d i n a t th i s
,

m om e n t t o c e l e b ra te th e w e dd i n g M o r os e fl e e s for h i s l i fe a n d i s
. ,

fou n d p e r c h e d l i k e a m on k e y o n a c ro s s b e a m i n th e a t t i c w i th al l hi s ,

n i gh t c a p s t i e d o v e r h i s e ars H e s e e k s a d i v o r c e b u t i s d r i v e n fra n ti c
. ,

b y th e l ou d argu m e n ts o f a l aw y e r a n d a d i v i n e w h o are n o o th e r th an ,

Cu tb e ard a n d a s e a c ap t a i n d i s g u i se d W h e n M or os e i s p as t a l l h o p e
.

th e n e p h e w offe rs t o r e l e ase h i m f r om h i s w i fe a n d h e r n o i s y fr i e n d s i f
h e w i ll a ll o w h i m fiv e h u n d re d p o u n d s a y e ar M o r os e o ffe rs hi m a n y.

th i n g e v e ry thi n g t o e s c ap e h i s t or m e n t a n d s i g n s a d e e d t o th a t e ffe c t
, , , .

T h e n c om e s th e s u rp r i s e o f th e p l a y w h e n E u ge n i e w h i p s t h e w i g from
E p i c oe n e an d s h ow s a b oy i n d i s g u i s e .

I t will b e s e e n th at t he S i l e n t Wom a n w ith i t s rapid ,

ac ti on an d i t s u n e xp e ct e d s it u a ti on s o ffe r s a n e xc e ll e n t ,

o pp or t u n it y for t h e a ct o rs ; b u t t he r e adi n g o f t h e pl a as
y ,

of m os t of J on s on s c om e di e s i s m arre d b y l ow i n t r i g u e s
’

s h owi n g a s ad s t a t e o f m or al s am on g t h e upp e r cl as s e s .

B e s id e s th e se a n d m an y o th e r l e s s k n ow n c o m e di e s J o n s on
, ,

w ro t e t w o g r e a t t rage di e s S ey a n u s ( 1 60 3 ) an d Ca t i l i rze ( 1 6 1
'

up on s e v e r e cl as s ic al li n e s A ft e r c e as i n g hi s w or k fo r t he
.

s t ag e J on s on w r o te m a n y m as q u e s i n h o n or of J a m e s I a n d
,

of Q u e e n A n n e t o b e pl ay e d am id e l a b o r a t e s c e n e ry b y t h e
,
”
tl e m e n o f t h e c ou r t T h e b e s t o f th e s e a r e Th e S at r
g e n .
y ,

The Pe n a t e s
” “
,
Mas q u e o f B l ack n e s s "
Ma s q u e o f B e au t y ,
”
,

T h e M a s q u e of Q u e e n s
“
H u e an d C ry aft e r Cu pid an d ,
.

I n al l hi s pl ay s J on s on S h o w e d a s t ron g l y r ic g i ft a n d s o m e ,
“
of h i s littl e p oe m s an d s o n g s lik e Th e Tr i u m ph of Ch a ri s
, ,

D r i n k t o Me O n l y with Thi n e Ey e s T o t h e Me m
“ ”
an d
“
,

o v e d Mo th e r
”
of m B l b tt k n o w n th an h i s
’

or
y y e a r e n o w e
,
e r

g r e a t d ra m a tic w o r k s A s i n
.
g l e v o l u m e o f p r os e c a ll e d Ti m ,

b e r or D i s c ov e r i e s m a d e up on M e n a n d M a tte r i s an i n t e r
,
-

.
,

e s ti n g c oll e cti o n of s h o r t e s s a s which ar e m or e lik e B a c on s

’

y
th an an y o th e r w o r k o f t he age .
1 64 EN GLI S H LI TER ATU R E

H i s tw o b e s t k n ow n pl ay s are Tke Wki te D e vi l ( pub 1 6 1 2 ) .

an d Tke D u cke s s o f M a /i
l ( p u b T h e l a tt e r
. s pit e o f ,

i t s h or ror s ran k s hi m as on e of the g re at e s t m a s t e r s of

,

En gli s h t rage d y I t m u s t b e re m e m b e r e d th at h e s o u ght i n

.

thi s pl ay t o r e p rod u c e t he It ali an li fe of t h e s ixt e e n th

c e n t u ry an d fo r thi s n o i m agi n ary h or ror s are n e e d e d Th e
, .

hi s t ory of an y I t ali an c ou r t o r city i n thi s p e ri od fu r n i s h e s

m or e vic e a n d vi o l e n c e a n d di s h on or th an e v e n t h e g l o om y
I m ag i n a ti on o f We b s t e r c ou ld c on c e iv e A l l t he s o c all e d .
-

bl ood t r age di e s of t he Eli zab e th an p e r i o d from Th o m as Ky d s ,

’

Sp a n i s k Trag e dy d ow n h o w e v e r m u ch th e y m ay c o n d e m n t he
,

b r u t al t as t e of t h e En gli s h au di e n c e s ar e s til l on l y s o m an y ,

s e a r ch li ght s th r ow n u p on a hi s t o r o f h o rr ibl e d ar k n e s s
y .

Th om as M i ddl e t o n ( 1 5 70 I 6 2 7) Mi d d l e t o n i s b e s t
-
.

k n ow n b y t w o g re a t pl ay s Tke Cka ng e l i ng an d Wom e n B e

1
,

w a re Wom e n I n p oe t ry an d dic ti on th e y a re al m o s t w o r thy

.

a t ti m e s t o r an k with S h a k e s p e ar e s pl a s ; i
’

y o th e r wi s e n ,

th e i r s e n s ati o n ali s m an d u n n at u ral n e s s th e y d o vi ol e n c e t o

th e m or al s e n s e an d a r e r e p u l s iv e t o th e m o d e r n r e ad e r .

Tw o e arli e r pl ay s A Tr i ck to ca tck tko Ol d On e h i s b e s t

‘

, ,

c o m e d y an d A Fa i r Qu a r r e l hi s e arli e s t t rage d y ar e l e s s
, , ,

m a t u r e i n th ou g ht a n d e xp r e s s i on b u t m o r e re ad abl e b e c au s e
, ,

th e y s e e m t o e xp r e s s Middl e t on s ow n id e a of th e d ram a ’

r a th e r th an th a t o f t h e c o rru pt c o u r t an d pl ay w right s of h i s

l a t e r age .

H e y w ood s li fe of
’
Th om as H e y w oo d ( 1 5 80 ? ,

which w e k n ow littl e i n d e t ail c ov e rs t he wh ol e p e r i od of ,

t h e Elizab e th an d r am a To t he gl ory o f th at d r am a h e c on
.

t r ib u t e d a cc o rdi n g t o h i s o w n s t at e m e n t t he g re at e r p ar t at
, , ,

l e as t of n e ar ly t w o h u n d r e d an d tw e n t y pl ay s I t w as an
,
.

e n or m o u s am o u n t of w or k ; b u t h e s e e m s t o h av e b e e n an i

m a t e d b y t h e m o d e rn lit e r ary s pi rit of foll owi n g t he b e s t

m a r k e t an d s t riki n g whil e t h e fi n an ci al i ron i s h ot N at u rall y .

1 I n th i s an d in A F ai r Qu a r r e l Mi dd le t on co ll ab o rat e d w ith Willi am R ow l e y , of

w h om lit t le i s k n ow n e x ce pt t hat h e w as a n a c t or fr o m c. 1 60 7-1 62 7.

 TH E AGE O F ELIZ AB ETH 1 65

good w or k w as i m p o s s ibl e v e n t o ge n iu s u n d e r s uch c i r

,
e ,

c u m s t an c e s an d fe w of h i s pl ay s ar e n ow k n ow n
,
T he t w o .

b e s t if t he re ad e r w ou ld o bta i n hi s ow n id e a of H e y w oo d s
,
’

u n d o u bt e d a bilit
y a
,
re A W om a n k i l l e d w i tk K i n d n e s s a ,

p ath e tic s t ory of d om e s tic li fe an d Tb e Fa i r M a i d of tk e

,

We s t a m e l od ram a with pl e n t y of fi ghti n g of t he p op u l ar ki n d

,
.

Th om as D e kk e r ( 1 5 70 D e kk e r i s i n pl e as i n g c o n t r as t
with m os t of the d ram ati s t s of t he ti m e All w e k n ow of hi m .

m u s t b e i n fe r re d fr om h i s w o rk s which s h o w a h app y an d,

n a t u re pl e as an t a n d g oo d t o m e e t T h e r e ad e r will
sun n
y ,
.

fin d t he b e s t e xp r e s s i o n of D e kke r s p e rs on alit y an d e rratic

’

n iu s in T k S k oe m a ke rs H ol i d a f
’

g e o y a h u m o r ou s ,
s t u d y o

pl ai n w or ki n g p e opl e a n d Old For t u n a t u s a fai ry d ra m a of

, ,

t he wi s hi n g h at an d n o e n d o f m on e y Wh e th e r i n t e n d e d
.

for child re n or n ot i t h ad t h e e ffe c t of ch ar m i n g t he e ld e r s

,

far m or e th an t he y ou n g p e o pl e an d t h e pl ay b e c am e i m
,

m e n s e l y p o pul a r .

Mas si n ge r , For d , S h i rl e y Th e s e th re e m e n m ar k t he e n d
.

of t h e Eli zab e th an d ra m a Th e i r w or k d on e l arge ly whil e

.
,

t h e s t ru ggl e w as o n b e tw e e n t h e ac t o rs an d t h e c orr up t
c o u r t on on e s id e an d t he Pu r it an s on t he oth e r s h o w s a
, , ,

d e lib e r at e tu rn i n g aw ay n ot on l y from Pu r it an s t an d ar d s
but fro m t he hi gh id e al s of th e i r ow n ar t t o p an d e r t o t h e
c or r u pt t as t e of t h e u pp e r cl as s e s .

Philip Ma s s i n ge r ( 1 5 84 — 1 6 4 0 ) w a s a d ram atic p o e t of

g r e a t n a tu r a l abilit
y ; but h i s pl o t s an d s itu a ti o n s a r e u s u a ll y
s o s t rai n e d an d a r tifici al th a t t he m od e rn r e ad e r fi n d s n o

i n t e r e s t i n th e m I n h i s b e s t c o m e dy A N e w Way to P ay
.
,

Ol d D e b ts h e achi e v e d g re a t p op u l ar it y an d gav e u s o n e
'

fi gu r e S i r G il e s Ov e r re ach which i s on e of t h e t y pic al

, ,

ch arac t e r s of t he En gli s h s t age H i s b e s t pl ay s are Tke

V
.

Gr e a t D u ke of Fl or e n ce Tke , i rg i n M a r ty r an d Tk e M a i d ,

of H on ou r .

J o h n F or d ( 1 5 86 1 64 2 P) an d J am e s S hi rl e y ( 1 5 9 6 1 666 )
hav e l e ft u s littl e of p e r m an e n t lit e rary v al u e an d th e i r w ork s ,
1 66 E NG LI S H LI T ER ATU RE

ar e re a l y b y th os e w h o wi s h t o u n d e r s t an d t he wh ol e
d on

r i se an d fall of t h e d r am a A n occ as i on al s c e n e i n F or d s .
’

pl ay s i s as s t r on g as an y thi n g th at t he Eli zab e th an A ge p r o

d u c e d b u t a s a wh ol e t h e pl ay s ar e u n n a t u r al a n d ti re s om e .

Prob abl y h i s b e s t pl ay i s Tke B r oke n H e a r t S hi rl e y

w as g iv e n t o i m it ati on of h i s p r e d e c e s s o rs an d h i s v e ry i m it a ,

ti on i s ch arac t e r i s tic of an ag e which h ad l os t i t s i n s pi rati on .

A s i n gl e pl ay Hy d e P a r k with i t s friv ol ou s r e ali s tic di al og u e

, , , ,

i s s o m e ti m e s re a d for i t s r e fl e cti on of t he fa s hi on abl e g o s s ipy

t alk of t h e d ay Lon g b e fo re S hi rl e y s d e ath t h e a ct ors s aid
.
’

,
”
F a re w e ll O th e ll o s occ u p ati on s g on e Pa r li a m e n t v ot e d
’ ’
.

t o C l o s e t h e th e a t e rs th e r e b y s avi n g t h e d ram a f r om a m o re
,

1
i n gl o ri ou s d e ath b y di s s ip ati on .

VI . T H E PR O S E WR I TE R S
F R AN C I S B A C O N ( 1 5 6 1 —
1 6 26 )
I n B ac on w e th os e c o m pl e x an d c on t radict o ry
se e on e of

n a t u r e s which are t h e d e s p ai r of t h e bi og r aph e r I f th e .

w r it e r b e an ad m i re r of B ac on h e fi n d s t oo m u ch th at h e ,

m u s t e xc u s e or p a s s o v e r i n s il e n c e ; an d if h e t ak e s hi s
s t an d o u t h e l aw t o c o n d e m n t h e a v a r ic e an d di s h on e s t of
y
'

h i s s u bj e ct h e fi n ds e n ou gh m or al c ou r ag e an d n obility t o
,

m ak e h i m q u e s ti o n t h e j u s tic e o f h i s o w n j u d g m e n t O n the .

o n e h a n d i s r u gg e d B e n J on s o n s t r ib u t e t o hi s p ow e r a n d
’

“
an d o n t h e o th e r H all am s s u m m a r a t h e w as
’
abilit th a
y , y
m an w h o b e i n g i n t ru s t e d with t h e hi g h e s t g i ft s of H e av e n
, ,

h abit u all y ab u s e d th e m for t h e p oore s t p u r p os e s o f e ar th

hi r e d th e m ou t for g u i n e as pl ac e s an d titl e s i n t h e s e r vic e , ,
”
of i n j u s tic e c ov e t ou s n e s s an d o pp r e s s i on
, ,
.

Lay i n g as id e t h e o pi n i on s of o th e r s a n d r e ly i n g on l y u p on ,

t h e fa ct s o f B ac o n s li fe w e fin d on t h e on e S id e t h e p olitici a n
’

, ,

c old c alc u l ati n g s e l fi s h an d on th e o th e r t he lit e r ary a n d

, , ,

1 Th d w ill fi d w h l
e re a er m i ti i m f t h w i t
n d l ti f m th i
o e so e cr c s o e se r e rs , a n se e c on s ro e r

wor k i Ch l L m b Sp i m
s, n ar e s f E g l i k D m ti P t
a
’
s x ll t b k w hi h
ec en s o n s ra a c oe s , a n e ce en oo ,
c

he lp s ust b tt k w l dg d pp i t i f t h l
o a e er no eE li z b t h d m ti t
e an a re c a on o e e s se r a e an ra a s s.
1 68 E NG LI SH LI TERATU R E

w hic h was the d e d u ctive m e thod that had b e e n i n u s e for c e n tu rie s .

I n h i s fam ou s p l e a for p rogre s s Bac on d e m an d e d thre e thi n gs : t he

fr e e i n ve sti gat i on of n atu re t h e d i sc o v e ry of fac ts i n st e ad of t h e ori e s
, ,

an d th e v e rifi c at i on o f r e su l ts b y e x p e r i m e n t r ath e r t han by argu m e n t .

I n ou r d ay th e s e ar e th e A B C of sc i e n c e b u t i n Bac on s t i m e th e y
’
, , ,

se e m e d r e v ol u t i on ary .

As a l aw y e r h e b e c am e i m m e d iat e ly su c c e ssfu l ; hi s kn ow l e d ge
an d p ow e r of p l e ad i n g b e c am e w i d e ly kn ow n an d it w as al m ost a t ,

t h e b e gi n n i n g o f h i s c a r e e r t ha t J on son w ro te Th e fe ar o f e v e ry on e
,
”
t hat h e ard hi m s p e ak w a s t hat h e s h ou ld m ake an e n d Th e p u b .

l i c ation of h i s E ss ay s ad d e d gre atly t o h i s fam e b u t Bac on w as n o t

c on te n t H i s h e ad w as bu zzi n g w i th hu ge sc he m e s
. t h e p ac i fic a t i on
,

o f u n h ap py I r e l an d t h e s i m p lifi c ati on of En gli sh l aw t h e r e form o f

, ,

t h e C h u rc h t h e s tu dy of n atu r e t he e s tabli sh m e n t of a n e w p h iloso

, ,

p y h . M e an w h il e sa d
, t o s ay h e pl a y
, e d t h e g a m e o f p o li t i c s fo r h i s

r s on al advan tage H d v o t d h i m l f t o E sse x t h o u n g an d

p e e . e e se e y ,

d an ge rou s fav o r i t e o f t he qu e e n w on h i s fri e n d shi p an d t h e n u s e d

, ,

hi m ski llfu lly t o b e tte r h i s o w n p o si ti on Whe n the e arl w as tri e d

.

for t r e ason i t w as p artly at l e as t t hrou gh Bac on s e ffort s t hat h e w as

’
, ,

c on v i c t e d an d b e h e ad e d ; an d t hou gh Bac o n c l ai m s to have b e e n

ac tu at e d b y a h i gh s e n s e o f j u s t i c e w e ar e n ot c on vi n c e d that h e
,

u n d e r s t ood e i th e r j u s t i c e o r fr i e n d shi p i n a p p e ar i n g as qu e e n s
’

c ou n s e l agai n s t th e m an w ho had b e fr ie n d e d hi m H i s c old .

bl ood e d n e s s an d l ac k of m oral se n s itive n e ss ap p e ar e ve n i n hi s

” ”
e ssay s on Love and F r i e n d sh i p I n d e e d w e c an u n d e rs tan d
. ,

h i s lif e on ly u p on t h e t h e ory t ha t h i s i n t e ll e c t u ali ty l e ft hi m c ol d an d

d e ad to t h e hi gh e r s e n t i m e n t s o f o u r hu m an i t y .

D u ri n g Eli zab e t h s r e i gn B ac on had s ou gh t r e p e at e dly for h i gh

’

o ffic e b u t had b e e n bl o c ke d b y Bu rl e i gh an d p e rha p s al so by t h e

,

qu e e n s own shr e wd n e s s i n j u d gin g m e n With the ad v e n t of

’
.

J am e s I ( 1 6 0 3 ) Bac on d e vo t e d hi m s e l f t o th e n e w ru l e r an d ros e
r ap idly i n fa v or H e w as kn i ght e d an d soon a ft e rw ard s attai n e d
. . ,

an o t h e r obj e c t of h i s am bi ti on i n m arryi n g a ri c h w ife Th e .

a p p e aran c e o f h i s gre at w o rk th e Ad va n ce m e n t of Le a r n i ng i n
, ,

1 605 ,w as l ar ge ly th e r e su lt of th e m e n t al s ti m u l u s p rod u c e d b y hi s
c han ge i n fo rtu n e I n 1 6 1 3 h e w as m ad e a t torn e y ge n e ral an d
.
-
,

s p e e d ily m ad e e n e m i e s by u s i n t h ffi t o i c e ase h i s p e rs on al
g e o c e n r

e nds . H e j u stifi e d hi m s e lf i n h i s c ou r se b y h i s d e v otion to th e

ki n g s c au se an d b y t h e b e li e f t hat t he h i gh e r hi s p o s i ti on an d t he
’
,

m or e am pl e hi s m e an s the m ore h e c ou l d d o for s c i e n c e It w as .

 TH E AGE O F ELIZAB ETH 1 69

in thi s y e ar that Bac on w ro te h i s ,

s e r e s of i S ta te Pap e r s , which S how
a m arv e l ou s grasp p olitical of t he t e n d e n c i e s of his age . H ad h i s
ad v i c e b e e n foll o w e d it w ou ld h av e c e r tain ly ave r t e d th e s tru ggl e
,

be tw e e n kin g an d parliam e n t t hat foll ow e d sp e edily I n 1 6 1 7 he .

w as a p po in t e d to h i s fath e r s Offic e Lord K e e p e r of t he S e al an d

’
, ,

t he n e xt y e ar t o t he h i gh offi c e of Lo rd Ch an c e ll or Wi th thi s
o ffi c e h e r e c e i v e d t he t i tl e o f Baron V an d l at e r of V
.

e ru l am i sc ou n t
’

S t Alban w hic h he affi x e d w i th som e van i ty to hi s lit e rary w o rk

.
, .

Tw o y e ars l at e r ap p e ar e d hi s gre at e s t w ork t he N ovu m Org a n u m , ,

c all e d afte r Ar i s t o tl e s fam ou s Org a n on

’
.

Bac on d id n ot l on g e n j oy h i s p oli ti c al hon o rs T h e s t o rm w h i c h .

had be e n l on g gathe ri n g agai n s t J am e s s gove rn m e n t b ro ke su d d e n ly

’

u p on Bac o n s h e ad
’
Whe n Parliam e n t ass e m bl e d i n 1 6 2 1 i t ve n te d
i ts d i s t ru st of J am e s an d h i s favori t e V
.

illi e rs b y s trikin g u n e x p e c te d ly
at t he i r c hi e f ad v i s e r Bac on w as st e rn ly ac c u s e d of ac c e p ti n g b rib e s
.
,

an d t h e e vid e n c e w as s o gre at t hat he c on fe ss e d t hat t h e r e w as m u c h

polit ic al C orru p tion abroad i n the l an d that h e w as p e rson ally gu il ty ,

o f so m e o f i t an d h e t h r e w h i m s e l f u pon t h e m e rc y of h i s j u d ge s
.
, .

Parli am e n t at t hat t i m e w as i n n o m ood for m e rc y Bac on w as d e

'

r i ve d of hi s o ffic e an d w as s e n t e n c e d to p ay t h e e n o rm ou s fin e of
p
p ou n d s to b e i m p ri s on e d du rin g t he kin g s p l e asu re an d
,
’
,

t h e r e aft e r to b e b an i s h e d for e ve r fro m Pa rli am e n t an d C ou rt Th ou gh .

th e i m p r i s on m e n t l a s te d o n ly a fe w d ay s a n d t h e fin e w a s l arge l y r e
m i tte d Bac on s hop e s an d sc h e m e s fo r p oli ti c a l hon or s w e re e n d e d
’
,

an d it i s a t t h i s p oi n t of app alli n g adv e rs i ty t hat th e n obility i n t h e

m an s n atu re a ss e r ts its e l f s tron gly I f t he r e ad e r b e i n t e r e st e d to

’
.

ap p ly a gre at m an s p h il os o p hy t o hi s o w n life h e w i ll fin d t h e e s say

’

” ,
" ”
Of G r e at Pl ac e m ost i n t e re s t i n g i n t hi s c on n e c t i on
, .

Ba c on n ow w i thd re w p e rm an e n tly fro m p u bli c li fe an d d e v o t e d ,

h i s s p l e n d id abili ty t o li t e rary an d s c i e n t ifi c w ork H e c om p l e te d .

t h e E s s ay s e x p e ri m e n t e d l arge ly w ro te h i s tory s c i e n t ifi c ar t i c l e s
, , , ,

an d o n e s c i e n t ifi c n ov e l a n d m ad e addi ti on s t o h i s [n s ta u r a ti o
,

M ag n a t h e gre at p h il osop hi c al w ork w hi c h w as n e ve r fi n i she d I n

, .

t h e s p ri n g of 1 6 2 6 w h il e d ri v i n g i n a sno w s to rm i t oc c u rr e d to h i m
, ,

t h at sn ow m i gh t b e u s e d as a p re s e rvat iv e i n s t e ad of sal t T r u e to .

h i s ow n m e th od of arr i v i n g at t ru th h e s top p e d a t t h e fi rst h o u s e , ,

bou ght a fow l an d p roc e e d e d to t e st hi s the o ry The e x p e r i m e n t

, .

C h il l e d h i m an d h e d i e d s oon aft e r fro m t h e e ff e c t s o f h i s e x

,
"
p osu re . As M ac au lay w rot e t h e gr e at ap os tl e of e x p e r i m e n tal
,
”
philosophy w as d e stin e d to b e i ts m arty r .
 1 70 ENG LI SH LI TE R ATU R E

Work s of phil os o phic w ork s Tke Ad va nce

B acon . B ac o n
’
s ,

m e n t of L e a r n i ng an d t h e N ov u m Org a n u m will b e b e s t n u ,

d e r s t oo d i n c on n e cti on with t h e I n s ta u r a t i o Mag n a o r Tke ,

Gre a t I n s t i t u ti on of Tr u e P k i l os op ky of which th e y w e re ,

p ar t s The I n s ta u r a t i o w as n e v e r c om pl e t e d but t he v e ry
.
,

id e a of t he w o r k w as m ag n i fic e n t t o s w e e p a w ay t he i n ,
-

v olv e d phil os ophy of t he s ch ool m e n an d t he e d u c ati on al

s y s t e m s o f t h e u n iv e rs iti e s an d t o s u b s titut e a s i n l e t
, g g r e a

w o r k which s h ou ld b e a c o m p l e t e e duc ati on a r ich s t o re h o u s e ,

”
for th e g l ory o f t h e C re at or a n d for t he re li e f of m an s e s t at e
’
.

The o bj e ct of thi s e d u c a ti on w as t o b ri n g p ractic al r e s u lt s t o

al l t h e p e opl e in s t e a d o f a littl e s e lfi s h c u lt u r e an d m u ch u se
,

l e s s s p e c u l a ti on which he c o n c e iv e d w e re t h e o n ly p roduc t s
, , ,

o f t h e u n iv e r s iti e s .

Th e I n s t au rat i o Magn a Thi s w as t h e m o s t a m biti ou s

.
,

th ou gh i t i s n ot th e b e s t k n o w n of B ac o n s w o rk s F or t h e ,
’
.

i n s i ght it g iv e s u s i n t o t he auth or s m i n d w e n o t e h e re a ’

b r i e f o u tli n e of hi s s u bj e c t I t w as divid e d i n t o si x p art s .

-

as foll o w s

1 P a r t i ti on e s S ci e n ti a r u m
. T h i s w as t o b e a c l as s i fi c a t i on an d
.

s u m m a r y o f a ll h u m a n k n o w l e d g e Ph i l os o p h y a n d a l l s p e c u l a t i on m u s t
.

b e c as t o u t a n d th e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s e s t ab l i s h e d as t h e b as i s o f a ll e d u
c ati o n T h e o n l y p a r t c o m p l e te d w a s Tk e A d v a n ce m e n t of L e a r n i ng
.
,

w hi c h s e r v e d a s a n i n t r od u c t i o n .

”
2. N ov u m Org a n u m , or th e new i n s tru m e n t, th at i s , th e u se of

r e as on a n d e x p e r i m e n t i n s t e ad of th e ol d Ar i s t ote l i a n l og i c . T o fin d
tru t h on e m u s t d o tw o thi n g s : ( ) a g e t r i d o f al l p r e u d j
i c e s or i d ol s , as

B a c on ca ll e d th e m . T he s e i d ol s a re fo u r : i d ol s of t h e tr i b e ,
”
th a t i s ,

p j
re u d i c e s d u e to c om m o n m e t h od s of t h ou g h t a m o n g a l l ra c e s ;
“
i d ol s
o f th e c a ve or de n , ”
t h a t i s , p e rs on al p e c u i a r i ti e s l an d p re u d i j
c e s ; i d ol s
of t he m ar ke t p l ac e ,
”
d u e to e r r o rs of l an g u age ; an d i d ol s of th e
th e a t e r ,
”
w hi ch a re th e u n re l i ab l e t r a d i ti on s of m e n . b
( ) Af t e r d is

c a rd i n g th e ab o ve “
i d ol s ”
w e m u s t i n te r rog a te n a t u re ; m ust co ll e c t
fa c ts b y m e a n s o f n u m e r o u s e x p e ri m e n ts , a r ran g e th e m i n or d e r , an d

t h e n d e t e r m i n e th e l a w th a t u n d e r l i e s t h e m .
I t w i ll b e se e n at a
g l a n ce th a t th e ab o ve i s th e m o s t i m p ortan t of

B a c on
’
s w or ks .T he Org a n u rn w as to b e i n se v e ra l b o ok s , on y l tw o o f
wh i ch he c om p l e t e d , an d the s e he w rote an d re w r ote tw e lv e ti m e s u n til
the y s a ti s fi e d hi m .
1 72 E NG LI SH LI TE R ATU R E

i n Lati n , w r itt e n m os tl y b y
p aid h e lp e rs fr om s h or t En gli s h
ab s t ra ct s . H e r e g a r d e d La ti n a s t h e on l y l an g u ag e w or thy of
a g re a t w or k ; b u t t h e w o r ld n e g l e ct e d hi s Lati n t o s e i ze u p o n

hi s E n g li s h m ar v e l ou s E n g li s h t e r s e pith y p a ck e d with
, , , ,

thou ght i n an age th at u s e d e n dl e s s ci r c u m l oc u ti on s The

,
.

fi rs t t e n e s s ay s p u bli s h e d i n 1 5 9 7 w e re b ri e f n o t e b oo k
, ,
’
j otti n gs of B a c o n s o b s e r v ati on s Th e i r s u cc e s s a s t on i s h e d
.

t h e au th o r b u t n ot t ill fi ft e e n y e ar s l at e r w e r e th e y r e p u b
,

l i s h e d a n d e n l ar g e d Th e i r ch ar m g r e w up on B ac o n hi m s e l f
.
,

an d d u r i n g h i s r e ti re m e n t h e g av e m or e t h o u g ht t o t h e w on

d e rf u l l an g u age which h e had a t fi rs t d e s pi s e d a s m u ch a s

A r i s t o tl e s phil os ophy I n 1 6 1 2 app e are d a s e c on d e diti o n
’
.

c ont ai n i n g thi r ty e i ght e s s ay s a n d i n 1 6 2 5 the y e ar b e fo r e

-
, ,

h i s d e a th b e re p u bli s h e d t h e E s s ay s i n th e i r p r e s e n t for m
, ,

p oli s hi n g an d e n l arg i n g t h e o r i gi n al t e n t o fift y e i g ht c ov e r -

,

i n g a wid e v ar i e t y of s ubj e ct s s u g ge s t e d b y t h e li fe of m e n
a r ou n d h i m .

Con c e r n i n g the b e s t of th e s e e s s ay s th e r e ar e as m an y
o pi n i o n s as th e r e are re ad e r s an d wh at o n e g e t s o u t of th e m
,

d e p e n d s l arge l y u p on hi s o w n th ou ght an d i n t e lli ge n c e I n .

thi s re s p e c t th e y a r e lik e th at N at u r e t o which B ac on di re ct e d

m e n s th ou g ht s Th e wh ol e v ol u m e m ay b e r e ad th rou g h i n
’
.

an e v e n i n g ; b u t af t e r o n e h a s re a d th e m a d o ze n ti m e s h e

s till fi n d s a s m an y pl a c e s t o p au s e a n d r e fl e c t a s a t t h e fi r s t

re adi n g . I f o n e m u s t ch oos e ou t of s u ch a s t o re h ou s e w e ,
“ " ” " ” “ ”
A th e i s m
”
w ou ld s u gge s t S t u di e s G oo d n e s s ,
R ich e s , , ,
” " “
A dv e r s it y
”
U n it y i n R e li g i on ,
F r i e n d s hip ,
an d G re a t ,

a s a n i n t r o duc ti on t o B ac o n s w o r ldl
’
Pl ac e y wi s e phil os o ph
y
-
.

Mi s ce l l an e ou s Work s Oth e r w o rk s of B ac on a r e i n t e re s t
.

i n g as a re v e l a ti o n of t he Eli za b e th an m i n d ra th e r th an ,

b e c au s e o f an y lit e r ary v al u e Tko Ne w At la n t i s i s a ki n d of

.

s ci e n tific n o v e l d e s c r ibi n g a n o th e r U t opi a as s e e n b y B a c on .

Th e i n h abit an t s o f A tl an ti s h av e b an i s h e d Phil o s ophy an d

B ac o n s m e th od o f i n v e s ti g a ti n g N a t u r e
’
appli e d u sin g ,

t h e re s u lt s t o b e tt e r t he i r o w n c on diti on T h e y h av e a .
 TH E AGE O F ELIZAB ETH 1 73

wo n d e rful c ivili zati on i n which m an y of ou r l at e r di s c ow

,

e r i e s — ac a d e m i e s of th e s ci e n c e s ob s e r v a t or i e s
,
b all oon s , ,

s u b m ari n e s t he m odific a ti on of s p e ci e s an d s e v e r al o th e r s
, ,

w e r e fo re s h ad ow e d with a s t ran g e m ix t u r e of c old re as o n an d

V
p oe tic i n t u iti on D e S ap i e n t i a e te ru m i s a fan c ifu l a tt e m pt
.

t o s h o w t h e d e e p m e a n i n g u n d e r l y i n g an ci e n t m y th s — a
,

m e an i n g whic h w ou ld h av e a s t on i s h e d t h e m y th m a k e rs th e m
s e lv e s. Th e H i s tory of H e n ry V
]! i s a c al m di s p as s i on at e , ,

an d r e m ar k a bl a cc u ra t e hi s t o r which m ak e s u s r e g r e t th a t
y y ,

B ac on did n ot d o m o r e hi s t or ic al w or k B e s id e s th e s e a r e
.

m e t r ic al v e r s i o n s of c e r t ai n Ps al m s — which ar e v al u a bl e i n ,

Vi e w of t he c o n t r ov e r s y an e n t S h ak e s p e a r e s pl ay s for S h o w ’

in g B o s c utt i bilit w it p t an d a l ar e
’
a n e r n a
y t o r e oe r
y
—
g
n u m b e r o f l e tt e r s an d s t at e p ap e rs s h owi n g t h e r an g e an d

p ow e r of h i s i n t e ll e c t .

B acon s Pl ace an d Wo rk
’
A lth o u g h B ac on w as fo r t h e
.

g r e at e r p ar t of hi s li fe a b u s y m an o f affai rs on e c an n o t ,

r e a d h i s w o r k with o u t b e c o m i n g c o n s ci ou s o f t w o thi n g s ,

a p e re n n i a l fr e s h n e s s which t he w or ld i n s i s t s up on i n all
,

lit e rat u re th at i s t o e n d u re an d an i n t e ll e ct u al po w e r which

,

m ark s h i m as o n e of t h e g re a t m i n d s o f t h e w o r ld .

Of l at e t he g e n e ra l t e n d e n c y i s t o g iv e l e s s an d l e s s
p ro m i n e n c e t o h i s w o r k i n s ci e n c e an d phil os o phy ; b u t .

c r itici s m of h i s I n s ta u r a t i o i n vi e w of h i s l oft y ai m i s of
, ,
“ ”
s m all c o n s e q u e n c e I t i s t r u e th a t h i s s ci e n c e
. t o d ay -

s e e m s w oe fu ll i n ad e q u a t e ; t r u e a l s o th a t th o u g h h e s ou g ht
y ,
,

t o di s c o v e r t ru th h e th o u g ht p e r h ap s t o m o n o p o li ze it an d
, ,

s o l ook e d with t h e s a m e s u s pici on u p o n Co p e rn ic u s a s u p on

t h e phil o s o ph e r s . Th e p ractic al m a n w h o d e s pi s e s phil os o ph y

has s i m pl y m i s u n d e rs t ood t h e thi n g h e d e s pi s e s I n be ing .

p ractic al an d e xp e r i m e n t al i n a r om an tic age h e w as n ot

u n iq u e ,
as i s O f t e n all e g e d b u t o n l y e xp re s s e d t he t e n d e n c y
,

of t h e E n gli s h m i n d i n al l a e s T h r e e c e n t u r i e s e a rli e r t h e
g .

m o n k R oge r B ac o n did m ore p ra ctic al e xp e r i m e n ti n g th an

“
t h e Eli zab e th an s ag e ; a n d t h e l att e r s fam o u s id ol s a re
’
~
1 74 E NG LI S H LI TERATU R E

“
t
s ron g ly s ugge s tiv e of t he for m e r 5 F ou r S ou r c e s of H u m an
A lth ou gh B ac on did n ot m ak e an y of t he s c i e n
”
I gn oran c e .

t i fic di s c ov e r i e s a t which h e ai m e d y e t t h e wh ol e s pi r it of ,

hi s w or k e s p e ci all y o f t h e Org a n u m h as s t ron gl y i n fl u e n c e d

, ,

s ci e n c e i n t h e di re cti on o f a cc u r at e o b s e r v ati o n an d of c are

f u lly t e s ti n g e v e ry th e ory b y p ractic al e xp e ri m e n t H e th a t .

r e gar d e th t h e cl o u d s s h all n o t s ow s aid a wi s e w ri t e r of old ; ,

an d B ac on tu rn e d m e n s th ou g ht s fr o m t he h e av e n s ab ov e
’

with which th e y h ad b e e n t oo b u s y t o t he e ar th b e n e a th , ,

which t h e y h ad t oo m uch n e gl e ct e d I n an age wh e n m e n .

w e r e b u s y with rom an c e an d phil o s o ph y h e i n s i s t e d th at t he ,

fi rs t obj e c t of e d u c ati on i s t o m ak e a m an fam ili ar with hi s

n at u ral e n vi ron m e n t ; from b ook s h e t u rn e d t o m e n from ,

t h e ory t o fa c t fro m phil os o ph y t o n at u r e — an d th at i s p e r

, ,

h ap s hi s g r e at e s t c on t r ib u ti on t o li fe an d lit e ratu r e Like .

Mos e s up on Pi s gah he s t ood hi gh e n ou gh ab o v e h i s f e ll ow s

,

t o l oo k ou t o v e r a p ro m i s e d l an d which hi s p e opl e w ou ld ,

i n h e r it b u t i n t o which h e hi m s e l f m i ght n e v e r e n t e r
,
.

Ri ch ar d H ook e r ( 1 5 5 4 ? I n s t r on g c on t r a s t with
B ac on i s R ic har d H ook e r o n e of t he g r e at e s t p ros e w r it e rs ,

of t h e E li zab e th an A ge O n e m u s t r e ad t he St o ry of hi s li fe
.
,

an o b s c u r e an d l o wl y li fe a n i m a t e d b a g r e a t s pi rit a s t old
y ,

b y I zaak Walt o n t o app r e ci at e t h e fu ll f or c e of thi s c on t r as t

, .

B ac on t oo k all k n o wl e d g e for hi s p ro vi n c e b u t m as t e r e d n o ,

s i n gl e p ar t of it H ook e r t aki n g a s i n gl e th e m e t he l aw an d
.
, ,

p ra ctic e of t h e En gli s h Ch u r ch s o h an dl e d i t th at n o s ch ol ar ,

e v e n o f t h e p r e s e n t d ay w ou ld d r e a m of s u p e rs e di n g it o r o f

b u ildi n g u p o n an y o th e r fou n d a ti on th an th at which H ook e r

l aid d ow n H i s o n e g r e at w or k i s Tke La w s of E ccl e s i a s ti ca l
.

1
P ol i ty ,
a th e ol og ic al a n d a rg u m e n t a tiv e b oo k ; b u t e n ti re l
y ,

a p ar t f r o m i t s s u bj e c t it will b e r e ad wh e re v e r m e n d e s i re
,

t o h e ar t he p ow e r an d s t at e li n e s s of t h e En g li s h l an g u ag e .

H e r e i s a s i n gl e s e n t e n c e r e m ar k abl e n o t on l y fo r i t s p e rfe c t
,

1 Th fi t fi
e rs b k w ve b
ooli hsd e re d H k w t t h m T he er ro e e
p 5 94 5 9 7 u s e 1 -1
,
an a re a s oo .

l t th b k p b li h d ft h i d t h
as re e oo s, u s e af der b tf l th hip b t th y a e
s ea , a re o ou u au or s ,
u e r

th gh t t h v b m pl t d f m H k ’
ou o a e e e n co e et ro oo e r s n o e s.
1 76 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

of t h e Mac e d on i an E m pi re I t i s i n t e re s ti n g chi e fl y for i ts

.

s t le which i s s i m pl e an d di g n ifi e d a n d for t h e fl as h e s o f
y , ,

wit an d p oe t ry th a t b re ak i n t o t h e fan t as tic c o m bi n ati on of

m i r acl e s t ra diti on s h e ar s ay a n d s t a t e re c or d s which h e c all e d
, , ,

hi s t ory I n t h e c o n clu s i on i s the fam ou s ap o s t r oph e t o D e ath

.
,

which s u g ge s t s wh at R al e i g h m i ght h av e d on e had he liv e d

l e s s s t re n u o u s l y an d w r itt e n m ore c are fu lly .

O e l oq u e n t , just , an d m i gh t y D e ath w hom n on e c ou l d ad v i s e th ou h as t

p e r s u a d e d ; w h at h a t h d a re d th ou h a s t d o n e ; a n d w h om all th e
n on e

w o r l d h a th fl a tte re d th o u o n l y h as t c a s t o u t o f th e w o rl d a n d d e s p i s e d ;
t h o u h as t d r a w n t og e t h e r all th e s t a r-s t re t c h e d g r e a t n e s s , a l l th e p r i d e ,
l y v
c r u e t , a n d a m b i ti o n o f m an , an d c o e r e d i t al l o e r w i th t h e s e t w o v
n a r r ow w or d s , H i c j a ce t .’

J o h F ox e 16 will b F ox e
b d lw
n
( 5 1 e r e m e m e r e a a s
y
fo r hi s fam o u s B ook of M a r ty r s a b oo k th a t o u r e ld e r s g av e t o
,

u s o n S u n d ay s wh e n w e w e r e y o u n g thi n ki n g it g oo d di s cipli n e,

fo r u s t o affl ic t o u r s ou l s wh e n w e w a n t e d t o b e roam i n g t h e
s u n lit fi e ld s o r wh e n i n o u r e n forc e d i dl e n e s s w e w ou ld i f ou r
, ,

ow n t a s t e i n t h e m att e r h ad b e e n c on s u lt e d h av e m ad e g oo d ,

s hi ft t o b e q u i e t a n d h a ppy wi th R obi n s on Cr u s oe SO we .

h av e a gl oom y m e m o ry o f F o xe an d s o m e thi n g of a g r i e v an c e
, ,

which p r e v e n t a j u s t a pp re ci ati on of h i s w or th .

F o x e h ad b e e n d r iv e n o u t of E n g l an d b y t h e Ma ri an p e r
s e c u t i o n s a n d i n a w an d e r i n g b u t dili g e n t li fe o n t h e Co n ti n e n t
,

he c on c e iv e d t h e id e a o f w r iti n g a hi s t o ry o f t h e p e rs e c u ti o n s
o f t h e ch u r ch f r o m t h e e a rli e s t d ay s t o h i s ow n The p ar t .

re l a ti n g t o E n g l a n d a n d S c o tl a n d w as p u b li s h e d i n La ti n,
, ,

i n 1 5 5 9 u n d e r a titl e a s s o n orou s an d i m p r e s s iv e as t h e
,

R o m an O ffic e fo r t h e d e ad — R e r u m i n E ccl e s i a Ge s ta r u m
,

M arci m a r u m gu e p e r E u r op a m P e r s e cu t i on u m Com m e n ta r i i O n .

hi s re t u r n t o En gl an d F o x e t r an s l a t e d thi s w or k c alli n g i t t he ,

Acts a n d M on u m e n ts b u t i t s oon b e c am e k n ow n a s t h e B ook

o f M a r t
y rs a n d,
s o it will a lw a
y s b e c a ll e d F o x e s o w n .
’

bitt e r e xp e ri e n c e c au s e s hi m t o w rit e with m o r e h e at an d

i n di g n a ti on th an hi s s a i n tl y th e m e w ou l d w ar r an t an d t he ,
 TH E AGE O F ELIZABETH I 77
“
h ol y t on e s om e ti m e s S p oil s a n arrativ e th at w ould b e i m
»

p re s s iv e i n i t s b are s i m plici ty N e v e r th e l e s s t he b oo k h as
’

m ad e for it s e l f a s e c u r e pl ac e i n ou r lit e ra t u re I t i s s t r on g e s t
.
,

i n i t s re c or d of hu m bl e m e n lik e R owl an d T ay l or an d Th o m as
,

H awk e s wh os e s u bli m e h e r oi s m b u t for thi s n arra tiv e w ou ld

, , ,

h ave b e e n l os t am id t h e g re at n am e s an d t h e g re a t e v e n t s th at
fill t he E li zab e th an A ge .

Cam d e n an d Kn ox . Tw o hi s t or i an s W illi a m Ca m d e n an d
,

J oh n K n o x s t a n d ou t p rom i n e n tl y am o n g t h e n u m e r ou s
,
’
hi s t or ic al w r it e rs O f t h e age C am d e n s B r i ta n n i a ( 1 5 86 ) i s
.

a m on u m e n t a l w o r k ,
which m ar k s t he b e g i n n i n g of t r u e
an ti q u a r i an r e s e ar ch i n t h e fi e ld o f hi s t ory ; an d h i s An n a l s

o
f Q u e e n E
.
l i za b e t k i s w o r th y o f a far hi g h e r pl a c e th a n h a s

th u s far b e e n g iv e n it J oh n K n o x t he r e fo r m e r i n hi s
.
, ,

H i s tory of t ko R ef or m a t i on i n S cot l a n d h a s s om e v e ry vivid,

'

p o r t rait s of h i s h e lp e r s an d e n e m i e s The p e r s o n al a n d .

ag g r e s s iv e e l e m e n t s e n t e r t o o s t ron g l
y f o r a w o r k o f hi s t o r
y;
b u t t he a u t o bi og r aphic al p ar t s s h ow r a re lit e r ary p ow e r .

H i s acc o u n t o f h i s fam ou s i n t e r vi e w with Ma ry Q u e e n o f

S c o t s i s cl e a r c u t as a c am e o an d s h ow s t h e m an s e x
’
-
,

t raor d i n a ry p ow e r b e tt e r th an a wh ol e v ol u m e of bi og r aph y .

S u ch s c e n e s m ak e o n e w i s h th a t m or e o f h i s ti m e h ad b e e n
g iv e n t o lit e ra r
y w o r k r a th e r th a n t o t h e di s p u t e s a n d t ro u bl e s
,

o f h i s ow n S c o tch ki r k .

H ak l u y t an d Pu r ch as . Tw o e dit o r s of thi s ag e h av e m ad e
for th e m s e lv e s a n e n vi abl e pl ac e i n ou r lit e ra t u r e T h e y ar e
.

R ich a r d H akl u y t I 5 5 2 1 6 1 6 ) an d S a m u e l Pu r ch as ( 1 5 75

H akl u y t w a s a cl e rg y m an w ho i n t h e m id s t of h i s
littl e p ar i s h s e t hi m s e l f t o achi e v e t w o g r e at p at r i o tic e n d s ,

t o p r o m o t e t h e w e alth a n d c om m e r c e of h i s c ou n t ry an d t o
-
,

p re s e r v e t he m e m ory of al l h i s c o u n t ry m e n w ho ad d e d t o th e
g l o r
y o f t h e r e a l m b y th e i r t r a v e l s a n d e x pl o r a t i o n s T o .

fu r th e r t h e fi r s t o bj e c t h e c o n c e rn e d hi m s e l f d e e pl y with
t h e c o m m e r ci al i n t e r e s t s of t h e E as t I n di a C om p an y with

V
,

R al e i gh s c ol on i zi n g pl an s i n
’
i rg i n i a an d with a t r an s l ati on
,
 1 78 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

of D e t rav e l s i n A m e r ic a To fu r th e r the s e c on d he
S ot o
’
s .

m ad e hi m s e l f fam ili a r w i th b ook s of v oy age s i n al l fore i g n

l an gu age s an d wi th t he b ri e f re p or t s of e xpl o rati on s of hi s
o w n c o u n t ry m e n H i s P r i n c ip a l N a v i ga ti on s
. oy ag e s and , V ,

D i s cove r i e s of tke E ng l i s k N a t i on i n th re e v olu m e s app e ar e d , ,

fi r s t i n 1 5 89 an d a s e c o n d e diti on foll ow e d i n 1 5 9 8 1 6 00
,
—
.

Th e fi r s t v ol u m e t e ll s of v oy ag e s t o t h e n or th ; t h e s e c on d t o
I n di a an d t h e Eas t ; t he thi r d which i s a s l arge as t h e o th e r ,

t w o t o t h e N e w Wo r ld
,
With th e e xc e pti on o f t h e ve ry fi r s t
.

v oy age th at of K i n g A r th u r t o I c e l an d i n 5 1 7 which i s
, ,

fou n d e d on a m y th al l t h e v oy age s a r e au th e n tic acc o u n t s

,

o f t h e e xpl o r e r s th e m s e lv e s an d ar e i m m e n s e l i n t e re s ti n g
y, '

r e adi n g e v e n at t h e p r e s e n t d ay N o o th e r b ook of t r av e l s .

has s o w e ll e xp r e s s e d t h e s pi ri t an d e n e r gy of t h e En gli s h
ra c e or b e tt e r d e s e r v e s a pl ac e i n o u r lit e r a t u r e
,
.

S am u e l Pu r ch as w h o w as al s o a cl e rgy m an c on ti n u e d t h e
,

w or k of H aklu y t u s i n g m an y o f t h e l att e r s u n p u bli s h e d

,

m an u s c r ipt s an d c on d e n s i n g t he r e c o rd s of n u m e rou s oth e r

v oy age s H i s fi rs t fam ou s b ook P u rcka s H i s P i lg r i m ag e ap
.
, , ,

re d i n 1 6 1 3 a n d w as foll ow e d b H a k l uy t u s P os tk u m u s
p e a , y ,

or P u rcka s H i s P i lgr i m e s i n 1 6 2 5 Th e v e ry n am e i n cli n e s

,
.

o n e t o o p e n t h e b ook with pl e as u r e an d wh e n o n e f oll o w s ,

hi s i n cli n ati on — which i s aft e r al l on e o f t h e b e s t g u id e s i n

, ,

lit e ratu re — h e i s r are l y di s app oi n t e d Th ou g h i t fall s far .

b e l ow the s t an d ar d of H akl u y t b oth i n acc u rac y an d lit e r ary ,

fi n i s h th e r e i s s till pl e n t y t o m ak e o n e gl ad th a t t he b ook w as
,

w r itt e n an d th at he c an n ow c om for t ably foll ow Pu r ch as on

hi s pil g r i m ag e .

Th o m as No rt h A m on g t h e t ran s l at ors of t h e Eli zab e th an

.

A ge S i r T h o m as N o r th ( 1 5 3 5 P 1 6 0 1 i s m o s t d e s e rvi n g of
n o tic e b e c a u s e o f h i s v e rs i on of P l u ta r ck s L i v e s 1 5 79 ) fro m
’

(
which S h ak e s p e ar e t ook t h e ch ar act e rs an d m an y of t he i n ci
d e n t s f o r th re e g r e at R om an pl ay s Th u s i n N or th w e r e ad .

C m s ar a sol h a d C as s i u s i n g r e a t j e al o u s y an d s u s p e c te d h i m m u ch
w h e r e u p on h e s a i d o n a ti m e t o h i s fr i e n d s : “
What l
w i l C a s s i u s d o,
I 80 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

Ed m u n d S p e n s e r, w ho s e S k ep k e r d s Ca l e n d a r ( 1 5 79) m a r
’
ke d th e ap p e a ran c e

o f th e fi i
rs t n a t on a p o e t s n c e C h a u c e r s d e a t h i n
’
1 4 00 l i . H is m os t fa m o u s
w or k Qu e e n As s o c i at e d w i t h S p e n s e r a re _t h e m i n o r p o e t s ,
i s Tk e F a e ry .

Th o m as S ac kvill e Mi c h ae l D ray t o n Ge o rg e C h ap m an a n d Ph ilip S i d n e y

, , , .

C h ap m an i s n o t e d f o r h i s c o m p l e t i o n o f Ma r l o w e s p o e m H e r o a n d L e a n d e r
’
, ,

an d f o r hi s t ran s l ti
a on of H om e r
’
s I li a d an d Ody s s ey . i
S dn e y , b e s d e s hi si
p oe tr y , w ro t e hi s p ro s e ro m an c e A r ca di a , an d Tk e D f
e e n se o
f P oe s i e , on e of

o u r e ar li e s t cr i t ic l a e ssa ys .

( ) 2 Th e R i se of the D r am a i n En g an d ; th e l Mi r ac l e p l ays Mo ra li t i e s , , an d

I n te r l u de s ; ou r fi rs t p l ay , l
R a ph R o ste r B o y ys t e r
”
; th e fi rs t t ru e En g li sh

c om e d y , Ga m m e r G u r t o n
’
s Need l e ,
”
an d the fi rs t t ra g e d y , G o rb o d u c t he
con i c t b e t w e e c l s s i c d n t iv i d e al s i t h e E gli s h d m a
fl n a an a e n n ra .

(3) S h a k e p e s P e d c e s s ss L y l y K yd N a h Pe e l e G e e e Ma l ow e
e ar
’
r e or , , , s , , r n , r

t h e t y p s o f d am a w i t h w h i c h t h y
e r xp e i m e t d t h M l o w e s q e e e e r n e ,
— e ar u , on

m ant yp e o r t g d y f p as s i
, th e p p l r Ch o ic l e p l y
ra e othe D m e s tic on , o u a r n a s, o

d am a t h e C
r , t or Lyli a com e dy R m
ou r t i c c m e d y a n d t rage d y C l s s i c l
n , o an o , a a

p l a y s a d t h e M e l o d am M l w e i s t h g e t t f S h ak s p e a s p e d e ’
, n r a. ar o e r a es o e re r

c sse H is f
o rs . p l y s a e T am b l a in e
o ur Fa s t s aT h e J e w of M l t a
r ur ,
”
n u ,
”
a ,
”

”
an d E d w a rd I I .

( 4) ke S ha s p e a re , hi s life , w or k , an d i n fl u e n ce .

5) Sh k a e s p e a re s
’
S u c c e s s o rs , B e n J on s o n , B e a u m on t an d F l e tc h e W r, e b
s t e r, M i dd l e t on , H e w oo d , D y e kk er ; a n d t h e ra p d d e c i li ne of t h e d ra m a. Be n
Jo n s on i s t h e gr e a t e s t o f t h s gr o u p H is ch i . ie f c om e ie s e
d ar
“
E ve y r M an
” “
Th e S e n t W o m an , il Al ch e m is t
” “
in H is H u m o u r, an d ;
Th e hi s tw o

e xt an t t rag e d i e s are Se j an u s an d Cat ili ne .

( 6) T h e Pro s e W ri t e rs , of w h o m B ac o n i s t h e m o s t n o t ab e l . H is ch e f i
ph il os
i l w k is the I t
op h ca ti M g n ( i c m p l t ) w h i ch i c l d
or n s au r a o a a n o e e , n u es

Th e Ad v a c e m e t f L e a i g N v m O ga m ; b t h e i s
” “ ”
a d th e n n o rn n n o u r nu u

k n w t o li t e rary e d s b y h i s famo s E y Min p s e w ri t s a

o n r a er u s sa s. or ro er re

R ic hard H o k J h F x e t h e h is t i o C am d an d K o x
e r, the o d ito s
n o ,
o r an s en n , e r

H kl y t an d P
a u h w h o g av e s the s ti i g e c ord s o f e xp l o rat i on a d
u rc as , u rr n r , n

Th o m as N t h t h e t a s l t or f Pl t a c h s L i v
’
or , r n a o u r es.

S e l e ct i on s for R e ad i n g . Sp e n s e r . F a e r Q u e e n , s e l e c t i on s i n S tan d a rd y
E n g li s h C l a s s i c s ; B k . 1 , i n R iv e r s i d e Li t e ra t u re S e ri e s , e t c ; S h e p h e r d s C a l
’
.

e n d ar, i n C a s s e ll s N at i o n a l L i b ra r ; S e l e c t e d Po e m s , i n C an t e rb u r
’
Po e ts y y
Ser ie s ; Mi n o r Po e m s , i n T e m p le C l as i c s ; s Se l e c t i on s in Ma n l y ’
s En g li s h
Po e t y r , or W a rd ’
s En g li sh Po e t s .
M i n or P oe ts . D ral e c ti s i M l y
yt on , S ac kvill e i , S dn e y , Ch a p m an , S e on n an

or W d ; E li zab e t h a s o gs i E li z b t h Ly i c s d i P ] S c h e lli
’
s a e an r an n a
ar g n n , n n ,

ra v e s G o l d e e as ry ; Ch ap m an s H m i T l C l i
’
T ’
g n r m p e s us o e r, n e a s c .

P l y o f N ah s F l o d i M ly S p e c im s of the ’ ’
Tk e E ly D m ar ra a. a o o , n an s en

P e S h ak s p e an D ra m a o r i n Po ll d s E gli s h M i c l e P l ay s M ra li t i e s
’
r -
er , ar n ra , o

t l de B e ll e s L e t t e s S e ri s s e c 2 ; L T S m i th Th e Y o k
’
a d I
n n or i er u s, n r e , . . . s r

Mi ac l e Pl y
r a s.

E n d y m i o n i n H o l t s E n gli s h R a d in gs
’
Ly ly . ,
e .
 TH E AGE O F E LIZ AB ETH 1 81

M a r l ow e . Fau s t u s , i n T e m p le D ra m a t s t s , or i Me rm ai d S e ri e s , or Mo rl e y S ’ \

Un ivl Lib ra ry
e rs a L am b s S p e c i m e s f E g li s h D ra m a t i c P e t s ; S l e c
, or
’
n o n o e

tio s i n Ma ly s E g li s h P e t ry o r W a rd s E g li s h Po e ts ; Ed w ard I I i n
n n
’
n o ,
’
n ,

T e m p l e D ram a t i s t s d i H o l t s E g li s h R e ad i gs
’
an n n n

S k k p e r e Me c h a t f V
, .

a es e n i c e J li s C ae s a
a . Mac b e th e tc i n S t an d a d
r n o ,
u u r, , .
, r

E g lis h C l as s i c s ( e d i t e d w i t h o t e s w i t h s p e c i a l e fe e c e t o c o ll e g e e t
n , ce n , r r n -
n ra n

r q i e m e n ts )
e u r G o o d e d i ti s o f s i g l e p l ys a re n u m e ro s a d c h e p H d
. on n a u n a . u

s o n s a d R o l fe s a d t h e A d e n S h a k e s p a a re s gg e s t e d as s a t i s f ac t o ry
’ ’
n n r e re u .

Th e S o n e t s e d i t e d b y B e e c h i g i A t h e ae m P e s s S e i e s
n , n ,
n n u r r .

B j en T h e A l c h e
on s on m i s t i C a t
. e b ry P o e t s S e r i e s o r M or l e y s U ni , n n r u ,
’

v e s l Lib ra y ; S e l e c t i o s i Man ly s E gli s h P e t ry o W a rd s E gli s h Po e ts

r a r n n
’
n o , r
’
n ,

o r C te b y Po e ts S e ri e s ; S e l e c t i o s f m J n s o s Mas q s i n E v a s s
an r ur n ro o n
’
ue , n
’

E g li h Ma s q e s ; T i m b e
n s d i t e d b y S c h e lli n g i n At h e n m m Pre s s S e ri s
u r, e , u e .

E s ay s s c h l d i t i on ( Gi a d C m p a y) N th p e d i t i i ’
B
‘

a c on . s , oo e nn n o n or u s on , n

R iv e rs i d e Li t e ra t u e S e ri e s ( v a ri o s o t h e i n e x p e s iv e e d i t i
r s i t h e P i tt u r n on , n

P e s s Go l d e n T e as ry S e ri e s e t c )
r , Ad v a n c e m e t f L
r u i g B k 1 e d i te d , . n o e arn n , . ,

b y C o k ( Gi n a n d C o m p a y )
o C o m p e s e l e c ti
n s f ro m B ac H o ok e r n . ar on on , ,

Ly l y a d S i d e y i Ma l y s E n gli h Pro s e
’
, n n , n n s .

B i b i ograp h l y .
1
H is tory . Te x t b ook, -
Mo n t go m e r y , pp . 2 08— 2 3 8 ; Ch e yn e y ,

pp 3 . G re e n , c h . 7 ; T ra ], Mac a u a , F r o u d e .
0— 10
3 4 ; il l y
Sp e ci a l w or ks . C r e g h t o n s T h e A ge o f E zab e th ; H a s S oc e t i n t h e
’ ’
i li ll i y
E za b e th a n Ag e ; W n t e r s S h a e s p e a r e s E n g an d ; G o a d b y s T h e E n g an d
li i k l l
’ ’ ’

of S ha ke sp e a re ; Le e s
’
S t ra tf o r d on Av o n ; H a rr is on s
’
E li zab e th an la d
En g n .

Li terature . Sa i n ts b ur y ’
s H i s t o ry of E li z ab e L t e ra t u r e ;
t h an i Whipp le s ’

i
L t e ra t u re of th e Ag e of E li zab e t h ; S . Le e
’
s G re a t E n g s h m e n li of the S ix
te e n th Ce n tu r y; S che lli g n
’
s E li zab e t h a n L y ri c s i n A t h e n ae u m Pre s s S e r ie s ;
V
,

e rn o n Le e
’
s E u p ho r i n
o .

Sp e n s e r . T e t s , C a x m b ri d g e
l e c te d , G l ob e , _an d Al d i n e e d t i io ns ; N oe l
’
s Se
Po e m s f Spe e i n C a t e b ry P t s ; M i o r P
o ns ms i r, T e m p l C l as s i c s ; n r u oe n oe , n e

A b r s S pe s
e r
’
A t h l gy ; C h c h s Lif e of S p e s e
n er i E g li s h M n o f
n o o ur
’
n r, n n e

L t t e rs S e ri s ; L w e ll s E s s a y i A m o g My B k o r i L i t e y E s s ay s
’
e e o , n n oo s, n ra r ,

v ol 4 ; H a zli tt s C h a c e r a d S p e s i n Le c t e s o t h e E g li h Po e t s ;
’
. u n n e r, ur n n s

D o w d e s E s ay i n T a s c r i p t s a d S t d i e
’
n s , r n n u s.

Tk e D r m T e x t s Ma l y s S p e c i m e s o f t h P e S h k e s p e e an D a m a
’
a -
a. , n n e r a r r ,

2 v ols i n A t h e n ae m P s s S e ri e s ; Po ll d s E g li h Mi
., ul Pl y M ali re ar
’
n s ra c e a s, or

t ie s d I n t e l d e s ; t h e T m p l e D a m t i s t s ; M l e y s U iv
an r u l Lib y ; e r a or
’
n e rs a ra r

A b E g li s h R e p ri t s ; Me m i d S e i e s e t c ; Th a y r T h B s t E li za
’ ’
r er s n n r a r , . e s e e

b e th Pl y s
an a .

C y l e y s Pl ays o f O r F o f t h e s ( Mi ac l e s Mo ra li t i e s B a t e s Th e
’ ’
a u re a r r , ,
s

E g li s h R e li g i D a m a ; S c h lli g s Th E gli h C h ro i c l e Pl a y ; L w ll s ’ ’
n ou s r e n e n s n o e

O l d E gli s h D m a t i s t s B oa s s S h k s p e d hi s Pr e d c s s o s S ym ds s ’ ’
n e ra a e ar an e e r on

S h ak e s p a E g li s h D am ; S c h lli g E li z b t h a
’
s P e de ce ss i
’
e th
re r o rs n e n r a e n s a e n

D ram ; L m b s S p c i m e
a f E g li s h D
a m t i c Po e t s ; I t d c t i
’
e t ns o n ra a n ro u on o

titl d p b li h w k G e l B i b li g p hy t t h
'

1 F or f f e s an d s se e en o ra a e en
u s e rs o re e re n ce or ra

o f thi b k s oo .
 1 82 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

H u d s on S hak e s p e ar e H i s L fe , Ar t , i C h arac t e rs ; War d s H i s t or of En g y

’
an d
’
s

li s h D ra m a t c i lli k
L t e ra t u re ; D e kk e r s Th e i l i ’
Gu s H o rn b o o , i n K n g s C as s c s .
’ ’

M l w ar o k i e. Wo r s , e d te d b y B u e n ;
ll c h i f p l ay i n Te m p l e D ra m a t i s ts e s ,

M m ai d S e i e s f E g li s h D am a t i s ts M l e y s U iv s a l Li b a ry
er r o n tc ; r , or
’
n er r , e .

L w ll s Ol d E g li s h D a m a t i s ts ; S ym ds s i t od c t io i n Me rm a i d S e i e s
’ ’
o e n r on n r u n , r

D w d e n s E s y i T a s c ip ts d S t d ie s
’
o s a n r n r an u

F m e s s s V io m e d iti
, .

Sk k p a Go o d t x t s are
es ear e. m e ro s e i s at nu u . u
’
ar ru on

f l f d v a c d w k H d s o s e vi se d d i t i e ac h p l a y
’
p e
r esn t m os t s e or u u a n e or . u n r e on ,

in a s i gl e v l m e w i t h
n te a d i t ro d c t i n s w ill w h e
o u , c m p l e te b e o n e
no s n n u o , , n o ,

o f t h e v ry b e s t f e s t d e ts se or u n
’
u .

R l e igh S h k e sp e a e i E gli s h M e n o f L e t t e s S e r i e s ; L e e s Lif e o f

’ ’
a s a r , n n r

S hak e s p e a ; H d s S h k e sp e a e hi Lif e A t a d C h a c t e s ; H lli w e ll

’
re u s on a r : s , r , n ra r a

Ph i ll i p p s s O t li e s f t h e Lif o f S h ak e p e a e ; F l e ay s C h o i c l e H i s t ory o f
’ ’
u n o e s r r n

t h e Li fe a d W k f S h ak p e a e ; D ow d e s S h ak e s p e a e a C ri t i c a l S t d y ’
n or o es r n r , u

o f h i s Mi n d a d A t ; S h ak p e a e Pr i m e r ( s a m e a t h o ) ; B ak e r s T h e D e
n r es r u r
’

ve l pm e t o f S h ak e s p e a e a D am a t i s t ; L s b ry s S h k e s p e are as a
’
o n r as r oun u a

D a m a t i c A t i s t ; T h e T e xt f S h ak e s p e a e ( s a m e ) W d ll W illiam
’
r r th o r au or en e s

S h ak e p e a e ; B d l e y S h ak e s p e i an T ag d y ; H zl i t t s S h ak s p a e
’
s r ra s d r r e a e e r an

Mil to i n L e c t e s t h e E g li s h Po e t ; E m e s o s E s s y S h a k e s p e ar e o r
’
n , ur on n s r n a ,

t h e Po e t ; L w e ll s E s s ay i Am g My B o k s ; L a m b T a l e s f o m S h ak e
’ ’
o , n on o s r

s p e are ; M J m e s o s S h ak e s p e a s F e m al e Ch a c t e s ( c a ll e d a l s o Char
rs . a n
’
re
’
ra r

a c t e i s t i cs f W o m e ) ; R o l f e s S h ak s p e a e t h e B o y ; B d e s s W illi am
’ ’
r o n e r ra n

S h k e p e a e ; Mo l t o s S h ak e s p e are as a D ram at i c A t i s t ; M b i e s W illi am ’ ’

a s r u n r a

S h k e sp e a
a P e t D a m t i s t a d M a ; T h e S h a k s p e a e Ap o c ry p h a d i t e d
re , o , r a , n n e r ,
e

b y C F T B o k e ; S h ak e p e a e s H o li s h d e d i t e d b y S t S h k e s p ar e
’
. . . r o e s r n e , on a e

L e xi c b y S c h m id t ; C
on , c o rd a c e b y B a rt l e tt ; G am m ar b y Ab b o t t o r
on n , r , ,

b y F r an z .

B en j on s on . Te ts i n x Me rm a i d Se r ie s ,
Te m p i le D ra m a t s t s , Mo r l e y s U n i ’

ve rs a l L b ra r i y , e tc . ; Ma s q u e s an d E n t e r ta i m e t s of B J
n n en o n s on , d te d b y
e i
M o r l e y , i n C ari s b r o o k e Li b ra ry ; i
T m b e r, e d ite d b
y S c h e lli g n , in A th e n ae u m
Pre s s S e r ie s .

B e a u m on t, Fl e tc k e r , e t c. P l ysa in Me rm ai d S e ri e s , Te m p le D ra m a t s t s , e i tc. ;

S che lli g s E li zab t h D m ; Lo w e ll s O l d E gli s h D m at i s t s ; Lam b s

n
’
e an ra a
’
n ra
’

S p e c i m e n s f E n gli s h D am t i c Po t s ; F l e y s B i g p h i c a l C h i c l f th e ’
o r a e a o ra ro n e o

E gli s h D m a ; S w i b rn e s E s s ay s i n E s s ay s i n Pro s e an d Po e t ry a d i
’
n ra n u , , n n

E s s y s an d S t d i e s
a u .

T x t s E s s y s i E v e y m a s Li b a ry e t c ; Ad v a c e m t f L arn
’
B a c on . e , a n r n r , . n en o e

i g i
n n Cl d P S ri s Li b
are n y o f En gli h C l as s i c s e t c ; C h c h s
on re s s e e , rar s , . ur
’

L if E g li s h M e n of L t t e s S ri s ; N i h l s B c o Lif
’ ’
e o f B ac on i , n n e r e e c o a n s e

an d Ph il o s p h y ; F cis B co o t a sl te d f m t h G r m anra n f K Fis ch e a n , r n a ro e e o . r

( e x c e ll e t b t ne) ; M c ,
l a y s E s s ay o
u B ac o
ra r a au
’
n n.

Mi P n or W it S i d e y s Arc ad i a e d i t e d b y S o m e s ; D e fe s e f P e s y
r os e r e r s. n
’
, r n o o ,

e d it e d b C ok i n Ath e e ss S e i A b s R p i ts tc ; S e l e c ti
’

y m P o , e n ae u s r r es r r e r n , e . on

f m S i d e y s p o s e a d p e t ry i t h e E li zab e t h a Li b a y ; S ym d s Li f f
’ ’
ro n r n o n n r r on s e o

S i d e y i n E g li s h M e e s Li f of S id e y i H e oe s o f t h e
’
n , f Le tt s ; B n n o er o u rn e n , n r

N a t i o s ; L m b s E s s y n S i d e y s S on n e t s i n E s s y s o f E li a
’ ’
n a a o n , a .
1 84 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

W h e re d i d h e fin d hi s p o ts ? W h at a r e h i s r o m an t c p a s ? hi s c hron c e or
l i l y i l
h is t o i l l y
r ca p a s ? Wh a t i s t h e d ffe re n c e b e tw e e n a t rag e d an d a c o m e d ? i y y
N am e k ’
i i i
s o m e o f S h a e s p e a r e s b e s t t rage d e s , c o m e d e s , a n d h s t o r ca
p a s. i l l y
W h i c h p l ay o f S h ak e s p e are s s e e m s t y o t g iv t h e b e s t p ic t e f h m n
’
o u o e ur o u a

l ife ? Why i s h e c a ll e d t h e m y ri ad m i n d d S h ak e s p e a e ? F o w h at as n s i s -
e r r re o

h e c o s i d e r e d t h e g a t e s t f w ri t e rs ? C an yo e xp l ai
n re o w h y S h ak e s p e a e s u n r
’

p la y s a e s t illra c t e d w h il e o t h e p ,l a y s o f h i s g e a e ra e l y s e e nr ? I f
y o h v e a r r u a

o f S h ak e s e a e s p l ay s o n t h e s ta e h ow d o t h e y c o m ar e i n i n t e r e s t
’
se e n an
y p r
g p ,

w i th a m od e p l a y ?rn

9 Wh at a e B e n J o n s on s Ch i e f pl ays ? I n w h a t i m p o rt a t r e s p e c t s d i d
’
. r n

t h e y d i ff e r f o m t h os e o f S h ak e s e are ? T e ll t h e s t o ry o f
r Th e Al c h e m i s t ”
p
o r Th e S il e t Wo m an n N am e t h e r c o t e m p o rari e s an d s c c e s s
”
. s of o n u or

S h k e sp e a e G iv e s o m e r e as o s f o r t h e p re e m i e c e o f t h e E liza b e t h an
' '

a r . n n n

d am a W hat c
r . s e s l e d t o i t s d e c li e ?
au n

1 0 T ll b ri e fl y t h
. e
s t o y of Bac o es l if e W h at i s hi s c h i e f li t e ra ry w o k ?
r n
’
. r

h i s c h i e f e d c t i o n a l w o k ? Wh y i s h e c a ll e d a p i on e e
u a r f m o de sci n ce ?
e r o rn

C a y o e x p l a i w h at i s m e a t b y t h e i n d c t iv e m e t h o d of l e arn i n g ? W h a t
n u n n u

s u b j e c t s a re c o s i d e re d i n B ac o y ? W h a t i s t h e c e t ra l i d e a of t h e
’
n s E n ssa s n

e s s ay y ou lik e b e s t ? Wh at are t h e li t e ary q u ali t i s o f t h e e e s s y s ? D r e s a o

t h e y ap p e a l t o t h e i n t e ll e c t o r t h e e m t i s ? W h at i s m e a t b y t h e w o d o on n r

e s s ay an d h o w d o e s B a c o n ill s t a t e t h e d e fi i t i o n ? M k e a c m p a i
“ ”
, u r n a o r s on

b e t w e e n B ac o s e s s ay s a d t h s e f m e m o re r c e t w ri t e s c h as Add i
’
n n o o so e n r, u

s on , La m b C a l y l e E m s on
, r r S t e ve n s o
, erh avi g i m in d t h e s b j e c ts
, o n , n n u ,

s t y l e a d i n t e r e s t o f b o t h e s s ay i t s
, n s .

1 1 W h o a e t h e m i o r p o s e w ri t e rs of t h e E li zab e t han Age ? W h at d i d

. r n r

t h e y w ri t e ? C o m m e t p n a y w k o f t h e i s w h i c h y
n u o h a v e re a d W h t
n or r ou . a

i s t h e li t e rary v a l e f N t h s P l t a c h ? W h a t i s t h c h i e f d e fe c t i E li za
’
u o or u r e n

b e t h an p os e as a w h o l e ? W h at i s m
r t b y e p h i s m ? Ex p l a i n w hy E li za e an u u

b e th an p o e t y i s s u p e ri o r t o t h e p o e
r r s .

C H R O N O LO G Y
L a s t H a lf o
f l k c S i x te e n tk an d Fi r s t H a lf o
f tk e S e v e n te e n t k Ce n tu r i e s

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

1 55 8. E li zab e t h ( d . 1 6 03 ) 1 5 59 . J oh nK n o x i n E d i n b u rgh
( ) Gam m e r Gu rt o n s N e e d l e .
’
1 5 6 2 P .

G o rb o d u c
1 5 64 . B rt h i of S ha k e s p e a re
1 5 71 R i s e of En gli s h P ri tan s u 1 5 76 Fi rs t Th e at e r
ke s V
. .

o y ag e S h e p h e rd Ca le n da
’
d th e S pe n se r
’ ’
1 5 77. D ra a o r un 1
5 79 . s s r.

W o ld r Ly l y
’
s p
Eu hu e s . N o r th
’
s Pl u
t arc h .
 TH E AGE O F ELIZ ABETH 1 85

C H R O N O LO G Y( co n t i n u e d
)

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

1
5 87. S ha k e sp e a re i n Lo n d o n .
l ow e ’
s Ta m b u r l ai ne

1 5 88 D . e fe a t of th e A rm ad a
1
5 90 . S
p e n se r s F ae r
’
y , Que e n . S id
ne
’
y
s A rc a d a i
1 5 9 0—1
5 95 . S ha k e s p e are ’
s Ear l y Pl ay s
1 5 97
—1 62 5 . B a c o n ’
s Es s a y
15 69184 . Ch ap m a n
—1 ’
s H om e r

1 9 8. B e n
5
’
o n s on s EJ v yM er an in H is
H um our
1 600 — 1 60 7. S h a k e sp e a re s
’
T r ag e d i es

1 603 . J am e s I ( d 1 62 5 ).

1 604 . D ivi e R i g h t f K i n gs 60 5 . B ac o n A d van c e m e n t o f Le a rn

’
n o 1
p ro s

c l ai m e d ing
1 60 7. S e tt l m e t a t J am e s t w n
e n o , Vi r 1 608. B i r th o f Mil t o n
g i n i a

1 61 1 . T ra n s l at i o n (K i n g J am e s V er

i ) f B ib l e
s on o

1 61 4 R a l e i g h s H i s t o ry ’
.

D e a t h o f S h ak e s p e a e r

1 6 20 . il i
P gr m F a t h e rs at P lym o ut h 1 6 2 0— 1 64 2 S h k e s p e ar
. s cce a
’
e s u s s o rs .

En d of d ra m a
N o v u m O rga n u m
’
1 6 2 0. B ac o n s

1 62 2. F i rs t re gu l ar ne w s p ap e r , T h e
W e e kl y N e ws
1 62
5 . Char l es I 1 6 2 6. D e ath o f B a c on
 C H A PTE R V
II

THE PU R I TAN AGE — 1 6 60

( 1 620 )

I . H I S T O R I C AL S U M MAR Y

The Pu ri tan Move m e n t . I n i ts broad e s t se n se i

th e Pu r tan m o e v
m e n t m ay b e r e gard e d as a se c o n d an d g re a t e r R e n ai ssan c e , a

re bi rt h o f t h e m oral n atu re of m an foll ow in g t h e i n te ll e c tu al aw a k

e n i n g of Eu rop e i n t h e fifte e n th
i x t e e n t h c e n tu r i e s I n
an d s . I taly ,

w hose i n fl u e n c e had b e e n u pp e r m o st i n Elizab e t han li te ratu r e t h e _

,

R e n ai ssan c e h ad b e e n e ss e n t ially p agan an d s e n su ou s It h ad h ardly .

t ou c h e d t h e m oral n at u r e of m an an d i t b rou gh t li t tl e r e li e f from t h e

,

d e sp o ti s m of ru l e rs On e c an h ardly r e ad t he h o rribl e r e c ord s of th e

.

Me di c i o r t h e Borgia s o r th e p o li ti c al ob se rvati on s of Mac hia v e lli

, ,

w i th ou t m arv e li n g at th e m oral an d p oli t i c al d e grad a ti on of a c ul

tu r e d n at i on I n th e N orth e s p e c i ally a m on g t h e G e rm an an d En g
.
,

lish p e opl e s t he R e n ai ssan c e w as ac c om p an i e d by a m oral aw ake n in g

, ,

an d i t i s p r e c i s e ly t ha t aw ak e n i n g i n En gl an d t hat gr e at e s t m oral ,

an d p oli t i c al r e fo rm w h i c h e v e r sw e p t ov e r a n at i on i n t h e s h ort s p ac e

o f hal f a c e n t u r y
”
w h i c h i s m e an t by t h e Pu r i tan m o v e m e n t
, We .

s hal l u n d e r s tan d i t b e t t e r if w e r e m e m b e r t h at i t h ad tw o c h i e f

obj e c ts : t h e fi r s t w a s p e r s on al r i gh t e ou sn e s s ; th e s e c o n d w as C i v il

an d r e li gi ou s lib e rty I n o th e r w ord s i t a i m e d t o m ake m e n hon e s t

.
,

an d to m ak e the m fre e .
Su c h a m ov e m e n t s h ou ld be l
c e are d of all the m i sc on c e p ti on s
wh ic h h av e l
c un g to it sin c e i
th e R e s torat on , w h e n t h e v e ry n am e

W on g
r
of Pu r i tan w as m ad e r idi c u l ou s b y
j e e r s of t h e gay th e
I d e as of c o u r t i e r s o f Charl e s II Th ou gh t h e s p i ri t o f th e m o v e
.

t h e P uri tan s
m e n t w as p rofou n dly r e li gi ou s t he Pu r i tan s w e r e n o t a ,

r e li i o u s se c t n e i t h e r w as t h e Pu r i tan a n a rrow m i n d e d an d gl oo m y
g
-

d ogm at i s t a s h e i s s t ill p i c t u r e d e v e n i n t h e h i s t o ri e s
,
Py m an d .

H am pd e n an d Eli ot an d Mi l ton w e r e Pu ri tan s ; a n d i n th e l on g

s t ru ggl e for h u m an lib e r t y t h e r e are fe w n am e s m o r e h on or e d b y

fr e e m e n e v e ry w h e r e Crom w e ll an d Thom as H ooke r w e r e Pu ritan s ;

.

y e t C r o m w e ll s t o o d lik e a r oc k fo r r e l i gi ou s t ol e ran c e ; an d Th o m as

H ooke r i n Con n e c t i c u t gave t o t h e w orl d t h e fi r st w r i tt e n c on st i tu ti on

, , ,

1 86
1 88 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

han d i n h an d ; b u t m o re oft e n t he y w e r e i n op e n s trife , an d a fin al

s tru ggl e fo r s u p re m ac y w a s i n e v itab l e . T h e c ri s i s c am e w h e n J am e s I ,

w h o h ad re c e iv e d t h e r i ght of ro a ty y l from an ac t of Parli a m e n t ,

“ ”
b e gan by th e assu m p ti on of d ivin e ri ght to i gn ore t h e Parliam e n t
, ,

w h i c h had c r e at e d h i m Of the c i v il w ar w h i c h foll ow e d i n th e r e i gn

.

Of Char l e s I an d of t h e t r i u m p h of En gli s h fre e d om

, it i s u n n e c e s ,

sary t o w r i te he r e The bl as p h e m y of a m an s di v i n e r i ght t o ru l e

’
.

h i s fe ll ow m e n w as e n d e d M od e rn En gl an d b e gan w i th t h e C harge
-
.

of Crom w e ll s b r i gad e o f Pu ri tan s at N as e by

’
.

R e ligi ou sl y t h e a ge w as on e of e ve n gre at e r fe rm e n t t han t hat

w h i c h m arke d t he b e gin n i n g of t he R e form at i on A gre at id e al th e . ,

R e li gi ou s id e al of a n ati on al c hu rc h w as p ou n d in g to pi e c e s like , ,

I d e al s a s hi p i n t h e b r e ak e r s an d i n t h e c on fu s i on o f s u c h an
,

hou r t h e ac t i on of t h e vari ou s s e c t s w as li ke t hat of fran t i c p as s e n ge rs ,

e ac h s tr i v i n g t o s a v e h i s p oss e s s i on s fr om t he w r e c k Th e Cath oli c .

C hu rc h as i ts n am e i m p li e s h as al w ay s h e l d t ru e t o t h e i d e al of a
, ,

u n i t e d c h u rc h a c hu rc h w hi c h lik e t h e gr e at R o m an gove rn m e n t
, ,

o f t h e e arly c e n t u r i e s c an b r i n g t h e s p l e n d or an d au th or i ty of R o m e
,
’

t o b e a r u p on t h e hu m bl e st v ill age c hu rc h t o t h e far th e s t e n d s of t h e

e a rt h . For a t i m e t h at m i gh ty i d e al d azzl e d th e G e rm an an d En gli sh
r e fo rm e r s b u t t h e p oss ibili ty of a u n i t e d Prot e s tan t c hu rc h p e r i she d
w i t h Eli zab e t h T h e n i n s te ad of t h e w orld w i d e c hu rc h w hic h w as
. ,
-

t h e id e al of Cath oli c i s m c am e th e i d e al of a p u re l y n a ti on al Pr ot e s
,

tan t i s m Th i s w as th e i d e al of Lau d an d t h e re ac t i on ary bi s ho p s n o

.
,

l e s s t han of the sc hol arly R i c hard H ook e r of the ru gge d S c otc h ,

Cov e n an t e rs an d o f t h e Pu r i tan s of Massac hu s e tt s Bay It i s i h

, .

t e n se ly i n t e re s t i n g t o n ot e t hat Char l e s Call e d I ri s h r e b e l s an d S c o tc h

H i ghl an d e rs t o hi s a i d b y p r om i s i n g to r e s t ore t h e i r n a ti on al r e l i
g i on s ; an d t h a t t h e En g li s h Pu ri t an s t u rn i n g t o S c o t l an d fo,r h e l p ,

e n t e r e d i n t o t h e s ol e m n Co v e n an t of 1 6 4 3 e s tabli s h i n g a n ati on al
‘

Pre sby t e ri an i s m w hos e o bj e c t w a s

,

T o b r i n g th e Ch u r c h e s o f k i n g d om s to u n i form i t y i n re l i
Go d i n th e th r e e
i o n a n d g o v e r n m e n t t o p r e s e r v e th e r i g h t s o f P a r li am e n t a n d th e l i b e r t i e s
g ,

o f th e K i n g d o m ; t h at w e a n d o u r p os te r i t y m a y as b r e th r e n l iv e i n
fa i th a n d l ov e an d th e Lo rd m ay d e l i gh t t o l i v e i n th e m i d s t o f u s
, .

I n th i s fam ou s Co v e n an t w e se e th e i
n a t on a l , t he l i
e c c e s as t c a i l , an d

t h e p e rson a l d re am of Pu ritan i sm , s id e by s id e , in al l the ir gran d e u r

an d s i m p li c ity .
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 1 89

Ye ar s p as se d , y e ars bitte r s tru ggl e an d h e artac he be for e the

of
“

i m p os sibility of u n i tin g the vari ou s Pro t e s tan t se c ts w as ge n e rally

r e c o gn ize d Th e i d e al of a n at ion al c h u rc h di e d hard an d to i t s
. ,

d e ath i s d u e all the r e ligiou s u n re s t of the p e riod On ly as w e .

r e m e m b e r t he n ation al id e al an d th e s t ru ggl e w h i c h it c au s e d c an
, ,

w e u n d e r stan d t h e a m azi n g li fe an d w ork o f B u n y an o r ap p r e c i a t e

,

t he he ro i c s p i rit of t h e Am e ri c an c o l on i s t s w h o l e ft hom e for a w il d e r

n e ss in o r d e r t o giv e t h e n e w id e al Of a fr e e c hu rc h i n a fr e e s tat e

i ts p rac t ic al d e m on s t rati on .

Li t e r ar y Ch a r ac t e r i s t i cs . I n lit e rat u r e al s o t h e Pu r it an A g e
w as on e of c on fu s i on d u e t o t h e b r e a ki n g u p o f ol d id e al s
,
.

Me diae v al s t an dar d s o f chival ry t h e i m p os s ibl e l ov e s an d

,

r om anc e s o f which S p e n s e r f u r n i s h e d t h e t p e s p e r i s h e d n o
y ,

l e s s s u r e l y th an t h e id e al of a n ati on al ch u r ch an d i n t h e
a b s e n c e of an fix e d s t an d ar d o f lit e rar y c r itici s m th e r e w as
y
“ ”
n othi n g t o p r e v e n t t h e e x a g e rati on o f t h e m e t a ph s ic a l
g y
p oe t s w h o ar e t he l it e ra ry p ar all e l s t o r e ligi ou s s e ct s lik e
,

t h e A n ab apti s t s Po e t ry t o ok n e w an d s t a r tli n g for m s i n

.

D on n e an d H e rb e rt an d p r os e b e c am e as s om b e r a s B u r t on s
’

An a t omy of M e la n ck oly Th e s pi r it u al g l oom which s oon e r

.

or l at e r fa s t e n s u p on a l l t h e w r it e r s o f thi s a e an d which
g ,

i s u n j u s tl y at t r ib u t e d t o Pu r it an i n fl u e n c e i s d u e t o t h e
,

b r e aki n g u p of a cc e pt e d s t an d ard s i n gov e rn m e n t an d r e lig i on .

No p e opl e fr om t h e G r e e k s t o th os e o f o u r ow n d ay h a v e
, ,

s u ffe r e d t h e l os s o f ol d id e a l s with ou t c au s i n i t w it e r s t o
g s r c r
y ,
”
I ch ab od !t he g l ory has d e p ar t e d . Th at i s t h e u n c on s ci o u s
t e n d e n cy of lit e rar y m e n i n all ti m e s w h o l ook b ackwar d for
,

th e i r g old e n ag e ; an d it n e e d n ot c on c e rn t h e s tud e n t o f
lit e rat u r e w h o e v e n i n t h e b r e ak u p of ch e r i s h e d i n s tit u t i on s
, ,
-
,

l ook s for s om e for e gl e am s of a b e tt e r li ght which i s t o b r e a k

u p on t h e w or l d T hi s s o c all e d g l oom y ag e p ro d u c e d s om e
-

m i n or p oe m s of e xq u i s it e w or k m an s hip an d on e gr e a t m as t e r
,

o f v e r s e wh o s e w or k w o u ld l i f p pl — J h
g o r
y an
y ga e o r e o e o, n

Milt on i n wh om t h e i n d om it abl e Pu r it an s pi r it fi n d s i t s n obl e s t

,

e xp r e s s i on .
 1 90 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

Th e re ar e th r e e ch aract e r i s tic s i n which Pur it an

m ai n
lit e rat u re di ffe r s fr om tha t of t h e p r e c e di n g ag e : ( 1 ) E liza
b e th a n lit e rat u r e wit h a ll i t s div e r s it h ad a
Pu ri ta n an d , y ,

Eli zab e t han m ar k e d u n it y i n s pi r it r e s u lti n g fr om t h e p at r i ot

,
Li t e m t ure
i s m of al l cl a s se s an d th e i r d e v oti on t o a q u e e n
w ho with al l h e r fa u lt s
’

,
s ou g ht fi rs t t h e n at i on s w e l far e
, .

U n d e r t h e S t ua r t s al l thi s w a s ch an g e d T he ki n g s w e r e t h e
.

o p e n e n e m i e s of t h e p e opl e ; t h e c ou n t ry w a s divid e d b y
t h e s t r u gg l e for p olit ic a l an d r e li g i ou s lib e r t y ; an d t h e lit e ra

t u re w as as divid e d i n S pi r it as w e r e t h e s t r u g gli n g p ar ti e s .

E li za b e th an lit e r at u r e i s g e n e r all i n s pi r i n it th b
( )
2
y g ; ro s

with y ou th an d h op e an d vit alit y Th at which foll ow s s p e ak s

.

o f ag e an d s ad n e s s ; e v e n i t s b r i ght e s t h ou r s ar e foll ow e d b
y
l oo m nd b t h p s s i m i s m i n s e p arabl e fr om t h e p as s i n f
g , a y e e g o

Old s t an d ar d s
. ( 3 ).E li za b e th an lit e r a t u r e i s i n t e n s e l y r o m an tic ;
t h e r om an c e s p r i n g s fr om t h e h e ar t of y ou th an d b e li e v e s al l
,

thi n g s e v e n t h e i m p os s ibl e The g r e at s ch ool m an s c re d o

, .
’

,
“ ”
I b e li e v e b e c au s e it i s i m p os s ibl e i s a b e tt e r e xp re s s i on
,

of E li zab e th an lit e ra t u r e th an of m e di ae v a l th e ol o gy . I n t he
lit e rat u r e of t he Pu r it an p e r i od o n e l ook s i n vai n for r om an tic
ar d or . Ev e n i n t he l y r ic s an d l ov e p oe m s a c r itic al i n t e l l e c ,

t u al s pi r it t ak e s i t s pl ac e an d wh at e v e r r om an c e as s e r t s it s e lf
,

i s i n for m r ath e r th an i n fe e li n g a fan t as tic a n d ar tificial

,

ad orn m e n t o f s p e e ch r ath e r th an t h e n a t u r al u tt e ra n c e of a

h e ar t i n which s e n tim e n t i s s o s t r on g an d t ru e that p o e t ry i s

i t s on l y e xp r e s s i on .

I I . L I T E R AT U R E O F T H E P U R I T A N P E R I O D

Th e Tr an s i t i on Poe t s . Whe n
tt e m pt s t o Cl a s s i fy t h e
on e a

lit e rat u r e of t h e fi r s t h al f of t h e s e v e n t e e n th c e n t u r y fr om ,

t h e d ea th of E li zab e th ( 1 6 0 3 ) t o t h e R e s t orati on ( 1 6 6 0 he
r e alize s t he i m p os s ibilit y o f gr ou pi n g p oe t s b y a n y a cc u rat e

s t an d a r d Th e cl a s s ific ati on s att e m pt e d h e r e h av e s m all

.

d e p e n d e n c e up on d at e s or s ov e r e i gn s an d ar e s u gg e s tive ,

rath e r th an a c c u rat e T h u s S h ak e s p e ar e an d B a c on w rot e

.
 I 9 2 EN G LI S H LITER ATU R E

eno u gh p oe tic m at e r ial with ou t t he i n v e n tion of all e g or ie s

,
’
an d i m p o s s ibl e h e ro i n e s D an i e l s po e t ry which w as fo rg o t
. ,

t e n s oon aft e r h i s d e ath ha s r e c e iv e d p r ob a bly m or e h om age

,

th an it d e s e r ve s i n t he p r ai s e s of Wor d s w or th S outh e y Lam b , , ,

an d C ol e r id ge Th e l att e r s ay s :
. R e ad D an i e l t h e ad m i r ,

abl e D an i e l . Th e s t y l e an d l an g u ag e ar e j u s t s u ch as an y
p u r e an d m an l y w r it e r o f t h e p r e s e n t d ay w ou ld u s e It s e e m s
'

”
q u it e m od e rn i n c om p ar i s on with t h e s t yl e o f S h ak e s p e are .

Th e S on g Wr i t e r s I n s t r on g c on t r as t with t h e ab ov e a re
.

t w o di s ti n ct g rou p s t h e S on g Wr it e r s an d t h e S p e n s e r i an
,

p o e t s Th e cl os e of t h e r e i gn o f Elizab e th w as m ar k e d b y
.

a n ou tb u r s t of E n g li s h s on g s a s r e m a r k abl e i n i t s s u dd e n
,

d e v e l op m e n t as t h e r i s e of t h e d ram a Tw o c au s e s c on t r ib u t e d
.

t o thi s r e s u lt , t h e i n c r e as i n g i n fl u e n c e of F r e n ch i n s t e a d of
It alian v e rs e an d t h e rapid d e v e l op m e n t of m u s ic a s an ar t
,

a t t h e cl os e o f t h e s ixt e e n th c e n t u r
y T h e t w o s on g w r it e r s
.

b e s t w or th s t u d y i n g are Th om as Cam pi on ( 1 5 6 7 1 6 1 9) an d -

N ich ol a s B r e t on ( 1 5 4 5 1 6 26 P
)
—
L ik .e al l t h e l y r ic p o e t s o f

t h e age th e y a r e a c u r i ou s m ixt u r e of t h e E li za b e th an an d
‘

t h e Pu r it an s t an d a r d s Th e y s i n g of s a c r e d a n d p r ofan e l ov e
.

with t h e s am e ze s t an d a c ar e l e s s l ov e s on g i s oft e n fou n d on

,

t h e s am e p a ge with a pl e a for divi n e gr a c e .

Th e S p e n s e r i an Poe t s Of t h e S p e n s e r i an p oe t s G il e s
.

F l e t ch e r an d W ith e r ar e b e s t w or th s t u d y i n g G il e s F l e tch e r
.

1 5 88 1 6 2 3 ) h a s a t ti m e s a s t r on g s u g g e s ti on of M ilt on
( —

h o w a s al s o a foll ow e r o f S p e n s e r i n h i s e ar l e ar s i n t h e
( w y y )
n o bl e s i m plicit a n d m aj e s t of h i s li n e s H i s b e s t k n ow n w or k
y y
V
. ,
’
Ch r i s t s ict or y an d T r i u m ph w a s t h e g r e a t e s t r e li ~

g i on s p o e m th a t h a d a pp e ar e d i n E n
g l a n d s i n c e P i e r s P l o w
”
m an a n d i s n ot an u n w or th p re d e c e s s or of P a r a d i s e L os t
, y .

Th e li fe o f G e org e W ith e r ( 1 5 88 1 66 7) c ov e r s t h e wh ol e
p e r i od of En g li s h hi s t or y fr om E li zab e th t o t h e R e s t or ati on ,

an d t h e e n or m o u s v ol u m e of h i s w o r k c ov e r s e v e r ph a s e of
y
t h e lit e rat u r e of t w o gr e at ag e s H i s li fe w a s a v ari e d on e ;
.

n ow a s a R o al i s t l e a d e r a ai n s t t h e Co v e n an t e r s a n d aga i n
y g ,
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 193

an n ou n ci n g hi s Pu r it an c on victi on s an d s u ffe r i n g i n p r i s on for ,

h i s fa ith A t h i s b e s t With e r i s a l y r ic p oe t o f g r e at or i gi
.

n al i t r i s i n g a t t i m e s t o p o s itiv e g e n iu s ; b u t t h e b u lk of h i s
y ,

p oe t ry i s i n t ol e r ably d u ll S t u d e n t s of thi s p e r i od fin d h i m.

i n t e r e s ti n g as an e pit om e of t he wh ol e ag e i n which h e live d

b u t t h e av e ra g e r e ad e r i s m or e i n cli n e d t o n ot e with i n t e r e s t
t h at h e p u bli s h e d in 1 6 2 3 Hy m n s a n d S ong s of I ke Chu n k ,

t he fi r s t hy m n b ook th a t e v e r app e ar e d i n t h e E n g li s h l an g u ag e .

Th e Me t ap h y s i cal Po e t s T hi s n am e — whi ch w a s g iv e n
.

b y D r J oh n s on i n d e r i s i on b e c au s e of t h e fa n t as tic for m of
.
,
’
D on n e s p o e t ry — i s oft e n appli e d t o al l m i n or p oe t s o f t h e
Pu r it an A g e We u s e t h e t e rm h e r e i n a n ar row e r s e n se
. ,

e xcl u di n
g t h e f o ll o w e r s o f D a n i e l an d th at l a t e r gr ou p k n ow n

a s t h e Ca v al i e r p oe t s I t i n cl u d e s D on n e H e r b e r t W a ll e r
V
. , ,
,

D e n h am C owl e y , au g h an D av e n an t Marv e ll an d Cra s h aw

, , , , .

Th e a dvan c e d s t u d e n t fi n d s th e m al l w or th y o f s t u dy n ot ,

on l
y f or t h e i r o cc as i on al e xc e ll e n t p o e t r
y b u t b e c au s e of th e i r ,

i n fl u e n c e on l at e r lit e rat u r e Th u s R ich ar d Cr a s h aw ( 1 6 1 3 .

t h e Ca th olic m y s tic i s i n t e r e s ti n g b e c a u s e h i s t r o u bl e d
,

li fe i s s i n g u l ar l y lik e D on n e s an d h i s p o e t ry i s at t i m e s lik e ’

1
Ab raham Cowl e y ( 1 6 1 8
’
H e r b e r t s s e t on fir e . w ho

bl os s om e d y o u n g an d w h o at tw e n t y fiv e w a s p r o cl a i m e d t h e ,
-
,

g r e a t e s t p o e t i n E n l an d
g i s n o w s c ar ce l
y k n ow n e v e n b
, y
“ ” 2
n am e , b u t h i s Pi n dar ic O d e s s e t an e x am pl e which i n

fl u e n c e d E n g li s h p oe t r y th r ou gh ou t t h e e i ght e e n th c e n t u r y
V
.

H e n ry au g h an
( 1 6 2 2 — 1 69 5
) i s w o r th
y of s t u d
y b e cau s e h e

i s in so m e r e s p e ct s th e for e r u n n e r of W or d s w or th ; an d 3

A n d r e w Marv e ll ( 1 6 2 1 b e cau s e of h i s l oyal fr i e n d s hip

with M ilt on an d b e c au s e hi s p o e t ry s h ow s t h e c on fl ict b e tw e e n
,

t h e t w o s ch ool s of S p e n s e r an d D on n e Ed m u n d Wall e r .

1 6 06 — 1 6 87 s t a n d s b e tw e e n t h e Pu r it an A g e an d t h e R e s
( ) ”
t orat i on H e w as t h e fi rs t t o u s e c on s i s t e n tl y t h e
. cl o s e d
1 S ee f
,
i t
or th H y m t S t Th
n s an ce , e
”
d Th F l m i g H
n o . t e r e sa an e a n e ar .

2S o ca ll d f m Pi d t h g t t l y i p t f G
e ro n ar , e re a e s r c oe o r e e ce .
3 S ee f i t Ch il d h d Th R t t C ”
t i Th B i d T h ” ” ”
e

V gh m y t i i t p t t i f hild h d d t
,
or n s an ce
,
oo , p e e re a , o r ru on , e r ,

H i dd en Fl w o
”
f e r, or au an s
’
s c n er re a on o c oo an n a u re .
 1 94 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

c ou pl e t which d om i n a t e d ou r p oe t ry for t h e n e xt c e n t u ry .

B y thi s an d e s p e cially b y h i s i n fl u e n c e ov e r D r y d e n t he
, ,

r e t e t fi ur e o f t h e R e s t ora ti on h cc pi l pl c
g a s g e o u e s a ar
g e
, r a e

i n ou r lit e rat u r e th an a r e adi n g o f h i s rath e r ti r e s om e p oe t ry

w ou ld s e e m t o w a r r an t .

Of al l th e s e p oe t s e ach of wh om ha s h i s s p e cial cl a i m w e
, ,

c an c on s id e r h e r e on l
y D on n e an d H e r b e r t w h o i n di ff e r ,

e n t w a s ar e t h e t p e s o f r e v olt a ga i n s t e ar li e r for m s an d
y y
s t an d ar d s o f p oe t r
y I n fe e li n g an d i m ag e r
.
y b o th ar e p oe t s

o f a hi gh o r d e r b u t i n s t y l e an d e xp re s s i on th e y a re t h e
,

l e ad e r s o f t h e fan t as tic s ch ool wh os e i n fl u e n c e l ar ge l y d om i

n at e d p o e t r d u r i n g t h e h al f c e n t u r of t h e Pu r it an p e r i od
y y .

J OH N D O NN E
( 1 5 73 1 63 1
)
Li fe . Th e bri e fe st ou tlin e o f D on n e s life show s i ts in t e n s e hu m an
’

i n te re st H e w as bo rn i n Lon d on th e son of a ri c h i ron m e rc han t

. , ,

a t t h e t i m e w h e n t he m e rc h an t s o f En gl a n d w e r e c re a ti n g a n e w an d
'

hi gh e r ki n d of p ri n c e s On h i s fath e r s s id e he c am e from an old

’
.

We l s h fam ily an d on hi s m othe r s s id e fro m t he H e y w ood s an d S i r

,
’

Thom as Mo re s fam ily B o th fam ili e s w e re Ca tholi c an d i n h i s e arly

’
. ,

life p e rs e c u tion w as b rou ght n e ar for hi s b rothe r die d i n p ri s on fo r

harborin g a p rosc r ibe d p ri e s t an d h i s own e d u c at i on c ou l d n ot b e
,

c on t i n u e d i n O x fo rd a n d Ca m b r id ge b e c au s e of hi s r e l i gi on Su c h .

an e x p e r i e n c e ge n e rally s e ts a m an s r e l i gi o u s s tan d ar d s fo r life b ut

’

r e s e n t ly D on n e as h e s tu di e d l a w a t Li n c ol n s I n n w as i n v e s t i gat i n g
’

p , ,

t h e p h il os op hi c grou n d s o f al l fa i th G rad u ally h e l e ft th e c hu rc h i n

.

w hi c h h e w a s b orn r e n ou n c e d all d e n om i n at i on s an d c a ll e d h i m se l f
, ,

s i m p l y Ch ri s t i an . Me an w hil e he w rote p oe try a n d share d h i s w e al th

w i th n e e dy Ca tholi c r e l at ive s H e j oi n e d t h e e x p e d i t i on of Ess e x
.

fo r Cad i z i n 1 5 9 6 an d fo r t h e Azor e s i n 1 5 9 7 an d o n s e a an d i n
, ,
"
c am p fo u n d ti m e t o w r i t e p o e try Tw o of h i s b e s t p oe m s
. Th e ,
” ”
S torm an d Th e Cal m b e l on g t o th is p e ri od N e x t he t rave l e d
, .

i n Eu r o p e for t h r e e y e ars b u t o c c u p i e d h i m se l f w i th s tu dy an d
,

p o e t r
.
y R e t u r n i n g h o m e h e b e c
,
a m e s e c r e ta r y t o Lo rd Ege rton ,

fe ll i n l o v e w i t h t h e l att e r s y ou n g n i e c e An n e Mor e an d m arri e d

’
, ,

h e r for w hi c h c au s e D on n e w a s c a st i n to p ri son S t ran ge ly e n ou gh .

hi s p o e t ic al w ork at th i s t i m e i s n ot a son g of y ou thfu l rom an c e b u t ,

1 96 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

D on n e th r e w s t y l e an d all lit e r ary s t an d ard s t o t he wi n d s ;

an d p r e ci s e l y fo r thi s r e a s on h e i s for g o tt e n th ou gh h i s g r e at ,

i n t e ll e ct an d h i s g e n i u s had m ar k e d hi m as on e of th o s e w h o
s h o u ld d o thi n g s w or th y t o b e r e m e m b e re d Whil e t h e .

t e n d e n cy of lit e rat u r e i s t o e x alt s t y l e at t he e xp e n se of

th ou g ht t h e w orld has m an y m e n an d w o m e n w ho e x alt
,

fe e li n g an d th ou ght ab ov e e xp r e s s i on ; an d t o th e s e D on n e
i s good r e adi n g . B r ow n i n g i s of t h e s am e s c h ool an d c om ,

p e l s att e n ti on Whil e D on n e pl ay e d h av o c with Eli zab e th an

.

s ty l e , h e n e v e r th e l e s s i n fl u e n c e d o u r lit e r at u r e i n t h e w ay of
b old n e s s an d or ig i n alit y an d t he p re s e n t t e n d e n c y 18 t o g ive
h i m a l arg e r pl a c e n e ar e r t o t h e fe w g r e a t p oe t s t h an h e has
, ,

"
o cc u pi e d s i n c e B e n J o n s on d e cl ar e d th at h e w a s t h e fi r s t p oe t
of t h e w or ld i n s om e thi n g s b u t lik e ly t o p e r i s h for n o t b e i n g
,

F or t o m u ch o f h i s p o e t r y w e m u s t appl y hi s
”
u n d e r s t ood .

’
ow n s ati r ic v e r s e s on a n oth e r s c ru diti e s

I n fi n i te w or k !w h i c h d o th
‘

So fa r e x te n d
That n on e c a n s tu d y i t to e nd.
an
y

G E O R GE H ERB ER T ( 1 63 3)
—
1 5 93
0 day m o s t c al m m os t b r i ght s an g G e orge H e rb e rt an d
, , ,

w e m ay s afe l y t a k e th at s i n gl e li n e a s e xp r e s s iv e of t h e wh ol e
S pi r it o f h i s w r iti n g s Pr ofe s s or Pal m e r wh os e s ch ol ar l y e d i
. ,

ti on of thi s p oe t s w ork s i s a m od e l for c r itic s a n d e dit or s

’

c all s H e r b e r t t h e fi rs t i n En g li s h p oe t ry w ho s p ok e fac e t o
fa c e with Go d .Th a t m ay b e t r u e ; b u t it i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o
n ot e th at n ot a p o e t o f t h e fi r s t h al f of t h e s e v e n t e e n th c e n

t u r y n ot e v e n t h e g ay e s t of t h e Cav ali e r s b u t has w r itt e n

, ,

s om e n o bl e v e r s e o f p ra e r o r a s pi r ati o n which e xp r e s s e s t h e
y ,

un d e r ly i n g Pu r it an s pi r it of h i s age H e r b e r t i s t h e g r e at e s t
. ,

t h e m os t c on s i s t e n t o f th e m all I n al l t h e oth e r s t h e Pu r it an
.

s t r u ggl e s a ga i n s t t h e C av ali e r or t h e Cav ali e r b r e ak s l oos e

,

fr om t he r e s t rai n i n g Pu r it an ; b u t i n H e r b e rt t h e s t r u ggl e i s
p as t an d p e ac e has c om e Th at hi s li fe w as n ot al l c al m
. ,

th at t h e Pu r it an i n hi m had s t r u ggl e d d e s p e rat e l y b e fo re it

 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 1 97

su bdu e d t he p r id e an d idl e n e s s of t h e Cavali e r , i s e vid e n t t o

on e w ho re ad s b e t w e e n h i s li n e s

I s tr u c k the b oa rd a n d c ry
’
d , N o m ore !
I w i ll ab r o a d .

W hat ? S h all I e v e r si
g h an d pine ?
My l i n e s a n d l i fe a re fr e e , fre e as t h e ro a d ,

Loo s e as t he w i n d .

Th e re p e ak s t h e Cavali e r o f t he u n iv e r s it y an d t h e c ou rt an d
s

as on e r e ad s t o t h e e n d o f t h e littl e p o e m which h e c all s b y

‘

t h e s u gg e s tiv e n am e o f The Coll ar h e m ay k n o w th at h e ,

i s re adi n g c on d e n s e d bi og r aph y .

T h os e w h o s e e k for fau lt s for s t rai n e d i m ag e ry an d fan t as t ic

,

v e rs e for m s i n H e r b e r t s po e t ry will fin d th e m i n ab u n d an c e ;
’

b u t it will b e tt e r r e p ay t h e r e ad e r t o l ook for t h e d e e p th ou ght

an d fin e f e e li n g th a t ar e hidd e n i n th e s e w on d e rfu l r e li g i ou s

l y r ic s e ve n i n t h os e th at app e ar m os t a r tifici al The fact th at

, .

H e r b e r t s r e p u t ati on w as gr e at e r at ti m e s th an Milt on s an d
’ ’

, , ,

th at h i s p oe m s wh e n p u bli s h e d aft e r h i s d e at h had a l arg e s al e

an d i n fl u e n c e s h ow s c e r t a i n l t h at h e a pp e al e d t o t h e m e n of
, y
h i s ag e a n d h i s p oe m s will p rob abl y b e r e ad an d a pp r e ciat e d ,

i f on l y b y t h e f e w j u s t s o l on g a s m e n ar e s t r on g e n o u g h t o
,

u n d e r s t an d t h e Pu r it an s s pi ritu al c on victi on s
’
.

Li fe . H e rb e rt l ife i s
qu i e t an d u n e v e n tfu l t hat to r e l ate a fe w
’
s so

bi ograp h ic al fac t s c an b e of li ttl e ad v an tage O n ly as on e r e ad s th e .

w hol e s to ry b y Izaa k Wal t on c an h e s har e t h e ge n tl e s p i rit of H e r

b e rt s p oe try H e w as b orn at Mon tgom e ry Ca stle Wal e s 1 5 9 3 o f

’
.
1
, , ,

a n obl e We l sh fam ily H i s u n i v e r si ty c ou r s e w as b ri lli a n t an d afte r

. ,

g r ad u a t i o n h e w a i t e d l on g y e a r s i n t h e v a i n h o p e o f p r e fe r m e n t a t
c o u rt .Al l h i s life h e had t o ba ttl e agai n s t d is e a se an d th i s i s u n ,

d ou b t e d ly th e c au se of t h e l on g d e l ay b e fo re e ac h n e w s t e p i n h i s
c ou r s e No t t ill h e w as t hi rty se v e n w as h e ord a in e d an d p l ac e d o v e r
. -

th e li ttl e c hu rc h of B e m e rton H ow he live d h e r e am on g p l a i n

.

p e op l e i n t h i s ha pp y c o rn e r o f t h e Lo rd s fi e ld h o p in g al l t hi n gs
’
, ,

an d bl e s s i n l l l ki h i w w t S i o d s h o w i n g o th e rs
g a
p e o p e as n
g s o n
,
a
y o n an

1 T h e re i s s om e d ou b t as t o w he t he r he w a s b orn at t he Ca s t l e , or at B l k
ac Ha ll .

R e ce n t o
p i i n on i li
nc ne s t o t he la tt vi
er e w.
1 98 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

th e w ay , ld b e re ad i n Wal to n I t i s a b rie f life l e ss than thre e

s ho u .
,

ar s o f w o rk b e fo r e b e i n g c u t o ff by c on s u m
y e p t i on b u t r e m arkabl e ,

for t he s i n gl e gr e a t p u rp os e an d t he gl or io u s sp i ri tu al str e n gt h t hat

s hi n e t h rou gh p h y si c al w e akn e ss J u s t b e fo re hi s d e ath h e gav e som e
.

m an u sc ri p t s t o a fri e n d an d h i s me s sage i s w or thy of J ohn B u n y an

,

D e live r th i s l i t tl e b oo k t o m y d e ar b ro th e r F e r rar , a n d te ll h i m h e
s ha ll fin d i n i t a p i c tu r e of th e m a n y s p i r i t u a l c o n fl i c ts th a t h a v e p as s e d
b e tw i x t God an dl b e fo re I c o u l d s u b j e c t m i n e t o th e w i ll o f J e s u s
my s ou

m y m as t e r i n w h os e s e r vi c e I h a v e n ow fo u n d p e r fe c t f re e d o m
, D e s i re .

h i m t o r e a d i t ; a n d th e n i f h e c a n th i n k i t m a y t u r n to th e a d v a n t ag e o f
,

an d e j e c te d p o o r s o u l l e t i t b e m a d e p u b l i c i f n ot l e t h i m b u rn i t f o r
y , , ,

I a n d i t a re l e s s t h a n th e l e as t o f G od s m e r c i e s
’
.

H e r b e rt
chi e f w or k Tae Te mp l e con ’
H e rb e r t ’
s Po e m s . s ,
-
,

s i s t s of o v e r o n e h u n d r e d an d fi ft y S h or t p oe m s s u gg e s t e d b
y
t h e Ch u r ch h e r h olid ay s an d c e r e m on i al s an d t h e e x
,
p e r i e n ce s ,

”
o f t h e Ch r i s ti an li fe Th e fi r s t p o e m . T h e Ch u r ch Por ch is , ,

t h e l o n ge s t an d th ou g h p oli s h e d with a c a r e th at for e s had

,

o w s t h e cl a s s ic s ch ool t h e l e a s t p oe tic al I t i s a w on d e rfu l

, .

c oll e ct i on o f c on d e n s e d s e r m on s wi s e p r e c e pt s an d m oral , ,
’“ ”
l e s s on s s u gg e s ti n g C h au c e r s
,
G ood Co u n s e l Pop e s E s ,
’

s ay on Ma n
” ’
an d Pol on i u s s advic e t o La e r t e s
,
in H a m l e t , ,

o nl it i s m or e p a ck e d with th ou ght th an an o f th e se O f
y y .

t r u th s p e aki n g h e s ay s
-

D are to b e tr u e .
N o thi n g c a n n e e d a li e ;
A f au l t w h i c h n e e d s i t m o s t g ro w s t w o the re b y .

an d of c al m n e s s in ar
g u m e n t
C a l m n e s s i s g r e a t a d v a n ta g e : h e th a t l e ts
An o th e r c h a fe m ay w arm hi m a t h i s fire .

A m on g t he p oe m s o f Tke Te mp l e o n e of t h e
re m ai n i n g

m os t s u gg e s tiv e i s T he Pil g r i m age H e r e i n s i x s h o r t s t an .

za s e v e r li n e cl o s e p a ck e d with th o u g ht w e h a v e t h e wh ol e
y
-
, ,
’
o f B u n an s P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s T h e p oe m w a s w r itt e n p r o b
’

y .

a bl
y b e fo r e B u n a n w as b o r n
y b u t re m e m b e r i n g t he wid e ,

i n fl u e n c e of H e r b e r t s p oe t ry it i s an i n t e re s ti n g q u e s ti on
’

wh e th e r B u n yan r e c e iv e d t h e id e a of h i s i m m or t al w o r k fro m
2 00 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Th e Cav al i e r Poe t s . I n t he lit e rat u re of an y age th e re are

g e n e r a ll y f ou n d t w o di s ti n ct t e n d e n ci e s T h e fi rs t e xp r e s s e s .

t h e d om i n an t s pi r it of t h e ti m e s ; t h e s e c on d a s e c re t or an ,

o p e n re b e lli o n S o i n thi s ag e s id e b y s id e with t he s e r i ou s

.
,

a n d r a ti on al Pu r it an liv e s t he gall an t an d t r ivi al Cav ali e r

, .

Th e Pu r it an fi n d s e xp re s s i on i n the b e s t p o e t ry of t h e p e r i o d ,

from D o n n e t o Milt on a n d i n t he p r os e of B axt e r an d B u n y a n

,
-

t h e Cav ali e r i n a s m all g rou p of p oe t s H e rr ick Lov e l ac e , , ,

S uckli n g ,
a n d C re w
a — w h o w r it e s on gs g e n e r all y i n li ght e r
,

v e i n gay t r ivi al of t e n lic e n tiou s b u t w ho c an n ot alt oge th e r

, , , ,

e s ca p e t he t r e m e n d ou s s e r i ou s n e s s of Pu r it an i s m .

Th o m as Car e w ( 1 5 9 8 1 639 P ) C ar e w m a
—
y b e c all e d t h e
.

i n ve n t o r of Cav ali e r l o v e p oe t ry an d t o hi m m ore th an t o an y

, ,

o th e r i s d u e t h e p e c u li ar c o m bi n a ti o n of t h e s e n s u al a n d t h e
,

re li g i ou s which m ark e d m os t o f t h e m i n or p o e t s o f t h e s e v e n

t e e n t h c e n t u ry H i s p oe t ry i s t he S p e n s e r i an p as t o ral s t r ipp e d
.

of i t s re fi n e m e n t o f fe e li n g an d m ad e di r e ct c oar s e vi g o r o u s , ,
.

H i s p oe m s p u bli s h e d i n 1 64 0 ar e g e n e r all y lik e hi s li fe

, , , ,

t r ivi al o r s e n s u al ; b u t h e re an d th e re i s fou n d on e lik e t he ,

foll owi n g which i n dic at e s th at with t h e Me t aph y s ic al a n d

,

Cav ali e r p oe t s a n e w an d s ti m u l ati n g forc e had e n t e r e d

En gli s h lit e rat u re
As k m e n o m ore w h e r e J o v e b e s tow s ,

W he n J u n e i s p as t , th e fa d i n g r os e , J

F or i n y ou r b e au t y s o r i e n t d e e p
’

T h e s e fl ow e r s , as i n th e i r l
c au s e s , s e e p .

As k m e no m o r e w h e r e th o s e s t a rs l i gh t

T h a t d o w n w a r d s fa ll i n d e a d o f n i gh t,

For i n y ou r e y e s th e y s i t, a n d t h e re
F i x ed b e c om e as i n th e i r s p h e re .

As k m e no m or e i f e a s t or w e st
T he p h oe n i x b u i l d s h e r s p i c n e s t , y
F o r u n t o y ou a t l as t s h e fl i e s ,
An d i n y ou r fr ag ra n t b os o m d i e s .

R ob e r t H e rr i ck ( 1 59 1 H e rrick i s th e t ru e Cav ali e r ,

g a
y, d e vil m ay -c ar e
- in di s p os iti on , b ut b y s o m e fre ak of fat e
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE

cl e rgy m an of D Pr i or , i n S ou th D c ou ty de v
'

a e an e on , a n ma \ ~

fam ou s b y hi m an d B l ack m ore H e re i n a c o u n t r y p ar i s h he

.
, ,

liv e d di s c on t e n t e dl y l on gi n g for t h e j oy s o f Lon d on an d t he

,

Me r m aid Tav e r n h i s b ach e l or e s t abli s h m e n t c on s i s ti n g of a n

,

o l d h o u s e k e e p e r a c a t a d og a g o o s e a t a m e l a m b o n e h e n
, , , , , ,

fo r which h e th an k e d God i n p oe t ry b e c a u s e s he l aid a n e g g

e ve r
y d a
y ,
— an d a p e t p i g th a t d r a n k b e e r with H e r r ick o u t

o f a t an k a r d W ith ad m i rabl e good n at u re H e rrick m ad e t h e

.
,

b e s t of th e s e u n c on ge n i al s u r r ou n di n g s H e w a tch e d with .

s m p a th t h e c ou n t r li f a b o u t h i m an d c au g ht i t s s pi r it i n
y y y e

C o r i n n a s May i n g
”
m an y l y r ic s a fe w o f which lik e
’

, ,
G ath e r ,
”
e ros e b u d s whil e e ma an d T o D a ffo dil s a r e am o n g t h e
y y y , ,

b e s t k n ow n i n ou r l an gu age H i s p oe m s c ov e r a wid e r an ge
.
,

f rom t r ivi al l ov e s o n g s p ag an i n s pi r it t o h y m n s o f d e e p
, ,

r e li i o u s fe e li n O nl t h b t f h i p m h ld b d
g g .
y e e s o s o e s s o u e r e a ;
a n d th e s e a r e re m ar k abl e for th e i r exq u i s it e s e n ti m e n t a n d

th e i r g rac e fu l m e l o di o u s e xp r e s s i on Th e re s t s i n c e th e y
,
.
,

r e fl e c t s om e thi n g o f t h e c oa r s e n e s s o f h i s a udi e n c e m ay b e ,

p as s e d ov e r i n s il e n c e .

Lat e i n li fe H e r rick p u bli s h e d hi s on e b ook H e sp e r zd e s

'

ana
’
N ool e N u m oe r s T he l a tt e r h a l f c o n t ai n s h i s
re li g i ou s p oe m s a n d on e h as on l t o r e a d th e re t h e r e m ar k
, y
a bl e Lit an y t o s e e h ow t h e r e ligi o u s t e r r or th a t fi n d s
e xp re s s i o n i n B u n an s Gra ce A b oz
’
’

y m d zng c ou ld m as t e r e v e n

t h e m os t c ar e l e s s o f Ca v ali e r s i n g e rs .

S u ck l i n g an d Lov e l ace S i r J oh n S u ckli n g ( 1 6 09 — 1 6 4 2 ) w as

.

o n e o f t h e m os t b r illi an t W it s of t h e c o u rt o f Ch ar l e s I w h o w r ot e ,

p oe t ry as he e x e r ci s e d a h or s e o r fou ght a d u e l b e c au s e it w as ,

c on s id e r e d a ge n tl e m an s acc o m pli s h m e n t i n th o s e d ay s H i s
’
.

”
poe m s s t r u ck fro m hi s wild li fe lik e s p ark s fro m hi s r api e r
, ,
“
a r e u tt e r l t r ivi a l an d e v e n i n h i s b e s t k n ow n B all a d U p on a
y , ,

We ddi n g rare l y r i s e ab ov e m e r e d ogge r e l I t i s on l y th e r o

,
”
.

m an c e of h i s li fe — hi s r ich b r illi an t c a r e l e s s yo u th a n d h l S
, , ,

p o ve r ty an d s u icid e i n Pari s whith e r h e fl e d b e c au s e o f h i s d e v o

,

ti on t o t he S t u ar t s th at k e e p s hi s n am e aliv e i n ou r lit e ratu re .

2 02 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

I n hi s li fe p oe t ry S i r R ich ar d Lo ve l ac e ( 1 6 1 8— 1 6 5 8)
an d

O ffe r s a r e m ar k a bl e p arall e l t o S u ckli n g a n d t h e t w o a r e o fte n ,

cl as s e d t oge th e r as p e rfe ct re p r e s e n t ativ e s of t he foll ow e r s of

K i n g Ch a r l e s Lov e l ac e s L a ca s ta a v ol u m e of l ov e l y r ic s i s
’
.
, ,

ll hi h pl th S ckli w k d f
’

g e n e r a
y o n a g e r a n e a n u n
g s or ; a n a e w
" " ” ”
o f t h e p oe m s lik e To Lu c a s t a a n d To A lth e a fro m Pr i s o n
, , ,

d e s e rv e th e s e c u r e pl ac e th e y h ave w on I n the l att e r o cc u r .

t h e oft qu ot e d li n e s
-

S to n e w a ll s d o n o t a p r i s on m a k e ,

N o r i r on b ars a c ag e

Mi n ds i n n oc e n t an d i
q et
u ta ke
T h at f or an h e r m i tag e .
I f I h a v e fr e e d o m i n m y l o v e ,
A n d i n m y s o u l a m fr e e ,
An g e l s l
a on e th at s o ar a b o ve
E n j oy s u ch l i b e r ty .

J O H N MI L T O N ( 1 6 0 8— 1 6 74 )
T h y s o u l w as l i k e a s t ar a n d d w e l t a p a r t ;
T h ou h ad s t a v o i c e w h os e s o u n d w a s l i k e t h e se a

Pu r e a s t h e n a k e d h e a v e n s m aj e s ti c fr e e ;
, ,

S O d i d s t th ou t r a v e l o n l i fe s c o m m on w a y
’

I n c h e e r fu l g o d l i n e s s : an d y e t t h y h e art
T h e l ow l i e s t d u t i e s o n h e rs e l f d i d l ay .

ro m W o r d s w or th s M i l t on
’
( F S on n e t on

S h ak e s p e are an d Milt on the

fi gu r e s th at t ow e r
are tw o

c on s pic u ou s l y ab ov e t h e g oodly fe ll ow s hip of m e n w h o h ave

m ad e o u r lit e ra t u re fa m ou s Ea ch i s r e p r e s e n t a tiv e O f t he
.

ag e th a t p ro d u c e d h i m an d t o g e th e r th e f o r m a s u gg e s tiv e
, y
c o m m e n t ary u p on t he t w o fo r c e s th at r u l e o u r h u m an ity ,

t h e fo rc e o f i m p u l s e a n d t h e fo r c e of a fix e d p u r p o s e S h ak e .

s p e a r e i s t h e p oe t of i m p u l s e o f t he l ov e s h at e s fe ars je al
, , , ,

o u s i e s a n d am biti on s th a t s w ay e d t h e m e n of hi s age
,
Milt on .

i s t h e p oe t of s t e ad fas t will an d p u r p os e w h o m o v e s lik e a ,

d m id t h f e a rs an d h op e s an d ch an i n i m p l s of t h e
g o a e g g u s e

w o r ld r e gar di n g th e m as t rivi al an d m om e n t ary thi n g s th at

,

c a n n e v e r s w e rv e a g r e at s ou l fro m i t s c ou r s e .
29 4 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Li fe of Mi l t on . Mil ton i s like an i d e al i n t he

l like a l ofty sou ,

m ou n ta in on the h or i zon We n e ve r attain t h e id e al w e n e v e r c lim b

.

t h e m ou n ta in b u t li fe w ou ld b e i n e x p re s s ibly p oore r w e r e e i the r to

b e tak e n aw ay .

From c h ild hood Mil ton s p ar e n ts s e t h i m ap art for th e a ttain m e n t

’

o f n obl e e n d s a n d s o l e ft n o thi n t o h i t h m tt f t i
, g c an c e n e a e r o r a n

i n g H i s fa th e r J ohn Mil ton i s sai d to have tu rn e d Pu ri tan w hil e

. , ,

a s tu d e n t a t O xfo rd an d t o ha v e b e e n d i s i n h e r i t e d b h i f m il
y s a
y;
w he r e u p on he s e ttl e d i n
Lon d on a n d p rosp e re d
gre atly a s a s c ri v e n e r ,

t hat i s a ki n d of n o ta ry , .

I n c harac t e r t h e e ld e r
Milton w as a rare c om
bin ati on of s c hol ar an d
bu si n e ss m an a rad ic al ,

Pu r i tan i n p ol i ti c s an d
r e li gi on y e t a m u s i c i an , ,

w ho s e hy m n t u n e s are
s t ill su n g an d a l o v e r of ,

art an d li t e ratu r e Th e .

p o e t s m o th e r w as a
’

w o m an o f r e fi n e m e n t
an d soc i al grac e w i th a ,

d e e p i n t e r e s t i n r e ligion
an d i n l oc al c hari ti e s .

S O th e b oy gr e w u p i n a
j o H N MI LT O N
h om e w hi c h c o m bi n e d
th e l tu re of th e
cu R e n a i ss an c e w i th t h e p i e t y an d m o ral s t r e n gt h of
e arly Pu r i t an i s m . H e b e gin s, t h e r e fore , a s t h e h e ir of on e gre at a ge
an d t h e p r op h e t o f a n o t h e r .
Ap p ar e n tly t h e e l d e r Mil ton S ha r e d Bac on
’
s di slike for t h e e duca

t i on al m e thod s of t h e t i m e an d S O t oo k c h ar ge of hi s s on s
’
t ra in i n g ,

i
e n c o u rag n g hi s n a t u ra l t as t e s , t e ac h in g hi m m u si c , an d se e k n g ou t i
a l
t u t or w h o h e p e d t h e b oy t o w ha t he s o u gh t m ost e age r ly , n ot th e

gram m a r an d m e c ha n s m o f re e i G k an d Lat in b u t ra t h e r th e s tor e s , i

t he i d e a ls , t he p o e tr
y t ha t h id e l i te ratu r e s At
i n th e i r i n c om p arabl e .

t w e l ve y e ar s w e fin d t h e b oy a l r e ady a s c hol ar i n s p i r i t u n abl e t o ,

r e s t t ill aft e r m i d n i h t b e c au s e i h h i h h i s s tu d y
g o f t h e j y
o w t w c

was r e w ard e d Fr om b o y ho o d t w o gr e a t p ri n c i p l e s s e e m t o gove rn

.
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 2 05

Mil ton ’
c are e r : on e the l ove of be au ty Of m u sic art lite ratu rE}
s , , , ,

an d i n d e e d o f e ve r f o r m of hu m an c u l tu re ; the o th e r a s t e ad fas t
y ,

d e votion to d u ty as the highe st obj e c t in hu m an life .

A br i e f c o u r se at the fam ou s S t Pau l s s c hool i n Lon d on w as t he .

’

l u d e t o M ilt on s e n t ran c e t o Chr i s t s C o ll e ge C b id

’ ’

p r e a m r
ge H e re , .

again h e foll ow e d hi s n atu ra l b e n t an d like Bac on fou n d h im se l f , ,

Oft e n i n O p p o s i t i on t o t h e au th or i t i e s As id e from s om e La t in po e m s .
,

th e m os t n ot e w o r t hy s on g of t h i s p e ri o d of Mil ton s life i s hi s s p l e n

’

On the Mo rn in g of Chr i st s Nat i v i ty

”
did Od e , w hi c h w as b e gu n
’
,

on Chr i s t m a s d ay 1 6 2
9 , M il to n w h il e.d e e p i n t h e c l ass,
i c s had
y e t ,

a gr e at e r l o v e fo r h i s n at ive li t e ratu re Sp e n s e r w a s for y e ar s hi s .

”
m as te r ; i n h i s v e rs e w e fin d e ve ry e vid e n c e of h i s l ovin g s tu d y of
S hak e sp e ar e an d hi s l a st gre at p o e m s S how c l e a rly how h e had b e e n
in fl u e n c e d b y Fl e tc he r s C/zr zs t s V
,
' ’ '

ze tory a n d Tr zu mp /z B u t i t i s
’ ’
.

s i gn ifi c an t t ha t t h i s fi r s t Od e r i s e s h i h e r t h an an y t h i n f t h ki d
g g O e n

p rod u c e d in t h e fam ou s Age o f Eli zab e th .

Whil e at Cam b rid ge it w as th e d e s ire of hi s par e n ts that Milton

s ho u l d t ak e o rd e r s i n t h e Chu r c h o f En l an d ; b u t t h e i n t e n s e l o v e
g
of m e n tal lib e r t w h i c h s t am p e d t h e Pu r i tan w as t oo s t ro n g w i t hi n
y
”
hi m an d h e r e fu se d to c on s id e r t h e
, o ath o f s e rvi tu d e as h e c all e d ,

i t w h i c h w ou ld m ark hi s o rdin at i on
, Th rou ghou t hi s life Milton . ,

t h ou gh p rofou n dly r e li gi ou s h e ld al oof fro m t h e s tr i fe of s e c ts

,
In .

b e li e f h e b e l on ge d to th e e x t re m e Pu ri tan s c all e d S e p arati s ts I n

, , ,

d e p e n d e n ts Con gre gat i on alis ts of w hi c h ou r Pil gri m Fathe rs are

, ,

t h e gre at e x am pl e s ; b u t h e r e fu s e d t o b e b ou n d by an y c r e e d or
c hu rc h d i s c ipli n e

As e ve r i n m y g re a t T a s k -
M as te r ’
s e
y e .

I n th i s l a st l in e of o n e o f hi s son n e ts
1
i s fou n d Milton ’
j
s r e e c t on o f i
e v e ry form of ou tw ard r e li giou s au thor i ty i n fac e of the su p re m e
Pu ri tan p r in c i pl e t h e lib e r ty of th e i n d i v id u al sou l b e fore God
, .

A l on g p e riod Of r e ti re m e n t follow e d Milton s w i thd raw al fr om th e

’

u n i v e rs i t y i n 1 6 3 2 At h i s fathe r s c ou n t ry hom e i n H o rton h e ga v e

’
.

h i m s e l f u p for s i x y e ar s t o soli tary r e ad i n g an d s tu dy roam in g o ve r ,

t h e w id e fi e l d s of G r e e k Lat i n H e b r e w S p an i s h Fr e n c h I tali an
, , , , , ,

an d En li s h li te rat u r e s an d s tu d i n h d t m t h m at i c s s c ie n c e
g y g ,a r a a e , ,

th e ol ogy an d m u s i c
, a c u ri ou s c om bi n at i on
,
— To h i s l o v e of m u s ic .

w e ow e t h e m e l od y Of al l h i s p o e t r y an d w e n o t e i t i n t h e r hy t hm ,

an d b al a n c e w h i c h m ake e v e n hi s m i gh t y o a m n t s h ar m o n i ous
p r s e r gu e .

O hi b i g iv d t th Ag f Tw ty t h ”
1 n s e n a rr e o e e o en -
re e .
2 06 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

” ”
Lyc id as, L Al l e gro,
”
I l Pe n se roso, Arc ad e s ,
H
Com u s,
’
In
”
an d a fe w Son n e ts , w e h ave th e p o e ti c r e su l t s of t hi s re t i r e m e n t at
H or ton , — fe w , in d e e d , b u t th e m ost p e rfe c t of t he ir ki n d t ha t ou r

lite ratu re h as r e c o rd e d .

Ou t litu d e w he re hi s tal e n t w as p e rfe ct e d Milton e n te re d

of s o , ,

t h e b u sy w orld w h e r e hi s c harac t e r w as t o b e p ro v e d t o th e u t m ost .

Fro m H orton he t rave l e d abroad throu gh Fran c e S w i tze rl an d an d , , ,

I taly e ve ryw he r e r e c e i v e d w i th ad m i ration for h i s l e arn in g an d c ou r

,

t e sy w i n n in g t he fr i e n d s h i p of th e e x il e d D u tc h s c hol ar G rotiu s in
, ,
1
Pari s an d Of G alil e o in hi s sad i m p ri s on m e n t i n Fl or e n c e
, He .

w as on h i s w ay t o G re e c e w h e n n e w s r e ac h e d h i m of the b re ak b e
t w e e n kin g an d p ar liam e n t Wi th the p rac ti c al i n sight w hic h n e ve r
.

d e s e rte d hi m M ilt on saw c l e arly th e m e an in g of the n e w s H i s c ord ial .

r e c e p t i o n i n I taly s o c hary of p rai s e t o an y th i n g n ot I tali an

,
had re ,

aw ak e n e d i n Mil t on t h e o l d d e s i r e to w r i t e an e pi c w h i c h En gl an d
”
w ou ld n ot w illi n gly l e t d i e ; b u t a t t h o u gh t o f th e c on fl i c t fo r

hu m an fre e d o m al l h i s d r e am s w e r e fl u n g t o th e w in d s H e gav e u p .

hi s t rav e l s an d li t e rary am bi t i on s an d hu rri e d t o En gl an d F or I .

”
t h ou gh t it b as e h e say s , t o b e t ra v e lin g at m y e as e for in t e ll e c tu al
,

c u l tu re w h il e m y fe ll ow c ou n try m e n at ho m e w e r e fi gh t i n g for lib e rty ”

-

Th e n for n e arly tw e n ty y e ars t he p o e t of gre at ac h i e v e m e n t an d

s till gr e at e r p rom i s e d i sapp e ars We h e ar n o m or e s on gs b u t on ly
. ,

t h e p ro s e d e n u n c iat i on s an d argu m e n t s w h i c h are as r e m arkabl e as

hi s p oe t ry I n all ou r li t e ratu re th e r e i s n ot hi n g m o re w or thy of t he
.

Pu r i tan s p i rit t han th i s l a yi n g as id e of p e r son al a m bi t i on s i n o rd e r to

j oin i n th e s tru ggl e for hu m an libe rty I n h i s b e st kn own s on n e t O n . ,

H i s Bl i n d n e s s w hi c h r e fl e c t s h i s gr i e f n o t at d arkn e s s b u t a t hi s
, , ,

ab an d on e d d r e am s w e c atc h t h e s u bli m e s p i r it of th i s r e n u n c i a t i on
, .

Milton s Opp ortu n i ty t o s e r v e c am e i n t h e c ri si s Of 1 6 4 9 Th e

’
.

ki n g had b e e n s e n t t o th e s c aff ol d p ayin g th e p e n al ty of h i s ow n ,

t r e ac h e ry an d En glan d s at s h i v e ri n g at i ts ow n d e e d lik e a c h ild or

, ,

a R u s s i an p e a san t w h o i n su dd e n p as s i on r e s i s ts u n b e arabl e b ru t ali t y

an d t h e n i s afra id O f t h e c on se qu e n c e s Tw o w e e ks of an x i e ty of . ,

t e rror an d s il e n c e foll ow e d ; t h e n a p pe ar e d Milt on s Te n u r e of K i ngs

’

a n d M agi s tr a l e s To En gl an d it w a s li ke t h e c o m i n g o f a s tron g
‘
.

m an n ot on ly t o p r ote c t t h e c h il d b u t t o j u s t ify h i s bl ow fo r lib e rty

, ,
.

K i n gs n o l e ss t han p e op l e ar e su bj e c t to the e te rn al p ri n c i p l e of l aw ;

1 k l
I t i s re m ar a b e , ” s ay s L a m a rt i ne , h ow o ft e n i n the lib i
ra r e s of I ta li an pr i n ce s

an d i n t he c orre s o n d e n c e o f
p g r e a t I ta lian i
w r t e rs of th i s i
pe r od y ou fin d m e n t i on e d t he
n am e a n d fa m e of th i y
s ou n g Eng li sh m a n .
”
2 08 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

of Crom w e ll I ron sid e s had ove rw h e l m e d the kin g s foll ow e rs Afte r

’
s
’
.

the e x e c u t ion of t h e ki n g app e a r e d an oth e r fam ou s at tac k u p on t h e

Pu ritan s D efe n s i o R eg i a p r o Ca r l o I i n s t igat e d by Charl es II w ho
, , ,

w as t h e n li v in g i n e x il e It w as w ritte n i n Latin by S al m asi u s a

. ,

D u tc h p rofe s sor at Le yd e n an d w as hail e d b y t h e R o y ali s t s a s an i n

,

vin c ibl e argu m e n t By ord e r of th e Cou n c il of State Mil ton p r e par e d

.

a r e ply . H i s e y e si ght had sad ly fail e d an d h e w as w arn e d t hat an y ,

fu rthe r s trai n w ou ld b e d i sas tro u s H i s r e p ly w as c harac t e r i st i c of

.

t h e m an an d th e Pu ri tan As h e had o n c e sac r ifi c e d h i s p oe t ry S O h e

. ,

w as n ow r e ady h e s aid to s ac rifi c e h i s e y e s al so on the al tar of En g

, ,

lish lib e rty H i s m agn ifi c e n t D efe n s zo p r o Pop u lo Ang l i ca n o i s on e

’

of t h e m o s t m as t e rly c on t rove r s i al w ork s i n li t e ratu r e Th e p o w e r o f .

t he p r e ss w as al re ad y s t ron gl y fe lt i n En gl an d an d the n e w Com ,

m on w e al th ow e d i t s s t an d i n g p artly to M il ton s p ro s e an d p ar tly t o

’
,

C rom w e l l s p o li c y Th e D ef e n s i o w as t he l ast w ork t hat Mil t on s aw

’
. .

Bli n d n e ss f e ll u p on h i m e r e i t w as fin i s h e d an d from 1 6 5 2 u n t il hi s ,

d e ath he l ab ore d i n total d arkn e ss .

Th e l as t p ar t of M il t on s li fe i s a pi c tu r e of soli tary gran d e u r n u

’

e qu al e d i n li t e rar y h i s t or y Wi th th e R e s to rati on all h i s l ab ors an d

.

s ac rifi c e s fo r hu m an i ty w e r e a p p ar e n tly w as t e d F ro m h i s r e t i r e m e n t .

h e c ou ld h e ar t h e b e ll s an d t h e sh ou t s t hat w e l c om e d b ac k a v i c i ou s
m on arc h w h o s e fi r s t ac t w a s to s e t h i s foot u p on h i s p e op l e s n e c k
’
, .

Mil ton w as i m m e d i at e ly m arke d for p e r s e c u ti on ; he r e m ain e d for

.

m on t h s i n hi d i n g ; h e w as r e d u c e d t o p o v e r ty an d hi s b ooks w e re ,

bu rn e d b y th e pu blic han gm an H i s d au gh t e rs u p on w hom h e .

,

d e p e n d e d i n h i s bli n d n e ss re b e ll e d at t h e t ask of r e adin g t o hi m

,

an d r e c o rdi n g h i s t hou gh t s I n th e m id st o f all th e s e s o r row s w e

.

u n d e rs tan d i n S a m s on
, t h e c ry of t he bli n d c ham p i on of I s ra e l :
,

N ow b l i n d , d i s h e a r t e n e d , s h am e d , d i s h on ore d , q u e ll e d ,
To w h a t c an I be use fu l ? w h e r e i n se r ve
My n a ti o n , an d t h e w or k fro m H e a v e n i m p o s e d ?
B u t to Sit idle on l
th e h o u s e h o d h e ar th ,
A b u r d e n ou s d r o n e ; to v i s i tan ts a a z
g e,
O r p i ti e d j
ob e c t .

M il ton ’
s an sw e r i s w orthy life Wi thou t e n vy or
of hi s ow n gr e at .

bitte rn e s s h e goe s bac k to the e arly d re am of an i m m ortal p oe m an d

b e gin s w ith s u p e rb c on sc i ou sn e s s of p ow e r to dic tate hi s gre at e p ic .

P a r a d i se Los t w as fi n i sh e d i n 1 6 65 aft e r s e v e n y e ars l ab or in

’

d arkn e ss Wi th gre at d i ffic u l ty h e fou n d a p u bli sh e r an d fo r t h e

. ,
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 2 09

w ork , t
lit e ratu re he re c e i ve d d
\

gr e at n ow the m os hon o re p o e m in ou r ,
T

l e ss than c e rtain ve rse m ake rs of ou r d ay re c e ive for a li ttl e s on g i n

o n e of ou r p o p u lar m agazi n e s I ts su c c e s s w as i m m e diat e t hou gh . , ,

like al l hi s w o rk it m e t wit h ve n om ou s c ritic i sm D ryd e n su m m e d

, .

u p t h e i m p re s si on m ad e on thou ghtfu l m i n d s of h i s t i m e w h e n h e

said ,
Th i s m an c u t s u s all ou t an d th e an c i e n t s t oo T he re aft e r a , .

bit of su n shin e c am e i n to hi s d arke n e d hom e for the w o rk s tam p e d ,

h i m as on e of the w orld s gre at w ri te rs an d from En gl an d an d the Con

’
,

t i n e n t pil gr i m s c am e i n i n c r e as in g n u m b e rs to s p e ak t h e i r grat itu d e .

The n e x t y e ar M ilt on b e gan hi s Pa r a d i s e R eg a i n e d I n 1 6 71 a p .

e d h i s l as t i m p ortan t w ork S a m s on A on i s te s t h e m os t p ow e rfu l

p e ar g , ,

d ram at i c p o e m on the G re e k m od e l w hi c h ou r l an gu age p osse ss e s .

Th e p i c t u r e of I srae l s m i ghty c ham pi on bli n d alon e a ffl ic te d b y

’
, , ,

t hou gh tl e s s e n e m i e s b u t p re s e rvi n g a n obl e id e al t o t h e e n d i s a ,

fi ttin g c l ose to th e life w ork of the p oe t hi m s e lf Fo r y e ars he w as .

s il e n t d re am i n g w h o s hall say w hat d re am s i n h i s d arkn e ss an d say

, ,

in g c h e e rfu lly to h i s fri e n d s S till gu i d e s the h e av e n l y vi s i on He, .

di e d p e ac e fu lly i n 1 6 74 th e m ost su blim e an d the m ost l on e ly figu re ,

i n ou r li te ratu r e .

Mi l t on ’
s l y w ork Milt on app e ars
Earl y Po e t r y .
1
I n hi s e ar

as t h e i n h e rit o r o f all t h at w a s b e s t i n Eli zab e th an lit e ra t u r e ,

a n d h i s fi r s t w o r k t h e od e O n t h e Mo rn i n g of C h r i s t s N a
’

,
”
tivit y app r oach e s t he high w at e r m ar k of l y r ic p oe t ry i n
,
-

En gl an d I n t h e n e xt s i x y e ar s fr om 1 6 3 I t o 1 6 3 7 he w r o t e
.
, ,

b u t l ittl e s c ar c e l y m o r e th an t w o th o u s an d li n e s b u t th e s e
, ,

are am on
g t h e m o s t e x q u i s it e a n d t h e m o s t p e r f e ctl y fi n i s h e d
i n ou r l an g u ag e .

L A l le g ro an d I l Pe n s e r os o are twi n p oe m s c on t ai n
’ ”
,

i n g m an y li n e s an d s h o r t d e s c r iptiv e p as s age s which li n ge r i n

t h e m i n d lik e s t rai n s of m u s ic an d which ar e k n ow n ,
L Al l e gr o
’
”
an d l ov e d wh e r e v e r En li s h i s s p ok e n L A ll
’

g e g ro .

( t h e j o o u s or h app
y y m a n
) i s lik e a n e xc u r s i on i n t o t h e E n
g
li s h fi e ld s at s u n r i s e The ai r i s s w e e t ; bi r d s are s i n g i n g ; a .

p l i ly t h p g
Milt on iv i fl kw f t h P it
1 In ’
s w or e se e a n e ro re s s e n u e n ce o e ur an Age . Thu s
hi H t
s
p m
or o n l m t Eli z b t h i h t ; h i p
oe s a re j y o i
ou s , a os a e an n c ar a c e r s r ose s s t e rn , ilim
tan t , y i l d i g lik t h P i t
un e i hi
n t g gl f
, li b e t y ; hi l t po t
e e ur an n s s ru e or r s a er e ry , fo ll w i g
o n

th e a
pp t f il f P it
are n i m i th R t t i h
a u re o t f
ur d an s n e e s or a on , as a no e o sa n e s s, y e t p ro
l i m th t l p i ip l f lib ty d j t i f w hi h h h d liv d
c a s e e e rn a r nc es o er an us ce or c e a e .
2I O E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

m u ltitud e of s i ght s ,
so un ds ,
frag ran c e s , fill al l t he se n s e s ; an d

to thi s pp e al o f n atu r e t h e s o u l of m an re s p on d s b y b e i n g
a

h appy s e e i n g i n e v e ry fl o w e r a n d h e a r i n g i n e v e r h ar m o n
, y y
"
s o m e e x qui s it e s y m b o l of h u m an l i fe f l l Pe n s e ro s o t ak e s
u s o v e r t h e s am e g rou n d at twili ght a n d at m oon r i s e T he .

ai r i s s ti l l fr e s h a n d f r ag r an t ; t h e s y m b oli s m i s i f p os s ibl e , ,

m or e t e n d e r l y b e au ti fu l th an b e for e ; b u t t h e g ay m ood i s
th u h i t s m e m or li n e r s i n t h e a ft e r l o w of t h e s u n
g o n e ,
o g y g g
se t. A q u i e t th ou g ht fu l n e s s t ak e s t he pl ac e of t h e p u r e j oy ou s ,

s e n sa ti on of t h e m o rn i n g a th ou g ht fu l n e s s whic h i s n o t s ad
, ,

th o u gh lik e al l q u i e t m ood s it i s aki n t o s ad n e s s an d which ,

s o u n d s t h e d e e p s of h u m an e m o ti on i n t h e p r e s e n c e of n a t u re .

To q u o t e s c a tt e r e d li n e s of e ith e r p oe m i s t o d o i n j u stic e t o
b o th Th e y s h ou ld b e r e ad i n th e i r e n ti r e t y t h e s am e d ay o n e
.
,

at m o r n i n g t h e o th e r a t e v e n tid e i f on e i s t o app r e ci a t e th e i r
, ,

b e au t y an d s u gge s tiv e n e s s
Th e Mas q u e Of Co m u s i s i n m an y r e s p e ct s t h e m os t
p e rfe ct of Milt on s p oe m s I t w as w ritt e n i n 1 6 3 4 t o b e p e r
’
.

for m e d a t L u dl o w Ca s tl e b e for e t he e ar l of B rid g e

Com u s
wat e r an d hi s fr i e n d s Th e re i s a t raditi on th a t t h e
.

e ar l s th r e e child r e n h ad b e e n l o s t i n t h e w oo d s an d wh e th e r
’

, ,

t r u e o r n o t Milt on t ak e s t he S i m pl e th e m e of a p e rs on l o s t
, ,

c all s i n an Att e n d an t S pi ri t t o p ro t e c t t he w an d e r e r an d ou t ,

of thi s with i t s n at u r al acti o n an d m e l odi ou s s on g s m ake s

, ,

t h e m os t e xq u i s it e p a s t or al d ra m a th at w e p os s e s s I n fo r m .

it i s a m as q u e lik e th os e g o r ge o u s p ro d u ct s of t he Eli zab e th an

,

age of which B e n J o n s o n w a s t h e m a s t e r E n gl a n d h a d b o r
.

r ow e d t h e id e a o f t h e m a s q u e fr o m I t al an d h ad u s e d it as
y
t he chi e f e n t e r t a i n m e n t at al l fe s tiv al s u n til it had b e c o m e ,

t o t h e n o bl e s o f En gl a n d wh a t t h e m i r acl e pl ay h ad b e e n t o
t he c om m o n p e opl e of a p r e vi ou s g e n e ra ti on Milt o n with .
,

hi s s t r on g Pu r it an S pi rit c o u ld n ot b e c o n t e n t w i th t h e m e r e
,
“ ”
e n t e r t ai n m e n t o f an idl e h ou r C o m u s h as t h e g o r g e o u s
.

s c e n ic e ffe ct s t h e m u s ic a n d d an ci n g of o th e r m a s q u e s ; b u t
,

i t s m oral pu rp os e an d i t s id e al t e achi n gs ar e u n m i s t ak abl e .

 E NG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

B e s id e s th e se w e ll k n ow n p oe m s Milton w rot e i n thi s e arl y

-
,
"
p e ri o d a frag m e n t ary m as qu e c all e d A r c ad e s ; se v e ral La ti n
”

p oe m s which lik e hi s En g li s h are e xqui s it e ly fin

, ,
S onn e ts ”
i s he d ; an d hi s fam ou s S on n e t s which b rou ght ,

thi s I t ali an for m of v e rs e n e arly t o t he p oi n t of p e rfe c ti o n .

I n th e m h e s e ld o m w ro t e of l ov e th e u s u al s u bj e ct with hi s ,

p re d e c e s s ors but of p at ri o ti s m d u ty m u s ic an d s u bj e ct s of
, , , ,

p olitic al i n t e re s t s u gge s t e d b y t he s t ru ggl e i n t o which En g

l an d w as d ri fti n g A m o n g th e s e s on n e t s e ach r e ad e r m u s t
.

fin d h i s o w n fav o rit e s Th o s e b e s t k n ow n an d m os t fr e qu e n tl y
.

qu ot e d ar e On H i s D e c e as e d Wi fe ” “
To t h e N i ghti n g al e , ,

The Mas s ac r e i n
”
On R e achi n g t he A ge of Tw e n t y th r e e -
,
”
Pi e d m on t an d t he t w o
,
On H i s B li n d n e s s .

Mi l t on s Pr os e . Of Milt on s p r os e w or k s th e r e are m an y
’ ’

div e rg e n t Opi n i on s r an gi n g fr om Mac au l ay s u n b o u n d e d p rai s e

,
’

t o t h e c on d e m n ati on of s o m e of ou r m od e r n c r itic s F r om a .

lit e r ary V i e w p oi n t Milt on s p r o se w ou ld b e s t r on ge r i f l e s s

’

vi ol e n t an d a m od e rn w r it e r w ou ld h ardl y b e e xc u s e d for
,

u s i n g hi s l an g u age o r hi s m e th od s ; b u t w e m u s t r e m e m b e r
t h e ti m e s an d t h e m e th od s of hi s Opp on e n t s I n h i s fi e ry ze al .

ag a i n s t i n j u s tic e t h e p oe t i s s u dd e n l d om i n at e d b t h e s ol
y y
di e r s S pi r it H e fi rs t m u s t e r s hi s fact s i n b a tt ali on s an d
’
.
,

ch arge s u p on t he e n e m y t o c ru s h an d ov e r p ow e r with ou t
m e rcy F or Milt on h at e s i n j u s tic e an d b e c a u s e it i s an
.
,

e n e m y of h i s p e opl e h e c an n o t an d will n o t s p ar e i t Wh e n
, .

t he vict o ry i s w on h e e x u lt s i n a p ae an of vict ory as s o ul

,

s ti r r i n g as t he S on g of D e b o r ah H e i s t h e po e t ag ai n s pit e
.
,

of hi m s e l f a n d h i s m i n d fill s with m ag n ific e n t i m ag e s

, Ev e n .

with a s u bj e c t s o d u ll s o b arr e n o f the b ar e p os s ibiliti e s of

,
“
p oe t ry as hi s A n i m adv e r s i on s u p on t h e R e m on s t ran t s D e
,
’

” "
fe n s e , h e b r e ak s ou t i n t o an i n v o c ati on Oh Th ou th at , ,

s itt e s t i n li ght an d g l o r u n app r oa ch abl e p ar e n t of an g e l s a n d

y ,

men ,
which i s lik e a ch apt e r f r o m t he Ap o c al y p s e I n s u ch .

p as s age s Milt on s p r os e i s as Tai n e s u gge s t s an o utp ou ri n g

’

, ,
”
of s pl e n d or s which s u gge s t s t he n obl e s t p oe t ry
,
.
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 213

On cc ou n t of th e i r c on t rov e rs i al ch aract e r th e s e p ros e

a

w ork s are s e ld om re ad an d it i s p ro b abl e th at Milt on n e v e r

,

th ou ght of th e m as w or thy of a pl ac e i n lit e rat u re .

Are op agi ti ca
Of th e m all Ar e op ag i t i ca ha s p e r h ap s t he m os t p e r
m an e n t i n t e re s t an d i s b e s t w or th re adi n g I n Milt on s ti m e
’
.

th e r e w as a l aw for biddi n g t he p u blic a ti on of b ook s u n til th e y

w e re i n d or s e d b y th e offici al c e n s or Ne e dl e s s t o s ay t he .
,

c e n s or h oldi n g hi s Offic e an d s al ary b y fav or w as n a t u rall y

, ,

m or e c on c e r n e d with t h e divi n e r i ght of ki n g s an d bi s h op s

th an with t he d e li g ht s of lit e rat u re a n d m an y b ook s w e re s u p
,

p re s s e d fo r n o b e tt e r r e as o n th an th at th e y w e r e di s pl e as i n g
t o t h e au th or iti e s Milt on p ro t e s t e d agai n s t thi s as ag ai n s t
.
,

e ve r o th e r fo r m of t r an n a n d hi s Ar e o a i t i ca c all e d
y y y , p g s o

fr o m t h e A r e op ag u s or Foru m Of A th e n s t he pl a c e of p u blic ,

app e al an d th e Mar s H ill O f S t Pau l s a dd re s s — i s t he m o s t

’

, .

fa m ou s pl e a i n En gli s h for t he fre e d om Of t he p re s s .

Mi l ton s Lat e r Poe t ry U n d ou bt e dly t h e n obl e s t Of Milt on s

’
.
’

w ork s w r itt e n wh e n h e w as bli n d an d s u ffe ri n g a re P a ra d i s e

, ,

L os t P a r a d i s e R eg a i n e d an d S a m s on Ag on i s te s The fi rs t i s
, ,
.

t h e g re a t e s t i n d e e d t h e o n l y g e n e rall y a ck n owl e d g e d e pic i n

,

ou r lit e r a t u r e s i n c e B e ow u lf ; t h e l a s t i s t h e m os t p e r fe ct
s p e ci m e n of a d r a m a aft e r t h e G r e e k m e th od i n ou r l an g u ag e .

Of t he hi s t o r y o f t h e g r e a t e pic w e h av e s o m e i n t e r e s ti n g
gli m p s e s I n Cam b r id ge th e r e i s p r e s e r v e d a n ot e b ook Of
.

p ar ad i s e Milt on s c on t ai n i n g a li s t of n e a r ly on e h u n d r e d
’

L0“ 1
s u bj e ct s for a g r e a t p oe m s e l e ct e d whil e h e w a s
'

a bo
y at t h e u n iv e r s it
y K i n
g A
. r th u r a tt r act e d h i m at fi r s t ;

b u t hi s ch o ic e fi n ally s e ttl e d u p o n t he F all of Man a n d w e ,

h av e fo u r s e p ar at e ou tli n e s s h owi n g Milt on s p r op os e d t re a t ’

m e n t of t he s u bj e c t Th e s e o u tli n e s i n dic at e t h a t h e c on
.

t e m p l at e d a m i ght y d ram a o r m i ra cl e pl ay ; b u t wh e th e r
b e c au s e of Pu r it an an tip a thy t o pl ay s an d pl ay e r s or b e c au se ,

of t h e w r e tch e d d r am atic t re a t m e n t of r e li i ou s s u bj e ct s which

g
1 Of t h e s e s ixt y w e re t ake n fro m t he B b i le ,
th i rt y-t h re e from E n g li s h an d fiv e fro m
i
S cot c h h s t ory .
2 14 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Milt on h ad wit n e s s e d in
b an d on e d the id e a of a pl ay
I t al y ,
he a

an d s e ttl e d o n t h e for m o f a n e pic p o e m ; m o s t for t u n a t e l it

y ,

m u s t b e c o n c e d e d fo r Milt o n h ad n o t t he k n owl e d g e of m e n
,

n e c e s s ar
y f o r a d ra m a A s a s tu d
y o f ch ara ct e r P a ra d i s e
.

L os t w o u ld b e a g r i e v o u s fail u re A d am t h e c e n t ral ch a rac .

,

t e r i s s o m e thi n g of a p r i g ; whil e S a t an l oo m s u p a m ag n i fi
,

c e n t fi g u re e n ti re l y di ffe re n t from t h e d e vil of t he m i racl e

,

pl ay s an d c om pl e t e ly ov e r s h ad owi n g th e h e ro b o th i n i n t e re s t
an d i n m an li n e s s Th e o th e r ch a ra ct e r s t h e A l m i ght y t h e
.
, ,

S o n R a ph ae l Mich ae l t h e an ge l s an d fall e n s pi rit s a r e

, , , ,

m e r e l y m ou thp i e c e s for Milt on s d e cl am a ti o n s with ou t an y

’

p e rs o n al o r h u m an i n t e re s t R e gar d e d as a d ram a th e re .
,

fo r e P a ra d i s e L os t c ou ld n e v e r h av e b e e n a s u cc e s s ; b u t as
,

p oe t ry with i t s s u bli m e i m age ry i ts h a r m on i ou s v e r s e i t s

, , ,

tit an i c b ack g r ou n d of h e av e n h e ll an d t he illi m it abl e v oid , ,

t h at li e s b e tw e e n i t i s u n s u r p as s e d i n an y lit e ra t u r e
,
.

I n 1 6 5 8 Milt on i n h i s d a rk n e s s s a t d ow n t o dict at e t h e
w o r k which h e had pl an n e d thi r t y y e ar s b e for e I n o rde r t o .

u n d e r s t an d t h e m i g ht y s w e e p o f t h e p o e m it i s n e c e s s ar t
y o

s u m u p t h e ar g u m e n t o f t h e tw e lv e b oo k s a s fo ll ow s : ,

B oo k I op e n s w i th a s t a t e m e n t o f th e s u b e c t , th e F a j ll of M an , an d

a n ob e l i n v oc a ti on for l i gh t an d d i v i n e g u i d an c e . T h e n b e g i n s th e
a c c ou n t of S a t an a n d th e re b e l a n g e l s , th e i r b a n i s h m e n t
Ar g u m e n t
ofP ar ad ise fr om h e a v e an d l
th e i r p o t t o op p os e th e d e s i g n O f th e
n,

Los t l y
A m i gh t b y d ragg i n g d ow n hi s c hi d re n , o u r rs t p ar e n ts , l fi
f r o m th e i r s t a t e o f i n n o c e n c e . Th e b oo k l
c os e s w i th a d e s c r i p t i on o f

th e l an d Of fir e an d e n d e s s l p ai n w h e re th e fa e n ll s p i r i ts a b ide , an d th e
e r e c ti o n o f Pa n d e m on i u m , th e p al ac e o f S a t a n . B oo k I I i s a d e s c r i p t i o n
of th e c o u n c i l o f e v i l s p i ri t s , o f S a t an s c o n s e n t to u n d e r t a k e th e t e m p
’

t ati o n Ad a m a n d E v e , a n d h i s j ou r n e y t o th e g at e s o f h e ll , w hi c h are
of

g u a rde d b
y S i n a n d D e a t h . B o o k I I I t r a n s p or t s u s t o h e a v e n a a i n .
g
Go d , fo r e s e e i n g t h e fall , s e n d s R ap h a e l t o w ar n Ad am a n d E v e , s o th at
th e i r d i s ob e d i e n c e sha ll be u p on th e i r ow n he ad s . T he n th e S on offe r s

hi m se l f a s ac ri fice , t o ta e k aw a y th e s i n of th e c o m i n g d i s o b e d ie n ce of

m an . At th e e n d of th is b oo k S a t a n a p p e ars in a d i ff e r e n t s ce n e , m e e ts
U ri e l , th e An g e l o f th e S u n , i n q u i r e s fr om h i m th e w ay to e ar th , a n d
t a k e s hi s j our n e y th i th e r d i s g u i s e d as an a n g e l o f l i gh t . B ook I s h ow s V
u s Pa ra d i s e a n d th e i n n o c e n t s ta te of m an . An a n e l ar d i s s e t o v e r
g g u
2I 6 ENG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

the the ol ogy o r t he d e s c r ipti on s of B ibl e s c e n e s th at chi e fl y ,

i n t e re s t s u s Thu s Milt on d e s c r ib e s the s e p ara ti o n of ear th

.

an d w at e r ,
an d th e re i s littl e o r n othi n g add e d t o t he s i m

l i i t an d s t r e n g th of Ge n e s i s ; b u t t h e s u n s e t which foll ow s
p c y
i s Milt on s o w n d r e a m an d i n s t an tl y w e ar e t r an s p o r t e d t o a
’

l an d of b e au t y an d p oe t ry
N ow c a m e s ti ll Eve n in g on , an d T w i l i gh t g ra y
H ad i n h e r s ob e r l i v e ry al l th i n g s c adl ;
S i le n ce a c c om p an i e d ; fo r b e as t an d b i r d ,

T he y to the i r g r as s y c ou c h , th e s e t o t h e i r n e s ts

W e re s l u n k , all b u t th e w a k e fu l ni
g h t i n al e
g .

S he al l n i gh t l on g he r am or ou s d e s c an t s u n g
S i l e n c e w as p l e a s e d N ow g l.ow e d t h e fi r m a m e nt

W i th l i v i n g s a p p hi r e s ; H e s p e ru s , tha t l e d
T he s t ar r y h os t , r od e b ri g h te s t , t i th e M oon , ll
R isi ng i n lj e s ty at l e n g th
c ou d e d ma ,

App are n t q u e e n u n v e i l e d h e r p e e r l e s s l i g h t
, ,

An d o e r th e d ar k h e r s i lv e r m an t l e th re w
’
.

So l
a so Milt on s A l m i ght y c on s id e r e d p u re l y as a lit e rary
’

ch aract e r i s u n for t u n a t e ly ti n g e d wi th t h e n arro w an d lit e ral

,

th e ol ogy of t he ti m e H e i s a b e i n g e n or m ou s l y e goti s tic the

.
,

d e s p ot r ath e r th an t he s e r v an t Of t h e u n iv e r s e s e at e d up on a ,

th r on e with a ch oru s of an ge l s ab ou t hi m e t e rn all y s i n gi n g hi s

p rai s e s an d m i n i s t e ri n g t o a ki n d of divi n e v an ity I t i s n o t .

n e c e s s ar t o s e a r ch h e av e n fo r s u ch a c h ar act e r ; t he t p e i s
y y
t oo c om m on u p on e ar th B u t i n S at an Milt on b r e ak s aw ay
.

fr om c r u d e m e di ae v al c on c e pti on s ; h e f oll ow s t he d r e am agai n ,

an d g iv e s u s a ch aract e r t o a d m i r e an d u n d e r s t an d

I s thi s th e r e g i on , thi s th e s oi l , l
th e c i m e ,
S a i d th e n th e l os t Ar c han g e l , th i s th e s e at

T hat w e m u s t c h an ge for H e a v e n — thi s m ou rn fu l g l oom

F or th a t l
c e e s ti a l l i gh t ? Be it s o, s i n c e He
W h o n ow i s s ov ran c an d i s p o s e a n d b i d
W h at s ha ll b e ri gh t : fa rthe s t fr om H i m i s b e s t,
Wh om r e as on h ath e q u a ll e d for c e h ath ,
m ad e s u p re m e

Ab ov e h i s q u a l s . F are w e ll , h ap p y fi e l d s ,
e

W h e re joy fore v e r d w e ll s ! H ai l , h or r o rs ! h ai l ,
I n fe rn al Worl d ! an d th ou , p ro fou n de s t H e ll ,
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 2I 7

R e c e i ve thy ne w p o s s e ss o r — On e w h o b r i n gs
A m ind n ot to b e c h an ge d b y p l a c e or t i m e .
T he m i n d i s i ts ow n p l a c e , a n d i n i ts e l f
Can m a k e a H e av e n of H e ll , a H e ll of H e av e n .
What m a tt e r w h e r e , i f I be l l the s a m e
s ti ,

An d w h at I s hou ld be , all b u t l e s s th an h e
Whom th u n d e r hath m ad e gre at e r ? H e re at l e as t
W e s h a ll b e fre e !th e Al m i gh t y h ath n o t b u i l t
H e re for h i s e n v y w i l l n ot d ri v e u s h e n c e
,

H e re w e m ay r e i g n s e c u re a n d , i n m y c h o i c e ,
T o re i g n i s w or th a m b i t i on , th ou gh i n H e ll
i n H e ll th a n ve i n H e av e n . ’
B e t te r to re i
g n se r

In thi s m ag n ific e n t h e roi s m Milt on has u n c on s ci ou s l y i m m or

t ali ze d t he Pu r it an s pi r it t h e s a m e u n c o n q u e r abl e s pi r it th at
,

s e t m e n t o w r iti n g p oe m s a n d a ll e g o r i e s wh e n i n p ri s on for

t h e faith an d th a t s e n t th e m o v e r t h e s t o r m y s e a i n a c o ckl e
,

S h e ll t o fo u n d a fre e c o m m o n w e alth i n t h e wild s o f A m e r ic a .

F or a m o d e rn r e ad e r t he u n d e r s t an di n g of P a ra di s e L os t
p re s u pp os e s t w o thi n g s a k n o wl e d g e o f t h e fi r s t ch apt e r s of
,

t h e S c r iptu r e s an d of t h e g e n e ral p r i n cipl e s o f Ca lvi n i s tic

,

th e ol ogy ; b u t it i s a pit y t o u s e the p oe m as h as s o Oft e n ,

b e e n d on e t o t e ach a lit e ral acc e pt an c e o f o n e or t h e o th e r

, .

Of t h e th e ol ogy Of P a r a d i s e L os t t h e l e a s t s aid t h e b e tt e r ;
b u t t o t h e s pl e n d o r o f t h e Pu r it an d re a m an d t he g l o r i ou s
m e l od y O f i t s e xp r e s s i on n o w or d s c an d o j u s tic e Ev e n a .

s li g ht a c q u ai n t an c e will m ak e t h e r e ad e r u n d e rs t an d w h i t
y
r a n k s with t h e D i v i n a Com m e d i a o f D an t e an d w h
y it i s ,

g e n e r a ll y a cc e pt e d b y c r itic s a s t h e g re a t e s t s i n g l e p o e m i n

o u r lit e ra t u r e .

S oon aft e r t h e c o m pl e ti on of P a ra d i s e L os t Th o m as Ell ,

w ood a fri e n d of Milt on as k e d o n e d ay aft e r re adi n g t h e

, ,

Pa ra d i s e m an u s c r ipt B u t wh at h as t th o u t o s ay of Pa ra
,
”
R g ai n e d
e
di s e F ou n d ? I t w as i n re s p o n s e t o thi s s u gge s ti on
th at Milt on w ro t e t h e s e c o n d p ar t O f t h e g r e a t e pic k n ow n ,

t o u s a s P a ra d i s e R eg a i n e d Th e firs t te ll s h ow m an ki n d i n
'

.
,

t he p e r s o n of A d am fe ll a t t h e fi r s t t e m pt a ti on b y S a t an a n d
,

b e c am e an ou tc as t from Paradi s e an d fr om divi n e g rac e ; t he

2 E NG LI S H LI TE RATU R E

se c on d s h ow s ho w m an ki n d i n t h e p e rs on of Ch r i s t with
, ,

s t an d s t h e t e m pt e r an d i s e s t abli s h e d on c e m o r e i n t he
divi n e fav o r Ch r i s t s t e m pt ati on i n t h e wild e r n e s s i s t h e
.
’

th e m e an d Milt on foll ow s t h e acc ou n t i n t h e fo u r th ch apt e r

,

of Ma tth e w s g o s p e l T h ou g h P a r a d i s e R eg a i n e d w as Mil
’
.

t on s fav or it e an d th ou gh it h as m an y p as s age s of n ob l e
’

th ou ght an d s pl e n did i m age ry e q u al t o t he b e s t Of P ara d i s e

L os t t h e p oe m a s a wh ol e fall s b e l ow t he l e v e l of t he fi r s t
, ,

an d i s l e s s i n t e re s ti n g t o r e ad .

I n S a m s on Ag on i s te s Milt on t u rn s t o a m ore vit al an d p e r

s o n al th e m e an d hi s g e n i u s t r a n s fig u r e s t he s t o r of S a m
, y
s on t he m i g ht y ch am pi o n O f I s rae l n ow bli n d an d
, ,
S a m s on
s c orn e d w o rki n g as a s l av e am on g t he Phili s ti n e s
, .

The p oe t s ai m w as t o p r e s e n t i n En gli s h a p u re t rage d y with

’

al l t h e p as s i o n an d re s t r ai n t which m ark e d t h e O ld G re e k d ra

m as . T h at h e s u cc e e d e d wh e re othe r s fail e d i s d u e t o t w o
c au s e s : fi rs t Milt on hi m s e l f s u gge s t s t h e h e ro of o n e of t h e
,

G re e k t rage di e s h i s s o r ro w a n d affl icti on g iv e t o hi s n obl e

,
-

n a t u re th a t t o u ch o f m e l an ch o l y an d c al m di g n it which i s in
y
p e rfe c t k e e pi n g with hi s s u bj e ct S e c o n d Milt on i s t e lli n g hi s
.
,

o w n s t or L ik e S a m s on h e h ad s t r u gg l e d m i g htil aga i n s t t h e
y .
y
e n e m i e s o f hi s r ac e ; h e h ad t ak e n a wi fe f rom t h e Phili s ti n e s

a n d h ad p aid t h e p e n alt y ; h e w as bli n d al o n e s c orn e d b hi s

y, ,

v ai n an d th ou ghtl e s s m as t e r s To the e s se n ti al acti on of t h e

.

t rage d y Milt o n c ou ld add th e r e fore th at t ou ch Of i n t e n s e y e t

, ,

r e s t r a i n e d p e r s o n al fe e li n g which c ar r i e s mor e c o n victi o n th an

an
y ar g u m e n t S a m s on i s i n m an
.
y r e s p e ct s t h e m os t c o n v i n

ci n g of hi s w ork s En ti r e ly ap ar t from t he i n t e re s t of i ts s u b
.

a n d t re a t m e n t o n e m ay O bt ai n f r om it a b e tt e r id e a of
je c t ,

wh at g re at t rage d y w as a m on g the G re e k s th an from an y

oth e r w o r k i n o u r l an g u age .

N o th i n g i s h e re for te ars , n o th i n g t o w a i l
Or k n oc k t h e b r e as t , n o w e a k n e s s , n o c on t e m p t,
D i s p ra i s e o r b l a m e , — n oth i n g b u t w e ll a n d f ai r,
An d w h a t m ay q u i e t us in a d e ath l
s o n ob e .
220 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

m u lti p li c at i on of s t ran ge s e c ts , Will e rs R an te rs

—
Q ke rs ua , Fr e e -
, ,

An aba p t i st s Mill e n ari an s

,
an d t h e u n t e m
,
—
p e r e d z e al o f a l l c l ass es ,

like an e n gin e w ithou t a balan c e w h e e l w h e n m e n w e r e b re aki n g ,

aw ay fro m a u th o r i ty an d se t ti n g u p t h e i r Own r e li gi ou s s t an d ard s .

B un y an s l ife i s an e p itom e of t hat as ton i s h i n g r e ligi ou s i n d i v i d u ali s m

’

w h i c h m ar k e d t h e c l os e of t h e En gli s h R e form at i on .

H e w as b o rn i n t h e li ttl e vill age Of E l s t ow n e ar B e d fo rd i n 1 6 2 8 , , ,

t h e son of a p oor t i n ke r For a li ttl e w h il e t h e b oy w as s e n t t o s c h ool

.
,

w h e re h e l e arn e d t o r e ad an d w r i t e a fte r a fas h i on ; b u t h e w as s oon

b u s y i n h i s fath e r s S hop w h e r e am id th e gl ow in g p o ts an d th e fir e
’
, ,

an d s m ok e of h i s li t tl e forge h e s aw vi v id p i c tu r e s o f h e l l an d t he
,

d e vil s w h i c h hau n t e d h i m all h i s li fe Wh e n h e w as s i x t e e n y e ars ol d

.

hi s fat h e r m arr i e d t he s e c o n d t i m e w h e re u p on B u n y an ran aw ay an d

,

b e c am e a s oldi e r i n the Parliam e n tary a r m y .

T h e r e ligiou s fe rm e n t o f th e a ge m a d e a t r e m e n d ou s i m p re s si on
on B u n y an s s e n s i t i v e i m agi n a t i on H e w e n t t o c hu rc h o c c as i on ally
’
. ,

o n ly t o fin d h i m s e l f w rap p e d i n t e r r o r s an d t o r m e n t s by s o m e fie ry

i tin e ran t p re ac h e r ; an d he w ou l d r u s h v i ol e n tly aw ay fro m c hu rc h

to forge t h i s fe ar s b y j oi n i n g i n S u n d ay s p or t s on t h e vill age gre e n .

As n i gh t c am e o n th e s p o r ts w e re fo rgo tt e n , b u t t h e t e rro r s r e tu rn e d ,

m u l t i p li e d like t he e vil i i ts
sp r of t h e p ar a bl e . V
i i s on s of h e ll an d the
d e m on s s w a r m e d i n hi s b rai n . H e w ou l d groan al ou d i n h i s re m o rs e ,
an d e ve n y e ar s a ft e rw ard s h e b e m oan s t h e S i n s of h i s e arly life .
Wh e n we l ook for th e m fe arfu lly , x p e c tin g s om e s ho c kin g c ri m e s
e

an d m i s d e m e an o rs w e fin d t h at t h e y c on s i s t e d of p l ayi n g b a ll on
,

S u n d ay an d s w e ar in g Th e l at t e r S i n s ad t o s ay w as b e gu n b y
.
, ,

lis te n in g t o h i s fath e r c u rs in g s om e ob s tin at e k e ttl e w h i c h r e fu se d to

b e t i n k e r e d an d i t w a s p e rfe c t e d i n th e Pa rliam e n tary ar m y On e
,
.

“
d ay hi s t e rr ibl e sw e ari n g s c ar e d a w om an a v e r y l oos e an d u n god ly ,

w r e tc h a s h e t e ll s u s w h o r e ri m an d e d h i m for h i s p rofan i t y T h e
, ,p .

r e p r oac h o f t h e p oo r w o m a n w e n t s t rai gh t h o m e lik e t h e voic e o f a ,

h t A l l h i s o fan i t y l e ft hi m ; h e hu n d o w n h i s h e ad w i th
p pr o e .
p r g
s ha m e . I w i sh e d w i th all m y h e art h e say s that I m i ght b e a , ,

li ttl e c h ild again t hat m y fathe r m i gh t l e arn m e t o sp e ak w i th

,

ou t th i s w i c ke d w ay Of s w e ari n g
”
Wi th c harac t e ri sti c v e he m e n c e
.

B u n y an h u rl s hi m se l f u p on a p r om i s e of S c ri p tu r e an d i n s tan tly t h e ,

r e form at i on b e gi n s t o w o rk i n h i s s ou l H e c as ts ou t t h e h abi t r o ot
. ,

an d b ran c h an d fi n d s to h i s as ton i sh m e n t th at h e c an S p e ak m or e
,

fr e e ly an d vi gor ou sly t han b e for e N oth in g i s m o re c harac t e ri s ti c

.

of th e m an t han t h i s su dd e n s e izin g u p on a t e x t w h i c h h e had ,

 TH E PU R I TAN AGE

d ou btl e ss h e ard m an y tim e s b e for e an d b e in g sudd e n ly rai se d u p ,

\

or c as t d ow n b y i ts i n fl u e n c e .

Wi th Bu n y an s m arriage to a good w om an th e re al r e fo rm ation i n

’

hi s life b e gan Wh il e stil l i n hi s te e n s he m arrie d a gi rl as p oor as

. .

hi m se l f We c am e t oge the r h e say s as p oor as m ight b e hav

. , , ,
”
i n g n ot s o m u c h hou s e hold s tu ff as a di sh or s p oon b e tw e e n u s b oth .

The on ly d ow ry w hi c h the gi rl b rou gh t t o h e r n e w hom e w as tw o old ,

thre ad bare books T/ze P l a i n M a n s P a tna/a) to H e a ve n an d Tb e

,
’
;
,

P r a cti ce o f P i e ty
1
B u n
ya n r.e ad t h e s e b oo k s w h i c h i n s t an tl y g a
, v e

fir e to hi s i m agin at i on H e saw n e w vi si on s an d d re am e d t e rribl e n e w

.

d re am s of l ost sou l s ; hi s atte n d an c e at c hu rc h gre w e x e m p l ary ; he

be gan sl ow l y an d p ain fu lly to re ad the Bibl e for hi m s e lf b u t b e c au se ,

of h i s Ow n i gn oran c e an d t he c on t radi c to ry i n t e rp r e tati on s of S c r i p

tu r e w h i c h he h e ar d on e v e ry s id e h e w a s t oss e d ab ou t like a fe athe r

,

b y al l t h e w i n d s o f d o c tri n e .

T h e r e c o rd of t h e n e x t fe w y e ars i s lik e a n ight m are so t e rribl e i s ,

Bun yan s s p i ri tu al s t ru ggl e On e d ay h e fe e l s h i m s e lf an o u tc as t ;

’
.

the n e x t t h e c om p an i on of an ge l s ; t he t hi rd h e t r i e s e x p e r i m e n ts
w i th t he Al m i ghty i n o rd e r t o p u t h i s sa l v a t i on to th e p roof As he .

g o e s a l o n
g t h e r o ad t o B e d fo rd h e t h in ks h e w ill w ork a m i racl e like ,

G id e on w i th h is fl e e c e H e will say to the littl e p u d dl e s Of w at e r in

.

th e ho rs e s t rac ks B e y e d ry an d t o al l th e d ry t rac k s h e w il l
’
,
" ”
say B e y e p u ddl e s
, As h e i s ab ou t t o p e rform t h e m i rac l e a
.

th ou ght oc c u r s t o hi m : Bu t go fi rs t u n d e r y on d e r h e d ge an d p ray
”
tha t t h e Lo rd w ill m ake y ou abl e t o p e rform a m i rac l e H e goe s .

p rom tl
p y a nd
p r a y s Th e n h e i s.afra id of th e t e st an d goe s o n h i s ,

w ay m or e t rou bl e d t han b e fo re .

Afte r y e ars of su c h s tru ggl e c hase d ab ou t b e tw e e n h e ave n an d

,

h e ll Bu n yan at l ast e m e rge s in to a san e r atm osp h e re e v e n a s Pilgrim

cam e ou t of the horr ibl e V
, ,

all e y O f t h e S h ad o w S oon l e d b y h i s in te n se. ,

fe e li n gs h e b e c o m e s an o p e n ai r p r e ac h e r an d c row d s o f l ab o re rs
,
-
,

g a t h e r a b o u t hi m on t h e vill a e gr e e n
g T h e y li s t e n i.n s il e n c e to h i s

w ord s ; t h e y e n d i n groan s an d t e ars ; s c or e s of th e m am e n d t he i r

s i n fu l li v e s Fo r t he An gl o S ax on p e o p l e ar e r e m a rk abl e for t h i s
.
-
,

t hat how e ve r d e e p ly th e y ar e e n gage d i n bu s in e s s o r p l e asu re the y ,

are s til l s e n s i t i v e as b arom e t e rs t o an t ru e s p i r i tu al i n fl u e n c e w h e t h e r

y ,

of p ri e st o r p e asan t ; t h e y r e c o n i ze w h at E m e rs on c all s t h e ac c e n t
g
1 The l i yl i
wa s b y Le w s Ba y , b sh op o f B an go r . I t i s n te r e st n g t o n ote t h at
a tt e r i i
i k v y il
t h s b o o , w h os e e r t t e i s u n fa m
’

ili il
ar t o u s , w as s pe e d y t ra n s at e d n t o five d ffe re n t l i i
l l
a n gu a ge s . I t h a d an e n or m ou s s a e , a n d r an t h r ou gh fi
ft y e di t on s soon a fte r p u b ca t on . i li i
222 E NG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

of the H oly G host , an d i n th i s

i tion of sp i ritu al l e ad e rship
r e c ogn

li e s the s e c re t of the ir d e m oc rac y S O this vill age t in ke r w i th h i s

.
,

s tre n gt h an d s i n c e r i t y i s p r e s e n tly t he a c kn ow l e d ge d l e ad e r o f an
,

i m m e n s e c on gre gat ion an d hi s i n fl u e n c e i s fe l t t hrou ghou t En gl an d

, .

I t i s a t ribu te t o hi s p ow e r t hat aft e r t h e r e tu rn of C harl e s II B u n y an

, ,

w as th e fi rs t to b e p ro hibi te d from hol d in g p u blic m e e tin gs .

Con c e rn i n g Bu n y an s i m p ri son m e n t i n B e d ford j ail w h i c h foll ow e d

’
,

h i s r e fu sal t o ob e y t h e l aw p ro h ibi ti n g r e ligi ou s m e e tin gs w i thou t t he

a u th or i ty o f t h e Es tabli s h e d C hu r c h t he re i s a di ff e re n c e of O p i n i on
, .

That t h e l aw w as u n j u st goe s w i thou t s ay in g ; b u t th e r e w as n o r e li

g i o n s p e r se c u t i o n as w e u n d e r s t an d th e t e r m
, B u n y an w as all ow e d t o
.

w or sh i p w h e n an d h ow b e p l e ase d h e w as s i m p ly fo rbid d e n t o hold

p u bli c m e e t i n gs w h i c h fr e q u e n tl b e c am e fi e rc e d e n u n c i at i on s o f th e
, y
Es tabli s h e d Chu rc h an d gove rn m e n t H i s j u d ge s p l e ad e d w i th Bu n y an
.

t o c on fo rm w i t h th e l aw H e r e fu s e d s ayi n g t hat w h e n t h e S p i ri t
.
,

w as u p on h i m h e m u st go u p an d d own t h e l an d c allin g on m e n ,

e v e ry w h e re t o r e p e n t I n hi s r e fu sal w e s e e m u c h h e roi s m a li ttl e

.
,

ob s tin ac y an d p e rh ap s so m e th in g of t hat d e s i r e for m ar t y rd o m w h i c h

,

t e m p t s e v e r y s p i r i tu a l l e ad e r That hi s fi n a l s e n t e n c e t o i n d e fi n i t e
.

i m p ri son m e n t w a s a h ard bl ow t o Bu n yan i s b e y on d qu e s t i on He .

oan e d al ou d a t t h e t h ou gh t O f h i s p oor fam ily an d e sp e ci all at t h e

g r y
,

t h ou ght of l e avin g hi s li ttl e bli n d d au gh t e r :

I fo u n d m yse l f a m an p as s e d w i th i n fir m i ti e s ; th e p ar t i n g w as
e n c om

l i k e p u ll i n g th e fl e s h fr om m y b o n e s . Oh , t h e th ou gh ts o f th e h a rd
s hi p I t h o u g h t m y p oor b l i n d o n e m i gh t g o u n d e r w o u l d b re a k m
y h e ar t
t o p i e c e s . Poor c h i l d , th o u gh t I , w h at s o rro w th o u a r t l i k e t o h av e fo r
l
th y p or t i on i n th i s w or d ; th ou m u s t b e b e a te n , m u s t b e g , s u ffe r h u n g e r ,
l k l
c o d , n a e d n e s s , a n d a th ou s a n d c a am i t i e s , th o u g h I c a n n o t n ow e n d u re

t h a t th e w i n d s h ou l d b l ow u p on h
t ee .1

An d th e n , b e c au se h e thin k s al w ay s i n p arabl e s an d s e e ks ou t m ost

c u r i o u s t e x t s O f S c r i p tu r e h e s p e aks of
, t h e t w o m i l c h k i n e t h at
w e re t o c arr y t he ark of God i n to an ot h e r c ou n t ry an d l e a v e t h e i r
”
c al v e s b e h i n d t h e m Poor c ow s p oor Bu n y an ! S u c h i s t h e m in d
.
,

of t h i s e x t rao rd i n a r y m an .

Wi th c harac te r i s ti c dilige n c e Bu n yan s e t to w ork i n p r i s on m akin g

s h o e l ac e s an d S O e a rn e d a li v in g for h i s fam ily
,
H i s i m p r i s on m e n t
.

l aste d for n e arly tw e l v e y e ars ; b u t h e saw hi s fam i ly fr e qu e n tly an d ,

w a s for s om e t i m e a r e gu l ar p re ac h e r i n t he B ap ti st c hu rc h i n

1 Ab r i d ge d from Gr a ce A b ou n d i n g , Pa rt 3 ; Wor ks ( e d .
p . 71 .
2 24 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

Work s of B u n y an . T h e w or ld s lit e rat u r e ’

h as th re e g re a t
S pe n s e r Fa e ry Qu e e n D an t e s D i v i n a Com m e
’
a ll e go r i e s ,
— s ,
’

’
dia , an d P i lg r i m P rog r e s s The
’
B u n y an s fi r s t app e al s t o s .

p oe t s t he s e c on d t o s ch ol ar s t h e thi r d t o p e opl e of e v e ry age

, ,

an d c on diti on H e r e i s a b r i e f ou tli n e of the fam ou s w or k

.

As I w a lk e d throu gh th e w i l d e rn e s s o f thi s w or l d I l i gh te d o n a
c e r ta i n p l ac e w h e re w as a d e n [ B e d ford j ai l ]a n d l a i d m e d ow n i n th at
p l a c e t o s l e e p ; a n d as I s l e p t I d r e a m e d a d re a m
”
, So , .

Arg u m e n t of t h s tor
P il gri m s ’
e y b e gi n s H e s e e s a m an c a ll e d Ch ri s ti an s e tti n g
.

o u t w i th a b oo k i n hi s h a n d a n d a r e a t l oa d o n h i s b a c k
Pr ogre s s g
fr o m th e c i t y o f D e s t ru c t i o n Ch ri s t i an h as t w o Ob j e c ts . ,

t o g e t r i d o f h i s b u rd e n w hi c h h ol d s th e s i n s a n d fe a rs o f h i s l i fe
, ,

an d to m a k e h i s w ay t o th e H ol y C i t y A t th e o u t s e t E v a n ge l i s t fi n d s
.

hi m w e e p i n g b e c a u s e h e k n ow s n o t w h e r e to g o a n d p oi n ts h i m to a ,

w i c k e t g a te o n a hi ll far aw a y As C h ri s ti a n g o e s for w ar d h i s n e i g h
.

b ors fri e n d s w i fe a n d c hi l d re n c a l l t o h i m t o c om e b a c k ; b u t h e p u ts
, ,

h i s fi n g e rs i n h i s e a rs c r y i n g o u t Li fe l i fe e t e rn a l l i fe
”
, an d s o ru s h e s
. , , ,

ac r os s th e p l ai n .

T h e n b e g i n s a jou rn e y i n t e n s t age s w hi c h i s a v i v i d p i c tu r e o f th e ,

d i ffic u l ti e s a n d t r i u m p h s of th e C h r i s ti a n l i fe E v e r y tri al e v e r y d i ffi . ,

c u l t y e v e r y e x p e r i e n c e o f j oy o r s o r ro w o f p e a c e o r t e m p t a t i o n i s p u t
, , ,

i n to th e fo r m a n d d i s c o u rs e o f a l i v i n g c h a ra c te r O th e r a l l e g o r i s ts .

w ri t e i n p o e t r y a n d t h e i r c h a ra c te r s a r e s h a d ow y a n d u n re a l b u t B u n y an
s p e a k s i n t e rs e i d i om a ti c p ros e an d h i s c h ar a c te r s a r e l i v i n g m e n an d
, ,

w om e n T he r e a re M r W o r l d l y W i s e m an a s e l f s a ti s fie d a n d d og m a ti c
. .
,
-

k i n d o f m an y o u th fu l I g n o r an c e s w e e t Pi e t y c o u r te o u s D e m as g ar
, , , ,

ru l o u s T a l k at i v e h on e s t F ai th fu l a n d a s c o r e o f o th e rs w h o ar e n ot a t
, , ,

a ll th e b l ood l e s s c r e a tu r e s o f th e R om a n ce o k e R os e b u t m e n r e al
f t ,

e n o u g h t o s t op y ou o n th e r oa d a n d t o h o l d y o u r a t te n t i on S c e n e a fte r .

s c e n e fo l l ow s i n w h i c h a r e p i c t u r e d m an y o f ou r ow n s p i ri tu al e xp e
,
‘

ri e n ce s T h e re i s th e S l o u gh o f D e s p on d i n t o w h i c h w e a l l h a v e fa ll e n
. , ,

o u t o f w hi c h Pl i ab l e s c r a m b l e s on th e h i th e r s i d e a n d g oe s b a c k
r u m b l i n g b u t t h ro u g h w hi c h C h r i s t i a n s t r u gg l e s m i g h t i l y t i ll H e l p f u l
g ,

s tr e t c h e s hi m a h a n d a n d d r a g s hi m o u t o n s ol i d g r ou n d a n d b i d s h i m

n c om e I n t e r p re t e r s h ou s e h e P a l a c e B e a u t i fu l
’
g o o n h i s w ay T h e t
th e Li o n s i n t h e w a y th e V
. , ,

a ll e y o f H u m i l i a ti o n th e h ar d fi gh t w i th t h e

d e m on Ap o ll y o n th e m or e t e rr i b l e V Van i ty Fai r
, ,

,
a ll e y o f th e S h ad o w , ,

a n d th e t r i a l O f F a i th fu l T h e l a tte r i s c on d e m n e d t o d e a th b y a j u r y
.

m a d e u p o f M r B l i n d m an M r N og o od M r H e ad y M r Li v e l oos e M r
.
, . , . , . , .

H a te l i gh t a n d o th e rs o f t h e i r k i n d t o w h om q u e s ti o n s o f ju s ti c e a re
,

c o m m i t t e d b y th e j u r y s y s te m M os t fam o u s i s D ou b ti n g C a s tl e w h e re
. ,

C h ri s ti a n a n d H op e fu l ar e th r ow n i n to a d u n g e o n b y G i an t D e s p a i r .
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 22 5

An d th e n at l as t l M o u n t ai n s o f Y ou th th e d e e p ri v e r th at
th e D e e c tab e l , ‘

Ch ri s ti a n m u s t c ros s a n d th e c i t y o f A l l D e l i gh t an d th e g l ori o u s c o m
,

p a n y o f an g e l s th a t c o m e s i n g i n g d ow n t h e s t r e e t s A t t h e v e ry e nd .
,

w he n i n s i gh t O f t he c i t y a n d w h i l e h e c a n h e a r th e w e l c o m e w i th w hi c h
C h ri s t i a n i s g re e t e d I g n o ra n c e i s s n a t c h e d a w a y t o g o t o h i s o w n p l a c e ;
,

an d B u n y a n q u ai n t l y o b s e r v e s
“
T h e n I s a w th a t t h e r e w a s a w a y t o
,

h e l l e v e n from th e g at e s o f h e a v e n a s w e ll a s from th e c i t y O f D e s t ru c
S O I aw o k e a n d b e h o l d i t w a s a d r e a m !
”
t i on. ,

S u c h i n b ri e f i s th e s t o r y th e g re a t e p i c o f a Pu r i ta n s i n d i v i d u a l e x
’
, , ,

p e r i e n c e i n a r o u g h w o r l d j u s t a s P a r a d i s e L os t w as th e e p i c o f m a n k i n d
,

as d re a m e d b t h e r e a t Pu r i t a n w h o h ad fall e n a s l e e p o v e r hi s B i b l e
y g .

Th e chi e f fact which c o n fro n t s t he s t u d e n t o f lit e ra t u r e as

h e p au s e s b e for e thi s g r e a t all e g o ry i s th a t i t ha s b e e n t r a n s
l at e d i n t o s e v e n t fi v e l an g u a e s a n d di al e c t s a n d
y g
-

S u cc e ss of
,

P il grim s ’
h as b e e n re a d m o re th an an y o th e r b ook s av e o n e
n r ess i n t h e En g li s h l an g u ag e .

A s for t h e s e c re t of i t s p op u l a r it y Ta i n e s ay s N e xt t o , ,

t h e B ibl e t h e b o ok m os t wid e l y re a d i n En gl an d i s t h e P i l
,

i s P ro ress P i h r i n e O f s alva
’

g r m g ro t e s t an ti s m
. s t e d o ct
ti on b y g rac e an d n o w r it e r has e q u al e d B u n y an i n m aki n g
,

A n d thi s opi n i on i s e ch oe d b y t he
”
thi s d o c t r i n e u n d e r s t ood .

m aj o r it y of ou r lit e r ary hi s t or i an s I t i s p e r h ap s s u ffici e n t .

a n s w e r t o q u o t e t h e s i m pl e fa c t th a t P i l r i m s P r og r e s s i s
’

g
n o t e xcl u s iv e l
y a Pr o t e s t an t s t u d
y; i t a pp e a l s t o C h r i s ti an s

of e v e r n am e n d t o Mo h am m e d an s a n d B u ddhi s t s i n p r e
y a ,

c is e l
y t h e s am e w a
y th a t it app e al s t o Ch r i s ti an s W h e n it .

w as t r a n s l a t e d i n t o t h e l a n g u ag e s o f Ca th o lic c ou n t r i e s lik e ,

F r an c e a n d Po r t u g al o n l y o n e or t w o i n cid e n t s w e r e o m itt e d
, ,

an d t h e s t or w a s al m os t as p o p u l a r th e r e a s with En g li s h
y
re ad e r s T h e s e c r e t of i t s s u cc e s s i s p r ob abl y s i m pl e
. I t is .
,

fi r s t of all n o t a p r o c e s s i on Of s h ad ow s re p e a ti n g t he au th o r s
,
’

d e cl a m ati on s b u t a r e al s t o ry t h e fi r s t e xt e n d e d s t ory i n ou r
, ,

l an g u age O u r Pu rit an fath e r s m ay h av e r e ad t h e s t ory for

.

r e li g i o u s i n s t ru cti o n ; b u t al l cla s s e s o f m e n h av e re ad it b e

c au s e th e y f ou n d i n it a t ru e p e r s on al e xp e r i e n c e t old wi th
s t r e n g th i n t e re s t h u m o r
,
i n a w o r d with al l t h e q u a liti e s
, ,
-
,

th at s u ch a s t or y s h ou ld p o s s e s s Y o u n g p e o pl e h av e re ad it .
,
2 26 E NG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

fi rs t ,
for i t s
i n t r i n s ic w or th b e c au s e t h e d ra m atic i n t e re s t of
,

t he S t o ry l u r e d th e m on t o t he v e ry e n d an d s e c on d b e c au s e ,

it w as th e i r i n t ro d u cti on t o t r u e all e go ry The child with .

h is i m agi n ativ e m i n d — t h e m an al s o w ho h as p re s e r v e d hi s ,

s i m plicit n a t u r all o n i fie s O bj e ct s d t k pl
y y p e rs a n a e s e a s u r e
-
,

i n g ivi n g th e m p ow e r s Of thi n ki n g a n d s p e aki n g lik e hi m s e l f .

B u n y an w a s t h e fi rs t w r it e r t o app e al t o thi s pl e as an t an d
n a t u r al i n cli n a ti on i n a w a
y th a t al l c ou ld u n d e rs t an d A d d .

t o thi s t h e fa c t th a t P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s w as t he o n l y b oo k
’

h avi n g an y s t o ry i n t e r e s t i n t h e g re at m aj o r it y of En gli s h
an d A m e r ic an h o m e s fo r a fu ll c e n t u ry a n d w e h av e fo u n d ,

t he r e al r e as o n for i t s wid e r e adi n g .

Q

Tne H oly Wa r p u bli s h e d i n 1 6 6 5 i s t h e fi r s t i m p o r t an t

, ,

w or k of B u n y an I t i s a p r o s e P a r a d i s e L os t a n d w ou ld u n
.
,

d ou bt e dl y b e k n o wn as a r e m ar k abl e all e go ry w e re
i t n o t ov e rs h ad o we d b y i t s g re a t r i v al Gra ce .

Ab ou n d i ng to tne Cni ef of S i n n e r s p u bli s h e d i n ,

1 66 6 tw e lv e y e ars b e fore P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s i s t he w o rk
,
’

fr o m which w e o bt ai n t h e cl e ar e s t i n s i g ht i n t o B u n y an s re
’

m a r k abl e li fe ; a n d t o a m an with hi s t or ic a l or a n tiq u ar i an

t as t e s it i s s till e xc e ll e n t re adi n g I n 1 6 82 app e ar e d T/t e .

L if e a n d D e a l /i of M r B a d m a n a r e ali s tic ch aract e r s t u d y

.
,

which i s a p r e c u r s o r of t h e m od e rn n ov e l ; an d i n 1 6 84 t h e
s e c o n d p ar t o f P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s
’
s h o wi n g t h e j ou rn e of
, y
C h r i s ti a n a an d h e r child re n t o t h e cit y of A ll D e li ght Be s id e s .

t h e s e B u n y an p u bli s h e d a m u ltitud e o f t re a ti s e s an d s e r m on s ,

a l l i n th e s am e s t l e di re c t s i m pl e c o n vi n ci n g e xp r e s s i n g
‘

—
_y , , , ,

e ve r th ou ght an d e m o ti o n p e rfe ctl y i n w or d s th a t e v e n a

y
child c an u n d e r s t an d Man y of th e s e are m as t e r pi e c e s ad
.
,

m i re d b y w o r ki n g m e n an d s ch ol ar s alik e for th e i r th ou ght an d

“
e xp r e s s i on .T ak e fo r i n s t a n c e
,
Th e H e av e n l y F oo t m a n
, ,

t it id b s id e with t h e b e s t w o r k o f La ti m e r a n d t h e
p u s e y ,

r e s e m bl an c e i n s t yl e i s s t a r tli n g I t i s di ffic u l t t o r e ali ze

.

th at on e w o r k c am e fro m an i g n o r an t ti n k e r an d t h e o th e r
from a g re a t s ch ol a r b oth e n g age d i n t he s am e g e n e ral w ork
,
.
2 28 E NG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

R ob e rt Bu rt on ( 1 5 77 B u r t on i s fam ou s chi e fl y as

th e a uth or of t he An a tomy of M e l a n ckoly o n e of t h e m os t ,

a s t o n i s hi n g b oo k s i n al l lit e ra t u r e which app e are d i n 1 6 2 1

, .

B u r t o n w as a cl e rgy m an of the E s t abli s h e d Ch u r ch an i n c om ,

p re h e n s ibl e g e n i u s g iv e n t o b r oodi n g s an d m e l an ch oly an d

,

t o r e adi n g of e v e ry c o n c e iv abl e ki n d o f lit e r at u re Th an k s t o .

hi s w on d e r fu l m e m o ry e v e ry thi n g h e re ad w a s s t o r e d u p fo r
,

u s e o r or n am e n t till hi s m i n d re s e m bl e d a h u ge c u ri os it y
,

s h op .Al l hi s li fe h e s u ffe r e d from h y p o ch on d r i a b u t c u r i ,

ou s l t r a c e d h i s m a l ad t o t h e s t a r s r ath e r th an t o hi s o w n
y y
liv e r I t i s r e l at e d of hi m th at he u s e d t o s u ffe r s o fr o m d e
.

s p on de n c th a t n o h e lp w as t o b e fou n d i n m e dici n e o r t h e
y
ol o g
y; h i s o n l y r e li e f w a s t o g o d o w n t o t h e r iv e r a n d h e a r

t h e b ar g e m e n s w e a r a t o n e a n o th e r .

B u r t on s An a tomy w a s b e g u n as a m e dic al t re ati s e on m o r

’

b i d n e s s arran ge d an d divid e d with all t h e e x act n e s s of t he

,

s c h oo l m e n s d e m o n s t ra ti on o f d oc t r i n e s ; b u t it t u rn e d o u t t o
’

b e a n e n or m o u s h od g e p od ge of q u ot a ti on s an d r e fe re n c e s
t o au th o r s k n own an d u n k n ow n livi n g an d d e ad which
, , ,
“
s e e m e d t o p rov e chi e fl y th a t m u ch s t u d y i s a w e ar i n e s s t o
”
t he fl e s h . By s om e f re ak of t as t e it b e c a m e i n s t an tly p op u
lar an d w as p ro cl ai m e d o n e of th e g re at e s t b ook s i n lit e rat u r e
,
.

A fe w s ch ol ar s s till e xpl or e it with d e l i ght a s a m i n e of cl as s ic ,

w e alth ; b u t t he s t y l e i s h op e l e s s l y i n v olv e d an d t o t h e o rdi ,

n ar re a d e r m os t o f h i s n u m e r o u s r e fe r e n c e s ar e n o w a s n u
y
m e a n i n g as a h y p e r j ac obi an s u r fa c e -
.

S i r Th om as B row n e ( 1 6 0 5 1 B ro w n e w as a ph y s ici an
—

w h o aft e r m uch s tud y an d t r a v e l s e ttl e d d ow n t o h i s p r ofe s

, ,

s i o n i n N or wich ; b u t e v e n th e n h e g av e far m o r e ti m e t o t h e

i n v e s ti gati o n of n at u ral ph e n o m e n a th an t o t h e b ar b aro u s

“ ”
p ractic e s which l ar ge l y c o n s titut e d t he ar t of m e dici n e i n
hi s d ay H e w as k n ow n far an d wid e a s a l e arn e d d o ct or an d
.

an h on e s t m an wh os e s ci e n tific s t u di e s h ad pl ac e d h i m i n ad
,

v an c e of hi s age an d wh o s e r e li gi ou s vi e w s w e re lib e ral t o t he

,

p oi n t of h e re sy With thi s i n m i n d it i s i n t e re s ti n g t o n ot e
. , ,
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 2 29

as a i g n of t h e ti m e s th a t thi s m os t s ol e n t i fic d oct or w as
s ,
“ ”
on c e c all e d t o g iv e e xp e r t t e s ti m o n y i n t h e c as e o f t w o old
w om e n w ho w e re b e i n g t ri e d fo r t he c apit al c ri m e of witch
“
c raft H e t e s ti fi e d u n d e r o ath th at t h e fit s w e re n a t u ral
.
,

b u t h e i g ht e n e d b y t he d e vil s c o op e rati n g wi th t h e witch e s

’

,
”
a t wh o s e i n s t an c e h e [ t h e a ll e g e d d e vil ]did t he vill ai n i e s .

B row n e s g r e a t w or k i s t h e R e l i gi o M e d i c i i e The R e li g i on
’

, . .

o f a Ph s ici an which m e t with m o s t u n u s u a l s u cc e s s

y .

“ ”
R ugi o
e H a r dl y e v e r w a s a b o ok p u bli s h e d i n B r it ai n ,

me di a s a s O ld y s a ch r o n icl e r w h o w r o t e n e a r l y a c e n t u r
y , y
l at e r th at m ad e m o re n o i s e th an th e R e l igi o M e d i c i
,
I ts
”
.

s u cc e s s m ay b e d u e l ar g e l y t o t he fa ct th at a m on g th ou s a n d s ,

o f r e li g i ou s w o r k s it w as o n e o f t h e fe w which s aw i n n at u r e
,

a p r ofo u n d re v e l a ti o n an d which t re a t e d
,
p u r e ly re li gi ou s
s u bj e ct s i n a re v e r e n t ki n dl y t ol e ran t w ay with o u t e c c l e s i
, , ,

a s t i c al bi as I t i s s till th e r e fore e xc e ll e n t r e adi n g ; b u t i t i s

.
, ,

n o t S O m u ch t h e m a tt e r a s t he m an n e r t h e ch ar m —
t he ,

g e n tl e n e s s t h,
e re m ar k a bl e p r os e s t y l e — which h a s e s t ab

l i s h e d t he b oo k as o n e o f t he cl a s s ic s of o u r lit e ra t u r e
V
.

Tw o o th e r w o r k s of B ro w n e a re u l a r E r r or s
g a

c u ri ou s c om bi n ati o n of s ci e n ti fic an d c re d u l ou s r e s e ar ch i n
t h e m att e r o f p op u l ar s u p e r s titi on a n d U r n B u r i a l a t r e a ti s e , ,

s u gge s t e d b t h e di s c o v e r o f R o m a n b u r i a l u r n s a t W al s i n
y y g
ham I t b e gan as a n i n q u i ry i n t o t h e v a r i o u s m e th o d s o f b u r i al
.
,

b u t e n d e d i n a di s s e r t a ti on on th e v a n it y o f e ar thl y h o p e a n d
a m biti on s F ro m a lit e r a ry p o i n t of vi e w i t i s B ro w n e s b e s t
’
.

w o r k b u t i s l e s s re ad th an t h e R e l i gi o M e d i c i
,
.

Th om as F u l l e r ( 1 6 0 8 F u ll e r w as a cl e r gy m an an d
ro ali s t wh os e liv e l s t l e an d witt b r v a ti o n s w o u ld n a t u
y y y y o s e

r all pl ac e h i m with t h e C li p t H i b t k w
y g y
a a r o n e o e s s e s n o. n

w ork s are Tb e H oly Wa r Tne H oly S ta te a n d the P r of a n e ,

S ta te , Gnu rc/i H i s tory of B r i ta i n , an d t he fi i s tory f o tne

Wor t/t i e s of E ng l a n d . Tne H oly an d P r of a n e S ta te i s chi e fl y
a bi ogr aphic al r e c or d ,
t he fi rs t p ar t c o n s i s ti n g o f n u m e ro u s
hi s t oric al e x am pl e s t o be i m it at e d the s e c o n d of e x am pl e s t o
,
2 30 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

be a v oid e d Th e G/i u rc/i H i s t ory i s n ot a s ch ol arly w or k n ot

.
,

with s t an di n g i t s au th or s u n d o u bt e d l e ar n i n g b u t i s a liv e l y
’

an d g os s ip y a cc ou n t which h as a t l e a s t o n e vi r t u e th at i t ,

e n t e r t ai n s t h e r e ad e r Th e Wor t/t i e s t h e m os t wid e l y r e ad

.
,

o f hi s w o r k s i s a r a c y acc o u n t of t h e i m p or t an t m e n o f E n g
,

l an d F u ll e r t r av e l e d c on s t an tly for y e ar s c o ll e cti n g i n for

.
,

m a ti o n fr o m ou t o f t h e w ay s o u r c e s an d g ai n i n g a m i n u t e
- - -

k n owl e d ge o f h i s o w n c o u n t ry Thi s with hi s ov e r fl o wi n g

.
,

h u m o r an d n u m e ro u s an e cd o t e s an d ill u s t ra ti on s m ak e s liv e l y ,

an d i n t e r e s ti n g r e adi n g I n d e e d w e h a rdly fin d a d u ll p age

.
,

i n an y of h i s n u m e ro u s b o ok s .

J e r e m y T ay l or
( 1 6 1 3 T a
y l o r w a s t h e g r e a t e s t o f
t h e cl e rgy m e n w h o m ad e thi s p e r i od fam o u s a m an w h o li ke
’

, ,

Milt o n u ph e ld a n obl e id e al i n s t or m a n d c al m a n d hi m
, ,

“
s e l f liv e d i t n obl
y .H e h as b e e n c all e d t h e S h a k e s p e a r e of
”
divi n e s an d a ki n d of S p e n s e r i n a c as s o c k an d b oth
, ,

d e s c r ipti on s appl y t o hi m v e ry w e ll H i s w r iti n gs with th e i r

.
,

e x u b e r an t fan c y an d th e i r n obl e dicti o n b e l on g r ath e r t o

,

t he Eli zab e th an th a n t o t h e Pu r it a n a ge .

F r o m t h e l ar ge n u m b e r of h i s w o r k s t w o s t an d ou t as re p re
s e n t a t i v e o f t h e m an hi m s e l f : Tne L i b e r ty o f P r op /ze s in
y g
which H all am c all s t he fi rs t pl e a fo r t ol e r an c e i n
re li g i on o n a c o m p r e h e n s iv e b as i s an d on d e e p s e at e d fo u n
,
-

d ati o n s ; an d Tli e R u l e s a n d Ex e rc i s e s of H oly L i v i ng I 6

T o th e l att e r m i ght b e add e d i t s c o m p an i on v ol u m e H oly ,

D y i ng p u bli s h e d i n th e foll owi n g y e ar

,
Tne H oly L i v i ng
.

a n d D y i ng a s a s i n gl e v olu m e
,
w as fo r m an y y e ar s re a d i n
,

al m o s t e v e r
y E n g li s h c o tt a e
g W
. ith B a xt e r s S a i n t s P
’
e st
’

P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s an d t h e K i ng j a m e s B i b l e i t oft e n c on
’

, ,

s tit u t e d t h e e n ti r e lib r a r of m u ltit u d e s o f Pu r it an h o m e s ;

y
an d as w e r e ad i t s n obl e w or d s an d b r e a th e i t s g e n tl e s pi r it ,

w e c a n n o t h e lp wi s hi n g th a t ou r m o d e r n lib r ar i e s w e r e g ath e r e d

t oge th e r o n t h e sa m e th ou ght fu l fou n d ati on s .

“
R i ch ar d B ax t e r ( 1 6 1 5 Thi s b u s i e s t m an of h i s
”
age s t ro n g l s u gge s t s B u n an i n hi s li fe a n d w r iti n s L ik
y y g e .
 232 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

the fi s h e r m an di s c ou rs e ab out hi s ar t The c on v e rs ati on s it .

,

m u s t b e c o n fe s s e d ar e oft e n di ffu s e an d p e d an tic ; b u t th e , y

on l m a k e u s fe e l m os t c o m fo r t abl sle e p n e i n va r i abl
y y y a s o
y ,

fe e l s aft e r a g oo d d ay s fi s hi n g S O ki n dl y i s t h e s pi r it of t he
’
.

an gl e r S O e x q u i s it e hi s app re ci ati on of t h e b e au t o f t h e e a r th
, y
an d s k t h at o n e re t u r n s t o t h e b ook as t o a fav o r it e t ro ut
y , ,

s t re am wi th the u n d y i n g e xp e ct ati o n o f c atchi n g s om e thi n g

, ,

A m o n g a th ou s an d b oo k s o n a n gli n g it s t an d s al m os t al on e i n
p o s s e s s i n g a ch ar m i n g s t y l e a n d s o i t will p r ob ably b e r e ad ,

as l on g as m e n g o fi s hi n g B e s t of all it l e ad s t o a b e tt e r ap .
,

p re ci a ti o n of n at u r e an d it d r op s littl e m oral l e s s on s i n t o t h e ,

as on e c as t s a fl
’
re ad e r s m i n d a s g e n tl t o a war t rou t ;
y y y __

s o th a t o n e n e v e r s u s p e ct s h i s b e tt e r n a t u re i s b e i n g a n gl e d

fo r Th o u g h w e h av e s o m e ti m e s s e e n a n gl e rs c atch m or e th an
.

th e y n e e d o r s n e ak ah e ad o f b r o th e r fi s h e r m e n t o t he b e s t
,

p ool s w e ar e gl ad fo r Walt on s s ake t o o v e r l oo k s u ch u n ac

, ,
’

,
“
c o u n t abl e e xc e pti on s an d ag re e with t h e m ilk m aid th at w e ,
”
l ov e all an gl e r s th e y b e s u ch h on e s t civil q u i e t m e n
, , ,
.

S u m m ary of t h e P uri ta n Pe ri od . T h e h a lf c e n t u r b e t w e e n 1 62 5 an d y
1 6 75 i s c a ll e d t h e P u r i t a n p e ri o d fo r t w o r e as o n s : fi rs t , b e c a u s e Pu ri t a n
s tan d a rd s p r e va il e d f or a i
t m e i n En g l an d; an d s e c on d , b e c a u s e t h e gr e a t e s t
li t e rary fi g ur e d ri g u n a ll the s e ye a rs w as t h e P u r i ta n , J
ohn M t o n . il
H is t or
i c a ll y t h e age w as on e i Th e P i t an s t gg l e d f r
of t re m e n do us c on fl ct. ur ru o

ri gh t e o s e s s a d lib
u n ty a d b e c n h e p e v il e d t h e a g i s
er , n e of m ra l
au s e r a , e on o

a d p o li t i c a l r v o l t i
n I h i s s t r ggl e f o li b e ty t h e P i t n v t h e w t h e
e u on . n u r r ur a o er r

t m a c h y b h e d e d Ch a l e s I
on r a d e t ab li s h e d t h e C m m
e a w r l th n s
co rru p , , o on ea

un d e C o m w e ll
r r Th C m m w al th l
. te d b t a f w y
e o s a d th
on e t
e as u e e ar , n e r s o

ra tion of C h l s I I i 1 660 i fte p t a s t h e e d f t h e P i t a p i o d T h

ar e n s O n u n o ur n er . e

age h s n a d i t i c t li m i t
o b t v e l ap s t h e E li zab e t h n p e i d
s n s, u o o e s ide r a r o on n ,

a d th e R e t
n at i o p i d s or t h e o th e r
n er o on .

Th e g p d ac e d m e y wro i t e u a f e w m m o t anl b k a d r e f t
rs , h i r a oo s, n on o e

w orl d g e at li t ry l e ad s Th li t rat e o f t h g i s e x t m l y d iv e rs e
’
s r e ra er . e e ur e a e re e

i c h ac t e
n ar d t h d iv i ty i s d e t t h e b e ki g p f t h i d e al s f p o li t
r , an e e rs u o r a n u o e o

i a l d e ligi o s i ty Th i s li t e t
c an r u un d iff s f m t h t f t h e p e e d i g ag
. ra u re er ro a o r c n e

i th e e m k e d w y
n r
( )
Iar I t h s n a i t y
s : f sp i it i n th d y s o f E li z
a o un o r , as e a a

b e th , e s l tin g f om th
r u
p t i t irc e t h s i m e f a l l l a r o ( )
2 I t tn u as o c as s e s . n c on r as

w i t h t h e h o p e f l e s s a d vi go u n f E li z b th w riti g
n m c h f t h li t
r o t a e an n s, u o e e ra u r e

o f t h i s p e ri o d i s s m b e r i h ct o ; i t s ad de r th e n c th i p i e s s (3 ) I t
a ra er ns a r an ns r u .

h as l s t t h e om
o t ic i m p l e r f y o t h a d b e c o m e c ri t i c a l an d i t e ll c t a l
an u s o u ,
n n e u

i t m k e s u s t h i k rat h e t h a f e e l d e e p l y
a n , r n .
 TH E PU R I TAN AGE 23 3

I n ou r s tu d y we ha ve n ote d ( )
I th e T ra n s t i ion Po e t s , of w hom D an e i l \

is ch e f ; i ( ) 2 t he S on g W r i t e rs , C am p i on an d B re t o n ; (3) the Spe n s e r ia n

Po e t s , W i t h e r a n d G il e s F l e tc h e r ; ( 4 ) t h e y i l Po e t s D o n n e a n d M e t ap h s c a ,

H e rb e r t ; ( 5 ) t h e C a v a li e r Po e t s H e rr i c k C a r e w Lo v e l ac e a n d S u c kli n g ; , , , ,

( 6 ) J o h n M il t o n h i s li fe hi s e a r l y o r H o r t on p o e m s
, h i s m ili t an t p r os e ,a nd , ,

h i s l a s t gre a t p o e t i c a l w o rk s ; ( 7) J oh n B u n y a n h i s e x t r a o r d i n a ry lif e a n d hi s , ,

c h i e f w o rk T/ze P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s ; ( 8) t h e Mi n o r P ro s e W r i t e rs B u r t o n
’
, , ,

B r o w n e F u ll e r T ay l o r B a x t e r a n d W a l t o n
, , Th r e e b o o k s s e l e c t e d f r o m t h i s
, , .

g ro u
p a re B ro w n e
’
s R e l igi o l l/ e d i ci , T a y lo r s
’
H o
ly L i v i ng and D y i ng , an d

W a l to n ’
s Comp l e te A n g l e r .

S e l e ct i on s for R e a d i n g . M i l ton Pa ra d i L os t , b o o ks L A ll e gro , I l

’
. se 1— 2,

Pe n s e ro s o , C o m u s , L yc id as , a n d se l e cte d S o n n e ts , -
al l i n S t an d a rd E n g s h li
C l as s i c s ; s am e o
p e ms, m o re or le ss c om p l e te , i n v i ar o u s o th e r s e r e s ; A re i
op a
gi ti c a an d Tr e a t is e on Ed u c a ti on , l
s e e ct on s , i in Man l y ’
s En g li s h P s e r ro , o

Ar e op a g i t i c a i n A rb e r ’
s En g lis h R e pr i n ts , C la re n d o n Pre s s S e r i e s Mo l e y s
, r
’

Un iv e rs l Lib a ra r y , e tc .
M i n or P oe ts . S e l e c t i on s f r o m H e rr ick ,
e i
d t e d b y H a e , i n A th e n ae u m Pr e s s l
Ser i l i f o m H e ri c k Lo v e l a e
es ; s e e c t on s r ly r c D o n n e , H e rb e r t , e tc ., i n Ma n
’
s En
g
li h Po t y G l d e Tre as y O xfo d B k o f E g lis h V t c ; V gh a s
, ,

’
s e r , o ne ur ,
r oo n rs e , e . au n

S il e x S c i t ill s i T e m p l e C l as i cs a l s o i n t h e A l d i e S e i e s ; H b e rt s T h e
’
n an , n s , n r er

Te m p l i Ev y m an s Li b ra y T e m p l e C l as s i c s e t c
’
e , n er r , , .

Th e Pil g i m P og e s i S t a nd a d E g li h C l a s s i c P ck e t
’
B y un an . r s r r s , n r n s s, o

C l s i cs e t c ; Grac e Ab o d i g i C as s e ll s N t i a l L i b ar y
’
a s , . un n , n a on r .

Mi P n orW it W e t w o t h s S l e c t i s f m J e m y T ay l o r ;
r os e r ers. n r
’
e on ro er

B w R e li g i o M d i c i W a l t s C m pl t A gl b o th i Ev e ym a s
’ ’ ’
ro ne s e , on o e e n e r, n r n

Li b a y T m p l C l s i
r r , tc ; s l e c t i
e s f om T yl
e B ow n e an d W al ton
as cs , e . e on r a or, r ,

i Man l y s E g li s h P l s i Ga e t t s E glis h P e
’ ’
n n ro s e , a o n rn n ro s .

Bib l iograp h y .
1
H is tory . Te x t oooé , -
M o n t g o m e ry p p , . 2 3 8— 2
5 7; Che y ey n ,

pp 43 . 1 — 4 64 ; G re e n , ch. 8 ; T ra ill ; G ar d n e r . i
Sp e ci a l Wor ks . W ak e l i n g s ’
Ki g n an d Pa r li am e t ( O xf n o rd M an u a l s ) ; Gar
d i ner s
’
Th e F i rs t Tw o S t u ar t s an d t h e Pu r it n R v l ti ;
a e o u on T u l lo c h ’
s En g li s h
Pu r t a n i
is m a d i t s n Le a d e rs ; L e s o f C ro e iv m w ll b y H i a rr s o n , b y C h u rc h , an d
b y Mo l y ; C a l y l ’
e s O liv
e r C ro m w e s L e tt e r s ll an d S p e e che s
’
r e r .

Li te ra ture S a i . n tsb u r ys ’
E li zab e t h an L t e ra t u r e i ( e xte n ds to Mas t e r
m an T h e A ge o f M t o n ; D o w d e n s P u r
’
s il ’
i t an d An g c an
an li .

M i l t on . T e t s , P o e t c a W o r s , G o b e
i l k l x ii i Mas s n ; C am e d t o n , e d te d b
y o

b i d g e Po e t
r d i ti o e d i t e d b y M o d y ; E g li h P
s e s e W i t i gs
n, d ite d b y o n s ro r n , e

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or k e L i b ry ; a l i B h S t a d d L i b y
, n ar s ro o ra so n o n s
’
n ar ra r .

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a f J h M il t
on
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( 8 v o l s ) L if e b y Go a e t t b
o
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li h Me n f Le tt e ) R l e i gh s Mil to ; T e t s J h M il to ; C o s
s O rs . a I t ’
n r n
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’
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d cti t M il t o ; B o k e Mil t t s Li b ry ; M ac a l y Mil t ; ’ ’ ’

u on o i S tu d n r o s on , n en ra u a s on

Lo w e ll s E s s ay s i Am M k i y y M A old s
’ ’
g y B a d i L
, t e n
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a , n s n r d A g li c a
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ur n an n n .

1 F t it l d p b li h
or f f e s an w k G u l B ib li g phy t t h e d
s e rs o re e re n c e or s, s e e e n e ra o ra a e n
o f t hi b k s oo .
 2 34 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

Ca v a l i e r P oe ts . S c h e lli
g s S e e n t e e n th C e n t u r
n
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v
L r cs , y yi in Ath e n ae u m
Pr e s s S e r ie s ; Ca v ali e r an d C o u r t e r L r s t s , i n i
C an t e rb u r yi y Po e t s Ser ie s ;
Go s s e
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s J a c ob e a v l
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i y l iv l l i
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s Un iv e s al Lib a ry ; L if
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, Je ss up s
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i of a B ra r, o . .

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er . a lm e
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r
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b y R hy s i C t e b ry P e t s ; D o w d s E s s ay i P i t n an d A gli c a
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B J B y H i s Lif T i m e s a d W o k s ; L if e b y
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B y o w
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. , , , ,

n , n ro u n n rs s a u a ,

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n , su
y o o d b e r y i
r a, M ak e rs f Li te at e
n r , n o r ur .

j my T y lere H l y L ivi g H l y D y i g i T e m p l e C l s s i c s a d i B h s
a or . o n , o n , n a , n n o u
’

S t d d Lib a y ; S e l c t i n s e d i t e d b y W e t w o th ; Lif b y H b
an ar r r e a d b
y o , n r e , e e r, n

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os f Le t t e s ) ; D w d
n s p n o r o en a ,
su ra.

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as ro ne. or , e e e a , n a ,

a d i n B oh s L ib a y ; R e li g i o M d i c i i E v ry m Li b y ; e y by
’ ’
n u r r e , n e an s rar ssa

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a on . r d M l ys , n as cs , a se
’
ra , an or e
’

Lib a y ; I t d c t i A La g s W a l ton s C o m p l e t A g l ; L w e ll s ’ ’
i
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r r n ro u on , n . n e n er o

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s , .

S u gge s t iv e Que s t i on s . 1 W h a t i s m e an t b y t h e Pu ri t an p e ri o d ? W h at .

w e r e t h e Ob j e c t s a n d t h e r e s u l ts o f t h e P u r i t an m o v e m e n t i n E n g li s h h i s t o r y
2. W h at are the ma in c h ar ac t e r s t c s i i of th e li t at
er u re of i p i d?
th s er o

C o m p a re i t w i th E li zab e t h an li t e r at u re . H ow d id re li gi on an d p li t i cs aff t
o ec

i
P u r ta nli t e r a t u re ? C a n yo u q u o t e an
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y w k s w
orh i ch

j t i fy y r
us ou o p n on i i ?

3 . W h at i s m e an t b y t h e t e rm s C a a v li er p o e t s , S p e n s e r an p o e t s , M e t a i
p h ys i a l c p o e t s ? N a m e t h e c h e f w r t e rs i i o f e a c h g ro u p To w h o m ar e w e .

i d e b t e d f or o fi
n ur rs t En g li s h hy m n b oo k ? W ld ou
yo u ca ll th is a w or k o f
li t e t e ? W h y ?
ra u r

4 W ha t a re t h e q u a t e s
. li i of H e rr c i ks ’
p oe tr y ? Wh at m ar ke d c on t ra s t s

a r e f o u n d i n H e rr c an d i n i k n e ar ly al l th e p o e ts of th is
p e r od ? i
5 . Who w as G e o rge H e rb e r t ? F o r w h a t p u rp os e di d h e w r te ? i W h at
q ua li ti e s a re f o u n d i n hi s p o e t r ? y
6 . Te ll b i y r efl t h e s t o r o f M t on s
’
y il lif e W h at . ar e t h e t h re e p e r i o d s of his
li t e ra r y w o k W hat
i s m e an t b y t h e H o rt o n p o e m s
r C o m p are L A l l e g ro ’

C om u s ? W hy i s i i l
” “ ”
an d
“
I l P e n s e ro s o A r e t h e r e an y Pu r t an d e a s i n .

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id e a o r a rg u m e n t o f P a r a d i s e L os t W h a t a r e t h e c h e f q u a t e s o f t h e p o e m . i li i
D e s cr ib e in ou t li ne P a r a d i s e R eg a i n e d a n d S a m s on Ag on i s te s . W h at p e rs on a . l
e e l m ent e n t e re d i n to th e a t t e r ? W hat q u a t
l s tr es o u m o s t f o rc b i n li y ik i ly
y
Mil t o n ’
sW h a t o c c a s i o n e d Mil t o n s p ro s e w o rk s ? D o t h e y p r op e rly
poe tr y ? ’

b e l o n g t o li t e ra t u r e ? W h y ? C o m p a re M il t o n an d S h ak e s p e are w i t h re gard
t o ( I ) k n o w l e d ge o f m e n ( 2 ) i d e a l s o f lif e ( 3 ) p u rp os e i n w ri t in g , , .
 CH A PTE R VI I I
PER I OD OF THE RE S TOR ATI ON ( 1 66 0-
1 700)

T H E AGE O F F R E N C H I N FLU E N C E
Hi s t ory of t he Pe r i od . It s e e m s a c u r ou s i t di c ti on
c on ra , at fi rs t
g l an c e , t o p l ac e t h e r e tu rn o f C harl e s I I at t he b e gin n in g of
m od e rn
En gl an d as ou r h i st ori an s ar e w on t to d o ; for the re w a s n e ve r a
,

ti m e w h e n th e p rogre ss of libe rt y w h i c h hi st ory r e c ord s w as m or e

, ,

p l ai n ly t u rn e d bac kwar d s T h e P u ri tan r egi m e had b e e n t o o s e ve r e

.

i t had r e p r e s se d too m an y n atu ral p l e asu r e s N ow r e l e as e d fr o m

. ,

r e s trai n t so c i e ty ab an d o n e d t he d e c e n c i e s of li fe an d t h e r e v e r e n c e
,

for law it se l f an d p l u n ge d i n to e x c e sse s m or e u n n atu ral t han h ad

,

be e n th e re s train ts of Puri tan i s m The in e v i tabl e e ff e c t of e x c e ss i s

.

dise as e an d for al m ost an e n ti re ge n e ration follow in g t he R e s tora

,

t i on i n 1 6 6 0 En gl an d lay s i c k of a fe ve r
, , S o ci ally p oli t i c ally m or
.
, ,

ally Lon d on su gge st s an I tali an c i ty i n t h e d ay s of t h e M e di c i ; an d

,

i ts li t e rat u re e sp e c i ally it s d ram a Oft e n s e e m s m o re like th e d e li ri u m

, ,

of ill n e s s t han the e x p r e ssi on o f a h e al th y m i n d B u t e v e n a fe v e r .

has i ts ad v an t age s What e v e r i m p u ri ty i s in t h e blood i s bu rn t an d

“
.

”
p gu r e d a w a y a n d a m an ri s e s from fe v e r w i t h a n e w s t r e n gt h an d
,

a n e w id e a o f t h e va l u e of li fe lik e K in g H e ze ki ah w ho afte r hi s
, ,

s i c kn e ss an d fe ar of d e at h r e s olve d t o go s oftly al l h i s d a y s T h e .

R e s t or a ti on w as th e gre at c ri si s i n En gli sh h i s to ry ; an d t hat En g

lan d li v e d th rou gh it w as d u e sol e ly t o the s tre n gth an d e x c e ll e n c e
o f t h at Pu r it an i s m w h i c h s he t h ou ght sh e had fl u n g to t h e w i n d s

w h e n s h e w e l c o m e d b ac k a v i c i ou s m on arc h a t D o v e r T h e c hi e f .

l e s son of th e R e storation w as thi s t hat i t S h ow e d by awfu l c on t ras t

,

t he n e c e s s i t y of t ru th an d h on e s ty an d of a s t ron g gove rn m e n t of
,

fr e e m e n for w h i c h t h e Pu ri tan h ad s tood lik e a roc k i n e v e ry h ou r

,

of h i s ru gge d h i st o ry Throu gh fe ve r En gl an d c am e S l ow ly bac k t o

. ,

h e al t h ; t hrou gh gro ss c or ru p ti on i n so c i e ty an d i n t he s tat e En gl an d

l e arn e d that he r p e o p l e w e re at h e art sob e r s in c e re re l igiou s folk , , ,

an d that t he i r c har ac t e r w as n atu rally t oo s tron g t o foll o w aft e r

p l e asu r e an d b e s at i s fi e d S o Pu r i t
. an i s m su dd e n ly ga i n e d all t hat

it had stru ggl e d for an d gain e d i t e v e n in the hou r wh e n all se e m e d

,

23 6
 TH E R ESTOR AT I O N PER I OD 237

l os t ,
w he n Milton i n hi s s o rr o w u n c o n sc ou s i ly
p ortray e d t he gove rn
m ent of Charl e s an d h i s Cab al i n t hat t re m e n d ou s s c e n e of t h e
c ou n c il of th e in fe rn al p e e rs i n Pan d e m on iu m , p l ot t in g t he i
ru n of

th e w or ld .

Of the kin g an d h i s foll ow e rs it i s di ffi c u lt to w ri te t e m pe rat e ly .

Most of the d ram ati c li te ratu re of the tim e i s at roc iou s an d w e c an ,

u n d e r st an d it on l y as w e r e m e m b e r t h e c h arac t e r of th e
Th e Ki n g
an d hi s c ou r t an d s oci e ty for w h i c h i t w as w r i tt e n U n sp e akably .

F °u°w e rs
vil e i n hi s p rivat e li fe the kin g had n o r e d e e m in g p atri
,

ot i sm n o se n s e of r e sp on s ibili ty to h i s c ou n t ry fo r e v e n hi s p u bli c
,

ac ts . H e gave hi gh o ffi c e s to bl ac kgu ard s s t ol e from t h e e x c h e qu e r ,

lik e a c om m on thi e f play e d Off Cath oli c s an d Pro te stan t s again st

,

e ac h o t he r di sr e gardi n g h i s p l e d ge s t o b ot h alik e b r ok e h i s s ol e m n
, ,

t re aty w ith t h e D u tc h an d w i th h i s own m i n i st e rs an d b e t ray e d hi s ,

c ou n t ry for Fre n c h m on e y t o sp e n d o n h i s ow n p l e asu r e s It i s u se .

l e s s to pain t th e di shon or of a c ou rt w hic h foll ow e d gayly aft e r su c h

a l e ad e r The first P arli am e n t w h il e it c on tai n e d som e n obl e an d
. ,

t ri otic m e m b e rs w as d o m i n at e d b y o u n
g m e n w h o e m e m b e e d
p a , y r r

th e e x c e s s of Pu r itan ze al b u t forgot t h e d e s p oti sm an d i n j u s tic e

,

w h ic h had c o m p e ll e d Pu r i tan i sm t o stan d u p an d as s e rt t h e m an hood

of En gl an d Th e se y ou n g p oliti c i an s v i e d w i th t h e ki n g i n p as s in g
.

laws for the su bj u gation of Chu rc h an d S tat e an d i n th e i r thi rst for ,

r e v e n ge u p on al l w h o had b e e n c on n e c te d w it h C ro m w e ll s i ron gov

’

e rn m e n t On c e m ore a w r e tc h e d fo rm ali sm
. t hat p e rp e tu al d an ge r
to th e En gli sh Chu rc h — c am e t o th e fron t an d e x e r c i s e d au tho r ity
o v e r t h e fr e e c hu rc he s The H ou se of Lord s w as l a rge ly i n c re as e d
.

b y th e c re a t i on of h e r e di tary ti tl e s an d e stat e s fo r i gn obl e m e n an d

sham e l e s s w o m e n w ho had fl att e r e d th e ki n g s van i ty Ev e n the
’
.

B e n c h t hat l as t s t ron g r e fu ge of En gli sh j u s t i c e w as c orru p t e d b y

, ,

t h e ap p oi n t m e n t of j u d ge s lik e th e b ru t al J e ffr e y s w hose a i m li k e

, , ,

t hat of t h e i r r o y al m as t e r w a s t o ge t m on e y an d t o e x e rc i s e p ow e r
,

w i th ou t p e rs on al r e s p on s ibili t y Am i d al l thi s di shon or t h e fo re ign

.

in fl u e n c e an d au thor i ty of Cro m w e ll s s tron g gove rn m e n t van i sh e d ’

like sm ok e Th e valian t li ttl e D u tc h n avy sw e p t the En gl i sh fl e e t

.

from t h e s e a an d on ly t he t hu n d e r of D u tc h gu n s i n th e Tham e s
, ,

u n d e r t h e v e r y w i n d ow s of Lon d on aw ok e t he n at i on t o t h e r e ali za
,

t i on of how low it h ad fall e n .

Tw o c on sid e rat i on s m u s t m odi fy ou r j u d gm e n t of t hi s di sh e ar t e n

i n g sp e c tac l e Fi rs t t he ki n g an d hi s c ou rt ar e n ot En gl an d
. , .

Th ou gh ou r h is tori e s ar e large ly fill e d w it h t h e re c ord s of kin gs an d

238 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

so ldi e rs , of in trigu e s an d fi gh tin g ,x p r e ss the r e al

t h e s e n o m or e e

life of a p e op l e than
fe v e r an d d e li r iu m e x p r e ss a n orm al m an hood .

R v ol u ti on
e Thou gh ki n g an d c ou r t an d h i gh so c i e t y a r ou se ou r
0f 6881 disgu st or p i ty r e c ord s ar e n o t w an tin g to S how that
,

r i v a t e li fe i n En gl an d re m ai n e d h on e st a n d p u r e e v e n i n t h e w o r s t
p
d ay s of t he R e s tora ti on Wh il e Lon d on s oc i e ty m i gh t b e e n t e r tai n e d
.

b y t h e d e ge n e rat e p oe t ry of R oc h e st e r an d t h e d ram as of D ry d e n
an d Wy c h e r l e y En gli sh s c ho l ar s h ail e d M il ton w i th d e li gh t
, an d t h e

c om m o n p e o p l e fo ll ow e d Bu n y an a n d Ba x t e r w i th t h e i r t r e m e n d ou s

a pp e al t o r i gh t e o u sn e s s an d lib e r ty S e c on d t h e k i n g w i th al l h i s
.
, ,

p r e t e n s i on s t o divi n e r i gh t r e m a i n e d O n ly
, a fi g u r e h e a d ; a n d the

An gl o S ax on p e o p l e w h e n th e y t i r e of on e figu r e h e ad h ave al w ay s
-
, ,

th e w il l an d t h e p ow e r t o t h row i t ov e rb oa rd an d c h o os e a b e tte r
on e . The c ou n try w as d i v i d e d i n t o tw o p oli t i c al p arti e s : t h e Whi gs ,

w ho s ou gh t t o li m i t t h e roy al p ow e r i n the i n t e r e s t s of Parli am e n t

an d t he p e o p l e ; an d t h e Tori e s w h o s t ro v e t o c h e c k t h e grow i n g
,

o w e r of t h e p e op l e i n th e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e i r h e r e d i tary ru l e rs B oth
p .

p a r t i e s ,
h o w e v e r w e re l ar e l
, g y d e vo t e d t o t h e A n gl i c an C hu rc h ; an d

w h e n J am e s I I aft e r fou r y e ars of m i sr u l e a t t e m p t e d t o e s tabli s h a

, ,

n at i on al Cat h oli c i s m by i n t ri gu e s w h i c h aro u se d t h e p ro t e s t o f t h e

as w e ll as of Parli am e n t t he n Wh i gs an d To ri e s Catholi c s
1
Po p e , ,

an d Pr o t e s t an t s u n i te d i n En gl an d s l as t gre at r e v ol u t i on
’
, .

T h e c om p l e t e an d bl oodl e s s R e v o l u t i on of 1 6 88 w h i c h c all e d ,

William o f Oran ge to the t hron e w as s i m ply th e i n d i c atio n o f En g ,

l an d s r e s tore d h e al th an d s an i ty I t p roc l aim e d t hat sh e had n ot

’
.

l on g fo rgott e n an d c ou l d n e v e r again fo rge t t he l e s s on tau ght h e r

, ,

b y Pu ri tan i s m i n i t s hu n d re d y e ar s of s tru ggl e an d s ac rifi c e Mod e rn .

En gl an d w as fi rm ly e s tabli s h e d b y t h e R e vol u t i on w h i c h w as b rou ght ,

ab ou t b y t h e e x c e ss e s of t he R e s t orat i on .

Li t e r ary Ch ar act e r i s t i cs . I n t h elit e rat u r e of t h e R e s t ora

ti on w e n ot e a s u dd e n b re a ki n g aw ay fr om ol d s t an d ar d s ,

F e n ch
r j u s t as s oci e t y b r ok e away from t h e re s t ra i n t s of
I n fl u e n ce Pu r it an i s m Man y of t h e lit e r ary m e n h ad b e e n
.

d rive n ou t o f En gl an d with Ch ar l e s an d h i s c ou r t or e l s e h ad ,

f oll ow e d th e i r p at r on s i n t o e xil e i n t h e d ay s of th e Com m on

w e alth O n th e ir r e t u r n th e y r e n ou n c e d o ld id e al s an d d e
.

m an d e d th at En g li s h p oe t ry a n d d ra m a s h ould foll ow t h e

1 Gu i zot ’
s H i st or y f
o the R e vol u ti on i n E n g l a n d .
249 E NG LI S H LI TERATU R E

publi s h e d a vig orou s att ack up on t he e vil pl ay s an d t he pl ay

wr i g ht s of t h e d ay all Lon d on ti re d o f t h e c oar s e n e s s an d
, ,

e xc e s s e s of t h e R e s t ora ti on j oi n e d t h e lit e ra ry r e voluti on

, ,

an d t h e c or ru pt d ram a w a s d riv e n f r om t h e s t age .

With t h e fi n al r e j e cti on of t h e R e s t orati on d ram a w e r e ach

a c r i s i s i n t h e hi s t o ry o f ou r l it e rat u r e T h e ol d E li zab e th an
.

pi r it with i t s p t r i o ti s m i t s c r e ativ e vi or i t s l o v e
Ne w Te n d ,
s , a , g ,

0 013 8
11
o f r om an c e , a n d t h e Pur it an s pi r it with i t s m oral

e arn e s t n e s s an d i n divid ua li s m w e r e b oth thi n g s of t h e p as t ;

,

an d a t fi rs t th e r e w as n o thi n g t o t ak e th e i r pl ac e s D ry d e n .
,

t h e gr e at e s t w r it e r of t h e a ge v oic e d a g e n e ral c om pl ai n t
,
“
wh e n h e s aid t hat i n h i s p r o s e an d p oe t ry h e w as d rawi n g
t he o u tli n e s o f a n e w a rt b u t had n o t e a ch e r t o i n s t r uct
,

hi m . B u t lit e rat u r e i s a p r ogr e s s iv e art an d s oon t h e w r it e r s ,

of t h e ag e d e v e l op e d t w o m ar k e d t e n d e n ci e s of th e i r ow n ,

t h e t e n d e n cy t o r e ali s m a n d t h e t e n d e n c y t o th at p r e ci s e n e s s
,

an d e l e gan c e of e xp r e s s i o n which m ar k s ou r lit e ratu r e for t h e

n e xt h u n d r e d y e ar s .

I n rea li s m — th at i s t he r e p re s e n t ati on of m e n e x a ctl y as

,

th e y ar e t h e e xp r e s s i on of t h e pl ai n u n var n i s h e d t r u t h with
, ,

o u t r e g ar d t o id e al s or r o m an c e — t h e t e n d e n cy
R e al i s m
w a s a t fi r s t th or ou g hl y b ad Th e e ar ly R e s t ora
.

ti on w r it e rs s ou ght t o p ai n t r e ali s tic pict u re s of a c orr u pt

c ou r t an d s o ci e t y an d as w e h av e s ugg e s t e d th e y e m ph as i ze d
, , ,

vic e s rath e r th an vi r t u e s an d gav e u s c oar s e l ow pl ay s with

, ,

o u t i n t e r e s t or m ora l s i n ific an c e L ik H bb th e s w
g e . o e s
y a ,

on l
y t h e e xt e rn a l s o f m a n h i s, b o d y a n d a pp e tit e s n ot h i s ,

s o u l an d i t s id e al s ; an d s o lik e m os t r e ali s t s
, th e y r e s e m bl e ,

a m an l os t i n t h e w ood s w h o w an d e r s ai m l e s s ly ar ou n d i n
,

ci r cl e s s e e i n g t h e c on fu s in g t r e e s b u t n e v e r t he wh ol e for e s t
, ,

an d w h o s e ld om thi n k s of cli m bi n t h e s t hi h hill t o

g e n e ar g
ge t hi s b e ar i n g s L at e r h ow e v e r thi s t e n d e n c y t o re a li s m
’

.
, ,

b e cam e m or e wh ol e som e Whil e it n e gl e ct e d r om an tic p oe t ry

. ,

i n which y outh i s e t e r n all y i n t e r e s t e d it l e d t o a k e e n e r ,

s tud
y o f t h e p r actic al m o tiv e s which
g o v e r n h u m a n a ct i on .
 T H E R ESTO R AT I O N PE R I OD 24 I

Th e c on d t e n d e n cy of t h e ag e w as t owar d dir e ct n e s s an d
se
\

s i m plicit y of e xp re s s i on an d t o thi s e xc e ll e n t t e n d e n c y ou r ,

lit e r at ur e i s gr e atly i n d e bt e d I n b oth t h e E li za .

Form a l i s m
b e th an an d t h e Pu r it an ag e s t h e g e ne ral t e n d e n cy
of w r it e r s w as t ow ar d s e xt r av aga n c e of th o u g ht a n d l a n g u age .

S e n t e n c e s w e re oft e n i n v olv e d an d l oad e d with L ati n q u ot a ,

t ion s an d cl as s ic al all u s i on s The R e s t orati on w r it e r s opp os e d .

thi s vig or ou s l y F r om F r an c e th e y b rou g ht back t h e t e n d e n cy

.

t o r e gar d e s t abli s h e d r u l e s for w r iti n g t o e m ph a s i ze cl o s e ,

r e ason i n g r ath e r th an r om an tic fan c an d t o u s e s h o r t cl e an

y , ,

c u t s e n t e n c e s with ou t a n u n n e c e s sar
y w or d W e s e e thi s .

1
F r e n ch i n fl u e n c e i n t h e R oyal S oci e t y which had for on e of ,

i t s o bj e ct s t h e r e for m o f E n gli s h p r o s e b y ge tti n g r id of i t s

”
s w e lli n gs o f s t l e a n d which b ou n d all i t s m e m b e r s t o u s e
y ,

a cl o s e n ak e d n at u ral w a o f s p e aki n g a s n e ar t o
, y ,

m ath e m a t ic al pl a i n n e s s a s th e y c an D ry d e n a cc e pt e d thi s .

e xc e ll e n t r u l e for h i s p r o s e an d ad o pt e d t h e h e r oic c o u pl e t , ,

as t he n e xt b e s t thi n g for t h e g r e at e r p ar t o f h i s p oe t r , y A s .

he t e ll s u s hi m se l f

An d th i s u n p o l i s h e d r u g g e d v e rse I c h os e

As fi t t e s t fo r d i s c o u rs e , a n d n e are s t p ros e .

It is l arge l y d u e t o h i m th at w r it e r s d e v e l op e d th at form al
i s m of s t y l e th at p r e ci se al m os t m ath e m atical e l e gan c e
, , ,

m i s call e d cl as s ici s m which r ule d E n gli s h lit e ra tu r e f or t h e

,

2
n e xt c e n t ur
y .

A n oth e r thi n g which t h e r e ad e r will n ot e with i n t e re s t i n

R e s t orat i on li t e r at ur e i s t h e ad opti on of t h e h e r o ic c ou pl e t ; t h at
i s t w o i am bic p e n t am e t e r li n e s which r i m e t oge th e r as t he
, ,

1 T he R o y l S i ty
a i v t i g ti
oc e ,
d di
for t he i f i ti fic q ti
n es w a o n an sc u s s on o sc e n ues on s , as

fou n d d i
e 66 n d1 i l d d p t i lly l l f t h lit y d i t i fi m
2 , an soon nc u e rac f ca a o e e ra r an sc e n c en o

the a g Ite.
g e d t h w
e n c ou ra k f I N w t e w h wor f i t m
o m b e ; d
sa a ci t e on , o as o n e o s e rs an s

in fl f
u e n ce t thor t ru tim w h -m aw at ill t y i g t mp
e d t h p h il
en ph
en e re s r n o co ou n e os o
’
er s

ston e , l l ti g m
ca c u a n ti f m th
e n s ac
’
t d h gi g h m l
on s ld w m
ro f e s ar s , a n an n ar e ss O o en or

Wit h c es h d ly b
c an v tim t d
ar e o e re s a e .

2 I f th d w
e r ea ld t hi i
er ou t f m l t hi m
se e d p s g p h f Milt
n c o n c re e or ,
e re a a a ra ra o
’
on s

pros e , t
or za f hi p t y
s an a o d mp it
s x be t m l di
oe r ,
di ti
an w i th
co are s e u ra n ,
e o ou s c on

D y de n
r
’
i m t h d f w it i g
s con c se e o o r n .
24 2 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

m os t it abl e for m of p oe t ry Wall

su b e g an t o u s e it . e r,
1 w ho

i n 1 6 2 3 i s g e n e rall y r e gard e d a s t h e fath e r of t h e c ou pl e t for

, ,

h e i s t h e fi r s t p o e t t o u s e it c on s i s t e n tl y i n t h e b u lk
Th e Coupl e t
of h i s p oe t r C h au c e r h ad u se d t h e r i m e d c ou pl e t
y .

w on d e rf u ll y w e ll i n hi s Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s b u t i n Chau c e r it ,

i s t h e p oe tical th ou g ht m or e th an t h e e xp re s s i on which d e
li g ht s u s W ith t h e R e s t orati on w r it e r s for m c ou n t s for
.
,

e v e r thi n g
y W all e r an d D r d e n m ad e t h e c o u pl e t t h e p re v ail
y
.

i n g lit e r ary fa s hi on an d i n th e i r han d s t h e c ou pl e t b e c o m e s

,

“ ”
cl o s e d ; th at i s e a ch pai r of li n e s m u s t c on t ai n a c om pl e t e
,

th ou ght s t at e d as p r e ci s e ly as p o s s ibl e Th u s Wall e r w rit e s

, .

T he l d ar k b at t e r e d an d d e c ay e d ,
’
s ou s c o t t ag e ,

Le ts i n new l i gh t t h r ou g h c h i n ks t h a t t i m e h as m ad e
2
.

Th a t i s of a
ph or i s m s u ch as Pop e m ad e i n l ar ge qu an
a ki n d
titi e s i n t h e foll owi n g ag e I t c on t ai n s a th ou g ht i s c atch y .
, ,

q u ot abl e e as y t o r e m e m b e r ; an d t h e R e s t or ati on w r it e r s d e
,

li g ht e d i n it S oon thi s m e ch an ic al cl o s e d c ou pl e t i n which

.
,

3
t h e s e c on d li n e w as oft e n m ad e fir s t al m o s t e xcl u d e d al l ,

oth e r for m s of p oe t r y It w as d om i n an t i n En gl an d for a fu ll

.

ce n t u ry an d w e h av e g r ow n fam ili ar with it an d s om e wh at

, ,

“
w e ary of i t s m on ot on y i n s u ch fam ou s p oe m s as Pop e s E s say ’

V
,

o n Man an d G old s m ith s D e s e r t e d ill ag e

” ” ’
T h e s e h ow .
,

e v e r a re e s s a s r a th e r th an p oe m s T h a t e v e n t h e c ou pl e t i s
, y .

c ap abl e of m e l od y an d v ar i e t y i s s h ow n i n Ch au c e r s Ta l e s an d ’

i n K e at s s e x q u i s it e E n dy m i on
’
.

T h e s e fou r thi n g s t h e t e n d e n cy t o v u l g ar r e ali s m i n t h e

,

d ram a a g e n e ral for m ali s m which cam e fro m follow m g s e t

,

ru l e s t h e d e v e l op m e n t of a s i m pl e r an d m or e di r e ct p r os e
,

st l e an d t h e p r e v al e n c e o f t h e h e r oic c ou pl e t i n p o e t r ar e
y , y
t h e m ai n ch ara ct e r i s tic s of R e s t ora ti on lit e rat u r e Th e y ar e .

al l e x e m plifi e d i n t h e w or k o f o n e m an J oh n D r d e n
y , .

1 Edm u n d Walle r ( 1 606 t he m os t n ot e d p oe t of t he R e st orat i on pe r i od u n t il

il y
hi s p u p D r d e n a p p e are d . H i s w or s a re n ow s e k l d om re ad .
”
2 F r om D i vi n e P oe m s Ol d Age an d D e at h.
Vl
,

3 F o ow n ll i
g t h e a d ce of B o e au ( 1 6 76 vi il a n ot e d F r e n ch cr it i c, w h o m o i
ta re
l
ca l e d
”
th e la w g e r of Parn as s u s . iv
2 44 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E
‘

I n t h e s e fou r lin e s
ke n al m ost at ran d om from the H e roic
, ta
”
S tan zas , w e h av e an e p i tom e of t he t h ou ght t h e p r e c i s e n e ss an d
, ,

t h e p oli sh t hat m ark al l hi s li t e rary w ork .

Th i s p oe m m ad e D ryd e n w e ll kn own an d h e w as i n a fai r w ay

,

t o b e c om e t h e n e w p o e t of Pu ritan i s m w h e n the R e storat i on m ad e

a c om p l e t e c h an ge i n h i s m e th od s H e had c om e to Lon d on for a
.

li te rary life an d w he n the R oyali sts w e re again i n p ow e r he pl ac e d

,
”
hi m s e l f p rom p tly on the w i n n i n g s i d e H i s Ast rae a R e d u x
. a p oe m ,

L I B R AR Y AT T R I N I T Y C O LL E GE , C A M B R I D GE

of we l c om e l I I an d hi s Pan e gyri c to hi s Sac re d Maj e sty

to Char e s , ,
“
bre at he m ore d e voti on to th e old goat as th e kin g w as kn own to ,

h i s c ou r t i e r s t han h ad h i s e arli e r p o e m s t o Pu ri tan i s m

, .

I n 1 66 7 h e b e c am e m or e w id e ly kn own an d p op u l ar b y hi s
An n u s Mi rabili s ”
a n arrativ e p o e m d e s c ribi n g t he t e rro rs of th e
,

g r e at fi r e i n L on d on an d s o m e e v e n t s o f th e d i s grac e fu l w ar w i th

H oll an d ; b u t w i th t h e t h e at e rs r e op e n e d an d n i ghtl y fill e d t he ,

d ram a o ff e r e d t h e m os t attrac ti v e fi e ld to on e w ho m ad e hi s li v in g
b y li te ratu re ; s o D ry d e n tu rn e d t o the s tage an d agre e d to fu rn i sh
t hre e pl ay s y e arly for t h e ac tors of t h e K in g s Th e at e r For n e arly
’
.
 TH E R ESTO R AT I O N PER I O D 24 5

tw e n ty y e a r s ,
be st of hi s life D ryd e n gave hi m s e l f u p to thi s
th e ,

u n fo rtun at e w ork B oth b y n atu re an d habit h e se e m s t o ha v e b e e n

.

c l e an i n hi s p e r son al li fe ; b u t th e s tage d e m an d e d un c l e an p l ay s ,

an d D r yd e n fo llow e d h i s au di e n c e That he d e p l or e d thi s i s e vid e n t

.

from s om e of hi s l at e r w ork an d w e have h i s s tat e m e n t t hat h e

,

w ro te on ly on e p l ay h i s b e s t to p l e as e hi m s e l f
,
T h i s w a s A l l f or
,
.

Love w hic h w as w r i tt e n i n bl an k ve rse m ost of t h e o t he rs b e i n g i n

, ,

r i m e d c ou p l e ts .

D u ri n g t h i s t i m e D ryd e n had b e c om e th e b e st kn o w n lit e rar y m an

of Lon d on an d w as al m o st a s m u c h a di c ta to r t o t h e li t e rary s e t
,

w h i c h gat h e r e d i n t he ta v e rn s an d c offe e ho u se s as B e n J on son h ad

b e e n b e fore h i m H i s w ork m e an w hil e w as re w ard e d b y l arge fin an
.
, ,

c i al r e tu rn s an d b y h i s b e i n g app oi n t e d p oe t l au r e at e an d c oll e c to r
,

of t h e p o rt of Lon d on Th e lat te r off1 c e it m ay b e r e m e m b e re d

. ,
, ,

had on c e b e e n h e ld b y Chau c e r .

At fi fty y e ars o f age an d b e fo re J e re m y Colli e r had d riv e n hi s

,

d ram as from t h e stage D ryd e n tu rn e d from d ram ati c w ork t o throw

,

hi m se l f i n to t h e s tr ife of r e ligi o n an d p oli t ic s w ri ti n g at t hi s p e rio d ,

h i s n u m e rou s p ros e an d p oe t i c al t r e ati s e s I n 1 6 82 a p p e ar e d h i s .

R e l i gi o L a i ci ( R e li gi on o f a Lay m an ) d e fe n d i n g t h e An gli c an ,

Chu rc h agai n s t al l o th e r s e c t s e sp e c i al ly th e Cat holi c s an d Pr e sby

,

t e ri an s b u t t h re e y e ars l at e r w h e n J am e s I I c a m e t o t he t h ron e
,

w i t h s c h e m e s t o e s tabli sh t h e R om an fa i th D ry d e n t u rn e d Catholi c ,
“
an d wr o t e h i s m ost fam ou s r e li gi ou s p o e m Th e H i n d an d th e ,
”
Pan the r , b e gin n i n g
A m i lk -
w h i te H i n d , i m m or ta l a n d u n c h an g e d ,
Fe d on th e l aw n s an d i n th e fore s t r an g e d ;
Wi th o u t u n s p o tte d , i n n oc e n t w i th i n ,
S h e fe are d no d an ge r , fo r s he kn e w n o S in .

Thi s hi n d i s a s y m b ol fo r t he R om an Chu rc h ; an d the An gli c an s ,

as a p an th e r , a r e re
p r e s e n t e d as p e rs e c u t n g i th e fai thfu l .Nu m e r
ou s o th e r s e c t s — Calvi n i s ts , An ab ap ti sts ,
Q k e r s — w e r e r e p re s e n t e d ua

b y th e w ol f b oar har e an d oth e r an i m al s w h i c h gav e t h e p o e t an

, , , ,

e x c e ll e n t c h an c e for e x e rc i s i n g h i s s ati re D ryd e n s e n e m i e s m ad e

’
.

t h e ac c u sat i on o ft e n s i n c e re p e ate d o f hy p oc r i sy i n t h u s c han gi n g

, ,

h i s c hu rc h ; b u t t hat h e w as s in c e re i n t h e m att e r c an n ow hard ly

” “
b e qu e st i on e d for h e k n e w h ow t o
, su ffe r fo r t h e fai th an d t o

b e t ru e t o h i s r e li gi on e v e n w h e n it m e an t m i sj u d gm e n t an d l o ss o f
-
,

fo rtu n e At t he R e vol u t i on of 1 6 88 h e r e fu se d al l e gi an c e t o Wil l i am

.
246 E NG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

of O ran ge ; h e was d e p r i v e d o f al l hi s o ffi c e s an d p e n s i on s , an d as

an O ld m an w a s agai n t hr o wn b ac k o n l i t e ra tu r e as h i s on ly m e an s of

live lihood . H e w e n t to w o rk w i th e x trao rd in ary c ou rage an d e n e rgy ,

wr ti in g p l ay s p o e m s p r e fac e s for o th e r m e n e u l ogi e s fo r fu n e ral
, , ,

o c c as i on s , e ve ry k i n d o f li t e rar y w o rk t ha t m e n w ou l d p ay fo r
- .

H i s m o s t s u c c e ssfu l w ork a t t hi s t i m e w as hi s t ran sl a ti on s w h ic h r e ,

su l t e d i n t h e c om p l e t e f u n d an d m an y s e l e c t i on s fro m H o m e r ,

O vid an d J u ve n al ap p e ar i n g in En gli sh r i m e d c ou p l e t s H i s m o s t
, ,
.

“ ”
e n d u ri n g p o e m t h e s p l e n d id o d e c all e d Al e x an d e r s Fe ast w a s
’
, ,

w r i tt e n i n 1 69 7 T hr e e y e ar s l at e r h e p u bli s h e d h i s l a st w ork
. ,

F a b l e s c on ta i n i n g p oe t i c al p a rap hra s e s of th e t al e s of B oc c ac c i o an d
,

Ch au c e r an d t h e m i sc e l l an e o u s p oe m s of hi s l a st y e ar s Lon g p re f
,
.

ac e s w e r e t h e fa s hi o n i n D r y d e n s d ay an d h i s b e st c ri t i c al w o rk i s
’
,

f o u n d i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i on s Th e p r e fac e t o t h e P a b l e s i s ge n e rally
‘

a d m i r e d as an e x am p l e of t h e n e w p r o s e s t yl e d e ve l op e d b y D ry d e n

an d hi s foll ow e r s .

From t he li t e rary vi e w p oin t th e se las t t rou b l e d y e ars w e r e t h e

b e s t Of D ry d e n s life thou gh th e y w e r e m ad e bi t te r by obs c u ri ty
’
,

an d by t h e c r i t i c i s m of hi s n u m e ro u s e n e m i e s H e d i e d i n 1 700
.

an d w a s b u r i e d n e ar Ch au c e r i n We s t m i n s t e r Abb e y .

Work s of D r y d e n . Th e d ram atic w ork s of D ry

n u m e r ou s

d e n ar e b e s t l e ft i n th a t ob s c u r it y i n t o which t h e y h av e fall e n .

N ow an d t h e n th e y c on t a i n a bit of e x c e ll e n t l y r ic p oe t ry ,

an d i n A ll f or L ov e an oth e r v e r s i on of An tony a n d Cl e op a tr a
, ,

wh e r e h e l e av e s h i s ch e r i s h e d h e r oic c ou pl e t for th e bl an k
v e r s e of Mar l ow e an d S h ak e s p e ar e h e s h ow s wh at h e m ight
,

h av e d on e h ad h e n ot s old h i s t al e n t s t o a d e p rav e d au di e n c e .

O n t h e wh ol e r e a di n g h i s pl ay s i s lik e n ibblin g at a r otti n g

,

a ppl e ; e v e n t h e g ood s p ot s are a ffe ct e d b y t h e d e c ay an d ,

on e e n d s b y th r owi n g t h e wh o l e thi n g i n t o t h e gar b ag e c an ,

wh e r e m os t of t h e d ra m atic w ork s of thi s p e r i o d b e l on g .

T he c on t r o v e r s ial an d sati ric al p oe m s ar e on a hi g h e r

pl an e ; th ou gh it m u s t b e c on fe s s e d D ry d e n s s ati r e oft e n
, ,
’

s t r ik e s u s a s c u tti n g a n d r e v e n g e fu l r ath e r th an ,
Poe m s '

witt y Th e b e s t k n own o f th e s e an d a m as t e rpi e c e

.
,
”
of i t s ki n d i s A b s al om an d A chit oph e l which i s u n d ou bt e dly
, ,

t h e m os t p ow e rful p olitic al s a ti r e i n ou r l an gu ag e . Taki n g

24 8 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

( TH E D U K E O F B U CK I N G H AM)

S om e of th e i r c hi e fs w e r e p r i n c e s of th e l an d ;
I n th e fi rs t r an k of th e s e d i d Z i m ri s t an d ,

A m an s o v ar i ou s th a t h e s e e m e d to b e ,

N o t o n e b u t al l m a n k i n d s e p i tom e
’
,

S ti ff i n op i n i on s a l w a y s i n th e w r on g , ,

W as e v e r y thi n g b y s tar ts an d n o thi n g l o n g ;

B u t i n th e c o u rs e o f o n e r e v o lv i n g m oo n
, ,

W as c h y m i s t fi dd l e r s ta te s m an a n d b u ffoon ;
, , ,

T h e n al l fo r w o m e n p ai n ti n g rh y m i n g d r i n k i n g , , , ,

B e s i d e s t e n th o u s an d fre ak s th a t d i e d i n thi n k i n g .

B l e s t m ad m an w h o c o u l d e v e r y h ou r e m p l o y
,

W i th s om e thi n g n e w to w i sh or to e n j o y !
R a i l i n g an d p r a i s i n g w e re h i s u s u a l th e m e s ,

A n d b o th t o S h o w h i s j u d g m e n t i n e x t r e m e s
, ,

S o ov e r v i o le n t o r ov e r c i v i l
-
,
-
,

T h a t e v e r y m a n w i th h i m w a s God or d e v i l .

O f t h e m an y m i s c e ll an e ou s p oe m s of D ry d e n t h e c u r i ou s ,

r e ad e r will g e t a n id e a o f h i s s u s t a i n e d n arr at iv e p o w e r fr o m

t h e An n u s .Mi r a bi l i s Th e b e s t e xp r e s s i on of D ry d e n s lit e r
’
.

“ ”
ary g e n i u s h ow e v e r i s fo u n d i n A l e x an d e r s F e as t w h ich
’

, , ,

i s h i s m os t e n du r i n g od e an d on e of t h e b e s t i n ou r l an g u ag e , .

A s a p r os e w r it e r D ry d e n had a v e ry m ar k e d i n fl u e n c e on
o u r lit e r at u r e i n s h or t e n i n g h i s s e n t e n c e s an d e s p e ci all i
y n ,

p r os e an d w r iti n g n at u rall y with ou t d e p e n di n g on lit e ra ry ,

Cr i ti c’s ”
o rn am e n t ati on t o g iv e e ff e ct t o wh at h e i s s a i n g
y .

I f w e c om p are h i s p ros e with th at o f Milt on or B r ow n e or

’

, ,

J e r e m y Tay l or w e n ot e th a t D ry d e n c ar e s l e s s for s ty l e th an
,

of t h e o th e r s b u t t ak e s m ore p a i n s t o s t a t e h i s th o u g ht
an
y ,

cl e a r l y an d c on ci s e l y a s m e n s p e ak wh e n th e y wi s h t o b e
,

u n d e rs t ood Th e cl as s ica l s ch ool which foll owe d t h e R e s t or a

.
,
.

tion l ook e d t o D ry d e n as a l e ad e r an d t o h i m w e ow e l arge ly

, ,

th at t e n d e n c y t o e x act ne s s of e xp r e s s i on which m ar k s ou r
s u b s e q u e n t p r o s e w r iti n g W ith hi s p r os e D ry d e n rapidl y . ,

1
d e ve l ope d h i s c r itical abilit y an d b e c am e t he for e m os t c r itic ,

1 B
y it i w m
a cr c e im ply wh
e an s x mi t h lit y w k f v i
on e g o e a ne s e e r ar or s o ar ou s a e s ,

se p t
ara e s t h g e d foo m t h b d rod g iv t h e f hai l ifi,
t i I
ant i t i es e r e a s on s or s c ass ca on . s no ce

a b l th t
e a it i l w i t i g i
cr ca r i n
g lik t h t f t h R t
s n c re a s e ti wh g e at
a an a e, e a o e e s ora on , en r

cr eat iv w e k
or w
s areti g an n .
 TH E R ESTO RATI O N PER I OD 24 9

d
T

of hi s age . c H is
r itici s m s i n s t,e a d of b e i n g p u bli s h e d a s i n d -

p e n d e n t w or k s we r e g e n e rall y u s e d a s p re fac e s or i n t rod u c

,

ti on s t o hi s p oe t ry Th e b e st k n own of th e s e c r itici s m s ar e
.

”
t he p r e fa c e t o t h e Fa b l e s O f H e r oic Pl ay s
,
D i s c o u r s e on
,
”
S ati re , an d e s p e ci all y t he Es say of D ram atic Poe s y
which att e m pt s t o lay a fou n d ation for all lit e r ar y c r itici s m .

D ry d e n s pl ac e am on g
’
D ry de n s I n fl u e n ce on Li t e r at u r e
’
.

auth or s i s d u e p artl y t o h i s gr e at i n fl u e n c e o n t h e s ucc e e di n g

WE S T M I N S T E R

a
g e of cl a s s ici s m B ri e fl y thi s i n flu e n c e m ay b e s u m m e d u p
.
,

b y n oti n g t h e th r e e n e w e l e m e n t s which h e b r ou g ht i n t o ou r
lit e ra t u re Th e s e ar e ( I ) t h e e s t abli s h m e n t of t he h e r oic
.

c ou pl e t as t h e fa s hi on for s ati r ic did a ctic an d d e s c r iptiv e

, ,

p oe t r y ( 2 ) h i s d e v e l op m e n t of a di r e ct s e rvic e abl e p r os e s t y l e
,

s u ch as w e s t ill c u ltiv at e a n d 3 h i s d e v e l op m e n t of t h e ar t of
)
lit e rar y c r itici s m i n hi s e s s ay s an d i n t h e n u m e rou s p r e fa c e s
t o h i s p oe m s T hi s i s c e r t a i n l y a l ar g e w o r k for on e m an t o
.

a cc o m pli s h a n d D r d e n i s w or th f h on or th ou g h c om p ar a
, y y o ,

t i v e ly littl e of wh at he w r ot e i s n ow fo u n d o n o u r b ook s h e lv e s .
2 50 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

S am u e l B u t l e r ( 16 1 2 I n m ar k e d c on t ras t with D ry
d e n , w ho d e vot e d h i s l ife t o lit e rat u re an d w on h i s s u cc e s s
b y h ar d w or k i s S am u e l B u tl e r w ho j u m p e d i n t o fam e b y a
, ,

s i n g le c are l e s s w or k which r e pr e s e n t s n ot an y s e r i ou s i n t e n t
, ,

o r e ffor t b u t t h e p as ti m e o f an idl e h ou r
,
W e ar e t o r e m e m .

b e r th at th ou gh t h e R oy ali s t s had t r i u m ph e d i n t h e R e s t Ora

,

t i on t h e Pu r it an s pi r it w as n ot d e ad n or e ve n s l e e pi n g an d
, , ,

th at t h e Pu r it an h e ld s t e ad fas tl y t o h i s ow n p r i n cipl e s Ag ai n s t .

th e s e p r i n cipl e s of j u s tic e t r u th an d lib e r ty th e r e w a s n o

, ,

ar g u m e n t s i n c e th e e xp r e s s e d t h e m an h o od of E n gl an d ;
, y
b u t m an y of t h e Pu r it an p ra ctic e s w e r e op e n t o r idicul e an d ,

t h e R oy ali s t s i n r e v e n ge for th e i r d e fe at b e gan t o u s e r idic u l e

, ,

with ou t m e r c y D u r i n g t h e e ar l y y e ar s of t h e R e s t orati on
.

d ogg e r e l v e r s e s r idic u li n g Pu r it an i s m an d b u r l e s q u e — th at ,

i s a r idic u l ou s r e p re s e n t ati on of s e ri o u s s u bj e ct s or a s e r i ou s
, ,

r e p r e s e n t at i on of r idicul o u s s ubj e ct s w e r e t h e m os t p op u l ar
,

form of lit e rat u r e wit h Lon d on s o ci e t y Of all thi s bu rl e sq u e .

an d d ogg e r e l t h e m o s t fam ou s 15 B utl e r s H u d i b ra s a w or k

‘ ’

t o which w e c an t r a c e m an y of t h e p r e j u dic e s th at s till p r e ~

il aga i n s t Pu r it an i s m .

Of B u tl e r hi m s e l f w e k n ow littl e ; h e i s on e of t h e m os t
o b s c u r e fi g u r e s I n o u r lit e r at u re D u r i n g t h e d ay s of Cr om
.

w e ll s Pr ot e ct or at e h e w as i n t he e m pl oy of S i r S am u e l L u k e
’

a c ra bb e d an d e xt re m e t y p e of Pu r it an n obl e m an an d h e r e ,

h e c oll e ct e d h i s m at e r ia l an d p r ob abl y w rot e t h e fi r s t p ar t of

h i s b u r l e s q u e which of c ou rs e h e did n ot d ar e t o publi s h
, , ,

u n til aft e r t h e R e s t ora ti on .

H u d i b ra s i s pl ai n l y m od e l e d u p on t h e D on Qu ix ote of
Ce r van t e s I t d e s c r ib e s t h e adv e n t u r e s o f a fan at ical j u s tic e
.

of t h e p e a c e S i r H u dib ra s an d of hi s s q u i r e
, , ,
H u d ib ra s
R al p h o i n th e i r e n d e av or t o put d ow n al l i n n o c e n t
,

pl e a s u r e s I n H u dib ras an d R alp ho t h e t w o e xt r e m e t y p e s of

.

t h e Pu r it an p ar t y Pr e s by t e r i an s an d I n d e p e n d e n t s ar e m e r ci
, ,

l e s s l y r idicul e d Wh e n t h e p oe m fi r s t app e ar e d i n p u blic i n

.
,

1 6 63 aft e r ci r c u latin g s e c r e tl f or e a r s i n m an u s c r ipt i t

, y y ,
252 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

c om bi n i n g two c e n t ral id e as which ch all e n ge an d s t artl e t he

att e n ti on n am e l th at s e l f i n t e re s t i s t h e o n l idi p o w r
y y g u n
g e -
, ,

o f hu m an it a n d th at bli n d s u b m i s s i on t o r u l e r s i s t h e on l
y , y
1
t ru e b as i s o f g ov e rn m e n t I n a w or d H obb e s r e duc e d h u m an .
,

n atu r e t o i t s pu r e l an i m al as p e ct s a n d th e n a s s e rt e d c on
y ,

fid e n t ly t h at th e r e w as n othi n g m ore t o s t u d y C e r t ai n l y
“

. ,

th e re fo re a s a r e fl e cti on of t h e u n d e r ly i n g s pi r it of Ch ar l e s
,

a n d hi s foll ow e rs it has n o e qu al i n a n y pu r e l lit w rk

y e r ar
y o

of t h e t i m e .

J oh n L ock e ( 1 6 3 2 1 704 ) i s fam ou s a s t h e au th or of a —

‘

s i n g l e g re at phil os ophic al w or k t h e E s s ay con ce rn i ng f i u m a n ,

U n d e rs ta n d i ng T hi s i s a s tud y of t h e n at u r e of t h e
h u m an m i n d an d of t he or i gi n of id e a s which far m or e th an , ,

t h e w or k of B ac on a n d H obb e s i s t h e b as i s up on which En g ,

li s h phil os oph y h as s i n c e b e e n b u ilt A s id e fr om th e i r s u bj e ct s .

,

b ot h w or k s ar e m od e l s of t h e n e w p r os e di r e ct S im pl e con , , ,

vi n c i n g for which D ry d e n an d t h e R oy al S oci e t y l ab or e d

, .

Th e y ar e k n ow n t o e v e ry s t u d e n t of phil os oph y b u t ar e s e l ,

2
d om i n clud e d i n a w or k of lit e rat u re .

Ev e l y n an d Pe p y s Th e s e t w o m e n J oh n E v e l y n ( 1 6 2 0 . ,

1 706 ) an d S a m u e l Pe p y s ( 1 6 3 3 ar e fam ou s a s t h e
w r it e r s of di ar i e s i n which th e y j ott e d d own t h e daily occ u r
,

r e n c e s of th e ir ow n liv e s with ou t an th ou g ht th a t t h e w or ld
y ,

w ould e v e r s e e or b e i n t e r e s t e d i n wh at th e y h ad w r itt e n .

1 i i l i k
Tw o ot he r p r n c p e s of t h s b oo s hou d b e n ot e d : ( 1 ) th at a ll p ow e r or g n ate s i n l i i
l j
t h e pe op e ; a n d ( 2 ) t hat t he Ob e c t of a l l g o e r n m e n t i s t h e c o m m on good . H e re e vi v
i
d e n t l y i s a d e m ocr at c d octr n e , w h c h ab o s h e s t h e d i
n e r gh t of i
n g s ; b u t H obb e s li ivi i ki
i l y y
i m m e d at e y d e s t ro s de m ocra c b y a n ot he r d oct r n e , — t h at t h e p ow e r gi e n b y t he i v
l l l
pe op e t o t he r u e r c ou d n ot b e t ake n a w ay . H e n ce t he R oy a s t s c ou d u s e t he b oo t o li l k
j u st ify t h e d e s p ot i sm of t he S t u a rt s on t he g r ou n d t hat t h e p e op e ha d ch ose n t h e m . l
Th i pa rt
s of t h e b oo ki s in d i r e ct o
ppos ii ’
il
t on t o M t on s D ef e n s e of tb e E n g l i s /z P e op l e .
2 L oc k e s
’
Gove r n m e n t s h ou d a s o b e m e n t on e d , for t h e y a re of p r o
Tr e a t i se s on l l i
i i
fou n d n te re s t t o Am e r can s t u de n t s of h st or an d po t ca s c e n ce . I t w as fr om L oc e i y li i l i k
l i
t hat t h e fra m e r s of t he D e c a r at on of I n de pe n d e n c e an d o f t h e Con s t t u t o n d re w m an y i i
o f t he r i i v
de as , an d e e n s om e of t he r m os t s t r k n g p h ra se s . i
Al l m e n a re e n d ow e d i i
i i i li
w t h ce rt a n n a e n a b e r ht s ”
g ; fe ,
l l i
b e rt y, a n d t h e p u r s u t o li
f h a pp n e i
s s
”
; t h e i i
i i
o r g n a n d b a s s of i v
g o e rn m e n t i s i n t he c on se n t of t h e g o e r n e d ,
” —
t h e se a n d m a n y v
m ore fam ar a n d s t r ili iki i
n g e x p r e s s on s a r e from L oc e . I t i s n t e r e st n g t o n ot e t h at h e k i i
i
w as app o n t e d t o d raft a c on s t t u t on for t he n e w
p ro n c i i
e o f Car o n a ; b u t h i s w ork vi li
j l
was re e cte d, — p roba b y b e cause i t was t oo de m oc rat c for t he age i n w h ch h e i e d. i i lv
 TH E R ESTO R ATI O N PER I O D 25 3

Ev e ly n w as t h e uth or of Sy l va t h e fi r s t bo ok on t r e e s
a , x k

an d for e s t r y i n En g li s h an d Te r ra which i s t h e fi r s t a tt e m pt
, ,

at a s ci e n tifi c s t u d y of ag r i cult u r e ; b u t t h e w or ld has l o s t

s ight of th e s e t w o go od b ook s whil e it ch e r i s h e s h i s di ar y , ,

which e xt e n d s o v e r t h e g re at e r p ar t of h i s li fe an d giv e s u s
vivid pictu re s of s o ci e t y i n hi s ti m e an d e s p e ciall y of t he ,

fr i ght ful c or r upti on of t h e r oy al c ou r t .

Pe py s b e gan li fe i n a s m all w ay a s a cl e rk i n a g ov e r n m e n t
o ffic e but s oon r o s e b y hi s dili g e n c e an d in d u s t r y t o b e S e c
,

r e t ar of t h e A d m i ra lt H e r e h e w as b ro ught i n t o
Pe py s s D iary
’ y y .

c on t act wit h e v e ry g rad e of s o ci e t y fr om t h e ki n g s ,

’

m i n i s t e rs t o t h e p oor s ail or s o f t h e fl e e t B e i n g i n qui s it iv e as .

a bl u e jay h e i n v e s ti gat e d t h e r u m or s an d g o s s ip of t h e c o u r t
, ,

as w e ll as t h e s m all a ffa i r s o f h i s n e i g hb or s an d w rot e th e m ,

a l l d ow n i n hi s di ar with e vid e n t i n t e re s t B u t b e c au s e h e
y .

ch at t e r e d m os t fre e l y an d t old hi s littl e b oo k a g r e at m an y

,

s e c r e t s which it w e r e n ot w e ll for t h e w or ld t o k n ow h e c on ,

l
ce a e d e v e r
y thi n
g i n s h o r th a n d — a n d h e r e a g,a i n h e w a s lik e

t h e bl u e j ay which c ar r i e s off an d hid e s e v e r y b r i g ht t r i n k e t

,

it di s c ov e r s The D i a ry c ov e r s t h e y e ar s fr om 1 6 6 0 t o 1 6 6 9
.
,

an d g os s ip s a b ou t e v e ry thi n g fr om hi s ow n p o s iti on an d
,

d u ti e s at t he offi c e h i s d r e s s an d kit ch e n an d c ook an d re l a

,

ti ve s t o t h e g r e a t p olitic a l i n t r i g u e s of Offi c e an d t h e s c an d al s
,

of hi g h s oci e t
y N o oth e r s uch m i n ut e pict u r e of t h e d a il
.
y
li fe of an age h as b e e n w ritt e n Y e t for a c e n t u r y an d a h al f .

it r e m ai n e d e n ti r e l y u n k n ow n an d n ot u n til 1 82 5 w as Pe p y s s
,
’

s h or th an d d e ciph e r e d an d publi s h e d S i n c e th e n it has b e e n .

wid e ly r e ad an d i s s till on e o f_t h e m o s t i n t e r e s ti n g e x am pl e s

,

l
of diar w r iti n g th a t w e p os s e s s F o ll owi n g a r e a fe w e xt ra ct s
y .
,

c ov e ri n g on l y a fe w d ay s in Ap r il 1 66 3 fr om which on e m ay , ,

i n fe r t h e m i n ut e an d i n t e r e s ti n g ch ar a ct e r of t h e w or k th a t
thi s cl e r k p olitici an pr e s id e n t o f t h e R oy al S ocie t y an d g e n
, , ,

e ral bu s b o d w r ot e t o pl e a s e hi m s e l f
y y
1 A fe w s li gh t i i
c h an ge s a n d o m s s on s f r om the or i gi l t
na e xt , a s giv en in Whea t le y s
’

ii
e d t on of Pe p y s ( L on don , 1 892 , 9 a re n ot i din cat e d i n t he se i fq
br e i
u ota t on s .
2 54 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

Ap r i l 1 st. I w e n t t o th e T e m p l e to m y C oze n R og e r Pe p y s , to s e e
an d ta lk w i th h i m a l i t tl e : w h o t e ll s m e th a t , w i th m u c h ad o , th e Par
l i am e n t do ag re e t o t h r o w d o w n P o p e r y ; b u t h e s a y s i t i s w i th s o m u c h
s p i te an d p as s i o n ,
an d an e n d e a v o r o f b r i n g i n g al l N o n c o n for m i s ts i n to

th e s a m e c o n d i ti o n , th a t h e i s a fe a r d m a tte r s w il l n ot
go s o we ll as he
c ou ld w i sh . To m y O ffi c e al l th e a f t e rn oo n ; Lo rd ! h o w S i r J .

Mi n n e s l i ke , a x c om b d i d s w e ar an d s tam p s w e a r i n g th at C o m
m ad co , ,

m i s s i on e r Pe tt h a th s t i l l t h e o l d h e a r t ag ai n s t th e Ki n g th a t e v e r h e
h ad ,
a n d a ll th e d am n ab l e r e p r o a c h e s i n t h e w o r l d a t w h i c h I w as ,

as h a m e d b u t s ai d l i ttl e ; b u t u p on th e w h o l e I fin d h i m s t i ll a fool e
, , , ,

l e d b y th e n o s e w i th s t or i e s t o l d b y S i r W B a t te n w h e th e r w i th or . ,

w i th o u t r e as on S o v e x e d i n m y m i n d t o s e e th i n g s o r d e r e d s o u n l i k e
. ,

g e n t l e m e n o r m e n o f re as o n
,
I w e n t h om e a n d t o b e d
, .

3 d T. o W hi te H a ll a n d t o C h ap p e ll w h i c h b e i n
g m o s t m o n s tr o u s ,

f u ll I c ou l d n ot g o i n t o m y p e w b u t s a t a m on g th e q u i re D r C r e e ton
, , . .
,

t h e S c o tc h m a n p r e a c h e d a m os t a d m i rab l e g o od l e arn e d h o n e s t a n d
, , , , ,

m o s t s e v e r e s e r m o n y e t c o m i c al l , H e r ai l e d b i t t e r l y e v e r a n d a n o n
.
.

ag a i n s t J o h n C a lv i n a n d h i s b r oo d th e Pr e s b y te r i a n s a n d ag a i n s t t h e
, ,
”
e s e n t te r m e , n ow in u se of te n d e r p c on s c i e n c e s . He ri p p e d u
p r ,

H u gh Pe te r s ( c a ll i n g h i m th e e x e c r ab l e s k e ll u m ) , h i s p r e a c hi n g an d
s ti rr i n g u p th e m ay d s o f t h e c i t y t o b r i n g i n t h e i r b o d k i n s a n d th i m b l e s .

T h e n c e g oi n g ou t o f W h i t e H a ll , I m e t C ap ta i n G ro v e , w h o d i d g i v e
me a l e t te r d i r e c t e d to m y s e l f fro m h i m s e l f . I d i s c e r n e d m o n e y to b e
i n i t, an d too k i t, k n ow i n g a s I , fo u n d i t t o b e , th e p ro c e e d o f th e p l a c e
I h a v e g ot h i m , th e t a k i n g u p o f v e s s e l s fo r T a n g i e r . B u t I d i d n o t

o p e n i t t i ll I c am e h o m e t o m y o ffi c e , a n d t he r e I b rok e i t O p e n , n o t

l oo k i n g i n to i t ti ll al l th e m on e y w as o u t , th at I m i gh t s ay I s a w n o
m on e y i n t h e p a p e r , i f e v e r I s h o u l d b e q u e s ti on e d ab o u t i t . T h e re w as
a p i e c e of g o ld an d in si lv e r .

4 th . T o m y fi
of ce H o m e to d i n n e r , w hi th e r b y a n d b y c o m e s R og e r
Vy
.

Pe p y s , e tc . er m e rr y a t , b e fo r e , a n d a fte r d i n n e r , a n d t h e m o r e for
th a t m y d i n n e r w as g r e a t , a n d m os t n e at d re s s e d b y ou r ow n e o n ly ly
y
m a de . W
e h ad a fr i c as e e o f r ab b i ts a n d c h i c e n s , a l eg o f m u tto n k
l
b o i e d , th re e c ar p s i n a d i s h , a g r e a t d i s h o f a s i d e o f am b e , a d i s h o f l
r o as t e d p i ge o n s , a d i s h o f fou r l ob s t e rs , th re e t ar ts , a l a m p re y p i e ( a

m o s t r ar e p i e ) , a d i s h o f a n c h o v i e s , g o o d w i n e o f s e v e r a l s o r t s , a n d a ll

t h i n g s m i gh t y n ob l e a n d t o m y g r e at c on te n t .
d ay ) . U p an d s p e n t th e m or n i n g , t i ll th e B a rb e r c a m e ,
ord
’
5 th ( L s

i n r e ad i n g i n m y c h a m b e r p a r t o f O s b or n e s Ad v i c e t o h i s S o n , w h i c h I
’

s h a ll n o t n e v e r e n ou g h a d m i r e fo r s e n s e a n d l an g u ag e , a n d b e i n g b y

an d b y t r i m m e d , t o Ch u r c h , m y s e l f, w i fe , As h w e ll , e t c H om e a n d , .

w h i l e d i n n e r w as p r e p ar e d , t o m y o ffi c e to r e ad o v e r m y v ow s w i th g r e at
a ffe c t i on a n d to v e ry g o o d p u rp o s e T he n t o c h u rc h a g a i n , w h e re a
.

sim p e l b aw l i n g y ou n g S c o t p r e ac h e d .
256 E NG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

as the y are , is s how n i n the w o r k o f th e R oy al S oc i e ty

i n t h e p h os o p h o f
, il y
H ob b e s ke a d i the
an d L oc , n y i ni i d i ari e s o f E v e l y n an d Pe p s , w t h t h e r m n u t e

p i c t e s
ur f s oc i a l lifoe Th e a g e w as o e o f t an s i t i o f om t h e e x b e
. ce a d n r n r u ran n

vigor of R e ai s s a c e li t e rat e t o th e f m a lit y a d p o li s h o f t h e A g s t n

n n ur or n u u
.
a

Age I n s t on g c
. t as t w i t h t h e p e c e d i n g a g e s c o m p a rat iv e l y li t t l e o f
r on r r ,

R e s t o at i on li t e rat e i s f am ili a r t o m o d e rn re ad e s
'

r ur r .

S e l e ct i on s f or R e ad i n g . D ry d e n . A l e x an d e r s F e as t , S on g for S t . C e c ili a s
’ ’

D ay, s e l e c t i o n s fr o m Ab s a l o m a n d Ac h i t op h e l , R e lig i o La i c i , H i n d an d Pan t h e r ,

An n u s M i rab ili s , — in Ma n l y ’
s En g li sh Po e t r y , or W a rd s ’
En g li s h Po e t s , or

Ca s s e ll s N at i o a l Lib
’
n ra r y; Pa l am o n an d A rc i t e ( D r yd e n s
’
v e s i on
r of C h au c e r ’
s

ta l )
e , li
i n S t a n d a rd E n g s h C as s cs , R e rs d e L t e r a t u re , e t c . ; D l i iv i i r yd e n s ’
An
Es s a y o f D ra m a t c Po e s , i n Man
’
i y
s , o r Garn e t t s , E n g s h Pro s e
’
ly li .

B u tl e r . Se l e c tio ns f ro m H u d ib as r , in Ma n l y ’
s En g li s h Po e t r y Wa, rd s
’

En g lis h Po e t s , or M or l e y ’
s Un iv e s l r a i
L b r ar y .

P epy s . Se l e c t i on s in Man l y s ’
En g lis h Pr os e ; t h e D i ary i n E v e rym a ’
’

n s

B i b i ograp h y . H is tory . Te x t boob , M o n t gom e r , p p . 2 5 7- 2 80 ; C h e n e ,

l -
y y y
p p 4.6 6— 1
5 4 ; G re e n , c h
9 ; T ra ; G a rd n e r ; Ma c au a . ill i l y .

Sp e ci a l Wor ks . S d n e s S oc a L f e i n En g an d f ro m t h e R e s t o r at on t o
y y i l i l i
’

the R e v l ti o u on ; Ai y s r
’
Th e E n g li s h R e s t o rat i o n an d Lo u is XI VH ; a e s l ’
The
Fa ll of th e S t u a rts .

Li te rature . Garn e tt
’
s Th e Age of D r yd e n ; D ow d e n s
’
P u r t an i an d An g li c an .

D ry d e n . P o e t c a W o r s , w t h Life , e d t e d b y C h r s t e ; t h e s a m e , e d t e d
i l k i i i i i
b y N o e s , i n C a m b r d g e Po e t s S e r e s ; L f e an d W o r s ( 1 8
y i b y Wa t e r i i k l
vi i y i i
S c o t t , re s e d ( 1 893 ) b y S a n t s b u r ; E s s a s , e d t e d b y K e r ; L fe , b y S a n t s y i
b y ( E gli s h Me n o f L e t t e s ) ; Ma c a l y s Es s y ; L w e ll s Es s y i A m on g
’ ’
ur n r u a a o a , n

My B o ok s ( o r i Li t e ra ry E s s ay s v l n D ow d e s E s s y p , o . n
’
a , su ra.

H d i b as i n Mo l y s U n iv e s a l Lib a ry ; Po e t i c l W k s e d i t e d
’
B tl r u e . u r , r e r r a or ,

b y J h n s on ; D ow d s Ess y
’
o p en a , su r a.

D i ary i n E v e ry m a s L ib a ry ; t h e s am e d i t e d b y Wh e at l e y ( 8
’
P py e s. n r , e

W h e a t l e y s S am e l Pe p y s a d t h e W o r l d H e Liv e d I ; S te v e n s on s Es s ay
’
u n n
’
,

i n F a m ili a S t d i e s o f M e n a d B o o k s
r u n .

Tb c R t ti D m
e s or a P l ay s i t h e M e rm a i d S e ri e s ; H a zli t t s Le c t r e s
on ra a. n
’
u

o n t h e E g li s h C o m i c W ri t e s ; Me e d i t h E s s ay o C o m d y an d t h e C o m i c
’
n r r s n e

S p i ri t ; L am b s E s s y o t h e A r t ific i al C o m e d y ; Th ac k e ray s E s s ay on C o
’ ’
a n n

e v e i n E n g li s h H m o ri s t s
g r , u .

S u gge s t i v e Qu e s t i on s . 1 . Wh at m ar ke d c h an g e in s oc a i l c o n d i t i on s fo l
l ow e d t he R e s t o ra t i o n ? H ow are th e s e c h an ge s re fl e c te d i n li t e rat u re ?
2. W h at i i o f R e s t orat i o li t e rat e ? Why i s
ar e th e ch e f i c h ar c t e r s t cs a n ur

t h i s p e ri o d c a ll e d t h e Age o f F e n c h i fl e n c e ? W h t n e w t e n d e c i e s w e e r n u a n r

i t o d u c e d ? W h at e ffe c t d i d t h e R o y a l S o c i e ty a d t h e s t d y o f s c i e n ce
n r n u

h av e p o n E n gli s h p r o s e ? W h at i s m e an t b y re a li s m ? b y f o rm a li s m ?
u

3 W h at i s m e
. t b y t h e h e ro i c c o p l e t ? E x p l a i n w h y i t b e c am e t h e p re
an u

v aili n g fo rm of En gli s h p o e try What are i ts go o d q u al i t i e s an d i ts d e fe c ts ? .

 TH E R ESTO R AT I O N PER I OD 25 7

N am e s om e we ll k n ow n p o e m s w h i c h a
-
re i
w r tt e n i n c ou p e ts . l H ow d o D yd e n s
r
’

l
c o u p e t s c o m p are w i t h Ch a u c e r
’
s x l i
? C a n yo u e p a n t h e d ff e re n c e ? i
4. G e a b r e f iv i ac c o u n t o f D y
r d e n s f e . W h at a re h i s c h e f p o e t c a w o r
i l
’
li ks ? i
F or w h a t n e w o b j e ct di d he u s e I s s ati e a p e t i c a l s u b j e c t ? W hy
p o e t ry ? r o

i s a p o e t i c a l s a t i e m o e e ff e c t iv e t h a n a s a t i re i n p ros e ? W h at w as D ry d e n s
’
r r

c on t r i b t i o n t o E g li s h p os e
u n W h a t i n fl e c e d id h e e x e rt o n o u li t e ra t u re ?
r u n r

5 . W h at i s B tl e r s H u i o E x
’
p l ai i t s p o p l a ri ty
ua
’
r as R e ad a p as s ag e an dn u .

c om m e n t p on i t fi s t a s s a t i e ; s e c on d a s a d e s c ri p t i o o f t h e P r i t an s I s
u , r ,
r ,
n u .

H di b
u
p
r as e t ry o W h y
6 N am e t h e p h il o s o p h e rs an d p o li t i c al e c o n om i s t s o f t h i s p e ri d C a yo u
. o . n

e xp l a i n w h
y H o b b e s s h u l d c a ll hi s w o k L e v i t fi
o ? W h a t i m p o t a t Am e r
r a an r n

i c an d c u m e n t s s h o w t h e i n fl e c e o f Lo c k e ?
o u n

7 T e ll b ri e fl y t h e s t o ry o f Pe p y s a d hi s D i y
. W h a t ligh t d o e s t h e l a t t e r
n ar .

t h r o w o n t h e lif e f t h e age ? I s t h e D i y a w o k o f li t e ra t u re
o W hy ? ar r

C H R O N O LO G Y
La s t H a lf o
f Me S e v e n te e n t/z Ce n tu ry

H I ST O R Y LI T E R AT U R E

1 64 9. E x e c t i on
u le s Iof C h ar
1 64 9 - 1 6 60 C o m m
. w al th on e 1 65 1 . vi a t ha
H ob b e s
’
s Le n

1 6 60. R e s t o ra t i on of C h a l e s I I r 1 66 0— 1 669 Pe p s s D i a y
’
y . r

1 66 2 R o y a l S oc i e t y f o n d e d
. u

1 663 B u t l e r s H u d ib ras
’
.

1 6635— 1 66 6 Pl agu e. an d F i re o f Lo n d on
Wa r w ith Ho lla nd

1 667. D u tc h fl e e t i n t h e Th am e s 1 66 7. Mil ton ’

s Pa rad is e Los t. D ry
de n
’
s An n u s Mi r ab ili s
1 663 - 1 6 94 . y d e n s d ram as
D r
’

1 671 . Pa a d i s e R e ga i n e d
r

678. Pil gr i m s Pro g e s s p b li s h e d

’
VI r u

R is e of W h i gs an d To r ie s
1 681 . D ry d e n Ab s al om Ac h i t
’
s an d

Op h e l
1 685 . J am e s II
Mo n m o u t h ’
s Reb e lli on
1 687. N e w t on ’
s i i a p ro v e s
Pri n c p the
la w o f g ravi t at i on
1 688. En g li s h R e v o l u t i on W illi am of ,

O ra g e c a ll e d t t h
n e o ro n

B ill of R i gh t s To l e ra t i on Ac t
.

1 690. Lo c k e ’
s H u m an U n d e rs tan di n g
1 698. Je re m y lli e r at tac k s
Co s t age

1 700 . D e a th of D y d e n r
 C H A PTE R IX

E I GH TEEN TH CENT U R Y LI TER AT U RE

‘

( 1 700-
1 800)
I . AU G U S T A N O R C LA S S I C AG E

H i s t or y of t h e Per i od . Th e R e v ol u ti o n of 1 688, w h i c h ban i sh e d

the l as t of the S tu ar t ki n gs ll e d William of O ran ge t o th e
an d ca

t h ron e m arks t h e e n d of t h e l on g s t ru ggl e for p oli ti c al fr e e d om i n

,

En gl an d The r e aft e r t h e En gli shm an s p e n t hi s t r e m en dou s e n e r gy

.
,

w hi c h h i s fo rbe ars h ad l arge ly s p e n t i n fi gh t i n g for fr e e d om i n e n d ,

l e ss p oli ti c a l di s cu ss i on s an d i n e ffo rts t o i m p ro v e h i s gov e rn m e n t .

I n o rd e r to b r i n g ab ou t r e form s vot e s w e r e n ow n e c e s sar y ; an d t o

,

g e t v o t e s t h e p e o p l e o f E n gl an d m u s t b e a
pp ro ac h e d w i t h i d e as ,

fac t s a rgu m e n ts i n form at i on

, , S o t h e n e w sp ap e r w as bo rn
.
1
an d li t ,

e ra tu r e i n i t s w id e s t s e n s e i n c lu din g the book th e n e w sp ap e r an d

, , ,

t h e m agazi n e b e c a m e t he c h i e f i n s t ru m e n t of a n a t i on s p rogr e ss
’
, .

Th e fi r s t hal f of t h e e igh t e e n t h c e n tu ry i s r e m arkabl e for th e

r ap id soc i al d e v e l o p m e n t i n En gl an d H i th e rt o m e n h ad b e e n m ore
.

S oc ia l o r l e ss gove rn e d by t h e n arr ow i s ol a t e d s tan d a rd s o f t h e ,

D V
e > 1 1 m e t Mi dd l e A e s
€ 0> n an d w h e n t h e y di ff e r e d t h e y fe ll s e e d ily
g , p
t o bl ow s N o w for th e fi r s t t i m e t h e y s e t t h e m s e l ve s to t he t ask of
.

l e arn in g th e art of li v in g toge th e r w h il e s till holdin g d iffe re n t o p in

,

i on s I n a s in gl e ge n e rati on n e arly tw o t hou san d p u bli c c offe e hou s e s

.
,

e ac h a c e n t e r o f so c i abili ty s p r an g u p i n Lo n d on al on e
, an d th e ,

n u m b e r of p r ivat e c l u b s i s q u i t e a s a s ton i sh in g Thi s n e w s oc i al life

2
.

had a m arke d e ff e c t i n p oli s h in g m e n s w ord s an d m an n e rs Th e

’
.

t y p i c al Lon d on e r of Q u e e n An n e s d ay w as s t ill ru d e an d a li ttl e

’
,

vu l gar i n hi s tast e s th e c i ty w as s till v e ry fil thy th e s tre e ts u n ligh te d ,

Moh aw ks ; b u t
" "
a n d i n fe s t e d at n i gh t by b an d s of r o w di e s an d

o u t w ardl y m e n s ou gh t t o r e fi n e t h e i r m an n e r s a c c o r d i n g t o p re
” “
v a ili n t d d d t b l t t h v o d fo m w a s
g s an ar s ; a n o e e e ga n o a e g o ,
r ,

a m an s fi r st d u t y w h e th e r h e e n t e re d soc i e ty or w r o te li t e ratu r e
’
.
,

On e c an hard ly r e ad a b o ok or p oe m of th e age w i th ou t fe e li n g t hi s

1 Th e fi da
rs t ily
n e w s pa p e r , Tb e D a i l y Cou r a n t , ap p eare d i n L on don i n 1 702 .
2 See Le ck y , E n g l a n d i n tb e E ig lzte e n t/z Ce n t u r y .
25 8
2 60 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Li t e rary Ch ar act e ri s t i cs . I n ve ry p r e c e di n g ag e w e h av e
e

n ot e d e s p e ci all y t h e p oe tic al w or k s whi ch c on s tit u t e a cc or d

, ,

An g o
A e f i n g t o M a tth e w A r n old t h e g l o r
y o f E n gli
,
s h lit e r

Pm s e atu r e N ow for t h e fi r s t t i m e w e m u s t ch r on icl e

.

t h e t r iu m ph of En gli s h p r os e A m u ltit u d e of p ra ct ic al i n
.

t e r e s t s arrs rn g fr o m t h e n e w s oci al a n d p o litic al c on dit i on s

d e m an d e d e xp r e s s i on n ot s i m pl y i n b ook s but m or e e s p e ci ally
, ,

i n pam phl e t s m agazi n e s a n d n e w s pap e r s

, , Poe t ry w as i n ad e .

qu at e for s uch a t a s k ; h e n c e t he d e v e l op m e n t of p r os e of ,

“ ”
the u n fe tt e r e d w or d a s D an t e c all s i t
,
— a d e v e l op m e n t
,

which as t on i s h e s u s b y i t s r apidit y an d e xc e ll e n c e Th e .

f f A f
’

g r a c e u l e l e g a n c e o ddi s o n s e s s a
y s t h e t e r s e vi g or o ,

S wi ft s sati r e s t h e ar ti s tic fi n i s h o f F i e ldi n g s n ov e l s t h e

’ ’

, ,
’
s on orou s e l o q u e n c e of G ibb on s hi s t o r a n d of B u r k e s o r a
’

y
ti on s — th e s e h ave n o p arall e l i n t h e p oe t ry of th e ag e
, .

I n d e e d p oe t ry it s e l f b e c am e p r os aic i n thi s r e s p e ct th at it
, ,

w a s u s e d n ot for c r e ativ e w or k s of i m ag i n ati on b u t for e s s ay s , ,

for s ati re for c r itici s m

,
— for e x actl
, y t h e s am e p r a ctic al e n d s

as w a s p r os e Th e p oe t r y of t h e fi r s t h al f of t h e c e n t u ry a s
.
,

t y pifi e d i n t h e w or k of Pop e i s p oli s h e d an d witt y e n o u gh

, ,

b u t ar tificial ; it l ack s fire fin e fe e li n g e n th u s i a s m t h e g l ow

, , ,

of t h e E li zab e th an Ag e a n d t h e m or a l e ar n e s t n e s s of Pu r it an

ism . I n a w or d it i n t e r e s t s u s as a s t u dy of li fe r ath e r th an
, ,

d e light s o r i n s pi r e s u s b y i t s app e al t o t h e i m ag i n ati on Th e .

var i e t y an d e xc e ll e n c e of p r o s e w or k s an d t he d e v e l opm e n t ,

of a s e rvic e abl e p r os e s t l e which h ad b e e n b e g u n b D

y , y r
y
d e n u n til it s e r v e d t o e xp r e s s cl e ar l y e v e ry h u m an i n t e r e s t
,

an d e m oti on — th e s e
, are t h e chi e f lit e r ary gl or i e s of t h e
e ight e e n th c e n tu ry .

I n t h e lit e r at u r e of t h e p r e c e di n g age w e n ot e d t w o m ar k e d
t e n d e n ci e s — t he t e n d e n c y t o r e ali s m i n s u bj e ct m att e r an d
,
-
,

t h e t e n d e n cy t o p oli s h an d r e fi n e m e n t of e xp r e s
S ati r e
s i on B oth t h e s e t e n d e n ci e s w e re c on ti n u e d i n t h e
.

Au g u s t an Ag e an d ar e s e e n cl e ar ly i n t h e p oe t ry of Pop e
, ,

w h o b r ou g ht t h e c ou pl e t t o p e rfe cti on an d i n t h e p r os e of ,
 EI G H TEENTH C ENTU R Y LI TER ATU R E
-
26I

Addi s on . A thi r d t e n d e n c y i s
.
h ow n i n t h e p re va l e n c e of
s

sati re , r e s ulti n g fr om t h e u n fort u n at e u n i on of p olitic s wit h

lit e rat u r e We h av e al r e ad y n ot e d th e p ow e r of t h e p r e s s i n
.

thi s age an d t he p e r p e tu al s t ri fe of p olitical p ar ti e s N e arl y

, .

e ve r w r it e r of t h e fi rs t h al f of t h e c e n t u r w a s u s e d an d r e
y y
war d e d b y W hig s or T or i e s for s ati r izi n g t h e i r e n e m i e s an d for
a dvan ci n g th e i r s p e ci al p o lit i ca l i n t e r e s t s Pop e w as a m ar k e d
.

e xc e pti on but h e n e v e r th e l e s s foll ow e d t h e p r o s e w r it e r s i n

,

u s i n g s ati r e t oo l ar g e l y i n h i s p oe t ry N ow s at ir e . th at i s a ,

lit e rary w or k which s e ar ch e s ou t t h e fau lt s of m e n or I n s t i t u

t i on s i n or d e r to h old th e m u p t o r idic u l e — i s at b e s t a d e
s t r uctiv e k i n d of c r itici s m A s ati r i s t i s lik e a l ab or e r w h o
.

cl e ar s away t h e r u i n s an d r ubbi s h of an ol d h ou s e b e for e t h e

ar chit e ct an d build e r s b e i n on a n e w an d b e a ut i f u l s t r u ct u r e
g .

Th e w or k m ay s om e ti m e s b e n e c e s sary b u t it rar e ly ar ou se s
,

ou r e n thu s i a s m Whil e t he s at ir e s of Pop e S wi ft an d Addi

.
, ,

s on ar e d ou btl e s s t h e b e s t i n o u r l an g u ag e w e h ar dl y pl a c e
,

th e m with ou r g r e at lit e rat u r e which i s alway s c on s t r uct iv e

,

i n s pi r it ; a n d w e h av e t h e fe e li n g t h at al l t h e s e m e n w e r e
cap abl e of b e tt e r thi n g s th an th e e v e r w rot e
y .

Th e Cl as s i c Age T h e p e r i od w e ar e s tud y i n g i s k n o w n t o
.

us b i o ft e n c all e d t h e A e o f Q u e e n
y v ar i o u s n am e s I t. s
“
L g
A n n e ; b u t u n lik e Eli zab e th thi s
, , m e e kl y s t u pid qu e e n
h ad p r actic all y n o i n fl u e n c e u p on ou r lit e rat u r e Th e n am e
.

Cla s s ic Ag e i s m or e oft e n h e ar d ; b u t i n u s i n g it w e s h ou ld
r e m e m b e r cl e ar l t h e s e th r e e di ff e r e n t w a s i n which t h e
y y
w or d cl as s ic i s appli e d t o lit e rat u r e ( I ) t h e t e r m cl as s ic
r e fe r s i n ge n e ral t o w r it e r s of t h e hi g h e s t ra n k i n an n ati on
, , y .

A s u s e d i n ou r l it e r at u r e it w a s fi r s t appli e d t o t h e w o r k s of
V
,

t h e g r e at G re e k an d R om an wr it e r s lik e H om e r an d , i rg il ;
an d an E n g li s h b ook which foll ow e d t h e s i m pl e an d n o bl e
y
m e th od of th e s e w r it e r s w as s a id t o h av e a cl as s ic s t y l e .

L at e r t h e t e rm w a s e n l ar g e d t o c o v e r t h e g r e a t lit e rary w or k s
of oth e r an ci e n t n a ti on s ; s o th a t t h e B ibl e an d t h e A v e s t as ,

as w e ll as t h e I liad an d t he fEn e i d ar e call e d cl as s ic s

,
.
262 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

( )
2 Ev e ry ti o n a l lit e r at u r e h a s a t l e a s t o n e p e r i o d in which
na

a n u n u s u al n u m b e r o f gr e at w r it e r s are p r od u ci n b oo k d
g s an ,

thi s i s c all e d t h e cla s s ic p e r iod of a n ati on s lit e rat u r e Th u s ’

.

t h e r e i g n of A ug u s t u s i s t h e cl as s ic or g old e n ag e o f R o m e ;
t h e g e n e r ati on of D an t e i s t h e cl a s s ic ag e of It alian lit e ra
t u r e ; th e ag e of Lou i s X I i s t h e Fr e n ch cl as s ic ag e ; an d V
t h e ag e of Q u e e n An n e i s oft e n c all e d t h e cl a s s ic ag e o f
En gl an d ( 3 ) Th e w or d cl as s ic a cq u i r e d an e n ti re l y di ff e r e n t
.

m e an i n g i n t h e p e r i od w e a r e s t u d y i n g ; an d w e s h all b e t t e r
u n d e rs t an d thi s b re fe r e n c e t o t h e p r e c e di n g a e s Th
y g e .

E li zab e th an w r it e r s w e r e l e d b y p at r i oti s m b y e n th u s i as m , ,

a n d i n g e n e r al b y r om an ti c e m oti on s
, , Th e y w rot e i n a n at .

u ral s t y l e with ou t r e gar d t o r u l e s ; an d th ou g h th e y e xagge r

,

at e d an d u se d t oo m a n y w or d s th e i r w or k s are d e li ght fu l ,

b e cau s e of th e i r vigo r a n d fr e s h n e s s an d fin e fe e li n g I n t he .

foll owi n g ag e p at r i oti s m h ad l ar g e l y di s app e ar e d from p olitic s

an d e n thu s i as m fr om lit e rat u r e Po e t s n o l on g e r w ro t e n atu .

r all but ar tifici all with s t r an g e an d fan t as tic v e r s e for m s t o

y , y ,

g iv e e ff e ct s i n c e fin e fe e li n g w a s w an ti n g
,
A n d thi s i s t he .

r it an A g e
1
g e n e ra l ch a ra ct e r o f t h e p oe t r
y o f t h e P u G r ad u .

a ll ou r w r it e r s r e b e ll e d ag ai n s t t h e e x ag ge r ati o n s of b oth t h e
y
n at u r al an d t he fan t a s tic s t y l e Th e y d e m an d e d th a t p oe t ry .

s h ou ld fo ll o w e x a ct r u l e s ; a n d i n thi s th e y w e r e i n fl u e n c e d

b y F r e n ch w r it e r s e s p e ci all y b y B oil e a u a n d R api n w h o i n

, ,

s i s t e d o n p r e ci s e m e th od s o f w r iti n g p oe t r y an d w h o p r ofe s s e d ,

t o h av e d i s c ov e r e d th e i r r u l e s i n t he cl as s ic s of H or a c e a n d
Ar i s t o tl e I n ou r s t u d y of t h e Eli zab e th an d ram a w e n ot e d
.

t h e g oo d i n fl u e n c e of t h e cl a s s ic m o v e m e n t i n i n s i s t i n g u p on
‘

th at b e au t y of form an d d e fin i t e n e s s o f e xp r e s s i on which
ch ara ct e r i ze t h e d ram as of G r e e c e an d R om e ; an d i n t h e -

w or k of D r y d e n an d hi s foll ow e r s w e s e e a r e viva l of cl as s i
c i s m i n t h e e ff or t t o m ak e E n g li s h lit e r at u r e c on for m t o r u l e s

1 Gre at i
w r t e rs i n e v y
er a ge ,
men lik e S ha k e s pe ar e a n d M il t on , m a k e t he i r ow n s t yl e.

The y ar e t h e r e for e no t i l
n c u de d in t his su m m ar y . Am on g t h e m i n or i
w r te rs l
a so t he r e
x i
ce p t on s t o t he l ; an d fin e fe e li is oft e n i
m an fe st i n t he p oe t r y of D on n e

V gh
are e ru e ng ,

H e rb e rt , au an , a n d H e rr ik
c .
 2 64 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

AL E X AN D E R PO PE ( 1 6 88— 1 74 4 )
Pop e i s i n m an y p e ct s a u n iq u e figur e
re s I n t he fi rs t .

pl a c e h e w as for a g e n e r ati on t h e p oe t of a g re at n ati on

, .

T o b e s u r e p oe t ry w a s li m it e d i n t h e e ar ly e i ght e e n t h c e n
,

tur y ; th e r e w e re fe w l y r ic s littl e or n o l ov e p oe t ry n o e pic s

, , ,

n o d ram as or s on g s of n at u r e w or th c on s id e r i n g ; b ut i n t h e

n arr ow fi e ld of s ati r ic an d did act ic v e rs e Pop e w a s t h e u n di s

p u t e d m as t e r H i s i n fl.u e n c e c om pl e t e l y d o m i n at e d t h e p o e t r
y
of h i s ag e an d m an y for e i gn w r it e r s as w e ll as t h e m aj or it
, , y
of E n gli s h p o e t s l ook e d t o h i m as th e i r m od e l S e c on d h e
, .
,

w as a r e m ar k abl y cl e ar an d a d e q u at e re fl e cti on of t h e s pi r it
of t h e ag e i n which h e liv e d T h e r e i s h ar dl y an id e al a b e
.
,

li e f a d oubt a fas hi on a whi m of Qu e e n A n n e s ti m e th at i s

, , ,
’

n ot n e atl e xp r e s s e d i n h i s p oe t r T hi r d h e w a s t h e on l
y y . ,y
i m p or t an t w rit e r of th at ag e w h o gav e h i s wh ol e li fe t o l e t
t e r s S wift w as a cl e rgy m an an d p olitici an ; A ddi s on w a s
.

s e c r e t ar of s t at e ; oth e r w r it e r s d e p e n d e d on p a t r on s or
y
p olitic s or p e n s i on s for fam e an d a live lih ood ; b u t Po p e w as
i n d e p e n d e n t an d had n o p rofe s s i on b u t lit e ratu r e
, An d .

fou r th b y t h e s h e e r for c e of h i s a m biti on h e w on hi s pl ac e

, ,

an d h e ld it i n s pit e of r e ligi ou s p r e j u dic e an d i n t h e fac e of

, ,

ph y s ical an d t e m p e ram e n t al ob s t acl e s that w ould h av e d i s

c ou rag e d a s t r on g e r m an F or Pop e w as d e form e d an d s ickl y
.
,

d w ar fis h i n s ou l an d b od y H e k n e w littl e of t h e w or ld of
.

n at u r e o r of t h e w or ld of t h e hu m an h e ar t H e w as l acki n g . ,

app ar e n tl y i n n obl e fe e li n g an d i n s ti n ctiv e l y ch os e a l i e wh e n

, ,

t h e t ru th had m an i fe s tl y m or e adv an t ag e s Y e t thi s j e al ou s

. ,

p e e vi s h w aspi s h littl e m an b e c am e t h e m os t fam ou s p oe t of

,

h i s ag e an d t h e a ck n owl e d g e d l e ad e r of E n gli s h lit e ra t u re .

We r e c or d t h e fact with won de r an d ad m i ration ; b ut w e do

n ot att e m pt t o e xpl ai n it .

Life . Pop e w as b orn i n Lon d on i n 1 688, th e y e ar of t he R e vo

l u ti on . H i s p ar e n ts w e re b oth Cath oli c s , w h o p r e s e n tly r e m ove d
from Lon d on l d
an d s e tt e i n B i n fie ld , n e ar Win d sor , w h e r e th e p oe t s
'
 EI G H TE ENTH C E NTU R Y LI T ER ATU R E —

c hild hood was p ass e d Par tly b e c au se of an u n fortun at e p re j u dic e

.
\

aga i n st C ath o li c s i n t h e p u bli c s c h ool s p a r t ly b e c au s e o f hi s o wn ,

w e akn e ss an d d e form i t y Pop e r e c e i v e d v e ry li ttl e sc ho ol e d u c ation

, ,

b u t brow se d for h i m s e l f am o n g En gli sh b ooks an d pi c k e d u p a s m at

t e r in g of t h e c l as s i c s V
e r y e ar ly h e b e gan t o w r it e p o e t ry an d r e c ord s
. ,

t h e fact w it h h i s u su al van ity

As y e t a c hi ld , n or
y e t a foo l t o fam e ,
I l i spe d in n u m b e rs , fo r t h e num b e rs c am e .

Be in g d e barre d by h i s re ligion from m an y d e s i rabl e e m p l oym e n ts ,

h e r e so l v e d t o m ak e lit e ratu r e h i s life w ork ; an d i n t hi s h e r e

s e m bl e d D r y d e n w ho h e t e ll s u s w as h i s on ly m as t e r th ou gh
, , , ,

m u c h of h i s w ork s e e m s t o d e p e n d on B o il e au t he Fr e n c h p o e t an d ,

c ritic Wh e n on ly s ix t e e n y e ars ol d h e had w r i tt e n hi s Pastoral s

1
.

”
a fe w y e ars l at e r ap p e are d hi s Es say on Cr itic i s m w hi c h m ad e ,

h i m fam ou s Wi th th e p u bli c ati on of t h e R ap e of the Lock i n 1 71 2

. , ,

Pop e s n am e w as kn ow n an d hon or e d al l ove r En gl an d an d t hi s

’
,

d w arf of tw e n ty fou r y e ars b y the s h e e r fo rc e of hi s ow n am bition

-
, ,

had j u m p e d t o th e for e m os t pl ac e i n En gli sh l e t te r s It w as soon

aft e r t h i s t hat V
.

o ltai r e call e d hi m t h e b e s t p oe t of En gl an d an d ,
”
at p re s e n t o f all t h e w or ld — w h i c h i s ab ou t as n e ar t he t ru th as
V
, ,

ol tai r e ge n e rally ge t s i n h i s n u m e ro u s u n i v e rs al j u d gm e n t s For .

t h e n e x t tw e lv e y e ars Pop e w as bu sy w i th p o e try e s p e c i ally w i th h i s ,

tr an sl at i on s of H om e r ; an d h i s w ork w as s o su c c e s sfu l fi n an c i all

y
t hat h e b ou ght a v ill a at Tw i c ke n h am on th e Tham e s an d r e m ai n e d , ,

h ap p ily in d e p e n d e n t of w e alt hy p at ron s for a live liho od .

Le d b y hi s su c c e ss Pop e r e tu rn e d to Lon d on an d for a t i m e e u

,

d e avor e d t o liv e th e gay an d di ssolu t e life w h i c h w as su p p ose d to b e

su i t abl e for a lit e rary ge n i u s ; b u t h e w as u tt e rly u n fit t e d fo r i t , m e n

t ally an d phys i c ally an d s oon r e t ire d t o Tw ic k e n ham Th e re h e

, .

g a v e h i m s e lf u p t o p oe t ry m an u fac t u r e d a littl e ga
,r d e n m o re arti

fic i al than h i s v e rs e s a n d c u l t ivat e d h i s fri e n d sh ip w i th Martha

,

Bl ou n t w i th w h om for m an y y e ars h e s p e n t a go od p art o f e ac h d ay

, ,

an d w h o r e m ai n e d fai t hfu l t o h i m t o th e e n d of hi s li fe At Tw i c k e n .

ham h e w ro te hi s M or a l Ep i s tl e s ( p oe ti c al sati re s m od e l e d aft e r

1 Pope ’s i
s at re s , i
for n s ta n ce , a re s t r on g ly ; hi s R ap e of tli a
s u gge s t e d in Bo il e au

L ock i s m u ch e lik t he m oc he ro -
k i
c Le L u tr i n ; an d t h e
”
E s s a y o n Cr t c s m , w h ch ii i i
m a d e h i m fa m ou s , i s an li ii i v
E n g s h e d t on a n d m p r o e m e n t o f L A r t P oe t i q ue . The as t
’
'

l
w as , i n t u r n , i
a c om b n at on ofi t he Ar s P oe ti ca of H orace a n d of m an y w e ll kn ow
-
n ru e sl
of t he l ii
c as s c s t s .
2 66 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

H orac e ) an d r eve n ge d hi m se lf u p on all his c ritic s i n the bitte r abu se

o f t he D u n c i a d H e di e d i n 1 74 4 an d w as bu ri e d at Tw ic ke n ham
.
,

h i s re li gion p r e ve n t in g h i m from t he h on or w h i c h w as c e rt ai n ly h i s ,

d u e of a r e s ti n g p l ac e in We stm in s te r Abb e y
,
.

Wo rk s of Po p e . F o r c on v e n i e n c e w e m ay s e p arat e Pop e s ’

w or k i n t o th r e e gr ou p s c or r e s p on di n g t o t he e ar ly m iddl e
, , ,
“
an d l at e r p e r i od of hi s li fe I n t h e fi r s t h e w r ot e h i s
.
-
Pas
t or al s ,
”
Wi n d s or F or e s t ”
Me s s i ah ,
”
E s s ay on Cr itici s m
,
”
,
”
E l oi s e t o A b e l ar d , a n d t h e R ap e o f t n e L o ck ; i n t h e s e c

on d , h i s t r an s l ati on s of H o m e r ; i n t h e thi r d t h e D u n c i a d
an d t h e Ep i s tl e s ,t h e l att e r c on t ai n i n g t h e fam ou s E s s ay
on Man
”
an d t h e E pi s tl e t o D r A r b u th n ot . whi ch i s i n ,

t r u th h i s Ap ol og ia an d i n which al on e w e s e e Pop e s li fe
,
’

from h i s ow n vi e w p oi n t .

The E s s ay o n Cr iti ci s m s u m s up t h e ar t of p oe t r
y as

t au ght fi r s t b y H ora c e th e n b y B oil e a u an d t h e e i ght e e n th

,

E s s a y on c e n t u r
y cl a s s ici s t s T h ou g h w . r i t t e n i n h e r o ic c o u p
Cf i t i d s m l e t s w e har dly c on s id e r thi s a s a p oe m b u t r ath e r
,

a s a s t or e h o u s e o f c r itic al m axi m s F or fo ol s r u s h i n wh e r e
.

”
an e l s fe a r t o t r e a d ; T r r i s h u m an t f r iv e divi n e
g o e o o g ,
”
A littl e l e arn i n g i s a d an g e r ou s thi n g — th e s e li n e s
,
an d ,

m an y m or e lik e th e m f r om t h e s am e s ou r c e h av e f ou n d th e i r ,

w ay i n t o ou r c om m on s p e e ch and ar e u s e d with o u t thi n ki n g, ,

of t h e a uth or wh e n e v e r w e n e e d an ap t q u ot at i on
, .

Th e R ap e of tne L oo/é i s a m as t e r pi e c e of i t s ki n d an d c om e s ,

”
n e are r t o b e i n a c e ati o th a n thi n g e l s e th at Pop e
g r n n a y
R ap e of th e h a s w r itt e n T h
. e o cc a s i o n o f t h e f a m o u s po e m w as

L°°k
t r ivi al e n ou gh A fop at t he c o u r t of Q u e e n An n e
. ,

on e L or d Pe t re , s n ipp e d a l o ck o f h ai r fr o m t h e ab u n d an t

c u r l s o f a p r e tt y m aid of hon or n am e d A r ab e ll a F e r m or T h e .

o u n g l ad r e s e n t e d it an d t he t w o fam ili e s w e r e pl u n g e d
y y ,

i n t o a q u ar r e l which w as t he t alk of L on d on Pop e b e i n g . ,

a pp e al e d t o s e i ze d t h e o cc a s i on t o c on s t ru ct n ot a b all ad a s
, , ,

t he Cavali e r s w ou ld h av e d on e n or a n e pi g ram , a s F r e n ch ,

p oe t s l ov e t o d o b u t a l on g p oe m i n which all t h e m an n e r i s m s
,
 2 68 ENG LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

t he l atte r w or k w as fi n i s h e d b y t w o Cam b r idg e s ch ol ar s ,

E lij ah F e n t on an d Willi am B r oom e w h o i m it at e d t h e m e ,

ch amica l c ou pl e t s s o p e r fe ctl y t h at it i s di ffi c u lt t o di s ti n g u i s h
th e i r w or k from th at of t h e g r e at e s t p o e t of t h e ag e A s i n g l e .

s e l e cti on i s g iv e n t o s h ow h ow i n t h e n obl e r p as sag e s e v e n

, ,

Pop e m ay fa i n tl y s u gg e s t t he e l e m e n t al gr a n d e u r of H om e r
T h e t r oop s x u l ti n g s a t i n o r d e r r o u n d
e ,

An d b e a m i n g fi re s i ll u m i n e d a l l t h e g r ou n d .

As w h e n t he m oon r e fu l g e n t l a m p o f n i g h t
, ,

O e r H e a v e n s c l e ar a zu r e s p r e a d s h e r s a c re d l i gh t
’ ’
,

Wh e n n ot a b re a th d i s tu rb s th e d e e p s e r e n e ,

An d n o t a c l ou d o e r c as ts t h e s ol e m n s c e n e ;
’

Ar ou n d h e r th r o n e t h e v i v i d p l an e t s r o ll ,

An d s tar s u n n u m b e r e d g i l d th e g l ow i n g p o l e ,

O e r t h e d ar k t re e s a y e ll o w e r v e r d u re s h e d
’
,

An d ti p w i th s i lv e r e v e r y m o u n t ai n s h e ad
’
.

Th e E s s ay i s t he
b e s t kn ow n an d t h e m o s t qu ot e d of
E xc e pt i n for m it i s n ot p oe t r y a n d wh e n
’
al l Pop e s w or k s .
,

E s s ay on o n e c o n s id e rs it a s a n e s s a
y a n d r e d u c e s it t o pl ai n

Man p ros e it i s fo u n d t o c on s i s t of n u m e r ou s lit e r ary

,

orn am e n t s with ou t an y v e r y s olid s t r u ct u r e of th ou ght t o r e s t

“
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h e e s s ay i s i n Pop e s w o rd s t o v i n
’
u p on .
, ,

d i c at e t h e w ay s of Go d t o Man ; an d as th e r e ar e n o u n an
”

’
s w e r e d p r o bl e m s i n Pop e s phil os oph y t h e vi n dic ati on i s p e r
,

f e ct l y acc om pli s h e d i n f ou r p o e tica l e pi s tl e s c on c e r n i n g m an s

’

r e l ati on s t o t h e u n iv e r s e t o hi m s e l f t o s oci e t an d t o h appi n e s s

, ,y , .

Th e fi n al r e s u lt i s s u m m e d u p i n a fe w w e ll kn own li n e s -

Al l n atu r e i s b u t ar t , u n k n ow n t o th e e ;
'

Al l c h a n c e , d i r e c ti on w h i c h th o u c an s t n ot s e e ;
Al l d i s c o r d , h arm o n y n o t u n d e r s t ood ;
All p a r t i al e v i l , u n i v e rs a l g ood
An d , s p i te o f p ri d e , i n e rr i n g r e as o n s s p i te ,
’

O n e t r u th i s c l e ar , w h a t e v e r i s , i s r i gh t .

L ik e t h e E s s ay on Cr itici s m , p oe m ab ou n d s in quot
the

abl e li n e s s uch a s t h e
,
foll owi n g, which m ak e t he e n t ire wo rk
w e ll w orth r e adin g
 EI G H TEENTH CE NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E — 2 69

H op e s p r i n g s e te r n a l i n th e h u m an b r e as t
Man ne ve r is, b ut a l w a y s to b e b l e s t .

Kn ow y l
t h e n th s e f, p re s u m e n ot G o d to s c an ;
T h e p r op e r s tu d y of M an k i n d is M an .

T he s am e am b i ti o n c an d e s t r oy or s a ve ,

An d m a k e s a p a t r i o t as i t m ak e s a k n av e .

H on o r a n d s h am e fr o m no con d i ti on ri s e ;
Ac t we ll y o u r p t,
a r th e r e a ll th e h on or lie s .

V
i ce is a m o n s te r of s o fr i gh t fu l m i e n ,
As , to b e h a te d , ne e ds b u t to b e se e n ;
Ye t se e n t o o oft , fam i i ar w i th h e r fa c e , l
W e fi rs t e n d u re , th e n p i t y , th e n em b ra c e .

B e ho l d th e l d b y N a tu r e s k i n d l y l aw
ch i ,
’
,

Pl e as e d w i th a r a t tl e t i c kl e d w i th a s t r a w : ,

S o m e l i v e l i e r p l a y th i n g g i v e s h i s y ou t h d e l i gh t ,

A l i t t l e l ou d e r b u t a s e m p t y q u i te
,

S c a r fs g ar te rs g o l d am u s e h i s r i p e r s t ag e
, , , ,

An d b e a d s a n d p ra y e r b oo k s a re the t oy s of a g e
Pl e as e d w i th thi s b au b l e s t i ll as th at b e fore ; ,

T i ll t i r e d h e s l e e p s an d Li fe s p o o r p l a y i s o e r 1 ’ ’
.
,

Til e D u n ci a d
( i . I li a d of t h e D u n c e s
e . the b e gan or ig i
n all
y as a c on t ro v e r s
y c on c e r n i n
g S h a k e s p e ar e b u t t u rn e d ,

Mi s ce ll an e
. ou t t o b e a c oa r s e an d r e v e n g e fu l s ati r e up on all
“ 8 “7°k ’
t h e lit e rary m e n of t h e ag e w h o h ad a r ou s e d Po p e s
an ge r b th e i r c r itici s m or l a ck of a pp r e ci ati on of h i s g e n i u s
y .

Th ou g h b r illi an tl y w r itt e n an d i m m e n s e l y p op u l ar a t on e t i m e ,

i t s p r e s e n t e ffe ct on t h e r e ad e r i s t o ar ou s e a s e n s e of pit y
th at a m an o f s u ch a ck n owl e d g e d p o w e r an d p os iti on s h ou ld
ab u s e b oth b y d e v oti n g hi s t al e n t s t o p e r s on al s pit e an d
p e tt y q u ar r e l s A m on g th e r e s t of hi s n u m e r ou s w or k s t h e
.

r e ad e r will fin d Pop e s e s ti m a t e of hi m s e l f b e s t s e t f or th i n
’

”
his Epi s tl e t o D r A r b u th n ot . an d it will b e w e ll t o cl o s e ,

ou r s t u d
y o f thi s s t r a n e m ixt u r e o f v an it
g y a nd
g r e a t n e s s with

Th e U n iv e rs al Pray e r which s h ow s at l e as t th at Pop e had

,

c on s id e r e d an d j u d g e d hi m s e l f an d th at all fu r th e r j u d gm e n t
, ,

i s c on s e q u e n tly s u p e r fl u ou s .

1 C m
o a re
p t h i w it h S h k p
s a Al l th w ld
es t g
e are s
’
i A Y Li k I t I I 7 e or
’
s a s a e,
”
n s ou e , ,
.
2 70 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

J O N AT H A N S WI F T ( 1 6 67 I 74 5 )

In ea ch of Mar l o w e s t r age di e s w e h ave t h e pictu re of a

’

m an d om i n at e d b y a s i n g l e p a s s i on t h e l u s t o f p ow e r fo r i t s
,

o w n s ak e . I n e a ch w e s e e th a t a p ow e rfu l m an with ou t s e l f
c on t r o l i s lik e a d an g e r ou s i n s t r u m e n t i n t h e h an d s of a child ;
an d t he t rag e d e n d s i n t h e d e s t r u cti on of t h e m an b t h
y y e

u n gov e r n e d p ow e r which h e p o s s e s s e s Th e life of S wift i s

.

j u s t s uch a livi n g t r a e
g y d . H e h a d t h e p ow e r of g ai n i n g

w e alth like t h e h e r o of
,

t h e f e w of M a l ta ; y et

h e u s e d it s c orn fully a n d ,

i n s ad i r on y l e ft wh at r e
m ai n e d t o h i m of a l ar g e
p r op e r t y t o fo u n d a h os
pit al for l u n atic s By h ar d .

w or k h e w on e n orm o u s
lit e rary p ow e r an d u s e d ,

it t o s ati r ize ou r c om m on
h u m an i t y H e w r e s t e d
.

p olitic al p ow e r fr om t h e
h an d s of t h e Tor i e s an d ,

u s e d it t o i n s ult th e v e ry
m e n w h o had h e lp e d h i m ,

an d w h o h e ld h i s fat e i n
j o N AT H A N S W I F T
th e i r h an d s By hi s d om i .

n an t p e r s on alit y h e e x e r ci s e d a cu r i ou s p ow e r o v e r w om e n ,

a n d u se d it b r u t all t m ak e th e m fe e l th e i r i n fe r i or it y B e in g
y o .

l ove d s u p r e m e l y b y t w o g ood w om e n h e b r ou ght s or row an d

,

d e a th t o b oth an d e n dl e s s m i s e ry t o hi m s e l f S o hi s p ow e r
, .

br ou g ht al w ays t r ag e d y i n i t s w ak e I t i s on l y wh e n w e re
.

m e m b e r h i s li fe of s t ru ggl e an d di s a pp oi n t m e n t an d bitt e r
n e s s th at w e c an a pp r e ci at e t h e p e r s on al q u a lit
y i n hi s s ati r e ,

an d p e r h a p s fin d s om e s m p ath f or thi s g re at e s t g e n i u s of
y y
al l t h e Augu s t an w r it e rs .
2 72 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

p o w e rfu l politi c al w e ap on kn own ; an d as S w ift had n o e qu al a t

p a m p h l e t w r i ti n
g h,e soon be c am e a v e r i tabl e di c ta t or Fo r s e v e ral
.

y e ars e sp e c i ally from 1 71 0 to 1 71 3 S w if t w as o n e of t he m o st I m

, ,

p o r t an t fi gu r e s i n L o n d on T h .e W h igs fe ar e d t he l ash o f hi s s ati re

t h e To ri e s fe ar e d t o l os e h i s su pp ort H e w as c ou r t e d fl att e re d
.
, ,

c aj ol e d o n e v e r y s id e ; b u t t he u s e h e m ad e of hi s n e w ow e r i s s d
p a

t o c on t e m p lat e . An u n b e arabl e arrogan c e took p oss e ssi on of h i m .

TR I NI T Y C O L L E GE , D U B L I N

Lo rd s , v e n l ad i e s w e r e c om p e ll e d to su e for h i s fa v or
s tat e sm e n , e

an d t o a p ol o gi ze for e v e ry fan c i e d s li ght t o hi s e go i sm It i s at thi s

.

t i m e th at h e w r i t e s i n h i s j ou r n a l to S te l l a

M r S e c re tar y t o l d m e th e D u k e o f B u c k i n gh a m h ad b e e n t a lk i n g
.

m u c h ab o u t m e a n d d e s i r e d m y a c q u a i n t an c e I a n s w e r e d i t c ou l d n ot
.

b e for h e h ad n o t y et m a d e s u ffi c i e n t ad v a n c e s ; th e n S h re w s b u r y s ai d
,

h e th o u gh t th e D u k e w a s n o t u s e d t o m a k e a d v an c e s I s ai d I c o u l d
.

n o t h e l p th a t f or I a l w a y s e x p e c t e d a d v a n c e s i n p r op o r ti on t o m e n s
’
,

al i ty a n d m o r e fro m a D u k e t h a n a n y o t h e r m an
q u , .

Wri tin g to th e D u c he ss of Q u e e n sb e rry h e say s

I am g l ad y o u k n ow y ou r d u t y ; fo r i t h as b e e n a k n ow n a n d e s tab
l i s h e d r u l e a b o v e t w e n t y y e a r s i n E n g l an d th a t th e fi rs t ad v a n c e s ha v e
b e e n c on s t a n tl y m ad e m e b y al l l ad i e s w h o a s p i r e t o m y a c q u ai n t an c e ,

an d t h e
g re a t e r the i r q u al i t y th e g re a te r w e re th e i r a d v an c e s .
 EI G H T E E NTH —
CE NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E

Whe n the To ri e s w e n t ou t of p ow e r Sw ift s p o sition b e c am e u n ’

c e r tai n . H e e x p e c t e d an d had p roba b ly b e e n p ro m i se d a bi shop r i c

i n En gl an d w i th a s e at am on g t he p e e rs o f th e r e al m ; b u t t h e
,

To ri e s offe r e d h i m i n s t e ad t he p l a c e of d e an of S t Pat ri c k s Ca the

’
.

d ral i n D u blin It w as gallin g to a m an of hi s p rou d S p i rit ; b u t

.

aft e r h i s m e r c il e s s s at i r e on re li gi on i n Tb e Ta l e of a Ta h an y
,

e c c l e s i as t i c a l p os i t i on i n En gl an d w a s r e n d e r e d i m p os s ibl e D u bli n .

w as th e b e s t h e c ou ld ge t an d h e a c c e p t e d i t bi t te rly o n c e m o r e
, ,

c u r s i n g t h e fat e w h i c h h e h ad b rou gh t u p o n hi m s e l f .

Wi th hi s re tu rn to I r e l an d b e gin s th e l as t ac t i n th e trage dy of
h i s life H i s b e s t kn ow n li t e rary w ork Gu ll i ve r s Tr a t/ e l s w a s d on e
’
. , ,

h e re b u t t h e bi tt e rn e s s o f life gre w S l ow l y t o i n s an i ty an d a fr ight ,

fu l p e rs on a l s orrow o f w hic h h e n e v e r s p oke r e ac h e d i t s c li m a x i n

, ,

th e d e a th o f Es t h e r J o hn so n a b e au t i fu l y ou n g w om an w ho had
, ,

l ov e d S w i ft e ve r sin c e th e tw o had m e t i n Te m p l e s h ou s e hold an d ’

,

t o w ho m h e had w r i t t e n h i s j ou r n a l to S te l l a D u ri n g t h e l a st y e ar s
.

of h i s l i fe a b ra i n d i se as e o f w h i c h h e had s h ow n fr e qu e n t sy m
, p
t om s fas t e n e d i t s t e r r ibl e h old u p on S w ift an d h e b e c a m e b y t u rn s
, ,

an i d i o t an d a m ad m an . H e di e d i n 1 74 5 an d w h e n h i s w ill w a s,

o p e n e d it w a s fou n d t hat h e h ad l e ft al l h i s p ro p e r ty t o fou n d S t .

Patr i c k s As yl u m fo r l u n at i c s an d i n c u r abl e s It stan d s to d ay as

’
-
.

t h e m os t su gge s t i v e m on u m e n t of h i s p e c u li ar ge n iu s .

Th e Work s of S w i f t . F r om S wi ft
li fe on e ca n r e a dily ’
s

for e s e e t h e ki n d o f lit e rat u r e h e will p r o d u c e Tak e n t og e th e r .

hi s w or k s a re a m on s t ro u s s a ti r e o n h u m an it y an d t h e s pi r it
of th a t s ati r e i s S h ow n cl e ar l i n a littl e i n cid e n t of h i s fi rs t
y
d ay s i n Lon d on Th e r e w as i n t h e c it y at th a t tim e a c e r t ai n
.

as t r ol og e r n am e d Par t r idge w h o d u p e d t h e p u blic b y c al c u

,

l ati n g n ativiti e s fro m t h e s t ar s an d b y s e llin g a y e ar ly al m an a c

,

p re dicti n g fu t u r e e v e n t s S wi ft w h o h at e d al l S h am s w rot e
.
, , ,

with a g r e a t s h ow of l e ar n i n g h i s fam ou s E i e lee r s tafi A l m a

'

“
n ac , c on t ai n i n g Pr e dicti on s fo r t h e Y e ar 1 70 8 a s D e t e r ,
”
m i n e d b y t h e U n e r r i n g S t ars A S S wi ft rar e ly s ig n e d h i s
.

na m e t o an y lit e r ar y w or k l e tt i n g it s t an d or fall on i t s ow n
,

m e r it s h i s b u r l e s qu e appe ar e d o v e r t h e p s e ud on y m of I s aa c
,

B ic ke r s t aff a n am e aft e rw ar d s m ad e fam ou s b y S t e e l e i n Tli e

,

Ta tl e r Am on g t h e p r e dicti on s w a s t h e foll owi n g

.
2 74 E N G LI S H LI TERATU R E

My fi rs t p re d i c ti o n is b u t a t ri fl e y t I
e w i ll m e n ti on i t to S h ow h ow
i g n or a n t th os e p re te n d e rs t o as tr o l og y a r e i n th e i r ow n c on c e rn s :
s ot ti s h

i t re l a te s to Par t r i d g e th e a l m a n a c k m a k e r ; I h a v e c o n s u l t e d th e s t ar
o f hi s n a t i v i ty b y m y o w n r u l e s , a n d fin d h e w i ll i n fa l l i b l y d i e u p o n t h e

2 9th o f M ar c h ne xt , a b ou t e l e ve n at n i g h t , o f a r agi n g fe v e r ; th e re fo re
I ad vise h i m to c on s i d e r of i t, an d s e l
tt e hi s a ff ai r s i n ti m e .

On Mar ch 3 0 t he day aft e r t h e p r e dicti on w a s t o b e fu l

,

fill e d th e r e a pp e ar e d i n t he n e w s p ap e r s a l e tt e r fr om a r e v e n u e
,

offi c e r g ivi n g t h e d e t ail s of Par t r id g e s d e a th with t h e d o i n g s

’

of t h e b a ili ff an d t h e c offi n m a k e r ; an d on t h e foll owi n g

m or n i n g app e a r e d an e l ab orat e E l e gy of Mr Par t r id ge . .

Wh e n p oor Par t r idg e w h o s udd e n l y fou n d hi m s e l f with ou t

,

c u s t om e r s p u bli s h e d a d e n ial of t h e b u r ial S wi ft an s w e r e d

V
, ,

with an e lab orat e i ndicati on of I s aa c B ick e r s t aff i n which ,

h e p r ov e d b y a s t r ol og ic al r u l e s th a t Part r idg e w a s d e a d an d ,

th at t h e m an n ow i n hi s pl a c e w as an i m p os t o r t ry i n g t o ch e at
t h e h e i r s ou t of th e i r i n h e r it an c e .

Thi s fe r o ci ou s j ok e i s s u gg e s t iv e o f all S wift s s ati r e s

’
.

Agai n s t an y c a s e o f h y p oc r i s y or i n j u st ic e he s e t s u p a r e m e dy
of p r e ci s e l t h e s am e ki nd on l m or e at r o ci ou s
Ch aract e r y y , ,

a n d d e fe n d s h i s pl an w i th s u ch s e r i ou s n e s s th at
0

of S wi ft s
’

s am e
t h e sati re ov e r wh e l m s t h e r e ad e r with a s e n s e of

m o n s t r ou s fal s it y T h u s hi s s ol e m n A rg u m e n t t o p r ov e th at
.

t h e A b ol i s hi n g o f C h r i s ti an it y m ay b e att e n d e d with S om e
I n c on v e n i e n c e s i s s u ch a fr ight fu l s ati r e u p on t h e abu s e s of
Ch r i s ti an it y b y i t s p r ofe s s e d foll ow e r s th at it i s i m p os s ibl e for
u s t o s ay wh e th e r S wi ft i n t e n d e d t o p oi n t o u t n e e d e d r e fo rm s ,

o r t o p e r p e t ra t e a j ok e o n t h e
1
or t o s ati s fy h i s c on s ci e n c e ,

Ch u r ch as he h ad d on e on p oo r Pa r t r idg e S o al s o with h i s
, .

Mod e s t Prop os al c on c e r ni n g t h e child r e n of I r e l an d which

”
, ,

s e t s u p t h e p r op o s iti on th at p o or I r i s h far m e r s o u ght t o ra i s e

child r e n a s d ai n ti e s t o b e e at e n lik e r oas t pi g s o n t h e t abl e s

, , ,

of p r o s p e r o u s En g li s h m e n I n thi s m os t ch aract e r i s tic w ork

.

1 I t is on ly f ia r to po i n t ou t i
t h a t S w ft w rot e t h i s an d tw o l
pa m p h e t s on re g
o the r li i on

at a i
t m e w he n h e k ne w l
t hat t he y w ou d d a m age , i f n ot d e s t roy , h i s ow n p ros pe ct s of

po tli i l
ca ad v an ce m e n t .
2 76 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU RE

Gu l l i v e r ’
s Tr a v e l s r e c or d s th e p re te n d e d fou r v oy ag e s of on e Le m u e l
Gu ll i v e r , a n d h i s a d v e n tu re s i n fou r a s to u n d i n g c o u n tr i e s T h e fi rs t .

b oo k t e ll s o f h i s v o y ag e an d s hi p w re c k i n Li ll i p u t , w he r e t h e i n h ab i ta n t s
are ab o u t as t a ll as o n e s th u m b , an d a l l t h e i r a c ts a n d m o ti v e s a r e o n
’

th e s am e d w arfis h s ca e l . I th e p e t t
n y q u a r re l s o f t h e s e d w a r fs w e a r e
s u p p os e d to se e th e l l
i tt e n e s s o f h u m an i t y . T h e s ta te s m e n w h o ob tai n

l e d f a v or b c t t i m o n k e y c ap e r s o n th e ti h t r op e b e for e th e i r
p a c a n y u n
g g
s o v e r e i g n an d t h e tw o g r e a t p a r t i e s t h e Li t tl e e n d i a n s a n d B i g e n d i an s
, , ,

w h o p l u n g e th e c ou n t ry i n to c i v i l w a r o v e r th e m om e n t o u s q u e s ti o n o f
w h e th e r an e gg s h ou l d b e b ro k e n o n i ts b i g o r o n i t s l i ttl e e n d a re s a t ,

i r e s o n th e p o l i t i c s o f S w i f t s o w n d a y a n d g e n e r a t i o n Th e s ty le i s
’
.

s i m p l e a n d c o n v i n c i n g ; t h e s u r p r i s i n g S i t u a t i on s a n d a d v e n t u r e s a r e a s

a b s orb i n g as th o s e o f D e foe s m as te r p i e c e ; a n d a l t og e th e r i t i s t h e
’

m os t i n t e r e s t i n g of S w i ft s a t i re s .
’
s

O n th e s e c on d v o y ag e G u ll i v e r i s ab an d o n e d i n B rob d i n g n a g , w he re
th e i n h ab i t an ts a re
g i a n ts , v e r y th i n g
an d e i s d on e u p on an e n or m o u s

s ca e l . T h e m e an n e s s o f h u m an i t y s e e m s a l l th e m o re d e te s t ab le i n vie w
of th e g r e a t n e s s o f th e se s u p e r i or b e i n g s . h e n Gu i e r W ll v te ll s ab o u t
hi s l
o w n p e op e , th e i r a m b i t i o n s a n d w a rs an d c on q u e s ts , th e g i an ts c a n

on ly v
w o n d e r th a t s u c h g r e a t e n o m c o ul d e i s t i n s u c h i t t e i n s e c ts . x l l
I n th e thi r d v oy age Gu ll i v e r c o n ti n u e s hi s ad v e n t u re s i n Lap u t a , an d

thi s i s a s a t i re u p on al l th e s c i e n t i s ts an d p h i l os op h e rs . Lap u t a i s a

fl y i n g i s l an d , h e l d up i n th e ai r by a l oad s ton e ; a n d al l th e p r ofe s s or s

of th e fa m ou s a c ad e m y at Lag ad o ar e of t he
'
s am e ai r y c on s t i tu t i on .

T h e p h i l os op h e r w h o w o r k e d e i gh t y e ars to e x tra c t S u n sh i n e fr o m
c u c u m b e r s i s t y p i c a l o f S w i ft s o f all fi p rob
s a t i ri c s cie n t
i
’
t re atm e n t c

le m s . I t i s i n thi s v o y ag e th a t w e h e a r of th e S tr u l d b r u g s , a g h as t l y
r a c e of m en w ho are d oo m e d t o l i v e u
p o n e ar th a f te r l os i n g h o p e a n d
th e d e s i r e for l i fe . T h e p i c tu r e i s a l l t h e m o r e te r r i b l e i n V i e w o f the
l as t y e a rs o f S w i f t s ow n l i fe , i n w h i c h h e w as
’
c o m p e l l e d to l i v e o n a ,

b u r d e n t o h i m s e l f a n d hi s fri e n d s .

I n th e s e th r e e v o y a ge s th e e v i d e n t p u r p o s e i s to s tr i p o ff th e ve i l of

h ab i t a n d c u s tom , w i th w h i c h m e n d e c e i v e th e m s e lv e s , an d s h ow th e
c ru de vice s of h u m an i t y as S w i f t fa n c i e s h e se e s th e m . I n t h e fo u r th
v oy a g e th e m e r c i l e s s s a ti r e i s c ar r i e d o u t t o i ts l ogi c al c o n c u s i onl . Thi s
b ri n gs us t o th e l a n d o f th e H ou y h n h n m s , i n w h i c h h ors e s , s u p e r i or

an d i n te ll i g e n t c r e a tu r e s , a r e l
th e r u i n g a n i m a s . l Al l ou r i n t e r e s t , h ow
e ve r , is c e n te re d o n th e Y ah oos , a fri gh t fu l ra c e ,
h a v i n g th e fo rm an d

app e a r an c e o f m e n, b ut li vi ng in u n spe a k ab l e d e g rad a ti on .

Th e j ou r n a l to S te l l a , w ritt e n chi e fl y i n t h e y e ar s 1 71 0
1 71 3 for t h e b e n e fit of E s th e r J oh n s on i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o u s,

for t w o r e a s on s It . i s, fi r s t an e xc e ll e n t c om m e n t ary on
,
 E I G H TEE NTH —
C E NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 2 77

c on t e m p orary ch ara ct e r s an d p olitic al e v e n t s b y o n e of t he ,

m os t p o we rfu l a n d or i g i n a l m i n d s o f t h e ag e ; an d s e c on d i n ,

Mi s ce l la n g i t s l o v e p a s s a g e s a n d p u r e l y p e r s o n al d e s c r ipti o n s

0113 “70k
it g ive s u s t h e be s t pict u r e w e p os s e s s of S wi ft
hi m s e l f at t h e s u m m it of h i s p ow e r an d i n fl u e n c e A S w e .

r e ad n ow i t s w or d s o f t e n d e rn e s s for t h e w o m an w h o l o v e d

h i m an d w h o b rou g ht a l m o s t t h e on l y r ay of s u n lig ht i n t o
,

h i s li fe w e c an o n l y w on d e r a n d b e s il e n t
,
E n t i r e l y di ff e r e n t
.

ar e h i s D r a i e r s L e t te r s a m od e l of p o litic al h ar an g u e an d of
’

p ,

p op u l ar arg u m e n t which r o u s e d an u n thi n ki n g En gli s h p u blic

,

an d did m u ch b e n e fit t o I r e l a n d b p r e v e n ti n g t h e p olitici a n s
’

y
pl an o f d e b as i n g t h e I r i s h co i n ag e S wi ft s p o e m s th ou gh .
’

vi g or ou s an d or ig i n al (lik e D e foe s of t h e s am e p e ri od ) ar e ’

, ,

ll s ti r ic al o f t e c oar s e an d s e ld om r i s e a b ov e d og
g e n e ra
y a , n ,

l U n lik e h i s fr i e n d A ddi s on S wi f t s aw i n t h e g r owi n

g e r e . , ,g
p oli s h an d d e c e n cy o f s o ci e t y on l y a m a s k for h y p o c r i s y ;
,

an d h e oft e n u s e d hi s v e r s e t o s h ock t h e n e w b o r n m od e s t
y
-

b y p oi n t i n g ou t s om e n ativ e u gli n e s s wh ich h i s di s e a s e d m i n d

di s c ov e r e d u n d e r e v e r y b e au t i fu l e xt e r i or .

Th a t S wi ft i s t h e m os t o r i gi n al w r it e r of h i s ti m e a n d on e ,

of t h e gr e at e s t m ast e r s o f E n g li s h p r ose i s u n d e n i a bl e
, .

C ar a ct e r of
h D i r e ct n e s s vi g,o r s i m plicit
, y m a r k e v e,r
y p a g e .

S w i ft s P os e A m o n
’
r
w it f th a t a e h e s t an d s al m o s t a l on e
g r e r s o g
i n h i s di s d ai n of lit e rary e ffe ct s K e e pi n g h i s o bj e ct s t e adil y
.

b e for e h im h e d r iv e s s t rai ght on t o t h e e n d with a c ou vi n

, ,

ci n g p ow e r th at ha s n e v e r b e e n s u r p as s e d i n o ur l an g u age .

Ev e n i n h i s m os t g r o t e s q u e c r e a ti on s t h e r e ad e r n e v e r l o s e s ,

t h e s e n s e of r e a lit y o f b e i n g p r e s e n t a s an e y e wit n e s s of t h e
,

m o s t i m p o s s ibl e e v e n t s s o p ow e r fu l a n d c on vi n ci n g i s S wi ft s
’

p ros e D e foe h ad t h e s am e p ow e r ; b u t i n w riti n g R ooi n s on

.

Cr us oe for i n s t an c e hi s t as k w a s c om p a ra tiv e l y e a sy s i n c e
, , ,

h i s h e r o an d h i s a dv e n t u r e s w e r e b oth n at u r al ; whil e S wi ft
give s r e alit y t o p y g m i e s g i an t s an d th e m o s t i m p os s ibl e
, ,

s it u at i on s a s e as il
, y a s i f h e w e r e w r iti n
g o f f a ct s N o t w i t h .

s t an di n g th e s e e xc e ll e n t q ualiti e s t h e or di n ar r e ad e r will d o
, y
2 78 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

w e ll t o c on fi n e hi m s e l f t o Gu l li v e r s Tra ve l s an d a b ook of
’

w e ll ch os e n s e l e ction s F o r it m u s t b e c on fe s s e d t h e bulk
-
.
, ,

of S wi ft s w or k i s n ot wh ol e s om e re adi n g I t i s t oo t e rr ibl y
’
.

s ati r ic a n d d e s t ru ctiv e ; it e m phas i ze s t h e fa u lt s an d fa ili n g s

of h u m an it y ; an d s o r u n s c oun t e r t o t he g e n e ra l c ou r s e of

o u r lit e r a t u r e which fr om C n e w u l f t o T e n n s o n foll ow s t h e

, y y
Id e al a s Me r li n foll ow e d t h e G l e am an d i s n ot s ati s fi e d t ill
,
l
,

t h e hidd e n b e a u t y of m an s s ou l an d t h e divi n e pu rp os e of h i s
’

s t r u gg l e ar e m an ife s t .

J O S E P H A D D I S ON ( 1 6 72 — 1 71 9)
I n the pl e as an t ar t of livi n g with o n e s fe ll ow s Addi s on i s
’

e as il a m as t e r I t i s d u e t o h i s p e rf e ct e xp r e s s i o n of th at
y .

a r t o f th a t n e w s o ci al li fe which a s w e h av e n ot e d w as ch ar
, , ,

ac t e ri s t i c o f th e Ag e of An n e ,

th at A ddi s on o cc u pi e s s u ch a
l ar ge pl ac e in t h e hi s t ory o f
lit e r atu r e Of l e s s p ow e r an d
.

o r igi n alit th an S wi ft h e n e v e r
y ,

t h el e s s wi e ld s a n d d e s e r v e s t o
,

wi e ld a m or e l as ti n g i n fl u e n c e
, .

S wi ft i s t h e s t or m r oar i n g ,

agai n s t t h e i c e an d fr os t of
t h e l at e s p r i n g o f En gli s h li fe .

A ddi s on i s t h e s u n s hi n e which ,

m e lt s t h e i c e an d d r i e s t h e m u d
an d m ak e s t h e e ar th th r ill with

light an d h op e L ik e S wi ft h e . ,
J O S EP H A D D I S ON
d e s pi s e d S h am s b u t u n lik e h i m , ,

h e n e v e r l o s t fa it h i n h u m an it y ; a n d i n al l h i s s ati r e s th e r e i s
a g e n tl e ki n dli n e s s which m ak e s o n e thi n k b e tt e r o f h i s fe ll o w

m e n e v e n whil e h e l au gh s at th e i r littl e v an iti e s

, .

T w o thi n g s Addi s o n did for ou r lit e ra t u re which a r e of

i n e s ti m abl e val u e F i r s t h e ov e r cam e a c e r t ai n c or r upt
. ,

1 See T
e nny M li
son s
’
erd th Gl m
n an
”
e ea .
2 80 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

From a lite rary v i e w p o ni t t he m o st in te re stin g w ork of Addi son s ’

ly life
e ar i s hi s Ae e ou n t of ti l e Gr e a te s t E ng l i s /z P oe ts w ri tte n
w hi l e h e w as a f e l l ow of O x ford U n ive rsi ty . On e ru bs hi s e ye s to
fin d D ryd e n l a v i shly p ra i se d , S p e n se r e x c u s e d o r p at ron i ze d , w h il e
S hak e sp e ar e i s n ot e v e n m e n t i on e d . B u t Add i son w as w r i ti n g u n d e r
Bo il e au l i
l ; an d the p o e t like t he age w as p e rhap s
’
s c as s c ru e s , ,

t oo artific i al t o ap p re c i at e n atu ral ge n i u s .

Whil e h e w as trave lin g abroad t he d e ath of William an d t he ,

l oss of p ow e r b y th e Whigs su dd e n ly s top p e d Addis on s p e n sion ; ’

n e c e s s ity b rou gh t h i m h om e an d fo r a t i m e h e liv e d i n p ov e r ty an d

,

ob s c u r ity Th e n o c c u rr e d th e battl e o f Bl e n h e i m an d i n t h e e ff or t
.
,

t o fin d a p oe t to c e l e b ra t e t h e e v e n t Addi s on w as b rought t o t h e ,
”
T or i e s att e n t i on H i s p oe m Th e Cam p ai gn c e l e b rat i n g th e
’
.
, ,

v i c t or y t ook th e c ou n try b y s tor m

, I n ste ad of m akin g th e h e ro .

s l ay hi s t h ou san d s an d t e n t hou san d s l ike t he old e p i c he ro e s , ,

Ad d i son had som e s e n se of w hat i s r e qu i r e d i n a m od e rn ge n e ral ,

an d s o m ad e Marlb o rou gh d i r e c t t h e b at tl e fr o m t h e o u ts i d e c om ,

ari n g hi m t o an an ge l r i d in g o n t h e w h i rl w i n d
p

T w as th e n g re a t M a r l b ro s m i gh t s o u l w as p ro v e d , y
’ ’

.
T h a t , i n th e S h oc k o f c h a rg i n g h o s t s u n m o v e d ,
Am i d s t c on f u s i o n , h o r r or , an d d e s p ai r,
E x am i n e d al l t h e d r e a d fu l s c e n e s of w ar ;
I p e ac e fu l th ou g h t t h e fi e l d o f d e a th s u r v e
n ye d ,

T o fa i n ti n g s q u ad ro n s s e n t th e t i m e l a i d , y
I n s p i re d r e p u l s e d b a t t a l i on s t o e n g age ,
An d l b att l e w h e r e t o r age
t au g h t th e d ou b tfu .

S o w h e n a n a n g e l b y d i v i n e c om m a n d
W i th r i s i n g te m p e s ts s h a k e s a g u i l t y l an d ,

u c h as o f l a t e o e r p a l e B ri ta n n i a p as t
’

( S ) ,

C a l m an d s e r e n e h e d r i v e s t h e fu r i o u s b l as t ;
An d p l e as e d t h Al m i g h t y s or d e rs t o p e r form
,
’ ’
,

R i d e s i n t h e w h i r l w i n d a n d d i r e c t s t h e s to r m
, .

d ou b tfu l sim il e m ad e Ad d i s on for t u n e . N e v e r b e for e

’
That on e s

or i
s nce w as a p oe t
’
s m e c h an c ai l w or k so we ll re w ar d e d . I t w as
ca ll e d th e fin e s t thin g e v e r w r i tte n an d fro m t hat d ay Ad dison ro s e ,

s t e ad ily i n p o li t i c al fa v o r an d o ffic e H e b e c a m e i n t u rn U n d e r .

s e c r e tary m e m b e r of Parli am e n t S e c r e tar y fo r I r e l an d an d fi n ally

, , ,

S e c re tary of S t at e Pro b ably n o o th e r li t e rary m an a id e d b y h i s

.
,

p e n al o n e e v e r r o s e so ra i d l
, p y an d so h i gh i n o ffi c e .
 E I G H TE E NTH C E NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E —

Th e re s t of Ad d i s on
’
s li fe w as di v i d e d b e tw e e n p oli tic al d u ti e s
‘ fi

an d li te ratu re H i s e ssa y s for t he Ta tle r an d Sp e c ta tor w hic h w e

. ,

s t il l c h e r i sh w e r e w ri t t e n b e tw e e n 1 70 9 an d 1 71 4
,
b u t h e w on m o r e
lit e rary fam e by h i s c l assi c t rage dy Ca to w h i c h w e hav e al m o s t for ,

t t e n I n 1 71 6 h e m arri e d a w i d ow t h e C o u n t e s s o f Wa r w i c k an d
g o . , ,

w e n t t o li v e a t h e r h om e t h e fam o u s H ollan d H ou s e
, H i s m arr i e d .

life l as te d on ly thre e y e ars an d w as p ro bably n o t a hap py on e , .

Ce r tai n l y h e n e v e r w rote of w om e n e x c e p t w i th ge n tl e sati r e an d ,

he b e c am e m or e an d m ore a c l u b m an sp en d in g m o s t of h i s t i m e i n ,

t h e c l u b s an d c offe e hou se s o f Lon d on U p t o t h i s t i m e h i s li fe h ad .

b e e n s in gu larly p e ac e fu l ; b u t hi s l as t y e ars w e r e shad ow e d by qu ar

re l s ,
fi rs t w i th Po p e t h e n w i th Sw i ft a n d fi n ally w ith hi s li fe l on g
, ,

fri e n d S t e e l e Th e fi rs t qu arr e l w as o n li t e rary grou n d s an d w as

.
,

l arge ly th e r e su l t o f Po p e s j e al ou sy Th e l att e r s v e n om ou s c ar ic a
’
.
’

tu re of Ad d i son as Att i c u s s h o w s h ow h e t ook h i s p e t ty re v e n ge on

a gr e at an d goo d m an w h o ha d b e e n h i s f r i e n d The o th e r q u arre l s .

w i th S w ift an d e s p e c i ally w i th h i s o l d fri e n d S t e e l e w e r e t h e u n for

, ,

f u n a t e re s u l t o f p o liti c al d i ffe r e n c e s an d S h o w h ow i m p os s ibl e i t ,

i s t o m i n gl e l i te rary id e a l s w i t h p ar t y p o li ti c s H e d i e d s e r e n e ly i n .

1 71
9 . A b r i e f d e sc r i p t i on fro m T hac k e ra y s E ng l i s k [Tu m or i s ts i s
’

h i s b e s t e p i tap h :

A li fe p r o s p e r o u s a n d b e a u ti fu l a c a l m d e a th ; a n i m m e n s e fam e a n d
,

a ff e c t i o n a ft e rw a r d s fo r h i s h a pp y a n d s p o t l e s s n a m e .

Wor k s of Ad d i s on . Th e m os t en du ri n g of A ddi s on
’
s w or k s
ar e h i s fam ou s E s s ay s ,c oll e ct e d fr om t h e Ta tl e r an d Sp e c ta
tor W e h av e S p o k e n o f h i m a s a m a s t e r o f t h e
.

Th E s s y s
e a
a rt o f g e n tl e livi n g a n d t h e s e e s s a s ar e a p e r p e t
y ,

u al i n d u c e m e n t t o oth e r s t o k n o w an d t o p ra ctic e t h e s am e

fin e ar t To an a g e o f f u n d am e n t a l c oar s e n e s s an d ar t i fic ia lity
.

h e c am e with a wh ol e s om e m e s s ag e of r e fi n e m e n t a n d S i m

p l i c i t m u ch a s R u s ki n a n d A rn o ld s p o k e t o a l a t e r a e of
y , g
m at e r i ali s m ; on l y A ddi s on s s u cc e s s w as g r e at e r t h a n th e i r s
’

b e cau s e of hi s g re at e r k n owl e d g e o f li fe an d h i s g r e at e r fa ith

in m e n H e a tt a ck s all t h e littl e v a n iti e s an d all t h e b i g vic e s
.

o f h i s ti m e n o t i n S wi ft s t e r r ibl e w a w ich ak e s u s fe e l
’

, y h m ,

h op e l e s s o f h u m an it y b u t with a ki n dl y r idic u l e a n d g e n tl e
,

h u m or which t ak e s s p e e dy i m p r ov e m e n t for gr an t e d To r e ad .
2 82 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

S wi ft b r u t al L e tt e rs t o Y ou n g La d y , an d
th e n t o r e ad
’
s a

A ddi s on s D i s s e cti on o f a B e a u s H e a d an d h i s D i s s e cti on

’ ’

”
of a C oq u e tt e s H e ar t i s t o k n ow at on c e t h e s e c r e t of t h e
’

,
'
l att e r s m or e e n d u r i n g i n fl u e n c e .

Th re e oth e r r e s u lt s of th e s e d e li ght fu l e s s ay s ar e w o rthy

o f at t e n t i on : fi r s t th e y ar e t he b e s t pict u r e w e p os s e s s o f
,

t h e n e w s oci al li fe of E n g l an d with i t s m an y n e w i n t e r e s t s ;
,

s e c on d th e a dv an c e d t h e a r t o f lit e r ar c r itici s m t o a m u ch
, y y
high e r s t ag e th an it had e v e r b e for e r e a ch e d an d h ow e v e r ,

m u c h w e di ffe r f r o m th e i r j u d gm e n t a n d th e i r i n t e r p r e t ati on
'

of s u ch a m an a s M ilt on th e y c e r t a i n l y l e d En gli s h m e n t o
,

a b e tt e r k n owl e d g e an d app r e ci at i on o f th e i r ow n lit e r a t u r e ;

a n d fi n all
y i n N e d S oftl
, y t h e lit e r ar
y d abbl e r W ill W i m
,
bl e

t h e p o o r r e l at i on S i r A n d r e w F re e p or t t he m e r ch an t W ill
, ,

H on e y c om b t h e fop a n d S i r R og e r t h e c ou n t r y g e n tl e m an
, ,

th e y giv e u s ch ara ct e r s th a t liv e fo r e v e r as p ar t o f th at g oodly

c o m p an y which e xt e n d s fr om Ch au c e r s c o u n t r y p ar s on t o ’

K ipli n g s Mu lvan e y A ddi s on a n d S t e e l e n ot on l y i n t rod u c e d

’
.

t h e m od e rn e s s ay b u t i n s u ch ch ar a ct e r s a s th e s e th e y h e rald
,

t he d aw n of t h e m o d e rn n ov e l Of all h i s e s s ay s t h e b e s t
.

k n ow n an d l ov e d ar e th o s e which i n t r od u c e u s t o S i r R og e r
d e Cov e r l e y t h e g e n i al dict at or o f li fe an d m a n n e r s i n t h e
,

q u i e t En g li s h c ou n t ry .

I n s t y l e th e s e e s s ay s ar e re m ark abl e as s h owi n g t h e g row

i n g p e r fe cti o n of t h e En gli s h l an g u a ge J oh n s on s ay s . Wh o ,

Addi s on s
» e v e r wi s h e s t o a tt a i n an E n
g li s h s t y l e fa m ili a r b u t
,

S ty l e n ot c o ar s e a n d e l e gan t b u t n ot o s t e n t ati o u s m u s t
, ,

”
g iv e h i s d a
y s a n d n i ht s t o t h e vol u m e s o f A ddi s on
g A nd .

a g ai n h e s a s G iv i ht n d da s i t o t h e s tud y o f
y , e n g s a
y S r , ,

A ddi s on if y ou m e an t o b e a g ood w r it e r or wh a t i s m or e , ,

wor th an h on e s t m an
, Th at w as g o od c r itici s m for i t s d ay
. ,

an d e v e n at t h e p r e s e n t ti m e c r itic s a re a r e e d th at A ddi s on s
’

g
E s s ay s ar e w e ll w o r th r e adi n g on c e for th e i r ow n s ak e an d ,

m an y ti m e s for th e i r i n fl u e n c e i n s h api n g a cl e ar an d g rac e ful

s t l e of w r iti n g
y .
2 84 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

A ddi s on , ki n g n othi n g b u t l ov e i n r e t u rn U n lik e A ddi s on

as .
,

h e s t u di e d b u t littl e an d l e ft t h e u n iv e r s ity t o e n t e r t h e H or s e
,

G u ar d s H e w a s i n t u r n s oldi e r c apt ai n p oe t pl ay w ri g ht
. , , , ,

e s say i s t
, m e m b e r o f Par li am e n t m an ag e r of a th e at e r p u b
, ,

li s he r of a n e w s p ap e r a n d tw e n t y o th e r thi n g s
, al l of which ,

h e b e gan j oy ou s l y an d th e n a b an d on e d s om e ti m e s agai n s t hi s
,

will as wh e n h e w a s e xp e ll e d fr om Par li am e n t an d agai n b e

, ,

c au s e s om e oth e r i n t e r e s t of t h e m om e n t h ad m or e att r acti on .

H i s p oe m s an d pl ay s ar e n ow littl e k n ow n ; b u t t h e r e ad e r
w h o s e ar ch e s th e m o u t will fin d on e or t w o s u gg e s tiv e t hi n g s
a b ou t S t e e l e hi m s e l f F or i n s t an c e h e l ov e s child r e n ; an d
. ,

h e i s on e of t h e fe w w r it e r s of h i s ti m e w ho S h ow a s i n c e r e
a n d u n s w e r vi n g re s p e ct f o r w om an h o od E v e n m or e th an .

Addi s on h e r idic u l e s vic e an d m a k e s vi r t u e l ov e l y H e i s t h e .

o r i g i n at or o f t h e Ta tl e r an d j o i n s with A ddi son i n c re ati n g

,

t h e Sp e cta t or , t h e t w o p e r i odic a l s which i n t h e s h or t s p a c e

-
,

of l e s s th an fou r e ars did m or e t o i n fl u e n c e s u b se q u e n t lit

y ,

e r at u r e th an a l l oth e r m aga zi n e s o f t h e c e n t u r y c om bi n e d .

Mor e ov e r h e i s t h e or i g i n al g e n i u s o f S i r R oge r an d of m an y
, ,

oth e r ch ara ct e r s a n d e s s a s for which A ddi s on u s u a ll r e c e iv e s

y y
t h e wh ol e c r e dit I t i s o ft e n i m p os s ibl e i n t h e Ta tl e r e s say s
.

t o s e p a rat e t h e w or k o f t h e t w o m e n ; b u t t h e m aj or it y of
cr itic s h old th at t h e m or e or i g i n al p ar t s t h e ch aract e rs t h e , ,
’
th o u ght t h e o v e r fl owi n g ki n dli n e s s ar e l arg e l y S t e e l e s c r e a
, ,

ti on whil e t o Addi s on f e ll t h e w or k of p oli s hi n g an d p e r fe ct

i n g t h e e s s ay s an d of a ddi n g th at t ou ch of h u m or which
,

m ad e th e m t h e m os t w e l c om e lit e r ary vi s it o r s th a t E n g l an d
had e v e r r e c e iv e d .

Th e Tat l e r an d Th e S p e c t ator O n a cc ou n t of h i s t al e n t i n
.

w r iti n g p olitical p am phl e t s S t e e l e w as award e d t he p os iti on

,

of offici al g a ze tt e e r Whil e i n thi s p os iti on an d wr iti n g for

.
,

s e v e ral s m all n e w s p ap e r s t h e id e a o cc u r r e d t o S t e e l e t o p u b
,

li s h a p ap e r which S h ou ld c on t ai n n ot on l y t h e p olitic al n e w s ,

but al s o t h e g o s s ip of t h e cl u b s an d c offe e h ou s e s with s om e ,

light e s say s on t h e li fe an d m an n e rs of t h e age Th e i m m e diat e .

 E I G H TEE NTH —
C E NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E

r e s ult — fo r ne v e r l
S te e le
e t an id e a r e m a i n idl e — w as t h e

fa m o u s Ta zl e r t h e fi r s t n u m b e r of which app e ar e d A p r il 1 2
, ,

1 709 I t w as a s m all foli o s h e e t app e ar i n g on p os t d ay s th r e e

. , ,

ti m e s a w e e k an d it s old for a p e n n y a c opy T h at it h ad

,
.

a s e r i o u s pu r p o s e i s e vid e n t f rom t hi s d e dica ti on t o t h e fi rs t

,

v olu m e of c oll e ct e d Ta tl e r e s say s

Th e g e n e ral p u r p ose o f thi s p a p e r i s to e x p o s e the fa l se a r t s o f l i fe ,

to p u ll off th e d i s g u i s e s o f c u n n i n g , v a n i ty , a n d affe c ta t i on , a n d t o re c o m
m e nd a
g e n e r a l sim p l i c i ty in ou r d re s s , ou r d i s c o u rs e , an d ou r b e h a v i or .

T he s thi s u n h e ar d oi c om bi n at i on of n e w s g os s ip
ucc e s s of -
, ,

an d e s s a
y w as i n s t an t an e o u s N ot a cl u b o r a c o ffe e h ou s e .

i n Lon d on c ould affor d t o b e with ou t it an d offe r i t s p ag e s ,

b e gan t h e fi r s t g e n e ral i n t e r e s t i n c on t e m p orar y E n gli s h li fe

a s e xp r e s s e d i n lit e ra t u r e S t e e l e at fi r s t w r ot e t h e e n ti r e
.

p ap e r an d s ign e d h i s e s s ay s with t h e n am e of I s aac B ick e r

s t a ff which had b e e n m ad e fam o u s b S wi ft a f ew e ar s b e
, y y
f or e . Addi s on i s s aid t o h av e s oon r e c og n i ze d on e of hi s ow n
r e m ar k s t o S t e e l e an d t h e s e c r e t of t h e a u th or s hip w as o u t
, .

F r om t h at t i m e A ddi s on w as a r e g u l a r c on t r ib u t or an d o cc a ,

s i on al l oth e r w r it e r s a dd e d e s s a s on t h e n e w s o ci al li fe o f
y y
1
E n g l an d .

S t e e l e l os t h i s p os iti on as g aze tt e e r an d t h e Ta tl e r w a s ,

di s c on ti n u e d aft e r l e s s th an t w o y e a r s li fe b u t n ot t ill it ’

w on an a s t on i s hi n g p op u l a r it y a n d m a d e r e a d y t h e w ay for
i t s s u cc e s s or Tw o m on th s l at e r on Mar ch I 1 7 1 1 a pp e ar e d
.
, , ,

t h e fi r s t n u m b e r of t he Sp e c ta tor I n t h e n e w m agazi n e .

p olitic s an d n e w s a s s u ch w e r e ig n or e d ; it w as a lit e rary

, ,

m ag azi n e p u r e an d s i m pl e an d i t s e n t i re c on t e n t s c on s i s t e d
, ,

of a S i n l e li ht e s sa I t w a s c id d c z v e n t u r e at
g g y o n s e r e. a r a
y
t h e ti m e b u t i t s i n s t an t s u cc e s s p r ov e d th a t m e n w e r e e ag e r
,

f or s om e lit e rar y e xp r e s s i on of t he n e w s oci al id e al s Th e .

1 Of th e Ta tl e r e s s a s Add son y i c on t r ib ute d for t y tw-

o ; th i ty
r -
s i x ot h e r s i
w e re w r tte n
in l i
col ab orat on w t h S t e e e i
; wh e l il at l e as t a h u n d re d an d e ight y a re t h e w or k of S te e l e

l
a on e .
2 86 E NG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

foll owi n g whim s ica l l e tt e r t o t h e e dit or m ay s e r v e t o i n dic at e

t he p ar t pl ay e d b y t h e Sp e c ta tor i n t h e d ail y li fe of L on d on

M r S p e c t a tor
. , Y ou r p ap e r 15 a p ar t o f m y t e a e q u i p ag e ; a n d m y
se r v an t k n ow s m y h u m or so we ll , th a t i n c a ll i n g for m y b r e a k fas t th i s
m o rn i n g ( i t b e i n g p as t m y u s u a l h o u r
) s h e an s w e r e d , t h e Sp e cta tor wa s n o t
y e t c o m e i n , b u t t he t e a k e t t l e b oi l e d , an d s h e e x p e c te d it e v e ry m o m e n t.

I t i s i n t h e i n c om p arabl e Sp e cta tor pap e r s th at Addi s on

”
S h o w s hi m s e l f m o s t w o r th y t o b e re m e m b e r e d H e c on .

t r ibut e d t h e m aj or it y o f i t s e s say s an d i n i t s fir s t n u m b e r ,
\

a pp e a r s thi s d e s c r ipti on o f t h e S p e ct at or b y which n am e ,

Ad di s on i s n ow g e n e r all y k n ow n

T he re i s no p l a c e of g e n e ral r e s ort w h e re i n I do n o t o fte n ma ke my

ap p e a r a n c e ; s om e ti m e s I am se e n th r u s t i n g m y h e ad i n to a r ou n d of

po l i ti c i a n s at W i ll s [C o ffe e h ou s e ]an d l i s te n i n g
’
w i th g re a t a tt e n t i on to
the n ar r a ti v e s th a t are l i ttl e c i r c u l ar au di e n c e s S om e ti m e s
m a d e i n th o s e .

I s m o k e a p i p e a t C hi l d s an d w hi l s t I s e e m a tte n ti v e to n o thi n g b u t
’
, ,

Tb e P os tm a n o v e r h e a r th e c on v e r s a ti on of e v e r y t ab l e i n t h e room
, I .

ap p e ar on S u n d a y n i g h t s at S t J a m e s s a n d s om e ti m e s j o i n th e l i t t l e
’
.
,

c o m m i t t e e o f p o l i t i c s i n th e i n n e r r o o m as o n e w h o c o m e s t o h e ar a n d
,

i m p r ov e M y fa c e i s l i k e w i s e v e r y w e ll k n o w n a t th e Gr e c i an th e Co c oa
'

. ,

T re e a n d i n t h e t h e at e r s b oth o f D r u r y Lan e an d th e H a y m ar k e t I
, .

h av e b e e n t a k e n f o r a m e r c h a n t u p o n t h e E x c h an g e for ab o v e th e s e
'

t e n y e a r s ; a n d s om e ti m e s p as s for a J e w i n th e as s e m b l y o f s to c k job
b e r s a t J o n a t h an s T h u s I l i v e i n th e w or l d r a th e r as a s p e c ta tor
’
.

o f m an k i n d t h an as o n e o f th e s p e c i e s w h i c h i s th e c h ar a c te r I i n
,

t e n d t o p r e s e r v e i n thi s p ap e r .

Th e l ar g e pl ac e which th e s e t w o littl e m agazi n e s h old in

o u r lit e r at u r e s e e m s m os t di s p r op or ti on at e t o th e i r s h or t s p an

of d a s I n t h e s h ort s p ac e o f f ou r e ar s i n which A ddi s on

y .
y
an d S t e e l e w or k e d t og e th e r t h e li ght e s say w a s e s t a bli s h e d as

on e of t h e m o s t i m p o rt an t f or m s of m od e r n lit e rat u r e an d ,

t he lit e rar y m ag azi n e w on i t s pl ac e as t h e e xp re s s i on of t h e

s o ci al li fe of a n ati on .
2 88 E N G LI SH LI T ER ATU R E

an d li s t e n i n g t o h i s d og m ati s m a s t h e G re e k s li s t e n e d t o t h e
v o ic e of th e i r oracl e .

Wh a t i s t h e s e cr e t of thi s as t ou n di n g s p e ct a cl e ? I f t h e
’
r e ad e r t u r n s n a t u ra ll y t o J oh n s on s w o r k s for an e xpl an ati on ,

h e will b e di s app oi n t e d R e a di n g hi s v e r s e s w e fin d n oth i n g

.
,

t o d e li g ht or i n s pi r e u s b u t ra th e r g l oom an d p e s s i m i s m with
, ,

a fe w m ora l ob s e r v ati on s i n r i m e d c ou pl e t s

B u t, v e d th e k n ow i n g a n d t h e
s c a r c e ob s e r , b ol d
F all i n th e g e n e r a l m a s s a c r e o f g ol d ;
W i d e w as ti n g p e s t ! th a t r age s u n c on fi n e d
-
,

An d c r ow d s w i th c ri m e s th e re c or d s of m an ki n d ;
F or g ol d h i s s w or d th e h i r e l i n g r u fli an d ra w s ,
F or g ol d th e hi r e l i n g j u d g e d i s tor ts th e l aw s ;
W e al th h e ap e d on w e a th l n or t ru th n o r s afe t y b u ys ;
1
T h e d an g e r s g a th e r as th e tre as u re s ri s e .

T h at i s e xc e ll e n t c om m on s e n s e b u t it i s n ot p o e t ry ; an d ,
’
it i s n ot n e c e s sar y t o h u n t th r ou g h J oh n s on s b u lky v ol u m e s
for t h e i n for m ati on s i n c e an y m or ali s t c an g iv e u s offh an d
,

t h e s am e d o ct r i n e A S for h i s R a m b l e r e s s ay s on c e s o s u c
.
,

c e s s ful , th ou g h w e m ar v e l at t h e b ig w or d s t h e c a r e fu ll y ,

b al an c e d s e n t e n c e s t h e clas s ic al all u s i on s o n e m i ght a s w e ll

, ,

t r y t o g e t i n t e r e s t e d i n an ol d fa s hi on e d th r e e h ou r s e r m on
-
,
-
.

We r e ad a fe w p ag e s li s tl e s s l y y awn an d g o t o b e d , ,
.

’
S rn c e t h e m an s w or k fail s t o a cc ou n t for h i s l e ad e r s hip
an d i n fl u e n c e , w e e x am i n e h i s p e rs on alit y ; an d h e re e v e ry
thi n g i s i n t e r e s ti n g B e cau s e of a fe w oft q u ot e d p as s ag e s
.
-

’
f r om B o s w e ll s bi og r a ph y J oh n s on a pp e ar s t o u s a s an
,

e cc e n t r ic b e a r w h o am u s e s u s b
, y h i s g ro wli n g s an d cl u m s
y
an t ic s. B u t th e r e i s an oth e r J oh n s on a b rav e p ati en t ki n dl y , , , ,

r e li g i ou s s o u l
, w h o a s G old s m ith s aid h ad
,
n othi n g o f t h e ,

b e ar b u t h i s s ki n a m an w h o b attl e d l i k e a h e ro ag ai n s t

p ov e r t y an d p ai n an d m e l an ch ol y an d t h e awf u l fe ar of d e ath ,

an d w h o o v e r c am e th e m m an fu ll y Tna t t r ou b l e p a s s e d .

aw a
y ; s o w i ll t a i s s an
g t h
, e s orr o wi n g D e o r i n t h e fi r s t o l d
1 F r om Th e Vi y
an t of H u m an W i s he s ”
.
 EI G H TEE N TH —
C E NTU R Y LI TE R ATU R E 2 89

An gl o S ax on l yr ic
-
; xp r e s s e s t h e g r e a t a n d
an ds u ff e r th at e -x

i n g s pi r it of J oh n s on w h o i n t h e fa c e of e n or m ou s ob s t acl e s
,

n e v e r l os t fa ith i n God or i n hi m s e l f T h ou g h h e w a s a r e a o .

t i on ar y i n p olitic s u ph oldi n g t h e ar bit rar y p ow e r of ki n g s an d

,

opp o s i n g t h e g r ow rn g lib e r t y o f t h e p e opl e y e t h i s p olitic a l ,

th e or i e s lik e h i s m an n e r s w e r e n o d e e p e r th an hi s s ki n ; for
, ,

i n al l Lon d on th e r e w as n on e m o re ki n d t o t h e w r e tc h e d an d ,

n on e m o r e r e ad t o e xt e n d a n o p e n h an d t o e v e ry s t ru gg li n g
y
m an an d w om an w h o c r o s s e d h i s p ath W h e n h e p as s e d .

p oor h om e l e s s Ar ab s s l e e pi n g i n t h e s t re e t s h e w o u ld s lip a
c oi n i n t o t h e i r h an d s i n or d e r th at th e y m i ght h av e a h appy ,

aw a k e n i n g ; fo r h e hi m s e l f k n e w w e ll wh a t it m e an t t o b e
”
h u n g ry S u ch w as J o h n s on
. a m a s s of g e n ui n e m a n h ood , ,

1
a s C ar l l e c all e d h im an d as s u ch m e n l ov e d an d h on o re d h i m
y , ,
.

Li fe of Joh n s on bo rn i n Li c hfie ld S tafford shi re i n

. J ohn son w as , ,

1 70 9 H e w as the son of a s m all b o oks e ll e r a p oor m an b u t i n t e l l i

.
, ,

n t an d fon d of li t e ra tu re as b o ok s e ll e r s i n var i ably w e re i n th e go o d

g e ,

d a y s w h e n e v e ry tow n had i ts b ooks h op From hi s c h il d h ood J ohn .

s on had to s t ru ggl e agai n s t p h y si c al d e form i t an d di se as e an d t h e

y
c on se qu e n t d i si n c li n a ti on to hard w ork H e p r e p ar e d for t h e u n i .

ve rs i ty p artl y i n th e s c hool s b u t l arge ly b y o m n ivorou s re adi n g i n

, ,

hi s fath e r s s hop an d w h e n h e e n t e re d O x ford h e had r e ad m o re

’
,

c l as s i c al au th o rs than had m os t of th e r d a te s B f r e fi n i shi n g

g a u e o .

h i s c ou rse he h ad to l e ave th e u n i v e r s i t y o n a c c o u n t of h i s p ove r t y ,

an d at on c e h e b e an h i s l on t l h k w i t t o
g g s ru gg e as a a c r e r e a rn

hi s livi n g .

At tw e n t y five y e ar s h e m arri e d a w o m an ol d e n ou gh to b e h i s
-

m oth e r — a ge n u i n e l o v e m atc h h e c all e d i t

, an d w i th h e r d ow ry , ,

of £80 0 t h e y s ta rt e d a r iva t e s c h o ol t o e th e r w h i c h w as a d i sm al
p g ,

fai lu r e The n w i thou t m on e y o r i n fl u e n t i al fri e n d s h e l e ft hi s ho m e

.
, ,

an d w i fe i n Li c hfie l d an d t ram e d to Lo n d on a c c om an i e d on ly b
p p y ,

D avi d G arr i c k aft e rw ard s th e fam ou s ac tor w ho had b e e n on e of

, ,

hi s p u p il s H e re l e d b y ol d a ssoc i ati on s J ohn s on m ad e h i m se l f

.
, ,

1 A v e ry l v b l id o a e s e of J oh n s on s
’
n at u re is s h ow n b y hi s d o i ng p e n an c e i n t he p u b
l i c m a r ke t pl f hi
a ce or s u n fil i al c on d u c t a s a b oy . (See ,
i n H a w t h or n e ’
s Ou r Ol d H om e ,
the il
a rt c e o n L i ch fie l d an d H is s te r li ng m a n h ood i s r e ca ll e d i n h i s fa m ou s

l e tt e r t o L or d Che s t e r fi ld e ,
r e fu s n
gi t he l at t e r s
’
p a t r on a ge for t h e D i ct i on a ry . T he s tu

de n t s h ou ld re a d t h i i id s nc e n t e n t re
,
i i n B os w e ll ’
s L ife o f j o/zn s on .
2 90 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

kn ow n to th e books e ll e rs an d n ow an d the n e arn e d a p e n n y b y ,

w ri t i n g p r e fac e s r e vi e w s an d tran sl at i on s , , .

It w as a d og s life i n d e e d t hat he l e d the re w i th hi s li te rary

’
, ,

bre thre n Man y of t he w ri te rs of th e d ay w ho ar e r id i c u l e d i n Pop e s

. ,
’

he artl e s s D u n ci a d havi n g n o w e al th y p atr o n s to s u p p or t th e m

, ,

li v e d l arge ly i n th e s t re e ts an d tav e rn s sl e e pi n g on an ash he ap or ,

u n d e r a w h arf like ra t s ; gl ad of a c ru s t an d happ y o v e r a s i n gl e

, ,

m e al w h i c h e n abl e d t h e m t o w ork fo r a w hil e w i thou t th e r e m i n d e r

o f h u n ge r A fe w fa v ore d on e s li v e d i n w r e tc he d l od gi n gs i n G ru b
.

S t re e t w h i c h has s i n c e b e c o m e a s y n on y m for th e for tu n e s of s tru g

,

li
g g n w r i t e rs
1
O ft e n J o hn son t e ll s u s h e w a lk e d th e s tr e e t s al l n i gh t
. , ,

l on g i n d r e ary w e ath e r w he n i t w as t o o c ol d t o sl e e p wi thou t fo od

, , ,

o r s h e l te r Bu t h e w ro t e s te ad i l y for th e b ooks e ll e rs an d for t h e

.

Ge n tl e m a n s M ag a zi n e an d p r e s e n tly h e b e c am e kn own i n Lo n d on
’
,

a n d r e c e i v e d e n ou gh w ork to e a rn a b a r e li v i n g .

Th e w o rks w h i c h o c c asi on e d t hi s s m al l s u c c e s s w e r e hi s p oe m ,

Lon d on
”
an d h i s Lif e o
, f tb e P o e t S a v a g e a w r e t c h e d li fe a t b e st , , ,

w h i c h w e r e p e rha p s b e t t e r l e ft w i thou t a bi ograp h e r Bu t h i s su c c e s s .

w a s ge n u i n e thou gh s m all an d p re se n tly th e b o ok s e ll e rs of Lon d on

, ,

ar e c om i n g t o hi m t o as k h i m t o w ri te a di c ti on a r y o f t h e En gli sh

l an gu age I t w as an e n orm ou s w ork taki n g n e arly e ight y e ars

. ,

of h i s t i m e an d l on g b e fo r e h e had fi n i sh e d i t h e had e ate n u p

,

the m on e y w hi c h h e r e c e ive d fo r hi s l ab or I n th e l e i su re i n te r v al s
Th e V
.

of t h i s w o r k h e w r o t e an i ty o f H u m an Wi sh e s an d o t he r

o e m s an d fi n i she d hi s c l ass i c t ra ge d y of I r e n e
p ,
.

Le d b y t h e gre at s u c c e s s of t h e Sp e cta to r J o hn son s tart e d tw o ,

z i
m aga n e s T /ze R a
,
m bl e r
( 75
1 0 — 1 7 5 )2 an d T b c I d l e r
( 5
1 7 8
La t e r th e R a m bl e r e ssay s w e re p u bli she d i n b ook form an d ran
ra i d l t h r ou gh t e n e d iti on s ; b u t t h e fi n an c i al re tu rn s w e r e s m all
p y ,

an d J o hn son s p e n t a l arge p ar t o f h i s e arn in gs i n c hari ty Whe n hi s .

m o t h e r d i e d i n 1 75 9 J ohn son al thou gh on e of th e b e s t kn own m e n

, , ,

i n Lo n d on had n o m on e y an d hu rri e dly fi n i sh e d R as s e l a s h i s on ly

, , ,

i n o rd e r i t i s s aid t o p a y for hi s m o th e r s bu ri al
’
r om an c e , , ,
.

I t w as n o t till 1 76 2 w h e n J ohn son w as fifty thr e e y e ars ol d t hat ,

-
,

hi s li te rar y l ab o rs w e re r e w ard e d i n t h e u su al w ay b y r o y al t y an d h e ,

r e c e ive d from G e o r e II I a y e ar l e n s i on o f t h r e e hu n d r e d p ou n d s
g yp .

Th e n b e gan a li ttl e s u n shi n e i n hi s li fe Wi th J oshu a R e yn old s the . ,

y w fi d t hi d fi i ti G b t t th f
1 I nJ h o D i ti
n s on s
’
c on a r me t nt s e n on : ru -s re e e na e o a s ree
,

in L d
on m
on h i h b i t d b y w it
uc f m ll h i t i
n a e d i ti ,
i d t m po
r y e rs o s a s or e s , c on a r e s , a n e ra r

p d ti ll d G b t t ”
p oe m ; wh
s y m
e n ce a n i e an ro uc on s ca e ru -
s re e .
292 E N G LI SH LI T ER AT U R E

hi s p r e j udic e aga n s i t wh om h e n e v e r u n d e r s t ood

the S c ot ch , ,
”
j u s t a s i n h i s d e fi n iti on o f p e n s i on h e t ak e s o cc as i on t o
, ,

r ap t h e w r it e r s w h o had fl att e r e d th e i r p at r on s s i n c e t h e d a s
y
of E li zab e th ; th o u g h h e aft e r war d s a cc e pt e d a c om for t abl e

p e n s ion for hi m s e l f With ch aract e r i s tic h on e s t y h e r e fu s e d

.

t o alt e r h i s d e fi n iti on i n s u b s e q u e n t e diti on s of t h e D i c t i on a ry .

T h e Li v e s of t/ze P oe ts ar e t h e s i m pl e s t a n d m os t r e ad a bl e
o f h i s l it e ra r w or k s F or t e n e a r s b e f or e b e g i n n i n g th e s e
y y .

Li e s of
v bi og raphi e s h e h ad g ive n hi m s e l f u p t o c on v e r s ati on ,

t h P 09 “
e
an d t h e p on d e r o u s s t y l e of h i s R a m bl e r e s s ay s
h e r e g iv e s w ay t o a light e r an d m or e n at u r al e xp re s s i on As .

c r itici s m s th e y ar e oft e n m i s l e adi n g g ivi n g p r ai s e t o a r tifici al ,

p o e t s lik e Cowl e y an d Pop e and d oi n g s can t j u s tic e or ab u n

, ,

d an t i n j u s t ic e t o n o bl e r p oe t s lik e G ray an d Milt on an d th e y

ar e n o t t o b e c o m p are d with th o s e fou n d i n T h o m a s War t on s
’

H i s t ory of E ng l i s /z P oe t ry which w a s p u bli s h e d i n t h e s am e

,

g e n e r ati on A s
. bi o g r a phi e s h o w e v e r th e
y,a r e e xc e ll e n t r e ad
,

i n g an d w e ow e t o th e m s om e of ou r b e s t k n ow n pict u r e s of
,

t h e e ar l y E n g li s h p oe t s .

Of J oh n s on s p oe m s t h e r e ad e r will h av e e n ou gh i f h e g l an c e
’

ov e r The an it V
y of H u m an W i s he s H i s on l
y s t or
y . ,

R s s e l a s P r i n c e o A b s s i n i a i s a m a tt e r of r he t o
P o e m s an d a f , y ,

E s sa y s r i c r ath e r th a n o f r om an c e b u t i s i n t e r e s ti n g s till
,
.

t o t h e r e ad e r w h o w an t s t o h e ar J oh n s on s p e r s on a l vi e w s of
’

s oci e t
y phil, o s oph
y an d r e lig i on
, A n
y on e of hi s E s s ay s lik e
. ,
.

” ”
th at on R e adi n g or Th e Pe r n ici ou s Eff e ct s of R e v e ry
, ,

will b e e n ou gh t o a cq u a i n t t h e r e ad e r with t h e J oh n s on e s e
st le which w a s o n c e m u ch a d m i r e d an d c opi e d b orat or s
y , y ,

b u t which h appil y ha s b e e n r e pl a c e d b y a m or e n at ur al w ay
o f s p e a ki n g Mos t of h i s w or k s it m u s t b e c on fe s s e d are
. , ,

rath e r ti r e s om e I t i s n ot t o h i s b ook s b u t r ath e r t o t h e

. ,

pict u r e of t h e m an hi m s e l f a s g iv e n b y B os w e ll th at J oh n s on
, ,

ow e s h i s t pl c i o r lit e ra tu r e
g r e a a e n u .
 EI G H TEE NTH — CENTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 2 93

B O S WE L L LI F E
’
S OF J OH N S ON
In J am e s w e ll ( 7
1 B os
4 0 1 7 9 5 ) w e h av e a n o th —
e r e x t rao r d i
n ar
y g fi u r e a s h a,ll o w littl e S c o tch b a rr i s t e r w h o t r o t s a b o ut ,

lik e a d og at t h e h e e l s of h i s b ig m as t e r fran tic at a c ar e s s ,

an d g rov e li n g a t a c u ff a n d ab u n d an t l c on t e n t e d i f on l h
‘

e
y , y
c an b e n e ar h i m an d r e c or d h i s ora cl e s A l l h i s li fe l on g B os .

w e ll s on e am biti on s e e m s t o h ave b e e n t o s h i n e l n t h e r e fl e ct e d
’

g l o r
y o f g r e a t m e n a n d h i s chi e f ,t as k t o r e c or d th e i r s a i
y g n s

a n d d oi n g s Wh e n he cam e t o Lon d on at twe n t y t w o y e ars

.
,
-

of ag e J oh n s on th e n a t t h e b e gi n n i n g of h i s g r e at fam e w as
, , ,

t o thi s i n s at i abl e littl e g l or y s e e k e r lik e a S ilv e r D o ct or t o a -

h u n gry t r ou t H e s ou g ht an i n t r od u cti on as a m an s e e k s
.

g o ld h
, a u n t e d e v e r
y pl a c e wh e r e J oh n s o n d e cl a i m e d u n til i n ,

D av i e s s b ook s t ore t h e s u p r e m e opp or t u n it y c am e T hi s i s hi s

’
.

r e c or d o f t h e g r e a t e v e n t

I w as m u c h ag i ta te d
[ y s sa B os w e ll ] an d ll e c ti n g h i s p re j u d i c e
re c o

ag a i n s t th e S c ot c h , of w hi ch I h ad he a rd m u c h I s ai d to D a v i e s
, ,

D on
’
t te ll h i m w h e re I c om e from .
”
F r om S c otl a n d
”
c ri e d D av i e s
,

ro
g u ish ly . M r J oh n s on
.
”
s ai d I, “
I d o i n d e e d c om e fr om S c otl an d ,

b ut I c a n n ot h e l p i t. ”
T h a t, S ir c ri e d
[ J o h n s on ] ,
“
I fin d i s w h a t a

v e ry g y
r e at o f y o m an
u r c o u n t r y m e n c a n n o t h e l p T hi s s t ro k e s t u n n e d .
”

m e a g ood d e al ; a n d w h e n w e h ad s a t d ow n I f e l t m y s e l f n o t a l i t tl e
e m b arr as s e d an d ap p r e h e n s i v e o f w h at m i h t c om e n e x t
, g .

T h e n for v e ral y e ar s with a p e r s i s t e n cy th at n o r e bu ffs

se ,

c o u ld ab at e an d with a thick s ki n th at n o am ou n t of r idic u l e

,

c ou ld r e n d e r s e n s itiv e h e foll ow s J oh n s on ; for c e s h i s w ay

,

i n t o t h e L it e rary Cl u b wh e r e h e i s n ot w e lc om e i n or d e r t o
, ,

b e n e ar h i s id ol ; c a r r i e s h i m off on a vi s it t o t h e H e b r id e s ;
t alk s with hi m on e v e ry p os s ibl e o c cas i on ; a n d wh e n h e i s ,

n ot i n vit e d t o a f e a s t w a it s ou t s id e t h e h ou s e o r t av e r n i n
,

or d e r t o w alk h om e with h i s m as t e r i n t h e thick f og of t h e

e ar l
y m o r n in
g A n d t h e m o m
. e n t t h e o r acl e i s o u t o f S i g ht

an d i n b e d Bos w e ll p att e r s h om e t o r e c or d i n d e t ail al l th a t h e

,

h a s s e e n a n d h e ar d I t i s t o h i s m i n u t e r e c or d th at w e ow e
.

ou r on l
y p e r fe ct pict u r e of a
g r e a t m an ; a l l h i s v an it y a s
2 94 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

w e ll as hi s gr e at n e s s , h i s p r e j u dic e s , su pe r s tition s , an d e ve n
t he d e t a il s of h i s p e r s on al a pp e ar an c e

T h e r e i s th e g i g a n ti c b od y , th e h u g e fa c e s e am e d w i th th e s c ars of
d i s e as e , th e b row n c o at, th e b l a c k w ors te d s toc k i n g s , th e gr a y w i g w i th
th e s c or c h e d for e top , th e d i rt y h an d s , th e p a re d to the n ai s l b i tte n an d

q u i ck. W e s e e th e e y e s a n d m ou th m o v i n
g w i th c o n v u l s i v e tw i t c h e s ;

w e s e e th e h e a v y f orm r o ll i n g ; w e h e ar i t p u ffi n g ; a n d th e n c om e s th e
W h y , s i r ! an d th e W h at th e n , s i r ? a n d th e N o, s i r ! an d th e
” ” “ ”

You d on t ’
se e y ou r w a y th rough th e q u e s ti on , sir
” I
!

T o B os w e ll c or d w e ar e i n d e bt e d al s o for o u r k n owl e d ge
’
s re

of th o s e fam o u s c on v e rsat i on s th o s e w or d k n o ckd ow n b attl e s

y , , ,

which m ad e J oh n s on fam ou s i n hi s t i m e an d which s t ill m ov e

u s t o w on d e r H e r e i s a s p e ci m e n c on v e r s ati on t ak e n a l m os t
. ,

a t r an d om fr o m a h u n d r e d s u ch i n B os w e ll s i n c om p ar abl e
’

bi og raphy Aft e r li s t e n i n g t o J oh n s on s pr e j u dic e agai n s t ’

V
.

S c otl an d an d h i s d ogm atic u tt e ran c e s on

,
o lt ai r e R ob e rt s on , ,

an d tw e n t o th e r s a n u n for t u n at e th e or i s t b r i n g s up a r e c e n t
y ,

o n t h e p o s s ibl e fu t u r e li fe of b r u t e s q u oti n g s o m e p os
e s sa
y ,

s ibl e a u th o r it
y f r om t h e s a c r e d s c r ipt u r e s

J ohn s on ,
w ho di d n ot l i ke t o h e ar an y thi n g c on c e rn i n g a fu tu r e s t at e

w h i c h w as n o t a u th or i ze d b y th e re
g l
u ar c a n on s o f or th od o xy , d i s c ou r
ag e d th i s t a lk ; an d b e ing offe n d e d at i ts c on t i n u a t i o n , h e w at c h e d an

Opp or t u n i t y to gi v e th e g e n tl e m an a b l ow of r e p r e h e n s i on S o w h e n th e .

p oor s p e c u l a ti s t w i th a s e r i ou s m e tap h y s i c a l p e n s i v e fa c e a dd r e s se d
, , , ,

him B u t re all y s i r w h e n w e s e e a v e r y s e n s i b l e d og w e d on t k n ow ’
, , , ,

w h at t o thi n k o f h i m ; J oh n s on r oll i n g w i th joy at th e th ou g h t w h i c h

”
,

b e am e d i n h i s e y e t u rn e d q u i c kl y r o u n d an d r e p l i e d
,
T ru e s i r ; an d , ,

w h e n w e s e e a v e r y fool i s h f e ll ow w e d on t k n ow w h a t t o th i n k of b i m
’
.
,

H e t h e n r ose u p s tri d e d to t h e fire an d s tood for s om e t i m e l au ghi n g

, ,

a n d e x u l ti n g .

Th e n t h e cl e p r o c e e d s t o t alk of s c or pi on s an d
or a t
n a u ra l
hi s t ory d e n y i n g fact s an d d e m an di n g p r oo fs which
, ,
n o bod y

c ou ld p os s ibly fu r n i s h
He p l
se e m e de a s e d t o t alk o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s op h y T h a t w oo d c oc k s . ,

s ai d h e fl y o v e r th e n o r th e rn c oun tri e s i s p ro v e d b e ca u s e th e y h a v e
, ,

b e e n ob s e rve d a t s e a S w all ow s ce rt ai n l y s l e e p al l th e w i n te r
. A n um .

1 F r om M l
aca u ay s r e
’
vi e w of B os w e ll ’
s Lif e f J o/zns on
o .
2 96 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

Wh e n J oh n son di e d pp or tu n ity c am e for which Bos t he o

w e ll had b e e n watchi n g an d w ait in g s om e tw e n t y y e ar s H e .

w ou ld S hi n e i n t h e w or ld n ow not b y r e fl e cti on b u t b y h i s , ,

ow n l u m i n os it
y H e g a th e r e d t
. og e th e r h i s e n dl e s s n o t e s an d
r e c or d s an d b e ga n t o w r it e h i s bi o gra ph ; b t h did t
, y u e n o
.

h u rry S e v e ral bi og raphi e s of J oh n s on app e ar e d i n t he fou r

.
,

e ar s a ft e r h i s d e ath with o ut di s tu r bi n g B o s w e ll s p e r fe ct
’

y ,

c o m pl ac e n cy A ft e r s e v e n y e ar s l ab or h e g ave t h e w or ld h i s
.
’

L if e of j onn s on I t i s an i m m or t al w or k ; p r ai s e i s s u p e r fl u ou s ;
.

it m u s t b e re ad t o b e app r e ci at e d L ik e t h e G re e k s c u lpt or s .
,

t h e littl e s l av e p r od u c e d a m o r e e n d u r i n g w or k th an t h e g r e a t

m a s t e r T h e m an w h o re a d s it will k n ow J oh n s on as h e k n ow s
.

n o oth e r m an w ho dw e ll s a c r o s s t h e b or d e r ; an d h e wi l l l a ck

s e n s itiv e n e s s i n d e e d i f h e l a d ow n t h e w or k with ou t a g r e at e r
, y ,

l ov e an d app re ci ati on of all g ood lit e rat u r e .

Lat e r Au gu s t an Wr i t e r s W ith J oh n s on w h o s u cc e e d e d . ,

D ry d e n an d Pop e i n t h e chi e f pl a c e of E n g li s h l e tt e r s t h e ,

cl as s ic m ov e m e n t had l ar ge l y s p e n t i t s for c e ; an d t h e l att e r

h al f of t h e e i ght e e n th c e n t u ry g iv e s u s an i m p os i n g array of
w r it e r s w ho di ffe r s o wid e l y that it i s al m o s t im p os s ibl e t o
cl as s i fy th e m I n g e n e ral th r e e s ch ool s of w r it e r s are n otic e
.
,

abl e : fi r s t th e cl as s ici s t s w h o u n d e r J oh n s o n s l e ad i n s i s t e d
’

, , , ,

u p on e l e gan c e a n d r e g u l ar it of s t l e ; s e c on d t h e r om an tic
y y ,

p oe t s lik e Colli n s G ray Th om s on an d B u r n s w h o r e v olt e d

, , , , ,

fro m Pop e s ar tifici al c ou pl e t s an d w rot e of n at u r e an d t h e

’

l
h u m an he ar t ; thi rd t h e e ar l y n ov e li s t s lik e D e foe an d , ,

F i e ldi n g w h o i n t r od u c e d a n e w t y p e of lit e rat u r e

, Th e .

r o m an tic p oe t s a n d t h e n o v e li s t s ar e r e s e r v e d f or s p e ci al

ch apt e r s ; a n d of t he oth e r w r it e r s B e r k e l e y an d H u m e i n
phil os oph y R o b e r t s on H u m e an d G ibb on i n hi s t ory ; Che s , ,

t e r fie ld an d Lad y Mo n t a gu i n l e tt e r w r iti n g ; A d am S m ith

1 Ma ny of t he w r te r s i s h ow a m i gli
n n g of t he l i
c as s c a n d t he r o m an t c i te n d e n c i e s.

l
T h u s G o d s m t h fo i ll
ow e d J oh n s on an d o p p os e d t he ii
ro m an t c s t s b u t hi s D e s e r te d
V
;
i ll g
a e is r om a n t c i in Sp ri it ,
t h ou gh i t s l i
c as s c c ou p e t s a re l lm a os t as m e c h a n c a a s i l
Pope
’
S o B u rke s o ra t on s
s.
’
i a re l
e e gan t ly c l ass c i ”
in l
s ty e , b ut a re ill i
um ne d b y b u r st s
i
of e m ot on an d rom a n t c fee i li n
g.
 EI G H TE ENTH C ENTU R Y LI T ER ATU R E
—
2 97

in ec on om ic s ; Pitt B u r k e F ox an d a s c o r e o f l e s s e r wr it e r?
, , ,

i n p olitic s — w e s e l e ct on ly t w o B u r k e a n d G ibb on wh o s e , ,

w or k s are m o s t t y pic al o f t he Au g u s t an i e t h e e l e gan t cl a s s ic , . . ,

s t l e of p r o s e w r it i n g
y .

ED M U N D B U R KE ( 1 7 9
2 — 1
79 7)
’
To re a d a l l of c oll e ct e d w or k s an d s o t o u n d e r
B u rke s ,

s t an d h i m th or o u g hl y i s S om e thi n g of a t as k
, F e w ar e e q u al .

t o it . O n t h e oth e r h an d t o r e ad s e l e ct i on s h e r e an d th e r e
, ,

as m o s t of u s d o i s t o g e t a w r o n g id e a o f t h e m an an d t o
,

j oin e ith e r i n f u l s om e p rai s e of h i s b r illian t or at or y or i n ,

h on e s t c on fe s s i on th at h i s p e r i od s are p on d e r ou s a n d hi s
id e as o ft e n b u r i e d u n d e r J oh n s on i an v e r bi ag e S u ch ar e t h e .

c on t ras t s t o b e fou n d on s u cc e s s iv e page s of B u rk e s tw e lv e ’

v ol u m e s which c ov e r t h e e n or m ou s r an g e o f t h e p olitical an d
,

e c on om ic th o u ght of t h e ag e a n d which m i n g l e fa ct a n d fan c y

, ,

phil o s oph y s t ati s tic s an d b r illi an t fl i ght s of t h e i m ag i n ati on

, , ,

t o a d e g r e e n e v e r b e for e s e e n i n E n g li s h lit e rat u r e F or B urke .

b e l on g s i n s pi r it t o t h e n e w r om an tic s ch ool whil e i n s t y l e ,

h e i s a m od e l for t h e for m a l cl a s s ici s t s W e c a n o n l y g l an c e .

a t t h e li fe o f thi s m ar v e l o u s I r i s h m an an d th e n c on s id e r hi s ,

pl a c e i n ou r lit e ra t u r e .

Li fe . Bu rke w a s born i n D u blin the son of an I ri sh barri s te r i n

, ,

1 72 9 . Afte r hi s u n i v e rs i ty c o u rs e i n Trin i ty Coll e ge h e c am e to

Lon d on t o s tu d y l aw b u t soon gave u p t h e i d e a to foll ow li t e ra t u re
, ,

w h i c h i n t u r n l e d h i m t o p ol i t i c s H e h ad t he sou l t h e i m agi n a t i on
.
,

of a p o e t an d the l aw w as o n ly a c l o g t o hi s p r ogr e ss H i s tw o fi r st
w orks A V
, .

, i n d i ca ti on of N a tu r a l S oci e ty an d Tb e Or i gi n of ou r
I de a s of tb c S u bl i m e a n d tb e B e a u tif u l b rou gh t hi m p oli t ic al as w e ll
,

a s li te rar y r e c ogn i t i on an d s e v e r al s m al l o ffic e s w e re i n t u rn gi v e n

,

t o h im Wh e n thi r ty si x y e ars o ld h e w as e l e c te d t o Parliam e n t as

.
-

m e m b e r fro m We n d o v e r ; an d for t h e n e x t t hi rty y e ar s h e w as t he

fore m ost fi gu re i n t h e H ou s e of Co m m on s an d t h e m ost e l oqu e n t
o rato r w h i c h th at b od y h as e v e r kn ow n Pu r e an d i n c o rru p tibl e i n
.

h i s p oli t i c s a s in h i s p e rson al l ife n o m o r e l e arn e d o r d e v ot e d

,

s e rvan t of t he Com m on w e alth e v e r pl e ad e d for j u st ic e an d hu m an

2 98 E NG LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

li b e rty H e w as at the s u m m i t of hi s in fl u e n c e at the t im e w h e n th e

.

c o l on i e s w e re s t ru gglin g for i n d e p e n d e n c e ; an d t h e fac t t hat h e

c h am p i on e d t h e i r c au s e i n on e of hi s gr e at e s t s p e e c h e s O n C on ,
”
c ili at ion w i th Am e r i c a gi
, v e s hi m a n ad d e d i n t e r e st i n t h e e y e s of

Am e ri c an r e ad e r s H i s c ham pi on s hip of Am e r i c a i s all t h e m ore

.

r e m arkabl e fr o m t h e fac t t hat i n o th e r m att e r s B u rk e w a s far fr

, , om

l ib e ral H e s e t h i m se lf s qu are ly again st th e t e ac hin gs of the rom an

.

t i c w r i t e r s w ho w e re e n t hu s i as ti c ov e r t h e Fr e n c h R e v ol u ti on ; h e
,
’

d e n ou n c e d th e p rin c i pl e s of t h e R e v ol u tion i sts broke w i th th e l ib

,

e ra l Wh i g p ar t y t o jo i n t h e To ri e s an d w as l ar ge ly i n s tru m e n tal i n
,

brin gi n g on t h e te rr ibl e w ar w ith Fran c e w hi c h re su l t e d i n the,

d ow n fall of N a p ol e on .

I t i s good t o r e m e m b e r t hat i n al l th e s t r i fe an d b i t t e rn e s s of
,

r t y p oli t i c s B u rke h e ld s t e ad ily t o t h e n o bl e s t r s o n al i d e al s of

‘

a p e
p ,

t ru t h an d h on e s ty ; an d t hat i n al l h i s w ork w h e the r o p p os in g t h e

,

sl av e t rad e o r p l e ad i n g fo r j u st i c e fo r Am e r i c a
,
o r p ro t e c t i n g t h e
,

o o n at i v e s of I n d i a fro m t h e g re e d o f c o o ra t i o n s o r s e t ti n g
p r r p
-
,

h i m s e l f a gai n s t t h e p op u l ar s y m p ath y fo r Fran c e i n h e r d e s p e rat e

s tru ggl e h e a i m e d s o l e ly a t t h e w e l far e of hu m an i t y
,
Whe n h e r e
.

tire d on a p e n si on i n 1 794 he h ad w on an d he d e s e r v e d the grat i

, , ,

tu d e an d affe c ti on of t he w hol e n a ti on .

Wo rk s . Th e re th r e e di s ti n ctl y m ark e d p e r i od s i n
ar e

B u r k e s c ar e e r a n d th e s e c or r e s p on d cl os e l y t o t h e y e ar s i n
’

which h e w as b u s i e d with t h e a ffai r s of Am e r ica I n di a an d , ,

F r an c e s u c c e s s iv e l y Th e fi rs t p e r i od w as On e o f p roph e c y
. .

H e had s t u di e d t h e hi s t or y an d t e m p e r of t h e A m e r ic an c ol
on i e s ,
a n d h e w ar n e d E n gl an d of t h e di s a s t e r which m u s t

foll ow h e r p e r s i s t e n c e i n i g n or i n g t h e A m e r ic an d e m an d s ,

an d e s p e ciall y t h e A m e r ic an s pi r it H i s g r e a t S p e e ch e s
. On ,

Am e r ic an Ta x ati on an d
”
O n Con cili at i o n with Am e r ica
”
,

w e r e d e live r e d i n 1 774 an d 1 775 p r e c e di n g t h e D e cl arati on

,

of I n d e p e n d e n c e I n thi s p e r i od B u r k e s l a b or s e e m e d al l i n
’
.

vai n h e l os t h i s c au s e an d En g l an d h e r g r e at e s t c ol on y
,
.

Th e s e c on d p e r i od i s o n e o f d e n u n ci ati on r ath e r th an of
p r oph e c y E n gl an d had w on I n dia ; b u t wh e n B u r k e s t u di e d
.

t h e m e th od s o f h e r vict ory a n d u n d e r s too d t h e s ou ll e s s w ay

i n which m illi on s of poor n ati ve s w e re m ad e t o s e rv e t he
 EI G H TEE NTH CE NTU R Y -
LI TER ATU R E 2 99

in t e r e s t s of an En gli s h m on op ol y h i s s ou l ros e i n r e v olt an d , ,

ag ai n h e w as t h e ch am pi on of an opp r e s s e d p e opl e H is tw o .

t t p ch f thi p i d T h e N a b o b o f A r c ot s
’
e e e e s o s e r o are
g r a e s s
”
D e bt s an d h i s t r e m e n d ou s I m p e a ch m e n t of Wa rr e n H as t
”
i n gs . Aga i n h e a pp ar e n tl y l o s t hi s c au s e th ou g h h e w a s s till ,

fi g hti n g on t h e s id e of r ig ht H as ti n g s w as acq u itt e d an d t h e

.
,

s p oli ati on of I n dia w e n t on b u t t h e s e e d s of re for m w e r e s own ,

an d g r e w an d b o r e fr u it lo n g aft e r B u r k e s l ab o r s w e r e e n d e d
’
.

T h e thi r d p e r i od i s c u r i ou s l y e n o u gh on e o f r e a cti o n
, , .

Wh e th e r b e cau s e t he h orror s of t h e Fr e n ch R e v oluti on had

fr ig ht e n e d h i m with t h e d an g e r o f p opul ar lib e r t y o r b e c au s e ,

hi s ow n advan c e i n offi c e a n d p ow e r had m ad e h i m s id e u n

c on s cio u s l y with t h e u pp e r cl as s e s i s u n k n own Th at h e w a s , .

a s s i n c e re an d n o bl e n ow as i n al l h i s p r e vi o u s li fe i s n ot

q u e s t i o n e d . H e b ro k e with t h e lib e ra l W hi g s a n d j o i n e d
for c e s with t h e r e a cti on ar y Tor i e s H e opp os e d t he r o m a n tic
.

w r it e r s w h o w e r e on fir e with e n thu s ias m ov e r t h e F r e n ch

,

R e v oluti on an d thu n d e r e d aga i n s t t h e d an g e r s which t h e

,

r e v ol u ti on ar
y S pi r it m u s t b r e e d f o r g e tti n g th at it w as a r e v o
,

lu t i on which had m ad e m od e rn E n g l an d p os s ibl e H e r e wh e r e . ,

w e m u s t j u d g e h i m t o h av e b e e n m i s t ak e n i n h i s c a u s e h e ,

s u cc e e d e d for th e fi r s t ti m e
’
I t w a s d u e l ar ge l y t o B u r k e s
.

i n fl u e n c e th a t t h e g r owi n g s y m p ath y for t h e F r e n ch p e o pl e

w as ch e ck e d i n E n g la n d an d w ar w a s d e cl ar e d whi ch e n d e d
, ,

i n t h e fr i g ht fu l vict or i e s of Tr afa l gar an d Wat e r l oo .

B u r k e s b e s t k n own w or k o f thi s p e r i od i s h i s R efl e ct i on s

’

on tb e F r e n cb R e v ol u t i on which h e p oli s h e d an d r e vi s e d ag a i n
,

Es s ay o n an d agai n b e for e it w as fi n ally p r i n t e d Thi s am .

Re V OI U fi On
b i t i o u s lit e rary e s s ay th ou g h it m e t with r e m ar k
,

abl e s ucc e s s ,
i s a di sapp oi n t m e n t t o t h e r e ad e r T ho u gh of .

Ce ltic bl ood B ur k e did n ot u n d e r s t an d t h e F r e n ch or t h e

, ,

p ri n cipl e s for which t h e c om m on p e opl e w e r e fi ghti n g i n th e ir

l
ow n w a
y ; a n d h i s d e n u n ci ati on s a n d a p os t r o ph e s t o F r an c e

1 A m u ch m ore i n t e r e s t i ng w ork i s Th om as Pa i ’
ne s i
R i g /i ts of M a n , w h ch w a s w r tt e n i
in an sw e r to B ur k ’
e s e s sa y , an d i
w h ch had e n or m ou s i l
n fl u e n c e i n E n g an d a n d Am e r c a . i
 3 00 E N G LI S H LI TER AT U R E

s u g ge s t
p re a ch e r with ou t h u m or h am m e r i n g aw ay at si n n e r s
a ,

w h o are n o t p re s e n t i n h i s c on g r e g ati on Th e e s s ay h as fe w .

ill u m i n ati n g id e as b u t a g r e at d e a l of J oh n s on ian r h e t or ic

, ,

which m ak e i t s p e r i od s t i re s om e n otwith s t an di n g ou r ad m ir a ,

t ion for t h e b r illian cy of i t s au th or Mor e s i gn ifican t i s on e of .

B u r k e s fi r s t e s s ay s A P b i l os op lzi ca l I n q u i ry I n to tlze Or ig i n
’

a e S u b l i m e a n d B e a u t f u l which i s s om e ti m e s
o Ou r I d e a s o
f f t i ,

re a d i n or d e r t o s h o w t h e c on t r a s t i n s ty l e with A ddi s on s
’

”
Sp e c ta tor e s s ay s on t h e Pl e as u r e s o f t h e I m ag i n ati on .

’
B u r k e s b e s t k n ow n S p e e ch e s O n C on cili a t i o n with ,

” ”
Am e ric a Am e r ic an Ta x ati on
,
an d t h e I m p e a ch m e n t of
,

B u rk e s ’ W a r r e n H a s ti n
g s
”
ar e s till m u ch s t
, u di e d i n o u r
01 3 11011 8 s ch ool s as m od e l s o f En li s h p ro s e ; an d thi s fa ct
g
t e n d s t o g iv e th e m an e x ag g e r at e d lit e rary i m p or t an c e i e we d . V
p u r e l y a s lit e rat u r e th e y h av e fau lt s e n ou gh ; an d t h e fi r s t
,

of th e s e s o ch ar a ct e r i s tic o f t h e Cl as s ic A g e
,
i s th at th e y ,

ab o u n d i n fin e r h e t o r ic b u t l a ck s i m plicit 1 I n a s t r ict s e n s e
y .
,

th e s e e l o q u e n t s p e e ch e s ar e n ot lit e rat u r e t o d e light t h e ,

r e ad e r an d t o s u e t id b t t di i h t o r ic an d i n
gg s e as u s u e s n r e ,

m e n t a l c on c e n t r ati on Al l thi s h ow e ve r i s on t h e s u r fac e

.
, , .

A ca r e fu l s t u d y o f an y of th e s e th r e e fam ou s s p e e ch e s r e v e al s
c e r t ai n ad m i rabl e q u aliti e s which a cc ou n t for t h e i m p o rt an t
pl ac e th e y ar e g iv e n i n t h e s t u d y o f E n gli s h F ir s t a s s h ow . ,

i n g t h e s t at e li n e s s an d t he r h e t or ic al p ow e r of ou r l an g u ag e ,

th e s e s p e e ch e s ar e al m o s t u n r ival e d S e c on d th ou gh B ur k e . ,

s p e ak s i n p r o s e h e i s e s s e n ti all y a p oe t wh os e i m ag e ry lik e
, , ,

th a t of Milt on s p r o s e w or k s i s m or e r e m ark abl e th an th a t of

’

m an y of o u r w r it e r s of v e r s e H e s p e a k s i n fi g u r e s i m ag e s
. , ,

s m b ol s ; a n d t h e m u s ic al c ad e n c e o f h i s s e n t e n c e s r e fl e ct s
y

1 I n t he s am e y
775 , i n w h ch B u r e s m agn ce n t
e a r, 1 i k ’
ifi ora t o n w as Con c ili i at on
”
i
de liv e r e d , Pa t r c ik k l li l
H e n r y m a de a r e m ar a b e t t e S pe e c h b e for e a gat h e r n g o f d e e ga te s i l
in V i i i
r g n a . B ot h m e n w e r e
p ea d n g t h l
e s a m e c a i
u se o f j i
u s t c e , an d w e r e a ct u at e d b y t he

i i l v
s a m e h gh d e a s . A e r y n t e re s t n i
g co n t r as t ,
h i
o w e e r ,
m a y b e d raw n b v
e t w e e n t h e m e th

o d s a n d th e e ffe ct s o f H e n r y s s e e ch a n d of B u rk e s m or e b r
’
p
’
a n t o ra t on . B ur e illi i k
k l
m a e s u s w o n d e r a t h i s e ar n n g , h i s b r i illi l
a n c y , h i s e o q u e n c e ; b u t h e d oe s n o t m o e v
i
u s to a ct on . Pat r c ik ll i
H e n r y c a s u s , a n d w e S p r n g t o fo ow hi m . Th at s u gge s t s t he ll
l i
e sse n t i a d ffe re n ce b e t w e e n t he t w o o r at or s .
3 02 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

as t h e m oral l aw H e n ce ,
th ou g h h e app are n tl y fail s o f hi s
.

i m m e diat e d e s ir e i n e a ch of th e s e th re e o rati on s t h e p r in cipl e ,

for which h e c on t e n d s c an n ot fail A s a m od e rn w r it e r say s .

’
of L i n c o l n Th e fu ll r ich fl ood of h i s li fe t h ro u g h t h e n ati on s
, ,

pul s e i s y e t b e ati n g an d hi s w ord s ar e s till p ot e n t i n s h api n g

t h e c ou rs e of E n gli s h p olitic s i n t h e w ay of j u s tic e .

E D WAR D
G I B B ON ( 1 73 7— 1 794 )
To u n d e r s t an d B u r k e o r J oh n s on on e m u s t r e ad a m u lti ,

t u d e of b o ok s an d b e wary i n h i s j u d gm e n t b u t with G ibb on

t h e t a s k i s c om p ar at iv e l y e a sy for on e h a s on l y t o c on s id e r ,

t w o b oo k s h i s M e m oi r s a n d t h e fi r s t v ol u m e ot h i s H i s tory
'

, ,

t o u n d e r s t an d t h e au th or I n h i s M e m oi r s w e h ave an i n t e r
.

’
e s ti n g r e fl e cti on o f G ibb on s ow n p e r s on alit a m an w h o —
y ,

l o ok s with s ati s facti on on t h e m at e r i al s id e o f th in g s w ho ,

’
s e e k s alw a s t h e e as i e s t p ath fo r hi m s e l f a n d av o id s li fe s
y ,
"
di ffi c u lti e s an d r e s p on s ibiliti e s I s i gh e d as a l ov e r ; b u t I
.

”
o b e e d a s a s on h e s a s wh e n t o s a v e h i s i n h e r it an c e h e
y , y , , ,

g a v e u p t h e w om an h e l o v e d an d c a m e h o m e t o e n j o
y t h e

pat e rn al l oav e s an d fi s h e s Th at i s s u gg e s tiv e of t h e m an s

.
’

wh ol e li fe H i s H i s tory on t h e o th e r han d i s a r e m ar kabl e

.
, ,

w or k I t w as t h e fi rs t i n o u r l an gu ag e t o b e w r itt e n on s c i e n
.

t i fic p r i n cipl e s an d with a s olid b a s i s of fact

, an d t h e s t l e i s
y
t h e v e ry cli m a x of th a t cl as s ici s m W hich h ad r u l e d E n g l an d f or
an e n ti re c e n t u r
y I t s c om bi n ati on o f hi s t or ic a l fa ct a n d lit e r a r
.
y
s t l e m a k e s Tb e D e c l i n e a n d Fa l l o h e R om a n E mp i re t h e on e
y f t
”
thi n g of G ibb on s li fe t h at i s w or thy t o b e r e m e m b e r e d
’
.

Gi b b on s H i s to r y
’
F o r m an y y e ar s G ibb on ha d m e dit at e d
. ,

lik e Milt on u p on an i m m or t al w or k an d had t r i e d s e v e ra l

, ,

hi s t or ical s u bj e ct s o n l y t o g iv e th e m u p idly I n h i s j ou r n a l
, .

h e t e ll s u s h ow h i s va g u e r e s ol u ti on s w e r e b rou gh t t o a fo c u s .

I t w as at R om e , on th e fi ft e e n th of O c tob e r 1 76 4 as I s at , , m usin g
am i d s t th e ru i n s of th e C a p i t ol w hi l e t h e b a re fo ote d fri a rs w e r e
,
s i n gin g

v e s p e rs i n th e T e m p le of J u p i te r , th a t th e i d e a o f w ri t i n g th e d e c i n e l an d

fa ll o f th e cit y fi r s t s tar te d to m y m i n d .
 E I G H TE E NTH —
C E NTU R Y LI T ER ATU R E 3 03

Tw e lv e y e ar s l at e r ,
in 1 776 , G ibb on p u bli s h e d t he fi rs t v o l»

um e o f Tb e D e cl i n e and Fa ll o
f tae R om a n E mp i r e ; an d t he

e n or m ou s s u cc e s s of t h e w or k e n c ou rage d h i m t o go o n with
t h e oth e r fiv e v ol u m e s which w e r e p u bli s h e d at i n t e r val s
,

d u r i n g t h e n e xt tw e lv e y e a r s Th e H i s t ory b e gi n s with t h e.

r e i g n of T raj an i n A D 9 8 an d
, . b u ild s a s t rai g ht R om an
.
,

”
r oa d th r o u gh t h e c on fu s e d hi s t or i e s of thi r t e e n c e n t u ri e s ,

e n di n g with t h e fa ll o f t h e B y zan ti n e E m pi r e i n 1 4 5 3 Th e .

s c op e of t h e H i s t or y i s e n o rm ou s I t i n cl u d e s n ot on l y.

t he d e cli n e of t h e R om an E m pi r e b u t s u ch m ovem e n t s a s t h e ,

d e s c e n t of t h e n or th e r n b ar b ar i an s t h e S p r e ad o f C h r i s ti an it y , ,

t h e r e or ga n i zat i on of t h e E u r op e a n n at i on s t h e e s t a bli s h m e n t ,

o f t he
g r e a t E a s t e r n E m pi r e t h e r i s e o f M o h a
, m m e d an i s m ,

a n d t h e S pl e n d or of t h e Cr u s ad e s O n t h e on e h an d it l a ck s
.

phil o s ophical i n s ight b e i n g s ati s fi e d with fa ct s with ou t c om

,

p re h e n din g t h e ca u s e s an d a s G ibb on s e e m s l a cki n g i n ,

abilit
y t o u n d e r s t an d s pi r it u a l an d r e li g i ou s m o v e m e n t s it i s ,

u tt e r l i n ad e q u at e i n i t s t r e at m e n t o f t h e t r e m e n d ou s i n fl u
y
e n c e of C h r i s ti an it O n t h e o t h e r ha n d G ibb on s s ch o l a r
’

y . ,

s hip l e a v e s littl e t o c r itici s e ; h e r e ad e n or m ou s l S i ft e d h i s

‘

y ,

fact s o u t of m u ltit u d e s of b ook s a n d r e c or d s a n d th e n m ar ,

s h a l e d th e m I n t h e i m p os i n g arr a with which w e h a v e g row n

y
fa m ili ar Mor e ov e r h e i s s i n g u l ar ly j u s t an d d i s c r i m i n ati n g
.
,

i n t h e u s e o f al l d oc u m e n t s an d au th or iti e s at h i s c om m an d .

H e n c e h e h as g iv e n u s t h e fi r s t hi s t ory i n E n g li s h th at ha s
b orn e s u cc e s s fu ll y t h e t e s t of m od e r n r e s e ar ch an d s ch o l a r s hip .

T h e s t y l e o f t h e w o r k i s a s i m p os i n g a s h i s g r e at s u bj e ct .

I n d e e d wit h al m os t an y o th e r s u bj e ct t h e s on or ou s r oll o f h i s
,

m aj e s tic s e n t e n c e s w ou ld b e ou t o f pl ac e Whil e it d e s e r v e s .

al l t h e a dj e ctiv e s th at h av e b e e n a ppli e d t o it b e n th u s i as tic

y
ad m i r e rs ,fi n i s h e d e l e gan t S pl e n did r ou n d e d m as s iv e s on o
, , , , ,

r ou s , c opi ou s e l ab o rat e or n at e e xh au s tive

, , i t m u s t b e c on
, ,
-

fe s s e d th ou g h on e whi s p e r s t h e c on fe s s i on th at t h e s t y l e
, ,

s o m e ti m e s o b s c u r e s o u r i n t e r e s t i n t h e n ar r at iv e A s h e .

s i ft e d h i s f a ct s fro m a m u ltit u d e o f s o u r c e s s o h e oft e n hid e s ,

3 4
0 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

th e m a gai n dl e s s p e r i od s an d o n e m u s t oft e n s i ft t h e m
in en ,

o u t a ai n i n o r d e r t o b e q u it e s u r e of e v e n t he s i m pl e fact s
g
'
.

An oth e r d rawb a ck i s th a t G ibb on i s h op e l e s s l y w or ldly i n h i s

p oi n t of vi e w ; he l ov e s p ag e an t s an d c rowd s r ath e r th an i n
d iv i d u al s an d h e i s l a cki n g i n e n th u s i as m a n d i n s pi r it u al
,

i n si g ht Th e r e s u lt i s s o fran kl y m at e r i al at ti m e s th at on e
.

w on d e r s i f he i s n ot r e adi n g of for c e s o r m achi n e s r ath e r ,

th an of h u m an b e i n g s A littl e r e adi n g o f h i s H i s t ory h e r e

.

an d th e r e i s an e xc e ll e n t thi n g l e avi n g on e i m p r e s s e d with

,

t h e e l e gan t cl as s ic al s t y l e a n d t h e s ch ol ar s hip ; b u t a c on ti n
u e d r e adi n i v t t l v l n in f i m plicit f
g s e r
y pa o e a e u s o g g o r s
y o r ,

n a tu ral n e s s an d a b o v e a l l for t he l w f n th u s i as m which

, , g ,o o e

m ak e s t h e d e ad h e r oe s liv e on c e m or e i n t h e w r itt e n p ag e s .

Thi s j ud gm e n t h ow e v e r m u s t n ot o b s c u r e t h e fa ct th at
, ,

t h e b ook had a r e m ar k abl y l ar g e s al e a n d th a t thi s of it s e l f , ,

i s an e vid e n c e th at m u ltit u d e s of r e ad e r s fo u n d it n ot on l y
e r udit e , but r e ad abl e an d i n t e r e s ti n g .

II . TH E R E VI V
AL OF R O MAN T I C PO E T R Y

T he o l d o r d e r c h an e
g y i e l d i n g p l ac e to n e w ;
th ,
An d G o d fu lfill s H i m s e l f i n m a n y w a y s ,

Le s t o n e g oo d c u s t o m S h ou l d c o rr u p t t h e w or l d .

Te n n y s on s Ar th u r
’
T h e Pas s i n g o f .

Th e Me an i n g of R o m an t i ci s m W hil e D ry d e n Pop e a n d .
, ,

J oh n s on w e re s ucc e s s iv e l y t h e dict at or s of En gli s h l e tt e r s ,

an d whil e u n d e r th e i r l e a d e r s hip t h e h e r o ic c o u pl e t b e c a m e
, ,

t h e fas hi on of p oe t ry an d lit e rat u r e i n g e n e ra l b e c am e s ati r ic

,

or c ritic al i n S pi r it an d for m a l i n e xp r e s s i on a n e w r om an tic

, ,
’
m ov e m e n t q u i e tl y m ad e i t s app e ar an c e Th om s on s Tb e .

S e a s on s ( 1 73 0) w as t h e fi r s t n o t e w or th y p o e m of t he r o m a n
tic re vival an d th e p o e m s an d t h e p oe t s i n c r e as e d s t e adil y i n
n u m b e r an d i m p or t an c e till i n t h e ag e o f Wor d s w ort h an d
,

S c ott t h e s pi r it of R om an tici s m d om i n at e d o u r lit e r at u re

,

m o r e c om pl e t e l y th an Cl as s ici s m h ad e v e r d on e Thi s r om an tic .

 3 0 6 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

’
child re n Pop e h ad n o app re ci abl e h u m an it y ; S wift s w or k i s
.

a fr i g ht fu l s at i r e ; A ddi s on d e lig ht e d p olit e s o ci e t y b u t had ,

n o m e s s ag e f or pl ai n p e o pl e whil e e v e n J oh n s on with al l h i s ,

k i n d n e s s h ad n o fe e li n g f or m e n i n t h e m a s s b u t s u pp ort e d
“

, ,

I
S ig R ob e rt Walp ol e i n h i s p olic y of l e tti n g e vil s a l on e u n til
‘
-

for c ed b y a r e v ol u ti on t o t ak e n otic e of h u m an it y s app e al

’
'
f
’
.

With t h e r o m an tic r e vival al l thi s w as ch an g e d Whil e H ow .

ar d w as w or ki n g h e r o ic a ll fo r p r i s on r e for m an d W ilb e r for c e

y ,

for t h e lib e ra ti on of t he s l av e s G ray w r ot e h i s s h or t an d

V
,

”
s i m pl e an n al s of t h e p oor an d G old s m ith h i s D e s e r te d
,
i l l ag e ,

an d Cowp e r s an g ,

My c ar i s p ai n e d ,
My s ou l is sic k w i th e ve ry y
d a s r e p or t
’

O f w r on g an d ou t r ag e w i th w h i c h e a r th is fill e d .

T h e re i s no fl e sh i n m an
’
s o b d u ra te h e a r t,
I t d oe s n ot fe e l for m a n .
1

Thi s s
y m p ath
y f or t h e p oor an d
thi s c r y agai n s t O pp r e s s i on
, ,
”
w t r on g e r a n d s t r on g e r till it c u l m i n at e d i n B bb
g r e s o
y
B u rn s w ho m or e th an an y oth e r w r it e r i n an y l an g u age i s
, , ,

t h e p oe t of t h e u n l e tt e re d h u m an h e ar t .

5 . T h e r o m a n tic m ov e m e n t w as t h e e xp r e s s i on o f i n divid u a l
n i u s r ath e r th an o f e s t abli s h e d r u l e s I n c on s e q u e n c e t h
g e e . ,

lit e ra t u r e o f t h e r e viva l i s as var i e d as t he ch ara ct e r s an d

m o od s of t h e di ff e r e n t w r it e r s Wh e n w e r e ad Pop e for .
,

i n s t an c e w e h av e a g e n e ra l i m pr e s s i on of sam e n e s s as i f all
, ,

h i s p oli s h e d p oe m s w e r e m ad e i n t h e s am e m ac h i n e ; b u t i n
t h e w o r k of t h e b e s t r om an tici s t s th e r e i s e n dl e s s v ar i e t y .

T o r e ad th e m i s lik e p as s i n g th rou g h a n e w vill ag e m e e ti n g ,

a s c or e of di ffe r e n t h u m an t p e s n d fi n di n g i n e ach on e
y a ,

s om e thi n g t o l o v e or t o r e m e m b e r N at u r e an d t h e h e art of .

m an ar e as n e w a s i f w e had n e v e r s t u di e d th e m H e n ce in . ,

r e adi n g t h e r om an tici s t s w h o w e n t t o th e s e s o u r c e s for th e i r

,

m at e r i al w e ar e s e ld om w e a ri e d b u t o ft e n s u r p r i s e d
,
a n d t he

s u r p r i s e i s lik e th at o f t h e s u n r i s e o r t he s e a which a lw ay s , ,

1 F r om Tb e Ta s b , B oo k IL
 E I G H T EENTH C E NT U R Y LI TER ATU R E —
3 07

offe r s s om e ne w b e a ut y an d s tir s us d e e pl y , as i f w e had

ne ve r it b e for e
se e n .

6 Th e r om an t ic m ov e m e n t whil e it foll ow e d i t s o w n
.
,

g e n i u s w a s n ot alt og e th e r u n g u id e d
, S t r ictl y s p e a ki n g th e r e .
,

i s n o n e w m ov e m e n t e ith e r i n hi s t ory or i n lit e rat u r e ; e a ch

g r o w s o u t o f s o m e g o o d thi n g which h a s p r e c e d e d it a n d ,

l o ok s b a ck with r e v e r e n c e t o p as t m a s t e r s S p e n s e r S h ak e . ,

s p e ar e an d,
Milt on w e re t h e i n s pi rati on of t h e rom an t ic
r e viv al ; a n d w e c an h ar dl r e ad a p oe m of t h e e ar l r o m an
y y
t i c i s t s with ou t fi n di n g a s u gg e s ti on o f t h e i n fl u e n c e o f on e of
1
th e s e gr e at l e ad e r s .

Th e r e ar e v ar i o u s oth e r ch ara ct e r i s tic s of R om an tici s m ,

b u t th e s e s i x — t h e p r ot e s t ag a i n s t t h e b on d ag e of r u l e s t h e ,

r e tu rn t o n at u r e an d t h e h u m an h e ar t , t h e i n t e r e s t i n old
.

s agas an d m e di ae va l r o m an c e s a s s u g ge s t iv e of a h e r o ic ag e ,

t h e s y m p a th y for t h e t oil e r s of t h e w or ld t h e e m ph a s i s u p o n ,

i n divid u a l g e n iu s an d t h e r e t u rn t o Milt on a n d t h e Eli za

,

b e t han s i n s t e a d of t o Pop e an d D ry d e n for lit e rar y m od e l s

, ,

-
a r e t h e m os t n otic e abl e a n d t h e m o s t i n t e r e s ti n g Rem em .

b e ri n g th e m w e s h all b e tt e r app r e ciat e th e w or k of t he fol

,

l owi n g w r it e r s w h o i n va ry i n g d e g r e e ill u s t rat e t he r e vival

, ,

of r om an tic p oe t r i n t h e e i ht e e n t h c e n t u r
y g y .

T H OM A S G R AY ( 1 71 6 1 771 ) —

Th e c u r fe w t o ll s th e k n e ll o f p ar t i n g d a
y;
T he l o w i n g h e r d w i n d s l ow l y o e r t h e l e a ; ’

T he p l o w m a n h o m e w a rd p l od s h i s w e a r y w a
y ,

An d l e av e s th e w o r l d to d ar k n e s s an d t o m e .

N ow fad e s th e g l i m m e ri n g l a n d s c ap e o n th e S i gh t ,

An d all th e a i r a s o l e m n s ti ll n e s s h o l d s ,
S a v e w h e re th e b e e tl e w h e e l s h i s d r o n i n g fl i gh t ,
An d d r ow s y ti n kl i n gs l u l l t h e d i s ta n t fo l d s .

So b e gi n s t he b e s t k n ow n p oe m i n t he En gli s h lan g u age ,

a p oe m fu l l of t h e g e n tl e m e l an ch ol y which m ar k s a ll e ar l y
1 S e e , fo r in s t an c e , Ph l p
e B gi
s, i g
e f t b
n n R mn tisM mo t f e li t f
o an c ove en ,
or a s o

S pe n se r i an i m it a t or s from 1 700 t o 1 775 .

3 0 8 E NG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

r om an tic p oe t ry I t s h ou ld b e re ad e n ti r e a s a p e rfe ct m od e l
.
,

N ot e v e n Milt on s
“
of i t s ki n d l l Pe n s e ro s o which it
’
.
,

s t r on g l s u g ge s t s e xc e l s it i n b e au t an d s u g ge s tiv e n e s s
y , y .

Li fe of Gray . Th e au t h or of th e fam ou s El e gy i s t h e m os t
l ly
s c h o ar ll bal an c e d of all the e arly rom an ti c p o e t s I n his
an d we -
.

y o u t h h e w as a w e akli n g t h e on ly on e o f tw e l ve c h il d r e n w ho s u r
,

v i v e d i n fan c a n d h i s u n ha y hi l d h d t h t y f h i f t h
y pp c o o e ra n n
y o , s a e r ,

an d th e se p ara ti on from h i s l ove d m o t h e r ga v e t o hi s w hol e li fe t h e

,
,

s tam p of m e l an c holy w h i c h i s n o ti c e abl e i n al l hi s p o e m s At the .

fam ou s E ton sc hool an d agai n a t Cam b ri d ge h e s e e m s t o have fol

, ,

l ow e d hi s own s c hol arly ta ste s rath e r

t han t h e c u rr i c u l u m an d w a s s h oc k e d , ,

like G ibbon at the ge n e ral idl e n e s s ,

an d ai m l e s sn e s s o f u n i v e r s i ty li fe On e .

h ap py r e su l t o f h i s s c h o ol li fe w a s h i s
fri e n d shi p for H o rac e Wal p ol e w ho t o ok ,

hi m ab road for a t hr e e y e a rs t ou r o f t h e
’

Con ti n e n t .

N 0 b e tte r i n d e x o f t h e e ss e n ti al di ffe r
e n c e b e tw e e n t h e c las s i c al a n d t h e n e w

r o m an t i c s c h o o l c an b e i m agi n e d t h an

that w h i c h i s r e ve al e d i n th e l e t t e rs of
G ray an d Ad d i son as t h e y r e c o rd th e i r ,

TH O M AS GR A Y i m p r e ss i o n s of fo r e i g n t r a v e l T h u s w h e n .
,

Ad d i son c ros s e d the Al p s s om e tw e n ty ,

“
fiv e y e ar s b e fore i n go od w e ath e r h e w r ot e : A v e ry t rou bl e s om e
, ,

j ou rn e y . You c an n o t i m agi n e h ow I am pl e a se d w i th t h e s igh t

of a p l ain G ray c ro ss e d the Al p s i n the b e gi n n in g of w i n te r
.
,

w rap p e d i n m u ffs ho od s an d m a s ks o f b e ave r fu r b oot s an d b e a r

, , ,
”
s ki n s, b u t w rot e e c s ta t i c al ly No t a p r e c i p ic e n o t a t orr e n t n ot a
, , ,
”
c li ff b u t i s p r e gn an t w i th r e li gi on an d p o e t ry .

On hi s r e tu rn t o En gl an d G ray l i v e d fo r a s ho rt t i m e at S tok e
,
”
Poge s w he r e h e w ro t e h i s Od e o n E ton
,
an d p rob ably sk e tc h e d
,
”
hi s El e gy w hi c h how e v e r w a s n ot fi n i s h e d t i l l 1 75 0 e i ght y e ars
, , , ,

l at e r D u r i n g t he l a tt e r y e ar s o f h i s s hy an d s c hol arly li fe he w as
.

Profe ss or o f Mod e rn H i s tory an d Lan gu age s a t Cam b ri d ge w i thou t ,

an y t rou bl e s om e w ork o f l e c tu r i n g t o s t u d e n t s H e r e h e gave h i m .

"
s e l f u p t o s tu d y an d to p o e t ry var yi n g hi s w o rk b y, p r o w li n gs

am on g th e m an u sc rip t s of t h e n e w Bri ti sh Mu s e u m an d b y hi s ,
3 10 E N G LI SH LI T ER ATU R E

th e p e rfe ct p oe m o f t he age be l on g s to thi s

m os t ,

p e r i od To r e a d Milt on s I l Pe n s e r os o an d G ray 3 E l e gy
.
’ ”

i s t o s e e th e b e g i n n i n g an d t h e p e rfe cti on of th at lit e r at u re

”
o f m e lan ch ol y which l arg e l y o cc u pi e d En gli sh p oe t s for
m or e th an a c e n t u ry Tw o oth e r W
. e ll k n ow n p o e m s of thi s
-

”
s e c o n d p e r i od ar e t h e Pi n d ar ic od e s Th e Pr og r e s s of Poe s y
,
”
an d Th e B ar d T he fi r s t i s s t r o n gly s u gg e s tiv e of D ry d e n s
’
.

A l e x an d e r s Fe a s t but s h ow s M ilt on s i n fl u e n c e i n a g r e at e r
’ ” ’

”
m e l od y an d var i e t y o f e xp re s s i on Th e B ard . i s i n e v e ry ,

w ay m ore r o m an tic an d or i g i n al
,
An old m i n s t r e l t h e l as t of
.
,

t h e W e l s h s i n g e r s h a lt s K i n g E dw ar d an d h i s ar m y i n a wild
,

m ou n t a i n p a s s an d W ith fin e p oe tic fr e n zy p r oph e s i e s t h e t e rr or

,

an d d e s ol at i o n which m u s t e v e r foll ow t h e t y r an t: F rom i t s

”
fi r s t li n e R u i n s e i ze th e e r u thl e s s K i n g ! t o t h e e n d wh e n
, , ,

t h e old b ar d pl u n g e s from h i s l oft y c rag an d di s app e a r s i n t h e

r iv e r s fl ood t h e p oe m th r ill s with t h e fire of an an ci e n t an d
’

n obl e r a c e o f m e n I t b r e ak s a b s ol u t e l y with t h e cl as s ical

.

s ch ool an d p r o cl a i m s a lit e r ary d e cl ara ti on of i n d e p e n d e n c e .

I n t h e thi r d p e r i o d G r ay t u r n s m om e n t ar il y fr om hi s We l s h
m at e r i a l an d r e v e al s a n e w fi e l d of ro m a n t ic i n t e r e s t i n t w o
”
N o r s e p oe m s T h e F at a l S i s t e r s
, an d Th e D e s c e n t of
”
Odi n G ray t ran s l a t e d h i s m at e r i al fr om t h e Lati n ,

a n d th ou g h th e s e t w o p oe m s l a ck m u ch o f t h e e l e m e n t al

s t r e n g th an d g ra n d e u r o f t h e N or s e s ag as th e y ar e r e m ark
,

ab l e for calli n g att e n ti on t o t h e u n u s e d w e alth o f lit e rar

y
m at e r i al th at w as hidd e n i n N o rth e r n m y th ol ogy To G r ay .

a n d t o Pe r c
y ( w h o p u bli s h e d h i s N or t/ze r n A n ti q u i ti e s i n

1 770) i s d u e i n l ar g e m e a s u r e t h e p r ofo u n d i n t e r e s t i n t h e

ol d N or s e s agas which h a s c on ti n u e d t o o u r o w n d ay .

T ak e n t og e th e r G ray s w or k s form a m os t i n t e re s ti n g c om
’

m e n t ar y on t h e v a r i e d li fe of t h e e i ght e e n th c e n t u r y H e w as .

a s ch ol ar fam iliar with al l t h e i n t e ll e ct u al i n t e r e s t s o f h i s ag e

, ,

an d h i s w o r k h a s m u ch o f t h e p r e ci s i on an d p oli s h of t h e cl a s

s i c al s ch o ol ; b u t h e s h ar e s a l s o t h e r e a wak e n e d i n t e r e s t i n

n at u r e i n c om m on m an an d i n m e di ae v al c u lt u r e an d h i s
, , ,
 El GH TEE NTH CENT U R Y LI TER ATU R E
—
3 I I

wo r k i s g e n e r ally r om a n t ic b oth i n s t y l e an d i n s pir it . T he

sam e c on fl ict b e tw e e n t he cl as s ic an d r om an tic s ch o ol s , an d

t he t r i u m ph of R o m an tici s m i s s h ow n cl e ar l y i n t he
,
m os t
v e r s at il e of G ray s c on t e m p orar i e s Oliv e r G old s m it h
’

, .

OL I VER G O L D S M I T H ( 1 72 8 —
1 774 )
B e c au s e Tb e D e s e r te d V
i ll ga e is on e of t h e m os t fam ili ar
p oe m s i n ou r l an g u ag e G old s m ith i s g e n e r all y giv e n a hi g h
,

pla c e am on g t h e p oe t s of t h e r om an tic d awn B u t t h e .

wh e n w e r e ad it c are
fu ll y t urn s ou t t o b e a
,

r i m e d e s sa i n the s t le
y y
of Pop e s fam ou s E s s ay
’

on M a n ; it o w e s i t s
p op u l ar it y t o t h e s y m p a
th e tic m e m or i e s which it
aw ak e n s r ath e r th an t o
,

i t s p oe tic e xc e ll e n c e It .

i s as a p r os e w r it e r th at
G old s m ith e xc e l s H e i s .

an e s s a i s t
y with , A ddi
s o n s fin e p oli s h but with
’

m or e s y m p ath y f or h u
m an li fe ; h e i s a d r am a
f i s t on e of t h e v e ry fe w
,

w h o h av e e v e r w r itt e n a

O LI V
c om e d y th at c an k e e p E R GO L D S MI T H

i t s p op u l ar it y u n ch a n g e d
w hil e a c e n t u r r oll s o v e r i t s h e a d b ut t p h p th
y g r e a e r e r a s a n
, ,

t h e p oe t an d e s s ay i s t a n d d r am ati s t i s G old s m ith t h e n o v e li s t ,

w h o s e t hi m s e l f t o t h e i m p or t a n t w or k of p u r i f i n
y g t h e e a rl
y
n ov e l of i t s b r u t al an d i n d e c e n t t e n d e n ci e s an d w h o h as iv
g e n

V
,

u s i n Tb e
, i ca r of Wa kefi e l d on e of t h e m o s t e n d u r i n g ch ar
,

a c t e r s i n E n li s h ficti on
g I n hi s. m an n e r e s p e ci all y i n his
,

poe t ry G old s m it h w as t oo m uch i n fl u e n c e d b y hi s fr i e n d

,
 3 I 2 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

J oh n s on an d t h e cl as s ici s t s b u t i n hi s m att e r i n h i s s y m p athy ,

for n atu r e a n d h u m an li fe h e b e l on g s u n m i s t aka bl y t o t h e n e w ,

r o m an tic s ch ool A lt og e th e r he i s t he m o s t ve r s atil e t h e m os t

.
,

ch ar m i n g t h e m os t i n c on s i s t e n t an d t h e m os t l ovabl e ge n i u s
, ,

of al l t h e lit e r a r m e n w h o m ad e fam o u s t h e ag e o f J oh n s o n
y .

Li fe .Gold sm i th s c are e r i s that of an i rre sp on sibl e u n bal an c e d

’
,

e n iu s w h i c h w o u l d m ak e o n e d e s p a i r if t h e m an h i m s e l f d id n o t
g ,

re m ai n so l o v abl e i n all hi s i n c on s i s t e n c i e s H e w a s b orn i n t h e v il .

l age of Pal las I re l an d th e son of a p oo r I r i sh c u rat e w hos e n obl e

o f Tb e V
, ,

c harac t e r i s p o r tray e d i n D r Pri m ro s e i ca r of Wa kefie ld

V
.
, ,

an d i n th e c ou n t ry p a r s o n o f Tb e D e s e r te d i ll g a e. Aft e r an u n sa ti s

fac t o r y c ou r s ev ar i o u s sc hool s w he re h e w as r e gard e d as hop e

in ,

l e ssly s tu p i d G old s m i th e n t e re d T rin i ty Coll e ge D u bl in as a s izar

, “
, , ,

i e a s tu d e n t w ho p ay s w i th l abo r fo r h i s t u i t i on By h i s e sc a p ad e s
. . .

h e w as b ro u gh t i n t o d i s favo r w i th t h e au tho ri t i e s b u t t hat t rou bl e d ,

h i m li ttl e H e w as al so w re tc h e dly p oor w hi c h t rou bl e d hi m l e ss ;

. ,

for w he n h e e arn e d a fe w s h illi n gs b y w r i ti n g b all ad s for s tr e e t

s i n ge r s hi s m on e y w e n t oft e n e r t o id l e b e ggar s t han t o t he p ayi n g
,

of h i s h o n e s t d e b t s Afte r t hr e e y e ars of u n i v e rs i ty life h e ran aw ay

.
,

i n d i m e n ov e l fash i on an d n e arly s tar v e d to d e a th b e fo r e h e w as

-
,

fou n d an d b rou gh t bac k i n d i sgrac e Th e n h e w ork e d a li ttl e an d .

,

o b t ai n e d h i s d e gre e i n 1 74 9 .

S tran ge that s u c h an i d l e an d i rr e s p on sibl e y ou th s hou ld hav e

b e e n u rge d b y h i s fam ily to take holy o rd e rs b u t su c h w as t he fac t .

For t w o y e ars m or e G ol d s m i t h l ab ore d w ith t h e ol o gy o n ly t o b e ,

r e j e c t e d w h e n h e p r e s e n te d h i m s e l f a s a c an d i d at e for t h e m i n i s t ry .

H e t ri e d t e ac hi n g an d fail e d Th e n h i s fan c y t u rn e d t o Am e ri c a
, .
,

an d p ro v i d e d w i th m on e y an d a good h o rs e h e s ta rt e d o ff for Cork

, , ,

w h e r e h e w a s to e m bark fo r t h e N e w Wo rld H e l oafe d al on g t he .

p l e as an t I ri s h w ay s m i s se d hi s s h i p an d p r e se n tly t u rn e d u p c h e e r
, ,

fu lly am on gst h i s r e l at i v e s m i n u s all h i s m on e y an d r idin g a s orry

, ,

n ag c all e d F i d d l e b a c k fo r w h i c h h e had trad e d h i s ow n on t h e w ay

1
.
,

H e b orrow e d fift y p ou n d s m o re an d s tart e d for Lon d on t o s tu d y l aw , ,

b u t sp e e dily l os t hi s m on e y at c ard s an d agai n app e ar e d a m i abl e , ,

an d i rr e s p on s ibl e a s e v e r am on g h i s d e s p a i ri n g r e l a t i v e s
,
Th e n e x t .

y ea r t h e y se n t h i m t o E d i n bu rgh to s tu d y m e di c in e H e r e fo r a .

c ou p l e of y e ars h e b e c am e p op u l ar a s a s i n ge r o f s on gs an d a t e ll e r

1 S h i G l d m ith v
uc s o i s f m wh t
’
s p i i
e r s on d v t o w ha d tso il e a su s c ou s a e n u re
,
o se e a s

are un k w no n.
 3 4I E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

a fe ve r , wi th
c hildish c on fid e n c e t u rn e d to a qu ac k m e dic in e to
an d

c u r e h i m se l f H e d i e d i n 1 774 an d J ohn so n p l ac e d a tabl e t w i th a

. , ,

son o r ou s Lati n e p i tap h i n We s t m i n st e r Abb e y t h ou gh G ol d sm i th

, ,
“
w a s b u ri e d e l s e w h e r e Le t n ot hi s frail t ie s b e r e m e m b e re d ; h e
.

w as a ve ry gre at m an s a id J ohn son ; an d t h e li te rary w o rld

,

w h i c h lik e t hat o ld d i c ta tor i s kin d e n ou gh at h e art t hou gh oft e n

, , ,

r ou gh i n i ts m e t hod s i s gl ad t o ac c e p t an d r e c ord t h e ve rd i c t
—
.

Work s of Gol d s m i t h . O f
G old s m ith s e ar l y e s s ay s an d h i s ’

l at e r s ch ool hi s t o r i e s littl e n e e d b e s aid Th e y h ave s e ttl e d .

i n t o th e ir ow n pl a c e far ou t of s ight of t h e or di n ar y r e ad e r
, .

Pe r h ap s t h e m os t i n t e re s ti n g of th e s e i s a s e r i e s of l e tt e r s for
t h e P u bl i c L e dg e r ( a ft e r war d s p u bli s h e d a s Tb e Ci t i ze n o f tb e

Wor l d ) w r itt e n fr om t h e vi e w p oi n t of an all e g e d Chi n e s e

,

t rav e l e r an d g ivi n g t h e l att e r s c om m e n t s on En g li s h civili

,
’

1
zat i on .The foll owi n g fiv e w o rk s ar e th os e u p on which G old
s m ith s fam e chi e fl re st s
’

y
Tb e Tra v e l l e r ( 1 76 4 ) m ad e G old s m ith s r e p u t ati on a m on g
’

h i s c on t e m p orar i e s b u t i s n ow s e ld om r e ad e xc e pt b y s t u
, ,

d e n t s w h o w ou ld u n d e r s t an d h ow G o ld s m ith w as at on e ti m e , ,

d om i n at e d b y J oh n s on an d h i s p s e u d o cl as s ic id e al s I t i s a -
.

l on g p o e m i n r i m e d c ou pl e t s g ivi n g a s u r ve y an d c r itici s m
, ,

o f t h e s oci a l li fe of v ar i ou s c o u n t r i e s i n E u rop e a n d r e fl e ct s ,

m an y of G old s m ith s ow n w an d e r i n g s a n d i m p r e s s i on s
’

V
.

Tb e D e s e r te d i l l ag e th ou gh w r itt e n i n t h e s am e
m e ch an ica l s t y l e i s s o p e r m e a t e d with h on e s t h u m an s y m
,

Th e D e s e rt e d p a th y a n d v o ic e s s o p e r fe ctl y t h e r e v o lt o f t h e

V
,

i l l a ge i n divid u al m an a gai n s t i n s tit u t i on s th at a m u lti ,

t u d e of c om m on p e opl e h e ar d it g l adl y with ou t c on s u ltin g ,

t h e c ritic s as t o wh e th e r th e y s h ou ld c all it g ood p oe t ry .

N otwith s t an di n g i t s fa u lt s t o which Ma tth e w A r n old ha s ,

c all e d s u ffici e n t att e n ti on it ha s b e c om e on e o f o u r b e s t ,

kn own p oe m s th ou gh w e c an n ot h e lp wi s hi n g th at t he m o
,

n ot on o f i t s c ou pl e t s h ad b e e n b rok e n b s om e o f th e I r i s h
y y
folk s on g s an d b all a d s th at ch ar m e d s t r e e t a u di e n c e s i n
1 G l d m i th
o s i d w hi h w b w d f m W l p l
’
s ea, c as e
o rro
pp i t h pe d Lrott a o e , re a ar s n e se u o e e rs

f m C/ i
ro a Oj i i l w h i h
z n ese c a , t ly t t t d
c i d b l tt t i
r e ce n a rac e c on s e ra e a en on .
 EI G H T E NT
E H -
C ENTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 315

D ublin an d th at b r ou ght G old s m ith a w e lc om e fr o m t h e Fr e n c h

,

p e a san t s wh e r e v e r h e s t opp e d t o s i n g I n t h e villag e p ar s on .

an d t h e s ch ool m a s t e r G old s m ith has i n c re a s e d Ch a u c e r s li s t

,

b y t w o l ovabl e ch ara ct e r s th at will e n du r e as l on g as t h e

En gli s h l an gu age Th e c r itici s m th at t h e pi ct u r e of p r os p e r
.

ou s S w e e t A ub u rn n e v e r appli e d t o an
y vill a g e i n I r e l an d

i s j u s t n o d o ubt b u t it i s ou t s id e t he q u e s ti on
, , Gol d s m ith .

w as a h op e l e s s d r e am e r bo u n d t o s e e e v e ry thi n g ; as he s aw
,

hi s d e bt s an d hi s g ay cl oth e s i n a p u r e l y id e ali s tic way

,
.

Tb e Good N a tu r e d M a n an d S i ze S t oop s to Con q u e r ar e

-

G old s m ith s t w o c om e di e s Th e for m e r a c om e d y of ch arac

’
.
,

t e r th ou g h it h as s om e l a ug h abl e s c e n e s a n d on e l au g h abl e
,

ch ar act e r Croak e r m e t with fa il u r e on t h e s t age an d has

, , ,

n e v e r b e e n r e viv e d with an
y s ucc e s s T h e l att e r a c om e d
.
y ,

of i n t r i g u e i s on e of t h e fe w pl ay s th at h as n e v e r l o s t i t s
,

p op u l ar it y I t s live l y b u s tli n g s c e n e s an d i t s pl e as an tl y ab
.
, ,
~

s u r d ch ara ct e r s Mar l o w e t he H ar d c as t le s an d Ton y Lu m p

, , ,

k i n s till h old t h e a tt e n ti on of m od e rn th e at e r g oe r s ; an d
,

n e ar l v m t d m tic cl b l t pl c
y e e r
y a a e u r r a a u s o on e r o r a e r a e s

S ke S toop s to Con q u e r on i t s li s t of att ract i on s

V
.

Tb c i ca r of Wa kefie l d i s Gold s m ith s on l y n ov e l an d t h e

’

fi r s t i n an y l an gu ag e t h at g iv e s t o h om e l i fe an e n d u r i n g
Th e V i car of r om an t ic i n t e r e s t H o w e v e r m u ch w e a d m i re t he
.

Wak e fie l d b e gi n n i n g s of t h e En gli s h n ov e l t o which w e s h all ,

p re s e n tl y r e fe r w e ar e n e v e r th e l e s s s h o ck e d b y i t s fr e q u e n t
,

b r u t aliti e s an d i n d e c e n ci e s G old s m ith lik e S t e e l e had t h e

. , ,

I r i s h r e v e r e n c e for p u r e w o m an h ood an d thi s r e v e r e n c e ,

m ad e h i m s h u n as a p e s t t h e v u l g ar it y an d c oar s e n e s s i n
which c on t e m p o rar y n ov e li s t s lik e S m oll e tt an d S t e r n e s e e m e d
, ,

t o d e li ght .S o h e did for t h e n ov e l wh at A ddi s o n a n d S t e e l e

had d on e for t h e s ati r e an d t h e e s s ay ; h e r e fi n e d an d e l e v at e d
it m aki n g it w or th y o f t h e old An gl o S ax on id e al s which ar e
,
-

ou r b e s t lit e r ar h r it ag e
y e

V
.

B r i e fl y Tb e i ca r of Wa kej i e l d i s t h e s t or y of a s i m pl e
'

E n gli s h cl e r gy m an D r Pr i m ros e an d h i s fam ily w ho p a s s

, . , ,
3 16 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

from h appi n e s s th r ou g h g r e at t r ib u l ati on Mi s fortu n e s which

.
,

ar e s aid n e v e r t o c o m e s i n g l y a pp e ar i n thi s c as e i n fl ock s ;

,

b u t th r ou gh p ov e r t y s or r ow i m p r i s on m e n t an d t h e u n s p e ak
V
, , ,

abl e l o s s of h i s d au g ht e r s t h e , icar s fa ith i n God an d m an

’

e m e r g e s t r iu m ph an t T o t h e v e ry e n d h e i s lik e on e of t h e
.

ol d m ar t r s w h o s i n g s A l l e l u i a whil e t h e li on s r oar ab ou t
y, .

hi m an d h i s child r e n i n t h e are n a G old s m ith s Opti m i s m it ’

. ,

m u s t b e c on f e s s e d i s h e re s t r e tch e d t o t h e b r e aki n g p oi n t
, .

Th e r e a d e r i s s om e ti m e s offe r e d fin e J oh n s o n i an ph r as e s
wh e r e h e w ou ld n at u rall y e xp e ct h om e l y an d vi gor o u s l an
g g ;
u a e a n d h e i s c on ti n u all y h au n t e d b y t h e s u s pici on th at
V
,
’
e v e n i n thi s b e s t of all p os s ibl e w or ld s t h e icar s cl ou d s of
,

a fflicti on w e r e s om e wh a t t oo e as il c on v e r t e d i n t o s h o w e rs of
y
bl e s s i n g ; y e t h e i s f or c e d t o r e ad on an d at t h e e n d h e c on
,

fe s s e s g l a dl y th a t G old s m ith ha s s u cc e e d e d i n m aki n g a m os t '

i n t e r e s ti n g s t ory ou t of m at e r ial th at i n oth e r h an d s w ou ld

, ,

h av e d e v e l op e d e ith e r a b u r l e s q u e o r a b r u t al t r ag e d y Lay .

i n g a s id e all r om an t ic p as s i on i n t r i g u e an d a dv e n t u r e u p on
, , ,

which oth e r n ov e li s t s d e p e n d e d G old s m ith i n thi s s i m pl e

, ,

s t or o f c om m on li fe h a s a cc o m pli s h e d th r e e n ot e w or th
y , y re

s u lt s h e h as m ad e h u m an fa th e r h ood a l m os t a divi n e thi n g ;

h e h as g l or ifi e d t h e m or al s e n ti m e n t s which cl u s t e r ab ou t t h e
fam il y li fe a s t he c e n t e r of civili zati on ; an d h e ha s g ive n u s ,

i n D r Pr i m r os e a s t r iki n g an d e n d u r i n g fi g u r e which s e e m s
.
, ,

m or e lik e a p e r s on a l a cq u ai n t an c e th an a ch ara ct e r i n a b ook .

W I LL I AM C OW PE R ( 1 73 1 — 1 800 )

I n Cowp e r w e h av e an oth e r i n t e r e s ti n g p oe t w h o lik e G ray , ,

a n d G o ld s m ith s h ow s t h e
, s t r u ggl e b e tw e e n r o m an tic an d
cl as s ic id e al s I n hi s fi r s t v ol u m e of p oe m s Cowpe r i s m or e
.
,

h am p e r e d b y lit e rary fas hion s th an w as G old s m ith i n h i s

Tr a v e l l e r an d h i s D e s e r te d V
i l l ag e I n h i s s e c on d p e r i o d
. ,

h ow e v e r Co w p e r u s e s bl an k v e rs e fr e e l y ; an d h i s d e lig ht i n
,

n at u r e an d i n h o m e l y c h a ra ct e r s lik e t h e t e a m s t e r a n d t h e
,
 3I8 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU RE

c are d for h i m a s a son ; an d w hat e v e r happ in e ss he e x p e ri e n c e d i n

h i s p oor life w as t he r e su lt of th e d e vo ti on of t hi s good w o m an W ho ,

i s th e Mary of all h i s p oe m s .
A se c on d t k of in san ity was brou ght on b y Cow p e r s m orbid
a t ac
’

in te re st i n re ligion in flu e n c e d p e rhap s b y the u n t e m p e re d ze al of

, , ,

on e J ohn N e w t on a c u ra t e w i th w h o m Cow p e r w orke d in the s m all

, ,

p a r i s h o f O l n e y a n d w i t h w ho m h e c o m pil e d t h e fam o u s Ol n e
, y
H ym n s .Th e r e st of h i s lif e b e tw e e n i n t e rval s of m e l an c holi a or
,

in san i ty w as s p e n t i n gard e n in g i n the c are of hi s n u m e rou s p e ts

, , ,

an d i n w ri t i n g h i s p o e m s hi s t ran sl at i on o f H om e r an d hi s c harm
, ,

i n g l e t t e rs H i s tw o b e s t kn ow n p oe m s w e re s u gge s t e d b y a li v e ly
.

an d c ul t i v at e d w id ow Lady Au st e n w ho t ol d hi m t h e s tory o f J o hn
, ,

G ilp in an d c all e d for a ballad on the su bj e c t .Sh e al so u rge d h i m

t o w ri t e a l on g p o e m i n bl an k v e rs e an d w h e n h e d e m an d e d a su b

j e c t
, s h e w h i m s i c ally su gge st e d t h e s ofa w hi c h w as a n e w arti c l e o f ,
”
fu rn i t u re at that t i m e Cow p e r i m m e d i at e ly w r ot e
. Th e S ofa an d , ,

in flu e n c e d b y th e p o e tic p ossibiliti e s that l i e i n u n e x p e c t e d p lac e s ,

h e ad d e d t o t h i s p oe m from t i m e t o t i m e an d c al l e d hi s c om pl e t e d ,

w ork Tb e Ta s k Th i s w as p u bli sh e d i n 1 785 an d t h e au th or was

. ,

in stan tly r e c ogn ize d as on e of the c h i e f p o e ts o f h i s age Th e last .

y e ar s o f h i s li fe w e r e a l on
g b a ttl e w i th i n san it
y u n t il d e ath m e r ,
“
c ifu ll
y e n d e d t h e s t ru g l e
g i n 1 8 0 0 H i s l ast
p o e m T h e . C a st a ,

w ay , i s a c ry of d e sp ai r i n w h i c h u n d e r gu i se of a m an w ash e d
, ,

o v e rbo ard i n a s to r m h e d e sc r ib e s h i m se l f p e ri shin g i n t h e s i ght of

,

fr i e n d s w h o a r e p ow e rl e s s t o h e l p .

Cow p e r ’
s Work s fi r s t v ol u m e of p oe m s c on t ain
. Co wp e r
’
s ,
“ ” “ ” “ ”
i n g Th e Pr og r e s s of E r r or T r u th Tabl e Talk e tc
, , , .
,

i s i n t e r e s ti n g chi e fl y a s s h owi n g h ow t h e p oe t w a s b ou n d b y
'

t he cl a s s ic al r ul e s of h i s ag e T h e s e p oe m s a r e d r e ar y on t h e
. ,

wh ol e b u t a c e r t ai n g e n tl e n e s s an d e s p e ci all y a v e i n of p u r e
, ,

h u m or o cc a s i on all y r e war d s t h e r e ad e r F o r C owp e r w as a

, .

h u m or i s t an d on l y t he c on s t an t S h ad ow of in san ity k e pt h im
,

fro m b e c om i n g fam ou s i n th at li n e al on e
Tb e Ta s k w r itt e n i n bl an k v e r s e an d p u bli s h e d i n 1 785
, , ,

i s Cowp e r s l on g e s t p o e m U s e d as w e are t o t h e n at u ral

’
.

p oe t ry of Word s w or th an d Te n n y s on it i s h ar d for u s t o ,

appr e ci at e t h e s t riki n g or igi n alit

y of thi s w o r k M uch of it i s . .
 EI G H TE ENTH CENTU R Y LI TER ATU R E -
3I9

co n v e n ti on al an d w ood e n t o b e s u r e lik e m uch o f Wor d s , ,

w or th s p oe t ry b u t w h e n aft e r r e adi n g t h e r i m e d e s s ay s an d
’

t he ar tifi cia l c o upl e t s o f J o h n s on s ag e w e t u r n s u d

’

,
Th e Ta s k
d e n ly t o C owp e r s d e s c r ipti on of h om e l y s c e n e s
’

o f w o od s an d b roo k s of pl ow m e n a n d t e am s t e r s an d t h e
,

l e tt e r carr i e r on hi s r ou n d s w e r e ali ze t h at w e ar e at t he ,

d awn of a b e tt e r d ay i n p oe t ry

He c om e s , th e h e r a d l o f a n oi s y w or ld ,

W i th s p a t te r
’
d b oo t s , s t r app
’
d w ai s t , an d froze n l oc k s
N e w s fr o m all n a t i on s l u m b e r i n g a t hi s b a c k .

T r u e to h i s c h arg e , th e c l os e p ac k e d l oad b e hi n d
-
,

Ye t l
c ar e e s s w h at h e b ri n g s , h i s o n e c on c e rn

I s to c on d u c t i t t o t h e d e s ti n e d i n n ,
An d , h av i n g d ropp e d th e e x p e c te d
b a g , p a s s on .
H e w h i s tl e s h e g oe s ,
as l g t h e ar te d w re t c h ,
i h —

Col d a n d y e t c h e e r fu l : m e s s e n g e r o f g ri e f
Pe r h ap s t o th o u s an d s , an d of joy to s om e
T o h i m i n d i ffe r e n t w h e th e r g r i e f o r j oy .
H ou s e s i n a s h e s , an d th e fa l l o f s t o c k s ,
B i r th s , d e ath s , an d m ar r i a g e s , l
e pi s t e s we t
W i th t e a rs th a t t r i c kl e d d o w n th e w r i te r
’
s c he e ks
F as t as th e p e r i od s f r om h i s fl u e n t q u i , ll
Or c h a r ge d w i th a m o r ou s s i g h s o f ab s e n t s w ai n s ,

Or n y m ph s r e s p on s i ve , e qu a ll y a ffe c t

H i s h ors e an d him , u n c o n s c i ou s o f th e m all .

Go l ab or i ou s w or k t h e t ran s l ati on o f H om e r i n
’
er s m os t ,

bl an k v e r se w as p u bli s h e d i n 1 79 1 I t s s t at e ly Milt on lik e

, .
,
-

Mi s ce l l an e
. m ov e m e n t an d i t s b e t t e r r e n d e r i n g of t h e G r e e k
, ,

0“ W°f k 8
m a k e thi s t ran s l ati on far s u p e r i or t o Pop e s a r t i fi
’

c i al c oupl e t s I t i s al s o b e tt e r i n m an y r e s p e ct s th an Ch ap
. , ,

m an s m or e fa m ou s an d m or e fan ci ful r e n d e ri n g ; b u t for

’

s om e re a s on it w as n ot s u cc e s s fu l an d h as n e v e r r e c e iv e d t h e ,

re c ogn iti on which it d e se rv e s En ti r e l y di ff e r e n t i n s pi r it ar e

.

t h e p oe t s n u m e r ou s h y m n s which w e r e p u bli s h e d i n t h e
’

Ol n e y Co ll e cti on i n 1 779 an d which ar e s till u s e d i n ou r,

ch u r ch e s I t i s on l y n e c e s sar y t o m e n ti on a fe w fi rs t li n e s
.

God m ov e s i n a m y s t e r i ou s w ay
”
Oh for a cl os e r w alk , ,
3 20 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

” “
wi th God , S om e
tim e s a light s u r p r i s e s — t o S h ow h ow
hi s ge n tl e a n d d e v o u t s pi r it h as l e ft i t s i m p re s s u p on th o u

san d s w h o n o w h a r dl
y k n o w hi s n am e W ith C o wp e r s ch ar m .
’

i n g L e tte r s p u bli s h e d i n 1 80 3 w e r e ach t h e e n d of h i s i m

, ,

p ort an t w o r k s an d t h e s t u d e n t w h o e n j oy s r e adi n g l e t t e r s
,

will fin d th a t th e s e ran k am on g t h e be s t o f th e i r ki n d I t .

i s n ot h ow e ve r for h i s a m biti o u s w or k s th at Cowp e r i s

, ,

re m e m b e re d b u t ra th e r for h i s m i n or p oe m s which h av e
, ,

fou n d th e i r ow n w ay i n t o s o m an y h om e s A m on g th e s e t h e .
,

on e th at b r i n g s q u ick e s t r e s p on s e f r om h e ar t s th at u n d e r s t an d

O n t he R e c e ipt o f My M oth e r s Pict u re

“
i s h i s littl e p oe m
’

, ,

“
be g i n n i n g with t h e s t r iki n g lin e Oh th at th os e lip s h ad , ,

” “ ”
l an g u ag e . A n oth e r c all e d A l e x an d e r S e lki r k
, b e g i n n in g , ,
“ ”
I am m on ar ch of al l I s u r ve y s u gg e s t s how S e lki rk s e x
,
’

i c t w which a v e D e fo e h i s i n s pi rati on f or
p e r e n c e s a s a a s a a
y ( g
R ob i n s on Cr u s oe ) a ffe ct e d t h e p oe t s t i m id n at u r e an d i m ag i
’

“
n ati on Las t an d m os t fam ou s of al l i s h i s i m m or t al J oh n
G ilpi n . Cowp e r w a s i n a t e r r ibl e fi t o f m e l an ch oly wh e n
L ad y A u s t e n t old h i m t h e s t ory which p r ov e d t o b e b e tt e r,

th an m e dici n e for all n ight l on g ch u ckl e s an d s u pp r e s s e d

,

l au g ht e r w e r e h e ar d i n t h e p oe t s b e d room N e xt m orn i n g at
’
.

b re ak fas t h e r e cit e d t h e b all ad th at had affor d e d i t s au th or s o

m uch d e light i n t h e m a ki n g Th e s t u d e n t s h ou ld r e ad it
.
,

e v e n i f h e r e ad s n othi n g e l s e b C owp e r an d he will b e l a ck

y
i n g i n h u m or or app r e ci ati on i f h e i s n ot r e ad y t o e ch o h e ar tily
t he l as t s t an za :

N o w l e t u s s i n g Lon g l i v e th e Ki n g
, ,

An d Gi l p i n l o n g l i v e h e
,

An d w h e n b e n e x t d o th r i d e a b r oa d
M ay I b e t h e r e to se e .

R OB E R T B U R NS ( 1 75 9 — 1 6
79 )
A ft e r a c e n t u ry an d m or e o f Cl as s ici s m w e n ot e d with ,

i n t e r e st t he w or k o f th r e e m e n G ray G old s m ith an d Cowpe r

, , , ,

wh os e p oe t ry lik e t h e ch or u s of a wak e n i n g bir d s s u gg e s t s

, ,

t he d aw n of an oth e r day Tw o oth e r p oe t s of t h e s am e age

.
 3 2 2 E NGLI SH LI TER AT U R E

Life . 1
Bu rn s
’
s life is l “
a life of fra gments ,
”
as Carlyl e ca ll e d it ;
"
an d th e d iffe r e n t fragm e n ts
like as th e n obl e Cotte r s are as un
’

”
Sa tu rd ay N i ght an d t he r an t an d r i ot of Th e J olly B e ggar s ”
.

Th e d e t ail s of t hi s s ad a n d d i sj o in t e d life w e r e b e t te r p e rhap s , ,

for gott e n We c all atte n tion o n ly to th e fac ts w h ic h h e l p u s to u n

.

d e rs tan d t he m an an d h i s p o e tr y .
B u rn s w as b orn All ow ay , S c o tl an d , i n t h e bl e ak
in l
a c ay c o t tage a t

Wi n t e r of 1 75 9 . H i s fat he r w as an e x c e ll e n t t y p e of th e S c ot c h p e as
an t of t h o s e d ay s , — a p oor , h on e s t , God fe ari n g m an , w h o t oil e d -

from d awn t il l d ark t o w r e s t a li v in g for hi s fam ily from t he s tu bb o rn

s oil . H i s t all fi gu r e w a s b e n t w ith u n c e as in g labor ; h i s hai r w a s t h in
an d gr ay an d i n h i s e y e s w as t h e c are w o rn h u n t e d l ook of a p e asan t
, ,

d r i v e n b y p o v e r ty an d u n p aid r e n ts from on e p oor farm to an o th e r .

T h e fam ily ofte n fast e d of n e c e s si ty an d li v e d i n so li tu d e t o a v o id ,

t h e t e m p ta ti on of s p e n d in g t h e i r hard e arn e d m o n e y T h e c h i ld r e n-
.

w e n t b ar e foo t an d b ar e h e ad e d i n al l w e a the r s an d sh a r e d th e p ar e n t s
’
,

t oil an d t h e i r a n x i e ty o v e r t h e r e n t s
w as d o i n g a p e asan t s fu l l d ay s l ab or
’
At thi r t e e n
w t h e e ld e st
.

a t s i x t e e n he w as c h i e f l ab ore r
’
,

on hi s fath e r s farm ; an d h e d e s c r ib e s t h e l ife a s th e c h e e rl e ss

’

”
gl oom of a h e rm i t an d t h e u n c e as i n g m oil of a gall e y sl a v e
, In .

1 784 t h e fat h e r aft e r a li fe t i m e of t o il w as s a v e d fr o m a d e b tor s

’
, ,

p r i s o n b y c o n s u m p t i o n a n d d e at h T o r e s c u e s o m e t h i n g .f r o m t h e

w re c k of t h e h o m e an d t o w i n a p oor c h an c e of b r e ad for t h e fa m il y
, ,

th e tw o ol d e r b oy s s e t u p a c l ai m for arr e a rs of w age s t hat had n e ve r

b e e n p aid Wi th th e s m all su m allow e d t h e m t h e y bu r i e d t he ir
. ,

fat h e r t ook an o the r farm Mo s sgi e l i n Mau c hli n e a n d b e gan agai n

, , , ,

the l on g s t ru ggl e w i t h po v e r ty .

S u c h i n o u t lin e i s Bu rn s s o w n s tory o f h i s e arly li fe t ak e n m ostly

’
, , ,

from hi s l e t t e r s Th e r e i s an oth e r an d m o r e p l e a s i n g s i d e t o the p i c

.

tu re of w hic h w e ha v e gli m p se s i n hi s p oe m s an d i n his Com m on

,

p l ac e B o ok H e r e w e
. s e e t h e b o y a t s c h o o l ; f or lik e m o s t S c o tc h

pe asan ts the fathe r gave hi s b oys t he b e st e d u c ation he p oss ibly

,

c ou ld . We s e e h i m foll ow i n g th e pl ow n ot like a s lave b u t like a , ,

fre e m an c roon i n g ov e r an ol d Sc ot c h s on g an d m akin g a be tte r

,

on e t o m a t c h t h e m e l od
y W e s e e h i m s t o p . t h e p l o w t o li st e n t o

w hat th e w in d i s s a yi n g or tu rn a s id e l e st h e d i s tu rb t h e bi rd s at
,

t he i r s in gin g an d n e s t m ak in g At su p p e r w e se e the fam ily ab ou t

.

1 i -
ll k
F t z Gre e ne H a e c s p oe m To a R o se fr om n e a r A
’
ll ow a y Ki k r
”
( 1 82 2 ) is a good
i i
a pp re c at o n of B u r n s an d hi s p oe t r . I t m gh t b e we to y i ll r ea d t h i po
s em b e fore t he s ad

s t ory o f B u rn s s
’
fe . li
 E I G H TEE NTH CE NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E
-
3 3
2

th e ta bl e ,
h a pp y
tw ithstan din g th e i r s c an t fare e ac h c h ild w ith a
no ,
\

s p oon in on e han d an d a book i n t h e o th e r We h e ar B e tty D avid son.

r e c i t in g fro m h e r gr e at s tor e
, s om e h e roi c b allad that fi r e d t h e
,

y ou n g h e arts to e n thu siasm an d m ad e the m forge t t he d ay s toil ’

.

An d i n The Cott e r s Satu rd ay N ight w e have a gli m p s e of S c otc h

’ ”

e as an t life t hat m ak e s u s al m o st r e v e r e n c e t he s e h e r o i c m e n an d
p
w o m e n w ho ke p t th e i r fa it h an d th e i r s e l f r e s p e c t i n t he fac e of
,
-

o v rty an d w ho s e h e art s u n d e r t h e i r r ou gh e x te r i o rs w e re t e n d e r
p e , , ,

an d t ru e a s s t e e l .

A m os t u n fortu n a te c han ge in B u rn s s life b e gan w he n he l e ft t h e

’

farm a t s e v e n t e e n an d w e n t t o K i rkosw ald t o s tu d y s u rv e yi n g Th e

, , .

t ow n w as t h e hau n t of s m u ggl e r s r ou gh livi n g h ard d r in kin g m e n

,
-
,
-

'

B I R T H P L AC E O F B U R N s

an d Bu rn s dily fou n d hi s w ay in to t ho s e s c e n e s of riot an d

sp e e
”
r oari n g d i s s ip at i on w h i c h w e r e h i s b an e e ve r aft e rw ard s Fo r a .

li tt l e Whil e h e s tu d i e d d ilige n tly b u t on e d ay w hil e takin g th e al ti

, ,

tud e of t he su n h e saw a p re tty girl i n the n e ighborin g gard e n an d

, ,

l ov e p u t t rigon o m e try to fl ight So on he gav e u p hi s w ork an d w an

.

d e re d b ac k t o the farm an d p o v e rty again .

Whe n tw e n ty se v e n y e ars of age B u rn s fi rst att rac te d lit e rary

-

at t e n t i on an d i n t h e sa m e
, m om e n t s p ran g t o th e fi rs t p l ac e i n
S c o tti sh l e tt e rs I n d e sp ai r ove r h i s p ov e rty an d p e r son al h abi t s
. ,

he r e s olv e d t o e m i grat e t o J am ai c a an d gat h e re d toge th e r a fe w o f

,

h i s e arl y p oe m s ho p in g t o s e ll t h e m for e n ou gh t o p ay t h e e x p e n s e s
,

of hi s j ou rn e y Th e r e su l t w as th e fam ou s K i l m arn oc k e di t i on of
.

Bu rn s p u bli sh e d i n 1 786 for w hi c h h e w as offe r e d tw e n t y p ou n d s.

, ,

It i s said that he e ve n b ou ght hi s ticke t an d on the n ight b e fore ,

3 24 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU RE

”
t he sh ip sa il e d w rot e hi s Fare w e l l t o Sc o tl an d , b e gi n n in g The ,
”
gl oo m y n i gh t i s ga t h e rin g fas t , i
w h c h he i n t e n d e d t o b e hi s l as t
s on g on S c o tt i sh s o il .
I n t h e m o rn i n g h e c han ge d
hi s m i n d , l e d p artly by som e d i m
for e shad ow i n g of th e r e su l t of hi s li t e rar y ad v e n t u r e ; fo r t h e li t tl e

book too k all S c otl an d

by s torm N o t on l y sc hol ars an d li t e rary .

”
m e n b ut , e v e n p l ow b o y s an d m a i d s e r v an t s say s a c on t e m p o ,

rary , e age rly s p e n t t h e i r h ard e a rn e d s h i l li n gs fo r th e n e w b ook -

.

I n st e ad o f goin g to J am aic a the y o u n g p o e t hu rr i e d to Ed in b u rgh ,

to a rran ge for an ot h e r e di ti on o f hi s w o rk H i s j ou rn e y w a s a c on .

s tan t o v a t i on an d i n t h e c ap i tal h e w as w e l c o m e d an d fe as t e d b y
,

t h e b e s t of S c o tt i sh s oc i e ty Thi s u n e x p e c t e d t r iu m p h l as t e d on ly
.

on e w i n t e r B u rn s s fon d n e ss for t av e rn s an d r i o t ou s livi n g s h oc ke d

’
.

h i s c u l tu re d e n t e r tai n e r s an d w h e n h e r e tu rn e d t o Ed in b u rgh n e x t
,

w in te r aft e r a p l e as u re j au n t t h r ou gh t h e H i ghl an d s h e r e c e i v e d
, ,

sc an t att e n t i on H e l e ft t h e c i t y i n a n ge r an d d i sap p oin tm e n t an d

. ,

w e n t b ac k t o the s o il w h e r e h e w a s m o r e at hom e
, .

The l as t fe w y e arS Of B u rn s s life ar e a sad t rage dy a n d w e p as s

’
I
,

o v e r t h e m h u rri e d ly H e b ou ght t h e far m Ell i sl an d D u m fri e ssh i r e

.
, ,

an d m arri e d th e fa i t hfu l J e an Arm o u r i n I 788 T hat h e c ou l d w ri te ,

.

of h e r,
I se e h e r i n th e d e w y fl ow e r s ,
I se e he r swe e t an d fa i r ;
I h e ar h e r i n th e t u n e fu b i rd s ,
’

I he ar he r c h arm th e ai r

T h e re b o n i e fl o w e r th a t s pri n
’
s n ot a gs
B y fou n ta i n , s h aw , o r g re e n ;
T h e re
’
s n ot a b on i e b i rd th a t sin
g s,

B u t m i n ds m e 0
’
my J e an ,

is e n ou gh for b e r T h e n e x t y e ar h e w as ap poin te d e x
us to re m e m .

c i s e m an i e c o ll e c tor of liqu or r e ve n u e s an d t h e s m all s al ary w i t h

, . .
, ,

t h e r e tu rn from hi s p o e m s w ou ld hav e b e e n s u ffi c i e n t t o k e e p h i s
,

fam ily i n m od e s t c om for t had b e b u t k e p t aw ay from t a v e rn s For ,

.

a fe w y e a r s h i s li fe of al t e rn a t e t oil an d di ss i p at io n w a s oc c a s i on al ly

i ll u m i n e d b y h i s s pl e n d i d ly ri c ge n i u s an d h e p rod u c e d m an y so n gs ,
"
B on n i e D oon ”
My Lov e s li ke a R e d R e d R o s e
,
”
Au ld ’
, ,

H ighl an d Mary
” “ “
Lan g S y n e , a n d t h e s o u l s t i rr i n g S c o ts w ha ,
-

ha e , c o m p os e d w h il e gall o p i n g o v e r th e m oor i n a s t or m w hi c h —

have m ad e t he n am e of B u rn s kn ow n w h e r e v e r t h e En gli s h l an gu age

i s spoke n an d hon ore d w h e re ve r Sc o tc hm e n gath e r t oge t he r H e d i e d
,
.
3 2 6 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

I ll’
b l a m e m y p ar t i a l fan c y ,
’
ne e r

N ae th i n g c ou l d re s i s t m y N an c y ;
B u t to se e h e r w as to l ov e he r ;
Lo v e b u t h e r , an d l ov e for e v e r .

H ad w e v e r l ov d s ae k i n d l y
ne
’
,

H ad w e n e v e r l ov d s ae b l i n d l y
’
,

N e v e r m e t — or n e v e r p ar te d
We h ad n e e r b e e n b ro k e n h e ar te d
’
-
.

Th e e s se n c e of a th o u san d l ov e t al e s i s in th at on e littl e
s on g . B e c a u s e h e e m b odi e s t h e n e w s pi r it of r om an tici s m ,

c r itic s g ive h i m a hig h pl ac e i n t h e hi s t ory of o u r lit e rat u r e ;

an d b e cau s e hi s s on g s g o s t rai g ht t o t h e h e a r t h e i s t h e p oe t ,

of c o m m on m e n .

Of B u r n s s m an y s on g s for m u s ic littl e n e e d b e said Th e y

’
.

h av e fo un d th e i r w ay i n t o t h e h e art s of a wh ol e p e opl e an d ,

S on g s for th e r e th e
y s p e ak f o r th e m s e lv e s T h e
y ra n e fr om
.
g
MU S “ t h e e xqui s it e
"
O w e r t th o u i n t h e cau ld bl as t
”
to ,

t h e t r e m e n d ou s app e al t o S c o tti s h p at r i oti s m i n S c ot s w h a

hae w i Wall a c e bl e d
”
’
which Car l y l e s a id s h ou ld b e s u n g
, , ,

with t h e t h r oat of t h e whi r lwi n d Man y of th e s e s on g s w e r e

.

c om p os e d i n hi s b e s t d ay s wh e n foll owi n g t he pl ow or re st i n g
,

aft e r hi s w or k whil e t h e m u s ic of s om e ol d S c ot ch s on g w a s
,

r i n g i n g i n h i s h e ad I t i s l ar g e ly b e cau s e h e th ou g ht o f m u s ic
.

whil e h e c om p os e d th at s o m an y of h i s p oe m s h ave t h e S i n g in g
qu alit y s u gge s ti n g a m el od y a s w e r e ad th e m
, .

Am on g hi s p oe m s o f n at u r e To a Mo u s e
, an d To a
Mou n t ai n D ai sy ar e u n q u e s ti on abl y t h e b e s t s u gg e s ti n g t h e
”
,

p oe tica l p os s ibiliti e s t ha t d a ily p as s u n n otic e d u n d e r ou r fe e t .

Th e s e t w o p o e m s ar e a s n e ar a s B u r n s e v e r c om e s t o ap p r e
c i at i n g n atu r e for i t s ow n s ak e Th e m aj or it y of h i s p oe m s
.
,

lik e Wi n t e r an d Y e b an k s an d b r ae s o b on i e D oon ” ’

r e gar d n a tu re i n t h e s a m e w a th a t G ra r e gar d e d it as a
y y ,

b ackg r ou n d for t he pl ay of h u m an e m o ti on s .

Of hi s p oe m s o f e m ot i on th e re i s a n i m m e n s e n u m b e r I t .

i s a c u ri ou s fact th at t h e w or ld i s alway s l au g hin g an d c ry i n g

at t h e s am e m om e n t ; an d w e c an h ar dl r ea d a p ag e of
y
 E I G H TEENT H — C ENTU R Y LI T ER ATU R E 3 27

B u rn s with ou t fi n di n g thi s n at u ral j uxt ap o s it i on of s m il e s an d \ “

t e ar s It i s n ot e w or th y al s o t h at all s t r on g e m oti o n s wh e n
'

. ,

e xp re s s e d n at u r all y l e n d th e m s e lv e s t o p oe t ry ; an d B u rn s
, ,

m or e th an an y oth e r w r it e r has a n as t on i s hi n g fa c u lt y of
,

d e s c r ibin g h i s ow n e m oti on s with vivid n e s s an d s i m plicit y s o ,

th at th e y a pp e a l i n s t an tl y t o o u r ow n O n e c an .

“ ”
n ot r e ad I l ov e m y J e an
, for i n s t an c e with
, ,

ou t b e i n g i n l o v e wit h s om e id e ali ze d w om an ;

T o Mary i n H e ave n
”
or with ou t s h ar i n g t h e
,

p e r s on al g r i e f of on e w h o h as l ov e d an d l os t .

T H E AU L D B R I G, AvR ( A Y R B R I D GE )

B e s id e s t h e s on g s o f n a u r e an
t hu m an e m oti on B u r n s
d of ,

h a s g iv e n u s a of p o e m s for which n o g e n e r al
l ar ge n u m b e r
Mi s ce ll an y t itl e c an b e g iv e n N ot e w or th
.
y a m o n g th e s e are
“ ”
A m an s a m an fo r a th a t
’ ’
011 8 Poe m s
which v o ic e s th e
V
,
“ ”
n e w r om an tic e s ti m at e of h u m an it
y ; T h e i s i on from ,

which w e g e t a s t r on g i m p r e s s i on of B u r n s s e ar l y id e al s t he ’

”
Epi s tl e t o a Y ou n g F r i e n d from which r a th e r th an fr om
, ,

hi s s ati r e s w e l e ar n B u r n s s p e r s on a l vi e w s of r e li g i on an d
’

”
h on or ; t h e A dd r e s s t o th e U n c o G u id which i s t he p o e t s
“
,
’

“
pl e a for m e r c y in j u d gm e n t ; an d A Bar d s Epit a ph which ’

,
”
,

a s a s u m m ar of h i s o w n li fe m i ght w e ll b e w r itt e n a t t h e e n d
y ,

of hi s p oe m s H all ow e e n a pict u r e of r u s tic m e rr m aki n g

. , y ,

a c on t ra s t b e tw e e n t h e r ich an
”
an d Th e Tw a D og s , d p oor ,
328 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

’
ar e g e n e rall y cl as s e d am ong th e p oe t s b e s t w or k s ; b u t on e
u n fam iliar with t he S c ot ch di al e ct will fin d th e m rath e r di ffic u lt .

Of B u rn s s l on g e r p oe m s t h e t w o b e s t w or th r e adi n g ar e
’

” ”
Th e Co tt e r s S at u r d ay N ig ht an d Tam o S han t e r
’ ’
th e ,

on e givi n g t h e m o s t p e r fe ct pict u r e w e p o s s e s s of a n obl e

p ov e r t y ; t h e oth e r b e i n g t h e m os t live l y an d t h e l e as t ob je c
t i on ab l e of h i s h u m or ou s w or k s I t w ou ld b e diffi c u lt t o fin d
.

e l s e wh e r e s u ch a c om bi n a ti on o f t h e g r e w s om e an d t h e r i di c u
“
l o u s a s i s pa ck e d u p i n Tam o S han t e r ”
With t h e e xc e p
’
.

t i on of th e s e t w o t h e l on g e r p oe m s a d d littl e t o t h e au th or s
,
’

fam e o r t o ou r o w n e n j oy m e n t It i s b e tt e r for t h e b eg i n n e r
.

t o r e ad B u r n s s e xq u i s it e s on g s an d g l adl y t o r e c og n i ze h i s pl a c e
’

i n th e h e ar t s of a p e opl e an d forge t t h e r e s t S i n c e th e y onl y

, ,

s a dd e n u s an d ob s c u r e t h e p oe t s bett e r n at u r e
’
.

WI L L I A M B L AK E ( I 75 7
-
I 82 7)

Pi p i n g d ow n th e v all e y s w i l d ,

Pi p i n g s o n g s o f p l e as a n t g l e e ,

O n a c l o u d I s aw a c h i l d ,

An d h e l au gh i n g s ai d t o m e

Pi pe a s on
g ab o u t a l am b
So I p i p e d w i th m e r r y c he e r .

Pi p e r , p i p e th a t s o n g ag ai n
S o I p i p e d : h e w e p t to h e a r .

Pi p e r , si t th e e d ow n a n d w ri te
I n a b oo k , th a t all m ay re ad ;
S o he v an i s h e d fro m m y s i gh t ,

An d I p l u c k e d a h oll ow r e e d ,

An d I m a d e a r u r a l p e n ,
An d I s tai n e d th e w a te r c l e ar ,

An d I w r o te m y h app y s on gs
Ev e r y c hi ld m ay j o
y to h e ar .
1

Of al l t he tic p oe t s
r om a n of the ig ht e e n th c e n t u ry B l ak e
e ,

i s the m o s t i n d e p e n d e n t an d t he m os t or i g i n al I n h i s e ar li e s t .

1 I t d ti n ro uc on , S ong s f
o I n n oce n ce .
3 3 0 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

w ay , i
s i n g n g c he e rfu lly
kin g p ati e n tl y i n the fac e of di sc ou rage
,
w or ,

m e n t an d fail u r e Th at w r i t e r s o f fa r l e ss ge n i u s w e re e x al t e d t o
.

fav o r w hil e h e r e m ain e d p oo r an d o b sc u re d oe s n ot s e e m t o h ave

, ,

t rou bl e d hi m i n th e l e as t F or ove r forty y e ar s h e l abore d d ili ge n t ly

.

at b ook e n gra v i n g gu i d e d i n h i s a r t b y M i c h ae l An ge l o b u t i n v e n t
, ,

i n g hi s ow n c u r i ou s d e s ign s a t w h i c h w e s t ill w on d e r Th e illu st ra

, .

“ ” “
t ion s for Y ou n g s N i ght Th ou gh t s for Blai r s G rave an d the
’ ’
, ,
“ ”
I n v e n ti on s to t he B ook of Job S how t he p e c u liari ty of Bl ak e s ,
’

m i n d qu i t e a s c l e a rly as hi s p oe m s Whil e he w orke d at h i s t rad e .

h e fl u n g o ff for h e n e v e r s e e m e d t o c o m p os e
— d i sj oin t e d vi s i on s —

an d i n c o m p re h e n s ibl e r hap s odi e s w i th an o c c as i on al li ttl e e m t h at

g ,

s t ill se ts o u r h e ar ts t o s i n gi n g :

Ah , s u n fl ow e r , w e ar y of ti m e ,
W h o c ou n te s t th e s te p s o f th e s u n ;
S e e k i n g a f t e r t h a t s w e e t g ol d e n c l i m e
W h e re t h e t r a v e ll e r s j ou r n e y i s d on e ’
;

W he re y ou th p i n e d aw a y w i th d e s i r e
th e ,

An d t h e p al e v i r g i n S h r ou d e d i n s n ow ,

R i s e fro m th e i r g r av e s an d as p i r e ,

Wh e r e my s u n fl ow e r w i sh e s to g o !

That i s i fl ow e r t o fin d grow in g i n t h e Lon d on s tr e e t ; b u t

a c u r ou s

i t s u gge st s B l ake s ow n life w h i c h w a s ou tw ard ly bu sy an d qu i e t b u t

’
, ,

in w ard ly fu ll o f ad ve n tu re an d e x c i t e m e n t H i s l ast hu ge p rop he tic .

w orks like j e r u s a l e m an d M zl zon w e r e di c tate d t o h i m h e

'

‘
, ,

d e c l are s b y su p e rn at u ral m e an s an d e v e n again st hi s ow n w ill

, , .

Th e y are on ly h al f i n t e lli gibl e b u t h e r e an d th e r e o n e s e e s fl ash e s

,

o f t h e s am e p o e t i c b e au t t h a t m arks h i s li ttl e o e m s C i t i c s e n
y p r g .

e ral ly d i sm i ss Bl ak e w i th t h e w o r d m ad m an b u t t hat i s on ly an
e vas i on At b e s t he i s th e wri t e r of e x qu i si t e l y ri c s a t w o rs t h e i s
.
, ,
”
m ad o n ly n or t h n o r t h w e s t-
like H am l e t an d th e p u zzl e i s t o fin d
,

th e m e t h od i n hi s m ad n e ss Th e m ost am azin g t h i n g abou t h i m i s

.

t h e p e rfe c tly san e an d c h e e rfu l w ay i n w h i c h h e m ove d th rou gh

p ove rty an d ob sc u ri ty fl in gin g ou t e x qu isit e p o e m s o r se n s e l e ss rhap
,

s o d i e s as a c h ild m i gh t p l ay w i th ge m s o r s t raw s o r su n b e am s i n d i f
,

fe r e n tly H e w as a ge n tl e ki n dly m ost u n w orldly li t tl e m an w i th

.
, , ,

e x t raord i n ary e y e s w h i c h s e e m e v e n i n t h e lif e l e s s p ort rai ts t o re

,

fl e c t som e u n u su al hy p n oti c p ow e r H e di e d o b sc u re ly s m ili n g at a .

-
,

vi sion of Parad i se i n 1 82 7 That w as n e arly a c e n tu ry ago y e t he s till

, . ,

re m ain s o n e of th e m ost i n c om p r e h e n s ibl e fi gu re s i n ou r lit e ratu re .

 EI G H TE ENTH CEN TU R Y LI T ER ATU R E 33 I

Work s of p u bli s h e d i n 1 7837

B l ak e . T h e P oe t i ca l S ke tc/ze s ,
i s a c oll e cti on o f B l ak e s e ar li e s t p oe t r y m uch o f it w r itt e n i n
’

b oyh o od I t c on t ai n s m u ch c r u d e an d i n c oh e r e n t w or k but
. ,

a l s o a fe w l r ic s o f s t r iki n g or i g i n alit y
y T w o l at e r an d b e tt e r .

k n ow n v olu m e s ar e S ong s of I n n oce n ce an d S ong s of E xp e r i

r e fl e cti n g t w o wid e l di ff e r e n t vi e w s of t h e hu m an s oul
e n ce , y .

A s i n all hi s w or k s th e r e i s an a b u n d an c e of app ar e n tl y w orth

,

l e s s s t u ff i n th e s e s on g s b u t i n t h e l an g u age of m i n e r s it i s all , ,

“ ”
a
p y di r t it s h ow s g l e a m s o f g o ld e n g r a i n s th a t a w a it ou r

s i fti n g an d n ow an d th e n w e fin d a n u gg e t u n e xp e ct e dly
,

My l o r d w as l i k e a fl ow e r u p on th e b ro w s
O f l u s t y M a y ; ah l i fe as fra i l as fl o w e r !
M y l ord w a s l i k e a s tar i n h i gh e s t h e a v e n ,

D r aw n d o w n to e a r th b y s p e ll s a n d w i c k e d n e s s
M y l or d w as l i k e th e op e n i n g e y e of d ay ;
B u t h e i s d ar k e n e d ; l i k e th e s u m m e r m oon
C l o u d e d ; fa ll n l i k e th e s t a t e l y tre e c u t d o w n ;
’
,

T h e b re ath o f h e a v e n d w e l t a m o n g h i s l e a v e s
. .

’
On cc ou n t o f t h e ch a otic ch ara ct e r of m os t of B l ak e s
a

w or k it i s w e ll t o b e g i n ou r r e adi n g with a s h ort b oo k of

,

s e l e cti on s c on t ai n i n
, g t h e b e s t s on g s o f th e s e th r e e littl e v ol
um e s . S wi n b u rn e c all s B l ak e t h e o n l y p oe t of s u p r e m e an d
” “
s i m pl e p oe t ic g e n iu s o f t h e e i g ht e e n th c e n tu r t h e on e
y ,

m an of th at age fit on al l a cc o u n t s t o r an k with t h e ol d gr e at
, ,
” 1
m as t e r s Th e p rai s e i s d o u btl e s s e xt r avagan t a n d t h e c r it i
.
,

c i s m s om e wh at i n t e m p e r at e but w h e n w e h av e r e ad The
E v e n i n g S t ar
”
Me m ory ”
, N i g ht
” “
L o ve
” “
To t h e, , ,

Mu s e s ” “
S prin g
,
” “
S um m e r
” “
Th e T i g e r
,
” “
T h e La m b
”
, , ,
“ ”
The C l od an d t h e Pe bbl e w e m ay p os s ibl y s h are S w i n ,
’
b u rn e s e n thu s ia s m Ce r t ai n l y i n th e s e th r e e v olu m e s w e
.
,

h av e s om e of t h e m os t p e r fe ct an d t h e m os t or igi n al s on g s i n
ou r lan g u ag e .

Of B l ak e
’
l on g e r p oe m s h i s t it an ic p roph e ci e s an d ap oc a
s ,

ly p t i c S pl e n d or s it i s i m p os s ibl e t o w r it e j u s tl i n s uch a b r i e f
, y
w or k as thi s Outwar dly th e y s u gge s t a hug e ch aff pil e an d
.
,

1 S wi b e Wi l l i m B l k n u rn
’
s a a e.
33 2 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

t he c att e re d g rai n s of wh e at h ar dl y warran t t h e l ab or of w i n

s

n ow i n g T h e c u r i ou s r e a d e r will g e t an id e a of B l ak e s am
’
. az

i n g m y s tici s m b y dippi n g i n t o a n y of t h e w ork s of h i s m iddl e

li fe U r i ze n Ga te s of P a ra d i s e M a rr i ag e of H e a ve n a n d
V
, , ,

H e l l, Am e r i ca , T/t e F r e nc h R e v ol u ti on , or The i i s on o
f tae
D aa
g nt e rs o f A l oi on . H is
l at e s t w or k s lik e j e r n s a l e in an d ,

M i l ton a re t oo ob s c u r e t o h av e an y lit e rary val u e T o r e ad

, .

of th e s e w or k s c a s u a ll y i s t o c all t h e a uth or a m ad m an ;
an
y
’
t o s t u d y th e m r e m e m b e r i n g B l ak e s s on g s a n d h i s g e n i u s i s
, ,

t o q u ot e s oftl y h i s ow n an s w e r t o t h e child w h o as k e d a b o ut

t h e l an d of d r e am s

0 w h at l an d i s th e l an d of d r e am s ,
Wh at a re i ts m ou n t a i n s an d w hat are i ts s t r e am s ?
— O fa th e r , I s aw m y m o th e r th e re ,
Am on g th e l i l ie s b y w a te rs f ai r . ”

D e ar c h i ld , I a sol
b y p l e as a n t s tre a m s

H av e w an d e r e d a l l n i g h t i n t h e l an d of d re am s ;
B u t t h o u gh ca lm an d w ar m th e w a te rs w i de ,
I c ou ld n ot g e t t o th e o th e r S i d e .
”

MI N OR POE T S O F TH E R EV
I AL V
We h av e ch os e n p r e c e di n g p oe t s G ray Gold s m ith
t h e fiv e , , ,

Cowp e r B u r n s an d B l ak e a s t h e m os t t y pic al an d t h e m os t
, , ,

i n t e r e s ti n g of t h e w r it e r s w h o p ro cl ai m e d t h e daw n o f R om an
t i c i s m i n t h e e i ght e e n th c e n t u ry W ith th e m w e as s ocia t e .

a gr ou p of m i n or w r it e r s wh o s e w or k s w e r e i m m e n s e l y p Op u
,

l ar i n th e i r ow n d ay Th e o rdi n ary r e ad e r will p as s th e m b y

. ,

b u t t o t h e s tud e n t th e y ar e al l S ig n ifican t a s e xpr e s s i on s of

ve ry diff e r e n t ph as e s of t he rom an tic r e vival .

J am e s Thom son ( 1 700 Th om s on b e l on g s am on g

t h e pi on e e r s of R om an tici s m Lik e G ray an d G old s m ith h e
. ,

wav e re d b e tw e e n p s e ud o cl as s ic an d t he n e w r om an tic id e al s
-
,

an d for thi s r e a s on i f for n o oth e r h i s e ar l y w o r k i s i n t e r e s t

, ,

i n g lik e t h e u n c e r t ai n t y of a child w h o h e s it at e s wh e th e r t o
,

c re e p s afe ly on al l fouts or r i s k a fall b y w alki n g H e i s .

3 34 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

i n it s coar s e vi gor an d agai n lik e D ry d e n i n i t s p re ci s e v e r s i

,

fic at i on T he p oe m w as n ot s ucc e s s fu l at fi r s t an d Cr abb e
. ,

ab an d on e d hi s lit e r ar y d r e am s F or ov e r tw e n t y y e ar s h e
.

s e ttl e d d ow n a s a cl e r gy m a n i n a c ou n t ry p ar i s h ob s e r v in g ,

k e e n ly t h e c om m on li fe ab o ut hi m Th e n h e p ubli s h e d m or e
V
.

p oe m s e x actl y lik e Tne

, i l l ag e which i m m e diat e ly b rou g ht ,

h i m fam e an d m on e y T h e y b r ought h i m al s o t h e fri e n d s hip

.

o f Wa lt e r S c ott w h o lik e o th e r s re g ar d e d C rabb e as on e of

, , ,

t h e fi rs t p oe t s of t h e age Th e s e l at e r p oe m s Tke P a r i s a
V
. ,

R eg i s te r Tk e B or oag lc Ta l e s i n e rs e

an d Ta l e s f o the H a ll
( I 8 ar e i n t he s am e s ra n . t i Th e y a re

w r itt e n i n c ou pl e t s ; th e y ar e r e fl e cti on s of n at u r e an d of
c ou n t r y li fe ; th e y c on t ai n m u ch th at i s s or did an d d u ll b u t ,

ar e n e v e r th e l e s s r e al pictu r e s o f r e al m e n an d w o m e n j u s t a s ,

Cr abb e s aw th e m , an d as s uch th e y a r e s till i n t e r e s ti n g .

G old s m ith an d B u rn s had id e alize d t h e p oor an d w e ad m i r e ,

th e m for th e i r s y m p ath y an d i n s ig ht I t r e m ai n e d for Cr abb e .

t o S h ow th at i n w r e t ch e d fi s hi n g vill age s i n t h e live s o f h ar d ,

w or ki n g m e n an d w om e n child r e n l ab or e r s s m u gg l e r s p au
, , , ,

p e r s — al l s ort s an d c on diti on s of c om m on m e n — th e r e i s
, ,

ab u n d an t r om an tic i n t e r e s t with o u t e x ag e ratin or id e a li z i ng

g g
th e i r vic e s an d vi r t u e s .

J a m e s M a cp h e r s o n
( 1 7 3 6 I n M a h e r s on w e h a v e

an u n u s u a l fi g u r e w h o c at e r e d t o t h e n e w r om an tic i n t e r e s t
,

i n t h e ol d e pic h e r oe s an d w on i m m e n s e t h ou g h m om e n t ary
,

fam e b y a s e r i e s o f lit e rary forg e r i e s

, Ma cph e rs on w as a .

S c ot ch s ch ool m a s t e r an e duc at e d m an b u t e vid e n tly n ot

, ,

ov e r t e n d e r of c on s ci e n c e wh o s e i m ag i n ati on had b e e n s ti r r e d
-
,

b y c e rt ai n ol d p oe m s which h e m ay h av e h e ar d i n G ae lic
am on g t h e H i g hl an d e r s I n 1 76 0 h e p u bli s h e d h i s Fr ag m e n ts
.

o
f A nc i e n t P oe t ry co l l e c t e d i n t b e f f g
z nla n d s a n d a ll e g e d ,

th at h is w or k w as but a t ran s l ation of Gae lic m an u s c r ipt s .

Wh e th e r t h e w or k of it s e lf w ould h av e att ract e d att e n t ion i s

d oubt fu l ; but t h e fact th at an abu n d an c e o f lit e rar y m at e r ial
m ight b e awaiti n g di s c ov e ry l e d t o an i n t e r e s t s u ch a s n ow
 E I G H TEE NT H C E NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 335

E i b an d a s ub s c r ipti on
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tt
a e n d s t h e o p e n i n g o f a n gy p t an/ t om ,

w a s p r om ptl y r a i se d i n E di n b u rg h t o s e n d Macph e r s on t h rou gh

”
t he H i g hl a n d s t o c oll e ct m or e m an u s c ript s The r e s ult w a s .

“
t h e e pic F i ng a l th at l an k an d l am e n t abl e c o u n t e r fe it
”
o f p oe t r as S wi n b u r n e c a ll s it which t he au th or p r ofe s s e d
y , ,

t o h av e t ran s l at e d fr om t h e G a e lic of t h e p oe t O s s i an I ts .

s u cc e s s w as as t on i s hi n g an d Ma cph e rs on fo ll ow e d it U p wit h
,

Te m ora ( I 76 an oth e r e pic i n t h e s am e s t rai n I n b oth th e se .

w or k s Ma cph e r s on s ucc e e d s i n g ivi n g an air of p r i m al gr an d e u r

t o h i s h e r oe s t he ch ar a ct e r s ar e big a n d s h ad ow y ; t h e
i m ag e ry i s at t i m e s m agn ific e n t ; t h e l an g u ag e i s a kin d of
ch an ti n g b om bas t ic p r os e
,

N o w F i n ga l i n h i s m i gh t an d th ri c e h e
ar os e v oi c e r e ar e d hi s .

Cro m la s t o o d s ti ll
an s w e r e d ar o u n d , an d t h e s o n s o f th e d e s e r t The y .

b e n t th e i r r e d fa c e s to e a r th a s h am e d a t th e p r e s e n c e o f F i n g al H e
, .

c am e l i k e a c l o u d o f rai n i n th e d a y s o f th e s u n w h e n S l o w i t ro ll s on ,

th e h i ll an d fi e l d s e x p e c t th e s h ow e r
, S w a ra n b e h e l d th e t e rri b l e k i n g
.

of M o rv e n a n d s top p e d i n th e m i d s t of h i s c o u rs e
, D a r k h e l e a n e d on .

h i s S p e ar rol l i n g h i s r e d e y e s ar ou n d S i l e n t a n d t a ll h e s e e m e d as an .

oak o n th e b an k s o f Lu h ar w h i c h h ad i t s b ran c h e s b l as t e d o f ol d b th e
, y
l i gh tn i n g o f h e av e n H i s th ou s an ds p o u r ar ou n d th e h e ro an d th e
. ,

d a r k n e s s o f b at t l e g a th e rs on th e h i ll 1
.

Th e p u bli cat i on of t hi s gl oom y i m ag i n ativ e wo r k p roduc e d a ,

lit e rary s t orm A fe w c r itic s l e d b y D r J oh n s on d e m an d e d

. , . ,

t o s e e t h e or i g i n a l m an u s c r ipt s a n d wh e n Macph e r s on r e fu s e d ,

2
t o p r od u c e th e m t h e Os s i an ic p oe m s w e r e b ran d e d as a
,

for ge ry ; n e v e r th e l e s s t h e y had e n o rm ou s s ucc e s s Macph e r .

s on w as h on or e d as a lit e rar e xpl or e r ; h e w a s giv e n an

y
official p os iti on c arry i n g a s al ary for li fe ; an d at hi s d e ath
, ,

i n 1 79 6 h e w a s bu r i e d i n W e s t m i n s t e r A bb e y B l ak e B u rn s
, .
, ,

an d i n d e e d m o s t of t h e p oe t s of t h e a e w e r e i n fl u e n c e d b
g y
1 The re ar e se ve ra l i i
o m s s on s x
fr o m t h e t e t i n t h
fr ag m e n t from F i ng a l . i s

v l
2 S e e ra fra m e n t s of Gae c
g li tt i b
p oe t ry , a r u te d t o Os s an or O s n , a re n ow kn own i ii
v xi i i l
t o ha e e s t e d at t h at t m e i n t he H gh an d s . Mac he r son u se d t he se a s a b a s s fo r h i s
p i
i
e p c , b u t m os t of t h e de t a s w e r e fu rn s he d b il i
y hi s ow n m a g nat on . T h e a e ge d te t i i i ll x
of i li lv
Os s an w a s p u b s he d i n 1 80 7, s om e e e e n y ea rs aft e r Ma h e r s on ’s d e at h . I t on ly
g ; ,
il
a d de d an ot h e r m ys t e r y t o t h e for e ry for w h e i t e m b od e d a fe w o l d a n d rob a b
p i
y ge n u n e l i
fra gm e n t s , t he b u lk
of i t se e m s t o b e M a cp h e r son s w or
’
t ra n s at e d b ac n t o Gae c . k l ki li
33 6 E N G LI SH LI TE R ATU R E

thi s s h am p oe t ry E v e n t h e s ch ol ar l y G ray w as d e c e ive d an d

.

d e light e d with O s s i an an d m e n as fa r ap ar t as G o e th e

an d N ap ol e on p r ai s e d it i m m od e r at e l y .

Th o m as Ch at t e rt on ( 1 75 2 Thi s m ar v e l ou s b oy ,

t o wh om K e at s d e dic at e d h i s E n d y m i on an d w h o i s c e l e ,

b ra t e d I n S h e ll e y s A d on ai s
“
i s on e of t h e s add e s t an d m os t
’

,
\\
i n t e r e s ti n g fi g u r e s of t h e r om an ti c r e vival D u r i n g h i s child .

h ood he h au n t e d t he old ch u r ch of S t Mar y R e dcli ffe i n . ,

B r i s t ol wh e r e h e w a s fas ci n at e d b y t h e m e di ae va l ai r of t h e
,

pl a c e an d e s p e ci all y b y on e old ch e s t k n ow n as Can y n g e s

, ,
’

c offe r c on t ai n i n g m u s t y d oc u m e n t s which h ad b e e n p r e s e r v e d
,

for th r e e h u n d r e d y e ars W ith s t r an g e u n c an n y i n t e n t n e s s

.
,

t h e c hild p or e d ov e r th e s e r e lic s of t h e p a s t c op y i n g th e m ,

i n s t e ad of hi s w riti n g b ook u n til h e c ould i m it at e n ot on l y

,

t h e s p e lli n g an d l an g u ag e b u t e v e n t h e h an dw r iti n g of
“
t h e or igi n al . S oon a ft e r t h e O s s i an forg e r i e s app e ar e d ,

Ch att e r t on b e g an t o p rod u c e d oc u m e n t s app ar e n tly v e ry ol d , ,

c on t ai n i n g m e diae val p oe m s l e g e n d s an d fam il y hi s t or i e s c e n

, , ,

t e r i n g ar ou n d t w o ch ara ct e r s Th om a s R o w l e y p r i e s t an d
,
—
,

p oe t an d W illiam Can yn g e m e r ch an t of B r i s t ol i n t h e d ay s
V
, ,

of H e n r
y I .I t s e e m s i n c r e dibl e th at t h e wh ol e d e s i n o f
g
th e s e m e diae v al r om an c e s s h ou ld h av e b e e n w ork e d ou t b y a
child of e l e v e n an d th at he c ou ld r e p rod u c e t h e s ty l e an d t he
,

w r iti n g of Caxt on s d ay s o w e ll th at t h e p r i n t e r s w e r e d e
’

c e i v e d ; b u t s u ch i s t h e fa ct Mor e an d m or e R ow l ey P ap e rs
.
,

as th e w e r e c all e d w e r e p rod u c e d b y C h att e r t on — app ar

y , ,

e n tly fr om t h e ar chiv e s of t h e ol d chu r ch i n r e alit y fr om h i s

o w n i m ag i n ati on — d e li hti n
, g g a l a r g e ci r cl e o f re a d e r s a n d ,

d e c e ivi n g all b u t G r ay an d a fe w s ch ol ar s w h o re c og n i ze d t he
o cc a s i on a l m i s u s e o f fift e e n t h c e n t u r
y E n l i s h w or d s
-
g A l l .

thi s w ork w as c ar e fu lly fi n i s h e d an d b or e th e u n m i s t ak abl e

,
“ ”
s t am p of lit e r ar g e n iu s R e adi n g n ow h i s f E ll a or t h e
y . ,

“ ”
B all ad of Ch ar it e o r t h e l on g p o e m i n b all ad s t y l e c all e d
,
’
B r i s t ow e Tr age di e it i s h ar d t o r e ali ze th at it i s a b oy s
,

w or k At s e v e n t e e n y e a rs of age Ch att e rt on w e n t for a lit e rary

.
33 8 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

upon th e s e l y ba ll ad s an d h i s M i n s tr e lsy of tke S cotti s/t

e ar ,

B or d e r i s d u e chi e fl y t o t h e i n fl u e n c e of Pe r cy s w or k
’
.

B e s id e s t h e R e li q u e s Pe r cy h as g iv e n u s a n oth e r good,

w or k i n hi s N or tne r n An t i q u i ti e s t ran s l at e d fr om t he
F r e n ch of Mall e t s H i s tory o T
’

f D e n m a r k hi s a l s o w as of .

i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e S i n c e it i n t rod u c e d t o En g li s h r e ad e r s a
,

n e w an d fa s ci n ati n g m th ol og y m or e r u gg e d a n d p r i m itiv e
y ,

than th a t of th e G r e e k s ; an d w e a re s t ill i n m u s ic a s i n ,

l e tt e r s u n d e r t h e s p e ll of T h or an d Odi n of F r e a an d t he
V
, ,

a lk r m a id e n s an d of th at s t u p e n d o u s d r am a of p as s i on an d
y ,

”
t rag e d y which e n d e d i n t h e Twilig ht of th e G od s Th e lit .

c rar w or ld o w e s a d e bt of g ratit u d e t o Pe r c w h o w r ot e
y y ,
_

n othi n g of i m p or t an c e hi m s e l f b u t w h o b y c oll e cti n g an d , ,

t ran s l ati n g t h e w or k s of o th e r m e n did m u ch t o h as t e n t he ,

t r ium ph of R om an tici s m i n t h e n in e t e e n th c e n t u ry .

III . T H E F I R S T E N G LI S H NO VE LI S T S
The chi e f lit e r ary ph e n om e na of t h e c om pl e x e ight ee n th
c e n t u ry ar e t h e r e i g n of s o c all e d Cl a s s ici s m t h e r e vival of -
,

r om an tic p oe t r an d t h e di s c ov e r of t h e m o d e r n n o v e l O f
y y
, .

t h e s e th r e e t h e l as t i s p ro b abl y t h e m os t i m p or t an t
, A s id e .

f r om t he fa ct th at t h e n ov e l i s t h e m o s t m od e r n an d at p re s ,

e n t t h e m os t wid e l y r e ad an d i n fl u e n ti al t y p e o f lit e rat u re ,

w e h av e a c e r t ai n p r id e i n r e gar di n g it a s En g l an d s or i g i n al
’

c on t r ibut i on t o t h e w or ld of l e tt e r s O th e r g r e at t y p e s of .

lit e rat u re lik e t h e e pic t h e r om an c e an d t he d ram a w e r e

, , , ,

fi r s t p r od u c e d b y o th e r n ati on s ; b u t t h e id e a of t h e m od e rn
1
n ov e l s e e m s t o h av e b e e n w or k e d ou t l arg e l on E n gli s h s oil ;
y
an d i n t h e n u m b e r an d t h e fin e qu alit of h e r n ov e li s t s E n g
y ,

l an d has h ar dl y b e e n r ival e d b y an y oth e r n ati on B e for e w e .

s tud y t h e w r it e r s w h o d e v e l op e d thi s n e w t p e of li t e ratu r e

y ,

i t i s w e ll t o c on s id e r br i e fl y i t s m e an i n g an d hi s t ory ,

1 Th fi t b
e k t w hi h t h t m
rs oo s v l i th m d
o c e m y b e p p lie d
er
“
no e
”
n e o e rn s e n s e , a a
, ,

a pp d l m t i m lt
e are a os l y i E gl d F
S u d G m
an e ou s y Th n p id d v l p
n an ,
ra n c e ,
an er an . e ra e e o

m t f t h e E gli h
en o ve l had a i m m
n s i fl ce i l l E p
no n ti e n se n ue n n a u ro e an na on s .
 EI G H T EE NTH C E NTU R Y LI T ER ATU R E 3 39

Me an i n g of t h e Nov e l Pro b abl y t h e m os t S i g n ifi can t r e m ark

.
\

m ad e b y t h e o rdi n ar y r e a d e r c on c e rn i n g a w o r k of fi cti on

Th e S t ory t ak e s t h e for m o f a q u e s ti on : I s it a g ood s t ory ?

El e m e n t F or t h e r e ad e r o f t o day i s m u ch lik e t h e child an d
-

t h e p r i m itiv e m an i n thi s r e s p e ct th at h e m u s t b e att ract e d

,

an d h e ld b t h e s t or l e m e n t o f a n arr a tiv e b e f or e h e l e ar n s
y y e

t o a pp r e ci at e i t s s t y l e or m or a l S i g n ific an c e T h e s t or y e l e
.

m e n t i s th e r e for e e s s e n t i al t o t h e n ov e l b u t wh e re t h e s t ory
o r i i n a t e s i s i m p o s s ibl e t o s a
g y A s w .e ll m i g ht w e s e e k f or

t h e or i g i n of t h e ra c e for wh e r e v e r p ri m it iv e m e n ar e fou n d ,

th e r e w e s e e th e m gath e r i n g e age r ly a b ou t t h e s t ory t e ll e r -

.

I n t h e h all s of o u r S ax on an c e s t or s t h e s cop an d t he t al e
b r i n g e r w e r e e v e r t h e m os t w e lc om e g u e s t s an d i n t he b ar k
wigwam s of t h e A m e r ic an I n dian s t he m an w h o t old t he
l e ge n d s of H iaw ath a h ad an a u di e n ce q u it e a s a tt e n tiv e a s
t h at which ga th e r e d at t h e G r e e k fe s tival s t o h e ar t h e s t ory
’
of U l s s e s s w a n d e r i n s T n s i n s t i n ct o r i n n at e l ov e for
’

y g o m .a

a s t or w e ar e i n d e bt e d for al l o u r lit e r at u r e ; a n d t h e n ov e l
y
m u s t i n s om e d e g r e e s ati s fy thi s i n s ti n ct or fail of app r e ci a ti on
, .

Th e s e c on d q u e s ti on which w e as k c on c e rn i n g a w or k of
fi cti on i s H ow far d oe s t h e e l e m e n t of i m a gi n ati on e n t e r i n t o
,

it ? F or u p on t he e l e m e n t of i m ag in at i on d e p e n d s ,
Th e R om a cen
l ar ge l y ou r cl as s ifi cat i on of w or k s o f ficti on i n t o
,

n ov e l s, r o m an c e s an d m e r e a dv e n t u re s t o r i e s
,
Th e divi s i on s
.

h e r e ar e a s i n d e fi n it e as t h e b or d e r l an d b e tw e e n childh ood
an d o u th b e tw e e n i n s ti n ct an d r e a s o n ; b u t th e r e ar e c e r t ai n
y ,

p r i n cipl e s t o gu id e u s We n ot e i n t h e d e v e l op m e n t of an y
. ,

n or m al child th a t th e r e c om e s a t i m e wh e n for h i s s t or i e s h e
,

d e s i r e s k n i ght s g ian t s e lv e s fai r i e s wit ch e s m agic an d

, , , , , ,

m ar v e l ou s a dv e n t u r e s which h av e n o b as i s i n e xp e r i e n c e .

H e t e ll s e xt ra or di n ar y t a l e s a b o u t hi m s e l f which m ay b e on ly
,

t h e vag u e r e m e m b ran c e s of a d r e am o r t h e c r e at i on s of a
d aw n i n g i m ag in ati on — b oth of which ar e as r e al t o h i m as
,

an
y o t h e r p ar t of li fe W h. e n w e s a
y th a t s u ch a child
“
r om an c e s w e g iv e e x a ctl y t h e r i ght n am e t o it ; for thi s
,
3 40 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

su dd e n i n t e re s t i n e xt raor di n ary b e in gs an d e v e n t s m ark s

t h e d e v e l op m e n t of t h e h u m an i m agi n at i on r un n in
g r i o t at ,

fi rs t b e cau s e it i s n ot g u id e d b y r e as on which i s a l at e r
, ,

d e ve l op m e n t — a n d t o s ati s f thi n e w i n t e r e s t t h e r o m an c e 1
‘
, y s

w as i n v e n t e d T he r om an c e i s o r i g i n all y a w or k of ficti on
. , ,

i n which t h e i m ag i n ati on i s g iv e n fu ll pl ay with ou t b e i n g ,

li m it e d b y fa ct s o r p r ob abiliti e s I t d e al s with e xt raor di n ary .

e v e n t s with h e r o e s wh os e p ow e r s a r e e x agg e rat e d a n d oft en

, ,

add s t he e l e m e n t o f s u p e r h u m an or s u p e rn at u ra l ch ar a ct e r s .

I t i s im p o s s ibl e t o d raw t h e li n e wh e r e r om an c e e n d s ; b u t
thi s e l e m e n t o f e xc e s s iv e i m ag i n a ti on an d of i m p o s s ibl e h e r oe s
a n d i n cid e n t s i s i t s di s ti n g u i s hi n g m a r k i n e v e r lit e rat u r e
y .

Wh e r e t h e n ov e l b e g i n s it i s lik e wi s e i m p os s ibl e t o s ay b u t
a ai n w e h av e a s u g ge s ti on i n t h e e xp e r i e n c e of e v e r d
g y r e a e r .

Th e r e c om e s a t i m e n at u rally a n d i n e vit abl y i n t h e , ,

Th e Nov e l
li fe of e v e r y y ou th wh e n th e r om an c e n o l on ge r e n
th rall s hi m H e liv e s i n a w or ld of fact s g e t s a cq u ai n t e d with
.

m e n a n d w om e n s om e g ood s o m e b ad b u t al l h u m an an d h e
, , ,

d e m an d s th at lit e r at u r e s h all e xp re s s li fe as h e k n ow s it b y e x
p e r i e n c e T hi s i s
. t h e s t ag e o f t h e a w ak e n e d i n t e ll e ct a n d i n ou r ,

s t o r i e s t h e i n t e ll e ct as w e ll a s t h e i m ag i n ati o n m u s t n ow b e

s ati s fi e d A t t h e b e g i n n i n g of thi s s t ag e w e d e li ght i n R oom

.

s on Cr u s oe ; w e r e a d e ag e r l y a m u lt it u d e o f adve n tu r e n arra

t i v e s an d a fe w s o c all e d hi s t or ic a l n ov e l s ; b u t i n e a ch c a s e
-

“
w e m u s t b e l u re d b y a s t or y m u s t fin d h e r oe s an d m ovi n g
,

”
a ccid e n t s b fl oo d an d fi e ld t o app e al t o ou r i m ag i n ati on ;
y
an d th o u gh t h e h e ro an d t h e adv e n t u r e m ay b e e x agg e ra t e d ,

th e y m u s t b oth b e n at u ral an d withi n t h e b ou n d s of p r ob ab i l

ity . G ra duall y t h e e l e m e n t of adve n t u r e or s u r p r i s i n g i n ci
d e n t g row s l e s s an d l e s s i m p or t an t as w e l e ar n th at t r u e li fe ,

i s n ot adv e n t u r ou s but a pl a i n h e r oic m att e r of w or k a n d

, ,

1 Th e n am e r om an c e
”
iv fi
w as g e n at r s t t o an y s t or y i n on e of t h e R om a n ce l a n

gu age s , lik e t he i l i v
F r e n ch m e t r ca r om an ce s , w h c h w e h a e c on s de re d . B e ca u s e t he se i
s t or e si l
w e r e b rou ght t o E n g a n d a t a t m e w h e n t h e c i
s h m n d of t he M ddle Age s h il d i i i
de li gh t e d i n t he m o s t m p os s b e s t or i
e s ,
t h e n a m e i l
r om a n ce
”
i
w a s r e t a n e d t o co e r a n y i v
w or k of t he unb r i dl ed i m gi
a n at on . i
34 2 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

affe ct e d rom an c e w r itin g for t h e n e xt th o u s an d y e ar s A s e con d .

r o u p o f p r e d e c e s s or s i s fo u n d i n t h e It ali an an d S p an i s h
g p a s

t oral r om an c e s which w e re i n s pi r e d b y t h e E c l og u e s of i r gi l
, V .

T h e s e w e r e e xt r e m e l y p op u l ar i n t h e fou r t e e n th a n d fi ft e e n th
c e n t u r i e s an d th e i r i n fl u e n c e i s s e e n l at e r i n S id n e y s Ar ca d i a
,
’

which i s t h e b e s t Of thi s t y p e I n En gli s h .

Th e thi r d an d m os t i n fl u e n ti al g rou p o f p r e d e c e s s ors of t h e

n ov e l i s m ad e u f t h r o m a n c e s O f chiv al r s u ch a s a r e
p o e y ,

fo u n d i n Mal ory s M or te d A r tna r I t i s n otic e abl e i n r e a d

’ ’
.
,

i n g th e s e b e a u ti fu l Ol d r o m an c e s i n di ffe r e n t l an g u ag e s th a t ,

e a ch n at i on ch an g e s th e m s om e wh at s o a s t o m ak e th e m
,

m or e e xp r e s s iv e Of n a ti on al t r a it s an d id e al s I n a w or d t h e
.
-

O l d r o m a n c e t e n d s i n e vit abl
y t o w ar d s r e ali s m e s p e ci all
y i
, n

E n gl an d wh e r e t h e e xc e s s iv e i m ag i n ati on i s c u r b e d a n d t h e
,

h e r oe s b e c om e m ore h u m an I n Mal ory i n t h e u n k n own

.
,

a u th or Of S i r Ga w a i n a n d Me Gr e e n K n i h t an d e s p e ci all
g , y
i n Ch au c e r w e s e e t h e e ffe ct of t h e p r a ctic a l E n gli s h m i n d
,

i n g ivi n g th e s e Ol d r om an c e s a m or e n at u ra l s e tti n g an d i n ,

m aki n g t h e h e r oe s s u gg e s t th ou gh fain tl y t h e m e n an d
, ,

w om e n o f th e i r ow n d ay Th e Ca n te r on ry Ta l e s with th e i r
. ,

s t or i n t e r e s t an d th e i r ch ar a ct e r s d e li ht fu ll t ru e t o n a t u r e
y g y ,

h av e i n th e m t h e s u g g e s ti on at l e as t of a c on n e ct e d s t or y
, ,

wh o s e chi e f ai m i s t o r e fl e ct li fe a s it i s .

I n t h e E li zab e th an A g e t h e id e a of t h e n ov e l g r ow s m or e
d e fi n it e I n S id n e y s A rca d i a
.
’
a r om an c e o f chiv a l r y ,

t h e p as t or al s e tti n g at l e a s t i s g e n e ra ll y t r u e t o n at u r e ; o u r
c r e d u lit y i s n ot t a x e d as i n t h e Ol d r om an c e s b y t h e c on ti n u al
, ,

app e ara n c e o f m a ic or m i r a cl e s ; an d t h e ch ar act e r s th ou g h

g ,

id e ali ze d till th e y b e c om e t i r e s om e o cc as i on all y g ive t h e i m

,

p re s s i on Of b e i n g r e al m e n a n d w om e n I n Bac on s Tb e N e w.
’

Atl a n ti s ( 1 6 2 7) w e h av e t h e s t ory of t h e di s c ov e r y b y m ar i
n e r s Of a n u n k n ow n c o u n t r i n h abit e d b a s u p e r i o r ra c e Of
y , y
m e n m or e civili ze d th an ou r s e lv e s — an id e a which h ad b e e n
, ,

u se d b
y M o r e i n h i s U to i a i n
p 1 5 1 6 T h e
. s e t w o b o ok s ar e

n e ith e r r om an c e s n o r n ov e l s i n t h e s t r ict s e n s e b u t s t u di e s
, ,
 E I G H TEE NTH CE NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E

of so cial in s tituti on s Th e y u s e t h e c on n e ct e d s t ory as a

.

m e an s Of t e achi n g m or al l e s s on s an d Of b r i n g i n g ab o u t n e e d e d
,

r e form s ; an d thi s v al u abl e s u gg e s t i on h as b e e n ad opt e d b y

m an y of ou r m od e rn w r it e rs i n t h e S O call e d p r obl e m n ov e l s
-

an d n ov e l s Of p u r p o s e .

N e are r t o t h e t r u e n ov e l i s L odg e s r om an t ic s t ory Of

’

R os a ly n d e which w as u s e d b y S h ak e s p e ar e i n As You L i ke I t
, .

Thi s w a s m od e l e d u p on t h e I t alian n ov e ll a or s h or t s t or y , ,

which b e cam e v e ry p op u l ar i n E n gl an d d u r i n g t h e Eliza b e th an

Ag e I n t h e s am e ag e w e h av e i n t r od u c e d i n t o En gl an d t h e
s

S p an i s h pic ar e s q u e n ov e l ( fr om p i ca r o a k n av e or r as c al )
, ,

which at fi r s t w as a ki n d Of b u r l e s q u e on t h e m e di m v al r o
m an c e an d which t o ok for i t s h e r o s om e l ow s c ou n d r e l or
,

o u t ca s t i n s t e ad o f a k n i ht an d foll ow e d h i m th r o u h a l on
, g , g g
c ar e e r of s can d al s an d vill a i n i e s O n e of t h e e a rli e s t t y p e s of
.

thi s pi car e s q u e n ove l i n E n g li s h i s N as h s Tb e U nf or tu n a te ’

Tr a ve l l e r or tne L if e of j a ck Wi l ton
, which i s al s o a
f or er u n n e r of t h e hi s t or ic a l n ov e l s i n c e i t s a ct i on t a k e s pl ac e
V
,

du r i n g th at g or g e ou s i n t e r vi e w b e twe e n H e n r y I I I an d t he
ki n g Of F r an c e on t he F i e ld of t h e Cl oth Of G old I n all .

th e s e s h or t s t or i e s an d pi car e s q u e n ov e l s t h e e m ph as i s w as
l aid n ot s o m u ch on li fe an d ch aract e r a s on t h e adv e n t u r e s
of t h e h e ro ; an d t h e i n t e r e s t c on s i s t e d l ar e l i w o n d e ri n g
g y n

wh at w ould h app e n n e x t an d h ow t h e pl ot w ou ld e n d The

, .

s am e m e th o d i s e m pl o e d i n al l t ra s h n ov e l s an d it i s e s
y y
p e c i all y t h e b an e o f m an
y m od e r n s t or
y w r it e r s
-
T hi s
. e x ce s

s iv e i n t e re s t i n a dv e n t u r e s or i n cid e n t s for th e i r ow n S ak e ,

an d n ot for th e i r e ff e ct on ch ar a ct e r i s wh at di s t i n g ui s h e s
,

t h e m od e r n a dv e n tu r e s t or y fr om t h e t r u e n ov e l .

I n t h e Pu r it an A g e w e app roa ch s till n e ar e r t o t h e m od e rn

n ov e l e s p e ci all
, y i n t h e w or k of B u n an ; an d a s t h e Pu r it an
y
alwa s l aid e m ph a s i s on ch ara ct e r t i pp d h vi
y s o,r e s a e a r e a ng
’
a d e fi n it e m or al p u r p o s e B u n y an s Tne P i lg r i m s P r og r e s s
’
.

( 1 6 78
) di ff e r s f r o m t h e Fa e ry Q u e e n a n, d fro m a l l o th e r

m e di ae val all e g or i e s in thi s i m p or t an t re s pe ct — th at t he

, ,
 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

ch ara ct e r s far from b e i n g bl oodl e s s ab s t racti on s are but thi n ly

, ,

di s g u i s e d m e n an d w om e n I n d e e d m an y a m od e rn m an
.
, ,

r e a di n g t h e s t o r of Ch r i s t i an h as fou n d i n it t h e r e fl e cti on
y ,

Of h i s o w n li fe a n d e xp e r i e n c e I n Tb e L ife a n d D e a tli of
.

M r B a d m a n ( 1 6 82 ) w e h av e an oth e r an d e v e n m ore r e a li s tic

.

f s h e w as i n B u n an s d a T
’
st u d m h t w t ik
y O a an a
y y e s e o s r .

i n g fi g u r e s Ch r i s tian an d Mr B ad m an b e l on g am on g t h e
, . ,

r e at ch aract e rs O f En li s h ficti on
’

g g B u n
y a n s g o o.d w o r k h i s ,
—

ke e n i n s i ght hi s d e li n e ati on Of ch ara ct e r a n d h i s e m ph as i s

, ,

u p on t h e m or a l e ff e ct s O f i n divid ua l a cti on w a s c ar r i e d on b y ,
-

A ddi s on an d S t e e l e s om e thi r t y ye ar s l at e r The ch ara ct e r .

of S i r R o e r d e Co v e r l e i l fl cti n o f E n li s h c ou n t r
g y s a r e a r e e o g y
li fe i n t h e e i g ht e e n th c e n t u r y ; an d with S t e e l e s d om e s tic
’

s k e t ch e s i n Tb e Ta t l e r Tb e Sp e c ta tor a n d Tli e Gu a r d i a n
, ,

r os s t h e b or d e r l an d th a t li e s o u t
( 1 709 w e d e fi n it e l
y c
s id e Of r om an c e an d e n t e r t h e r e g i on o f ch ar a ct e r s t u dy
,

wh e r e t h e n ov e l h as i t s b e g i n n i n g .

Th e D i scov e ry of t h e Mo d e rn Nov e l N otwith s t an di n g thi s.

l on g hi s t ory of fi cti on t o which w e h av e call e d a tt e n ti on it

, ,
’
i s s afe t o s ay th at u n til t he p u blica ti on of R ich ar d s on s
,

P a m e l a i n 1 74 0 n o t r u e n ov e l h ad app e ar e d i n an y lit e r a
, ,

t u r e B y a t r u e n o v e l w e m e an s i m pl y a w or k Of ficti on
.

which r e l at e s t h e s t ory of a pl ai n h u m an li fe u n d e r s t re s s of ,

e m oti on which d e p e n d s for i t s i n t e r e s t n ot on i n cid e n t or

,

adv e n t u r e b u t on i t s t r u th t o n at u r e
,
A n u m b e r Of E n gli s h
.

n ov e li s t s — G old s m ith R ich ar d son F i e ldi n g S m oll e tt S t e r n e

, , , ,

-
al l s e e m t o h av e s e i ze d up on t h e id e a of r e fl e cti n g li fe a s

it i s i n t h e form of a s t ory an d t o h ave d e v e l op e d it s i m u l ta

, ,

n e ou s l T h r e s u lt w as an e xt raor di n ar y a w a k e n i n g Of i n
y e
.

t e r e s t e s p e ci all y am on g p e opl e w h o h a d n e v e r b e for e b e e n

,

g r e a tl y c on c e r n e d with lit e r at u r e We ar e t o re m e m b e r th at
. ,

i n p r e vi ou s p e r i od s t h e n u m b e r of r e ad e r s w as c om p arativ e l y
,

s m all ; an d th at with t he e xc e pti on of a fe w w r it e r s lik e

,

Lan gl an d an d B u n yan au th o rs w r o t e l arg e l y for t h e u pp e r

,

c l as s e s I n t h e e ight e e n th c e n tu ry t h e s p r e ad of e du cati on
.
'
34 6 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

which g e n e ra ll y h e ad s t h e li s t Of m od e rn ficti on ,

S h o w s th a t thi s e xciti n g t a l e i s l ar g e l an a dv e n t u r e s t or
y y ,

rath e r t h an t h e s t u d Of h u m a n ch ara ct e r which D e fo e p r ob

y
a bl
y i n t e n d e d it t o b e Y ou n g p e opl e s till r e ad it as th e
.
y
m i ght a di m e n ov e l s kippi n g i t s m orali zi n g p as sag e s an d
,

h u r ry i n g on t o m or e a dv e n t u r e s ; b u t th e y s e ld om app r e ciat e
t h e e xc e ll e n t m at u r e r e as on s which b a n i s h t h e di m e n ov e l t o
a s e c r e t p la c e i n t h e h a m ow whil e Cr us oe h an g s p r ou dl
y , y on

t h e Ch r i s t m as t r e e or
h old s an h on or e d pl ac e
o n t h e fa m i l b oo k
y
s h e lf D e foe s App a r i
’

V
.

t i o n of M r s e a l .
,

M e m oi rs of a Ca va l i e r ,

an d j o u r n a l of Me
P l ag u e Ye a r a r e s u ch
m ixt u r e s of fa ct fic ,

t i on a n d c r e d u l i t y
,

t h at th e y d e fy cl ass i
fic at i on ; whil e o th e r
“ ”
so calle d -
n ov e l s ,

l ik e Cap t a i n S i ng l e
t on M ol l F l a n d e r s
, ,

an d R ox a n a , ar e b ut
littl e b e tt e r th an pica
D AN I E L D E F O E
r e s q u e s t or i e s with a ,

d e al of u n n at u ra l m or alizi n g an d r e p e n t an c e add e d f or p u r i
t an i c al e ffe ct . I n Cr u s oe D e foe b r ou ght t h e r e ali s tic a d v e n
,

t u r e s t ory t o a v e ry hi g h s t ag e of i t s d e v e l op m e n t ; b u t h i s
w or k s h a rdl y d e s e r v e t o b e cl a s s e d a s t ru e n ov e l s which m u s t ,

s u b or di n at e i n cid e n t t o t h e fa ith fu l p or t r a al o f h u m an li fe an d
y
ch a ract e r .

Li fe . D e fo e w a s t h e s on of a Lon d on bu tc he r n am e d Fo e , an d

ke p t h i s fam i ly n am e u n ti l h e w a s fo r t y y e ar s O f age , w he n he a dd e d

t he i i
ar s t oc r at c
p re fix w i th w h i c h w e ha v e grow n fam ili ar . The
 E I G H T E E NTH C E NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 347

e ve n t s Of hi s bu sy se v e n ty y e ar s Of life i n w hi c h h e p ass e d ,

al l e x tre m e s fro m p ove r ty t o w e al th fr om p rosp e rou s b ri c km ake r

, ,

t o s tar v e li n g j ou rn ali s t from N e w ga t e p ri s on t o i m m e n s e p o pu l ari ty

,

an d ro y a l favo r a r e Ob sc u r e e n ou gh i n d e ta il s
, b u t fou r fac t s s tan d
ou t c l e arly w h i c h h e lp th e r e ad e r t o u n d e rs tan d th e c ha rac t e r of
,

hi s w ork F i r s t D e fo e w as a j ac k at all t rad e s a s w e ll as a w ri t e r ;

. ,
- - -
,

h i s in t e r e s t w a s l arge ly w i th the w o rki n g c l ass e s an d n O t w i th s t an d ,

i n g m an y q u e st ion abl e p rac t i c e s h e s e e m s to h a v e had s om e c on ,

tin n e d p u rp o s e o f e d u c atin g an d u p liftin g the c o m m on p e op l e .

Th i s p ar ti ally a c c ou n ts for t he e n orm ou s p o p u l ari ty o f h i s w orks ,

an d for t h e fac t t hat the y w e r e c riti c i s e d b y li t e rary m e n as b e i n g

”
fit on ly for th e ki tc he n S e c on d h e w as a radi c al N on c on form i s t
. ,

i n r e li gion an d w as i n t e n d e d b y h i s fat h e r for t h e i n d e p e n d e n t

,

min i s tr y Th e Pu ri tan ze al for r e fo rm poss e s s e d h i m an d h e t ri e d

.
,

t o d o by hi s p e n w ha t We sl e y w as d o i n g b y hi s p r e a c h i n g wi th ou t , ,

h ow e v e r havin g an y gre at m e asu r e Of t h e l a tt e r s s i n c e ri ty or S i n gl e

’
,

n e s s Of p u rp os e Th i s ze al fo r r e form m arks al l h i s n u m e rou s w orks

.
,

an d ac c ou n t s fo r t h e m o rali zi n g t o b e fou n d e v e ry w h e r e Thi rd .

,

D e fo e w a s a j ou rn ali st an d p a m p h l e t e e r w i th a r e p o rte r s e y e for ,

’

t h e p i c tu r e squ e an d a n e w s p ap e r m an s i n s tin c t fo r m ak i n g a d
’

g o o
”
s t ory . H e w r ote an i m m e n s e n u m b e r of p am p hl e ts p o e m s an d , ,

m agazi n e arti c l e s ; c on d u c t e d s e v e ral p ap e r s — o n e of t h e m ost ,

p o p u l ar t h,e R e v i e w b e i n g i ssu e d f
,r o m p r i s o n — a n d t h e f ac t t h at
,

t h e y Oft e n bl e w h o t an d c old u p on t h e sam e qu e s t i on w a s h ard ly

n o ti c e d I n d e e d s o e x trao rdin arily in t e r e stin g an d p l au s ibl e w e re
.
,

D e fo e s art i c l e s t hat h e ge n e rally m an age d to k e e p e m p l o y e d b y t he

’

p ar t
y i n p o w e r w h e t h e r,
W h i g o r T o r
y T h i s l on g j o u r n.a li s t i c c are e r ,

l as t in g half a c e n tu ry ac c ou n t s fo r h i s di r e c t s i m p l e n ar rati v e s tyl e

, , , ,

w h i c h h ol d s u s e v e n n ow by i t s i n t e n s e re ali ty To D e fo e s ge n i u s
’
.

”
w e ar e al so i n d e b t e d fo r tw o d i s c o v e r i e s t h e i n te r v i e w an d t he ,

l e ad in g e ditorial b oth of w hi c h ar e stil l i n d aily u s e i n ou r b e st

,

n e w s p ap e r s .

Th e fou rth fac t t o re m e m be r i s t hat D e fo e kn e w p r i

s on life an d

th e re by han gs a ta le . In 70 2 D e fo e p u bli s h e d a
1 re m a r kabl e p a m
Sh o rt e s t Way w i th t he D i ss e n t e rs ,
“ ”
p h l e t ca ll e d Th e i s u p p ort n g

t he c l a i m s Of the fr e e c hu r c h e s a ga i n s t t h e H i gh Fli e rs i e To r i e s ,
. .

an d An li c an s I n a v e i n of gri m hu m o r w h i c h r e c all s S w i ft s
’

g .

Mod e st Pro p osal D e fo e ad v o c at e d han gi n g a ll d i s s e n t in g m in i s

”
,

t e rs an d s e n d i n g all m e m b e rs O f th e fr e e c hu rc h e s i n t o e x il e
, an d

so f e roc i ou s l li t i c w a s t h e s at i r e t hat b o t h D i s s e n t e r s a n d To r i e s
y r e a s
34 8 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

t ook t he au th or lit e rally . D e fo e w as t ri e d , fou n d gu il ty of s e d i t i ou s

libe l ,
an d se n t e n c e d to b e fi n e d , to s tan d t hr e e d ay s i n th e p ill ory ,
an d to b e i m p r ison e d . H ard ly had t h e s e n te n c e be e n p ron ou n c e d
”
w h e n D e foe w ro te h i s H y m n t o t h e Pill ory,

H a i l h i e r og l y p h i c s ta t e m ac h i n e ,

C o n tri v e d to p u n i s h fan c y I n,

a se t d ogge re l ve rse s ri d ic u lin g hi s p rose c u tors which D e foe

of , ,

w i th a ke e n e y e for ad v e rt i s i n g s c a tte r e d all ove r Lon d on , C r ow d s .

fl oc ke d t o c h e e r hi m i n t h e p ill o ry an d s e e i n g t hat D e foe w as m ak

i n g p o p u l ar i t y ou t Of p e rs e c u t i on h i s e n e m i e s bun dl e d h i m O ff t o ,

N e w gate p r i s on H e tu rn e d thi s e x p e ri e n c e al so to ac c ou n t b y p u b
.

li sh i n g a p o p u l ar n e w s p ap e r an d by ge t t i n g a c qu ai n t e d w i th r ogu e s
, ,

p i ra t e s s m u gg
,
l e rs a n d m i s c e ll an e ou s o u t c as t s
, e ac h o n e w i th a ,

g o o d s t o ry t o b e u s e d l at e r A ft e r h i s r e l e as e fr om
p ri s on
. in ,

1 70 4 h e t u rn e d h i s kn ow l e d ge O f c ri m i n al s t o fu rth e r ac c ou n t an d
, ,

e n t e re d t h e go v e rn m e n t e m p l oy as a ki n d o f s py o r se c r e t s e rvi c e -

age n t H i s p ri son e x p e ri e n c e an d t he fu rth e r kn ow l e d ge o f c r i m

. ,

i n al s ga in e d i n ove r tw e n t y y e ar s a s a S py a c c ou n t s for h i s n u m e rou s ,

st or i e s of t h i e v e s a n d p i rat e s like j on a tli a n Wi ld an d Cap ta i n Ave ry

‘
, ,

an d al s o fo r h i s l at e r n ov e l s w h ic h d e al a l m ost e x c l u s i v e ly w i th
,

vill ain s an d ou tc as ts .

Whe n D e fo e w as n e arly s i x ty y e ars of age he t u rn e d to fi c tion

an d w ro t e t h e gr e at w ork by w h i c h h e i s r e m e m b e r e d R obi n s on .

Cr u s oe w as an i n stan t s u c c e ss an d th e au thor b e c am e fam ou s all

’

ove r Eu r op e O th e r s to ri e s foll ow e d rap i d ly an d D e fo e e arn e d

. ,

m on e y e n ou gh t o r e ti re to N e w in gton an d liv e i n c om fort ; b u t n ot

id ly fo r h i s ac t i v i ty i n p rod u c i n g fi c tion i s r i v al e d on ly b y that of
,

Wal te r Sc o tt Thu s i n 1 72 0 ap p e are d Cap ta i n S i ng l e ton D u n ca n

. , ,

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, i n 1 72 2 Col on e l j a ck M ol l , , ,

F l a n de r s a n d t h e a m azin gly r e ali s t ic j ou r n a l of tlze Pl ag u e I if a r

,
/
.

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f
o th e D e vi l I n 172 6 .
I n the l atte r y e ar D e fo e s
’
s e c r e t c on n e c t on i i
w th t h e go e rn m e n v t
b e c am e kn own an d a gre at how l of in di gn ation rose again s t h i m i n
,

t he p u bli c p r i n t d e s t royi n g i n an h ou r t h e p op u l ari t y w h i c h h e had

,

g a i n e d b y a l i fe t i m e o f i n t r i gu e an d l ab o r H e fl e d fr o m h i s h o m e .

to Lon d on w h e re h e di e d Ob s c u re ly i n 1 73 1 w h il e h idin g from r e al

, , ,

o r i m agi n ar y e n e m i e s .
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w e ary fe v e r i s h m on th s Of buildi n g a hu g e b oat which w as

, ,

t oo b ig t o b e l au n ch e d b y o n e m an with o ut re c a lli n g s om e
‘

b oy w h o s p e n t m an y s t orm y day s i n S h e d or c e ll ar bu ildi n g

a b oat or d og h o u s e an d w h o wh e n t h e thi n g w as pa i n t e d
, ,

an d fi n i s h e d fou n d it a foo t wid e r th an t h e d oor a n d had t o

, ,

k n ock it t o pi e ce s ? Thi s ab s ol u t e n at ur al n e s s ch aract e r i ze s

t h e wh ol e s t or y It i s a s tud y of t h e h u m an will al s o — Of
. ,

p ati e n c e for tit u d e an d t h e i n d om it abl e S ax on s pi rit ov e r c om

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i n g a ll Ob s t a cl e s ; a n d it w as thi s e l e m e n t which m ad e R ou s
s e a u r e c om m e n d R ob i n s on Cr u s oe as a b e tt e r t r e at i s e on
e d u c ati on th an an thi n g which A r i s t o tl e or t h e m od e r n s h ad
y
e v e r w r itt e n An d thi s s u gg e s t s t h e m os t s ig n ific an t thi n g
.

a b o u t D e fo e s m a s t e r pi e c e
’
n am e l th at t h e h e r o r e p re s e n t s
y , ,

t h e wh ol e of hu m an s o ci e t y d o i n g with h i s ow n h an d s al l t h e ,

thi n g s which b y t h e divi s ion of l ab o r an d t h e d e m an d s of

,

m o de rn civili zati on a r e n ow d on e b y m an y di ff e r e n t w or k e r s
, .

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I n t h e re m a i n i n g w or k s O f D e fo e m or e th an t w o h u n d re d ,

i n n u m b e r th e r e i s an as t on i s hi n g var i e t y b u t a ll are m a rk e d
,

b y t h e s am e s i m pl e n arr ativ e s t y l e an d t h e s am e i n t e n s e
, ,

r e ali s m T h e b e s t k n o w n of th e s e ar e t h e j ou r n a l of the
.

P lag u e Ye a r i n which t h e h orr or s Of a fr i g ht fu l pl ag u e ar e

,

m i n u t e l y r e c or d e d ; t h e M e m oi rs of a Ca va l i e r s o r e ali s tic ,

th at Ch ath am q u ot e d it a s hi s t ory i n Par liam e n t an d s e v e ral

picar e s q u e n ov e l s lik e Cap ta i n S i ng l e ton Colon e l j a ck M ol l
, , ,

F l a n de r s an d R ox a n a
, Th e l a s t w or k i s b y s om e c r itic s
.

g iv e n a v e r
y hi g h pl ac e i n r e ali s tic fi cti o n b u t lik e t h e o th er ,

th r e e an d lik e D e fo e s m i n or n ar rativ e s o f J a ck S h e pp ar d an d
,
’

Car t o u ch e it i s a di sag re e abl e s t u dy Of vic e e n di n g with a

, ,

for c e d an d u n n atu ra l r e p e n t an c e .

S AM U E L R I CH AR D S ON 1 6 89— 1 76 1
( )
To R ich ar d s on b e l on g s t h e c r e dit o f w r iti n g t h e fi r s t m od
e r n n ov e l H e w a s t h e s on of a L on d on j o i n e r w h o for
. , ,

s s ak e r e s id e d i n s om e u n k n ow n t ow n i n D e r b y s hi r e
’
e c on om
y , ,
 E I G H TEE NTH CENTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 35 I

wh e r e S am u e l w as b orn i n 1 6 89 Th e b oy re c e iv e d v e ry .

littl e e d u cati on b u t he h ad a n at u r al t al e n t for w r iti n g le t

,

t e r s an d e v e n as a b oy w e fin d hi m fr e qu e n tly e m pl oy e d
,

b y w or ki n g g i r l s t o w r it e th e i r l ov e l e tt e r s for th e m Thi s
-
.

e ar l y e xp e r i e n c e ; t og e th e r with h i s f on d n e s s for t h e s o ci e t y
“
of h i s d e a r e s t l adi e s r ath e r th an of m e n g av e h i m th a t ,

i n ti m at e k n owl e d ge of t h e h e ar t s Of s e n ti m e n t al an d u n e du
c at e d w om e n which i s m an i fe s t i n a l l h i s w or k Mor e ov e r h e . ,

w as a k e e n Ob s e r v e r o f m an n e r s an d h i s s u r p r i s i n g l y a cc u rat e ,

d e s c r ipti on s Oft e n c om p e l u s t o li s t e n e v e n wh e n h e i s m o s t ,

t e di ou s At s e v e n t e e n y e ar s of ag e h e w e n t t o Lon d on an d
.

l e arn e d t h e p r i n t e r s t r ad e wh ich h e foll ow e d t o t h e e n d o f

’
,

h i s li fe Wh e n fi ft y y e ar s O f ag e h e had a s m all r e p u t ati on

.

as a w r it e r of e l e ga n t e pi s tl e s a n d t hi s r e p u t ati o n l e d c e r t a in,

p u bli s h e r s t o app roach h im with a p rop os al th at he w r it e a

s e r i e s of Fa m i l i a r L e tte r s which c o u ld b e u s e d as m od e l s b
, y
p e opl e u n u s e d t o w r iti n g R ic har d s on gl adl y a cc e pt e d th e
.

p rop os al an d had t h e h appy i n s pir ati on t o m ak e th e se l e tt e r s

,
’
t e ll t h e c on n e ct e d s t o ry of a g i r l s li fe D e foe had t old an .

adv e n t u r e s t or o f h u m an li fe o n a d e s e r t i s l an d but R ich

y ,

ar d s on w ou ld t e ll t h e s t or o f a g i r l s i n n e r li fe i n t he m id s t
’

y
Of En gli s h n e i ghb o r s T h at s ou n d s s i m pl e e n o u g h n ow b u t
.
,

it m ark e d an e p o ch in t h e hi s t o ry Of lit e rat u r e Lik e e v e r y .

o th e r g r e at an d S i m pl e di s c ov e r it m a k e s u s w on d e r w h
y y ,

s om e o n e ha d n o t t h ou gh t O f it b e fo r e .

Ri ch ar d s on s Nov e l s
’
Th e r e s u lt Of R ich ar d s on s i n s pi ra
’

V
.
.

t i on w as P a m e l a or i r t u e R e w a r d e d an e n dl e s s s e r i e s of
, ,

1
l e tt e r s t e lli n g of th e t r i al s t r ib u l ati on s an d t he fi n al h appy
, ,

m arr i ag e of a t oo s w e e t y ou n g m aid e n p u bli s h e d i n fou r v ol ,

u m e s e xt e n di n g ov e r th e y e ar s 1 74 0 an d 1 74 1 I t s chi e f .

fam e li e s i n t h e fact th a t it i s ou r fi r s t n ov e l i n t h e m o d e rn
se n se .A s id e from t hi s i m p or t an t fact an d vi e w e d s ol e l y a s ,

1 Th e s e w e re n ot w hat t he b ook s e ll e rs e xpe c te d . T he y w a n te d a h an d y l e t te r

i
w r te r, ”
i
s om e t h n g lik e a b oo k of e t iq u e tt e ; an d i t w as pu b li s he d in 1 74 1 , a fe w m on t h s
aft e r P a m el a .
352 EN G LI S H LI TERATU R E

a no v e l it
, is
ti m e n t al gr an dil o q u e n t an d w e ar i s om e I t s
se n , , .

s u cc e s s at t h e ti m e w a s e n o r m o u s an d R ich ar d s on b e gan
,

an oth e r s e r i e s o f l e tt e r s (h e c o u ld t e ll a s t or
y i n n o oth e r

w ay ) which o cc u pi e d h i s l e i s u r e h ou r s for t h e n e xt s ix y e ar s .

Th e r e s u lt w as Cl a r i s s a or Tb e H i s tory of a You ng L a dy
, ,

p u bli s h e d i n e i ght v ol u m e s i n 1 74 7 1 74 8: Thi s w as an oth e r —

,

an d s om e wh a t b e tt e r s e n ti m e n t al n o v e l
, an d it w as r e c e iv e d

wit h i m m e n s e e n t h u s i as m Of all R ich ar d s on s h e r o i n e s

.
’

Cl ar i s sa i s t h e m os t h u m an I n h e r d ou bt s an d s cr u pl e s o f
.

c on s ci e n c e an d e s p e ci all y i n h e r bitt e r g ri e f an d h u m iliati on

, ,

s h e i s a r e a l w om an i n m ar k e d c on t ra s t with t h e m e ch an ic al
,

h e r o L ove l a c e w h o s im pl y ill u s t r at e s t h e au th or ’s i n abilit y t o

, ,

p or t r ay a m an s ch ara ct e r Th e d ram atic e l e m e n t i n thi s n ov e l

’
.

i s s t r on g an d i s i n cr e as e d b y m e an s of t h e l e tt e r s which
, ,

e n abl e t h e r e ad e r t o k e e p cl os e t o t h e ch ar a ct e r s O f t h e s t or
y
a n d t o s e e li fe f r om th e i r di ffe r e n t vi e w p o i n t s Ma cau l ay w ho . ,

w as d e e pl y i m p r e s s e d b y Cl a r i s s a i s s a id t o h av e m ad e t h e
,

r e m ar k th a t w e r e t h e n ov e l l o s t h e c ou ld r e s t or e al m os t t he
, ,

wh ol e Of it from m e m ory .

R ich ar d s on n ow t u r n e d fr om h i s m iddl e cl a s s h e r oi n e s an d -
,

i n fiv e Or S i x y e a r s c om pl e t e d an oth e r s e r i e s Of l e tt e r s i n ,

which h e att e m pt e d t o t e ll t h e s t ory Of a m an an d an ar i s t o

e rat . Th e r e s u lt w as S i r C/za r l e s Gr a n d i s on ( 1 7 a n ov e l

i n s e v e n v ol u m e s wh o s e h e ro w a s i n t e n d e d t o b e a m od e l of
,

ar i s t o c r atic m an n e r s a n d vi r t u e s for t h e m iddl e cl as s p e opl e -

,

w h o l ar g e l y c on s tit u t e d t h e n ov e li s t s r e a d e r s F or R ich ar d
’
.

s on w h o b e gan i n P a m e l a with t h e p u r p o s e Of t e achi n g hi s

,

h e ar e r s h ow t o w r it e e n d e d with t h e d e lib e rat e p u r p os e of

,

t e achi n g th e m h ow t o liv e ; an d i n m os t of h i s w or k hi s chi e f

obj e ct w a s i n hi s ow n w or d s
, t o i n c u lc a t e vi rt u e an d g oo d
,

d e p or t m e n t H i s n ov e l s th e r e for e s u ffe r a s m u ch f rom hi s

. , ,

p u rp os e as fr om h i s o w n lim it ati on s N otwith s t an di n g h i s .

t e di ou s m orali zi n g an d hi s oth e r d e fe ct s R ich ard s on i n th e s e ,

th r e e b ook s ga v e s om e thi n g e n ti r e ly n e w t o t h e lit e rary w or ld ,

an d t h e w or ld app re ci at e d t h e g i ft T hi s w as t h e s t ory of .
3 54 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

vi r t u e s of R ich ar d s on s h e r oi n e H e t ook for h i s h e ro t h e

’
.

all e g e d b r oth e r of Pa m e l a w h o w as e xp o se d t o t h e s am e ki n d
,

of t e m pt a ti on s b u t w h o i n s t e ad of b e i n g r e war d e d for hi s
, ,

vir t u e w a s u n c e r e m on i ou s l y t u r n e d ou t Of d oors b y h i s m i s
,

t r e s s T h e r e t h e b u r l e s q u e e n d s t h e h e r o t a k e s t o t he ope n
.

r oad , an d F i e ldi n g forg e t s al l ab out Pam e l a i n t e lli n g t h e

adv e n t u r e s Of J o s e ph a n d h i s c om p an i on Par s on A dam s , .

U n lik e R ich ar d s on w h o h as n o hu m or w h o m i n c e s w or d s
, , ,

an d m ora li ze s an d d ot e s o n t h e s e n ti m e n t a l w oe s o f h i s h e r o
,

i n e s F i e ldi n g i s dire ct v igorou s hil ar i ou s an d c oar s e t o t h e

, , , ,

p oi n t Of v u l gar it y H e i s fu ll of an im al S pir it s an d h e t e ll s
.
,

t h e s t ory of a vag ab on d li fe n ot fo r t h e s ak e Of m or ali zi n g

,
—

lik e R ichar d s on o r for e m ph as i zi n g a for c e d r e p e n t an c e lik e

, ,

D e foe b u t s i m pl y b e c au s e it i n t e r e s t s h i m an d hi s on l y c on
, ,
”
c e r n i s t o l au g h m e n ou t of t h e ir folli e s
“
S O h i s s t ory . ,

th o u gh it ab ou n d s i n u n pl e as an t i n cid e n t s g e n e rall y l e av e s ,

t h e r e ad e r with t h e s t r on g i m p r e s s i on o f r e a lit y .

F i e ldi n g s l at e r n ov e l s ar e j on a tb a n Wi ld t h e s t ory O f a
’
-
,

r og u e which s u gg e s t s D e foe s n ar rativ e ; Tli e H i s tory o

’

, f T om

j o n e s, a F ou n d l i n
g h i s b e s t w or k ; a n d A m e l i a

t h e s t ory Of a g ood wi fe i n c on t r a s t with a n u n w o rthy h u s

b an d H i s s t re n gth i n all th e s e w or k s i s i n th e vi g orou s b u t
.

c oar s e fi g u r e s lik e th os e Of J an S t e e n s pict u r e s which fill

,
’
,

m o s t Of h i s p ag e s ; h i s w e ak n e s s i s i n l a ck of t as t e an d i n ,

barr e n n e s s Of im ag i n at i on or i n v e n tion which l e ad s h i m t o ,

re p e at h i s pl ot s an d i n cid e n t s with s li ght v ar i a t i on s I n al l .

hi s w or k s i n c e r it y i s p e rh ap s t h e m o s t m ar k e d ch ara ct e r i s tic .

F i e ldi n g lik e s vi r il e m e n j u s t as th e y ar e goo d an d b ad b u t

, , ,
’
d e t e s t s S h am s of e v e ry s or t H i s s ati re has n on e of S wi ft s
.

bitt e rn e s s but i s s ubtl e a s th a t of Ch auc e r an d g ood n at u r e d

, ,
-

a s th at of S t e e l e H e n e v e r m or ali ze s t h ou g h s om e Of h i s
. ,

p ow e rfu ll y d rawn s c e n e s s u gg e s t a d e e p e r m or al l e s s on th an
an thi n g i n D e fo e or R ich ar d s on ; an d h e n e v e r j ud g e s e v e n
y
t h e w or s t of hi s ch ara ct e r s with ou t r e m e m b e ri n g hi s ow n fra ilt y
an d t e m p e r i n g j u s tic e with m e r c O n t h e wh ol e th ou g h m u ch
y . ,
 EI G H TEENTH CENTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 355

of h i s w or k i sp e rh ap s i n b ad t as t e an d i s t oo c oar se forpl e as
'

an t Or p ro fit a bl e r e adi n g F i e ldi n g m u s t b e r e g ar d e d as an
-

ar ti s t a v e r e t a rt i t i n r e a li s ti c fi ct i on a n d t he adv an c e d
, y g r a s ,

s tud e n t w h o re ad s h i m will p r ob ab l c on c u r i n t h e j ud g m e n t
y
o f a m od e rn c r itic th at b givi n g u s g e n ui n e pictu r e s of m e n
y ,

an d w om e n Of h i s ow n ag e with out m orali zi n g ov e r th e i r vic e s

,

an d v i rtu e s h e b e c am e t h e re al fo un d e r of t h e m od e rn n ov e l
, .

S MOL L E T T AN D S TE R N E

T obi as S m oll e tt( 1 72 1 —

) pp
1 771 a r e n tla
y t r i e d t o c arr
y o n

F i e ldi n g s w o r k ; but h e l ack e d F i e l d i n g s g e n i u s as w e ll a s

’ ’

h i s h u m o r an d i n h e r e n t ki n d n e s s a n d S O c r owd e d hi s p ag e s
,

with t h e h orr or s an d b r u t alit ie s which ar e s om e ti m e s m i s t ak e n

for r e ali s m S m oll e tt w as a ph y s ician of e cc e n t r ic m an n e r s
.
,

an d fe roci ou s i nst i n ct s w h o d e v e l o p e d h i s u n n at u ra l p e c u li ar i
,

ti e s b y g o i n g a s a s urg e on o n a b attl e s hip wh e r e h e s e e m s t o ,

h av e pick e d u p all t he e vil s of t h e n avy an d o f t h e m e dic al

p r ofe s s i on t o u s e l at e r i n h i s n ov e l s .

H i s th r e e b e s t k n ow n w ork s ar e R od e r i ck R a n d om
a s e r i e s o f a dv e n t u r e s r e l a t e d b t h e h e r o ; P e r e r i n e P i ckl e
y g
.
S m ol l e tt s i n which h e r e fl e ct s with b r ut a l di re ct n e s s

NOV e ls
t he w or s t of h i s e xp e r i e n c e s at s e a an d H u mp /zr ey

Cl i n ke r hi s l as t w or k r e c ou n ti n g t h e m ild adv e n t u r e s
,

of a W e l s h fam il i n a j o u rn e th r o u h E n l an d a n d S c o t
y y g g
l an d Thi s l as t al on e can b e g e n e rall y r e ad with ou t arou s i n g
.

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t h e r e ad e r s p rofou n d di s gu s t With ou t an y p ar tic u l ar abilit y
. ,

h e m od e l s h i s n ov e l s on D on Qu ix ote an d t h e r e s ult i s s im pl y
,

a s e r i e s O f c oar s e a dv e n t u r e s which ar e ch aract e r i s tic Of t h e

picare s q u e n ov e l of h i s ag e We r e it n ot for t h e fa ct th at h e
.

M
’
u n c on s ci ou s l
y i m it a t e s J on s on s E v er
y a n i n H i s H u m ou r ,

h e w ou ld h ar dly b e n am e d am o n g o u r w r it e r s Of ficti on ; b u t
i n s e i zi n g u p on s om e g r ot e s q u e h abit o r p e c u li ar it y an d m ak
i n g a ch ara ct e r ou t o f i t — s u ch as Com m od or e Tr u n n i on i n
P e reg r i n e P i ck l e Matth e w B ram bl e i n H u mp h r ey Cl i n ke r
, ,

an d B owli n g i n R od e r i ck R a n d om — h e l aid t h e fou n d ati on

3 5 6 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

for th at e xagg e rat i on i n p or t ray i n g h u m an e cc e n t r iciti e s wh ich

’
fi n d s a cli m a x i n D ick e n s s c aricat u r e s .

Law r e n c e S t e r n e ( 1 71 3 — 1 76 8) has b e e n c om p are d t o a

littl e b r on ze s at y r of an t iq u it y i n wh o s e h oll ow b od y e xq u i
”
s it e Od or s w e r e s t o r e d T h at i s t r u e s o far as t h e s at y r i s
.
,

c on c e rn e d ; for a m or e w e aze n e d u n l ov e l y p e r s on a lit y w ou ld ,

b e h ar d t o fin d Th e on l y q u e s ti on i n th e c om p ar i s on i s i n
.

r e gar d t o t h e ch ara ct e r o f t he O d or s a n d th at i s a m a tt e r o f ,

t as t e I n hi s w or k h e i s th e r e ve r s e Of S m oll e tt t h e l att e r
. ,

b e i n g g iv e n ov e r t o c o ar s e v u l gar iti e s which ar e o ft e n m i s ,

t ak e n for r e ali s m ; the form e r t o whi m s an d v agar i e s an d

s e n ti m e n t al t e ar s w hich fr e q u e n tl on l di s g u i s e a s n e e r at
y
, y
h u m an g ri e f an d pit y .

Th e t w o b ook s b y which S t e r n e i s r e m e m b e r e d a re Tr i s
tr a m S ka n dy an d A S e n t i m e n ta l j ou r n e
y tk rou k F r a n ce
g and

S t e rn e ’
s I ta ly . Th e s e
t e r m e d n ov e l s for t h e S i m pl e r e a s on
ar e
W °f k th at w e k n ow n ot wh a t e l s e t o c all th e m T he for m e r .

w as b e g u n i n h i s ow n w or d s
,
with n o r e al id e a of h ow it w as
,
”
t o t u r n ou t ; i t s n i n e v ol u m e s p u bli s h e d at i n t e rv a l s fr om 1 76 0
,

t o 1 76 7 p ro c e e d e d i n t h e m os t a i m l e s s w ay r e c or di n g t h e
, ,

e xp e r i e n c e s o f t h e e c c e n t r ic S h an d fam il ; a n d t h e b oo k
y y
w as n e ve r fi n i s h e d I t s s t re n gth li e s chi e fl y i n i t s b r illi an t
.

s t l e t h e m os t r e m ar k abl e o f t h e ag e a n d i n i t s od d ch ar a c
y , ,

t e r s lik e U n cl e Tob y an d Cor p o ra l T r i m which with all th e ir

, , ,

e cc e n t r iciti e s a r e S O h u m an i ze d b e a u th or s g e n i u s th at
’

, y t h
th e y b e l on g am on g t he g r e at c r e ati on s Of ou r lit e rat u r e .

T h e S e n t i m e n ta l j ou r n ey i s a c u r i ou s c om bi n at i on Of fi cti on ,

s k e t ch e s of t r av e l m i s c e ll an e ou s e s s ay s on O dd s u bj e ct s
, ,

all m ar k e d b t h e s am e b r illi an c Of s t l e a n d al l s t am p e d
y y y ,

with S t e rn e s fal s e a ttit u d e t ow ar d s e v e r y thi n g i n li fe Man y

’
.

Of i t s b e s t p as s a e s w e r e e ith e r ad apt e d or t ak e n b o dil f r om

g y
B u r t on R a b e l ai s an d a s c or e of oth e r w r it e r s ; s o th at i n
, , ,

r e adi n g S t e r n e o n e i s n e v e r q u it e s u r e h ow m uch i s h i s ow n
,

w or k th ou gh t h e m ar k of h i s g r ot e s qu e g e n iu s i s on e v e ry
,

p age .
35 8 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

vic to ri e s o v e r th e F re c h i C an ad a an d t h e Mi s s is s ip p i V n n a ll e y d u rin
g th e ,

S e v e n Y e ars F re n c h an d I n d i an Wa rs Po li t i c a ll y t h e c o u n t ry w as
’
o , r , .
,

d ivi d e d i t o W h ig s a n d T i s : t h e f o rm e r s e e ki n g g e a t e r li b e ty f o r t h e
n or e r r

p e op l e t h e l a t t e r u p h l din g t h e ki g a ga i s t p o p l a r g o v e rn m e n t
o Th e c o n n n u .

ti nue d s t r if e b e t w e e n t h e s e t w o p o li t i c a l p a t i e s h ad a d i e c t ( a d ge n e ra ll y a r r n

h arm f l ) i fl e n c e o
u n u li te rat e as m an y o f t h e gre at w ri te s w e e s e d b y
n ur , r r u

t h e W h i g o r T ry p art y t o a d v an c e i ts o w n i n t e r e s t s a d t o s a t i i ze i t e n e
o n r s

m i e s N o tw i th s t an d i g t h i s p e rp e tu a l s t ri fe of p a rt i e s t h e a ge i s r e m a k ab l e
. n , r

f o r t h e rap i d s o c i a l d e v e l o p m e t w h i c h s o n e xp e s s e d i t s e l f i n li t e ra t u e n ,
o r r .

C l b s an d c offe e h o s e s m l t ip li e d an d t h e s o c i a l lif e o f t h e s e c l b s re s l t e d
u u u , u u

i n b e t te r m a e rs i n a ge n e r l f e e li n g o f t o l e
nn , t i o n a d e s p e c i a ll y i n a ki n d
a ra , n

o f s p e rfi c i l e l e a c e w h i c h s h o w s i t s e lf i n m o s t o f t h e ros e a d e t ry o f
u g a n
p p n o

th e p iod er On th e. th e r h d t h e m o ra l s tan d a d o f t h e n a t i o w as v e ry
o an , r n

l ow ; b an d s f row d i e s i fe t e d t h e c i ty s t re e ts af t e r igh tfa ll ; b ri b e ry a n d

o n s n

c or ru
p t i o w e nre t h e r u l e i n
p o li t i cs ; a d d k e e s s w as f igh tf lly p re v a n ru n nn r u

l e t am on g a ll c l as s e s S w ift s d e g ad d r ac e o f Y ah o s i s a re fl e c t i on o f t h e
n .
’
r e o

d e g da t i
ra t o b e s e e n i n m l t i t d e s of L o n d
on s al o su Th i s l o w s t a d a d
u on on . n r

o f m r l s e m p h as i z s t h e i m p o rt an c e
o a e f t h e g e a t M th d i s t e viv a l de r o r e o r un

W h i t e fi e l d a d W e s l e y w h i c h b e ga i n t h e s c on d q a t e r o f t h e e igh te e th
n , n e u r n

c e t ry
n u .

Th e li t e a t re o f t h e c e t ry i s r e m a k ab l y c m p l e x b t w e m y c l as s ify i t
r u n u r o , u a

al l und e r t h re e ge a l h e ad s t h e R e i gn
ne r f s o c a ll e d C l s s i c i s m t h e R viv a l
,
— o - a , e

o f R m a t i c P o e t ry a d t h e B e g i n i
o n o f
n t h e Mo d e rn N o v e l T h e fi s t h a lf
n n r
g
, .

o f t h e c e t ry e s p e c i a ll y i s a
n u , a ge o f
p ro s e ow i g l ge l y t o t h e fac t t h at th e
, n , n ar

p rac t i ca l d s o c i a l i t e e s ts f t h e a g e d e m a d e d e xp s s i o n M o d e n e w s
an n r o n re . r n

a
p p e s r lik, e t h e C k i l P t an d Ti m
r on c e ,e a d li t e ra r yosm a g a zi e s
, lik e t h e s, n n ,

T tl e r a d Sp t t
a n w h i c h b e g an i
e c a or t h i s ag e g e at l y i fl e n c e d t h e d e v e l p
, n , r n u o

m e n t o f a s e rvi c e ab l e p ros e s ty l e T h p o e t ry o f th e fi s t h al f o f t h e c e t u ry . e r n ,

as t y p ifi e d i P o p e w as p o li h e d u n i m ag i a t iv e f m l ; an d t h c l o s e d c o p
n , s , n , or a e u

l e t w as i n g e n e a l s e s p p l a t i n g a ll o t h e r f o rm s f v e s e
r u , u n B t h p os e a d o r . o r n

o e t ry w e t o f e q e tl y s at i i c
re o r d s a t i n
e d e s n ot t e n d t r p o d c e a h
an igh r o o r u
p u ,

t yp e f li to t e Th e s e t e d
e ra u r ci s in
.
p o e t ry w e e m nd ifi ed
en i n t h e l at te r e r o ,

p a t o f t h e c e n t ry b y t h e r viv a l o f o m an t i c p o e t ry
r u , e r .

I n o r s t d y w e h av
u u ot d
( )1 t h A g e s t ann o r C l as s i c Ag e ; t h
e : m e an e u u e

i g of C l as s i c i s m ; t h e li fe a d w k o f A l x d e r P p
n n t h e g at e s t p e t o f
or e an o e ,
re o

t h a ge ;
e f J o a t h a S w i f t t h s a t i i s t ; o f J s e p h Ad d is o
o n n , et h e e s ay is t ; o f r o n , s

R i c h d S t e e l e w h w as t h e o i gi n a l g e i s o f t h e T tl r a d t h e Sp t t ;
ar , o r n u a e n e c a or

o f S am lJ hue w h o fo r n e a l y h a lf a c e t ry w as t h e d i c t a t o o f E g lis h
o n s on , r n u r n

l e t t e rs ; o f J am e s B o s w e ll w h o gav e u s th i m m ta l Life f j lz , ; of e or o o n s on

Ed m d B k e t h e g e a t e s t f E g li s h o t o s ; a n d f E d w a d G ib b
un ur , r o n th e ra r o r on ,

h is t o i fa m o u s f r hi s D
r an , li e d F l l f tk e R m
o ec E mp in an a o o an re.

( )
2 T h e R e viv a l f R o m t i c P t ry o ; t h e m e a i gan o f R m a t ic is m ; the oe n n o n

l ife d w o k o f T h o m as G ay ; o f O liv e r G l d s m i th f m o s s p e t d am a
an r r o ,
a u a o , r

ti t a d
s , n v e li s t ; f W illi am C ow p r ; of R b e t B rn t h e gre at e s t o f
no o e o r u s,

S c o t t is h p e ts ; o f W illi am B l ak e t h m y s t i ;
o d the m i p o e ts o f t h e, e c an n or

e ar l y r om an t i c m o v e m e n t — J am e s T h o m s o W illi am C o lli n s Ge o rge C rab b e

, n , , ,
 E I G H TEE N T H C E NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E —
3 59

J am e s Mac p h e rs o n , a u t h o r of t h e Os s ia
p o e m s , T h o m as Ch a t t e rt o n , t h e b o y
n

wh o or igin a t e d th e R ow le y Pa p e rs , an d Th o m as P e rc , w h o s e w o r f o r t e ra y k li
t u r e w as t o co ll e ct the o ld ba ll ad s , wh ic h h e ca ll e d t h e R e l i qu e s f
o A n ci e n t
E ng l i s k P oe try , an d t o t ra n s l at e th e s tor ie s f o . N o rs e m y t h o l o gy i n hi s N or tk
cm A n ti gu i ti e s .
li i
s h N v li s t s ; t h e a i n g a d h i t o ry o f t h e m
( 3) Th e F m
rs t En g d e rn o e e n n s o

n o v e l ; t h e li f e a d w k f D i e l D e f e a t h r f R bi n C orw ho i s o an o , u o o o n son r u s oe ,

h a d l y t b e c a ll d
r o n v li s t b t w h m w p l c d am
e g t h e p i o e e s ; an d
a o e , u o e a e on n r

th e o ve l s o f R i c h a d s
n F i e l d i n g S m o ll e t t S t e a d G l d s m i th
r on , , , e rn , n o .

S e l e ct i on s for R e ad i n g . li s h Po e t ry a n d Man l y s En glis h Ma n l y s ’

En g
’

Pr o s e ( G i n n a n d C o m p a n ) y a e t w o e x c ll t v l m e s c ta i i g s e l e c t i s r e en o u on n n on

f ro m a l l a t h rs s t d i d W rd s E gl i s h Po e t s (4 C a ik s E g li h
’ ’
u o u e . a n r n s

Pr e S e l e c t i o s ( 5 d Ga t t s E n g li s h P m E li zab t h t
’
os n se f an rn e ro ro e o

Vic to i a e s e f l f r s p p l e m e ta y re d i g All i m p o r ta t w k s S h o l d b e
r a r u u o u n r a n . n or u

re ad e t i e i n e r f t h e f o ll ow i g i
, n on xp e iv e e d i t i o s p b li s h e d f r s c h o l
o n ne ns n , u o o

r t i t l es li G e a l B i b li o g r p h y a t e d o f t h i s b o o k
use
(
. F o d p b h e s s an u s r
) , ee en r a n .

P p oR a p e f t h e L c k a d O t h r Po e m s e d i t d b y Pa o t t i n S t n d a rd
e. o o n e e rr a

E n g li s h C l as i c s V i
, ,

s o t h e r s c h o l e d i t i o s O f t h e E s s ay o
s . ar o u Ma nd o n n n, a

R pe a f t h e L oc k i
o R iv e i d e L i t e ra t e S e r i s Po c k e t C l s i c s e t c ;
n rs ur e a s

Po p e s I li a d I V I X X I I X X I Vi S ta d a d E gli s h C l as i c s e t c S e l e c
, , , .

’
, , , , , n n r n s , .

tio f o m Po p d i t d b y R e e d i H o l t s E n g li s h R e a d i gs ’
ns r e , e e , n n .

S w if t G lliv e s T v e l s
. u h o l d i t i n b y Gi r
’
a d C m
ra
p y ; a l,so in sc o e o nn n o an

Te m p l e C l as s i c s tc S e l cti s f o m S w ift e d i t e d b
, e .
y W i ch st ei A t h e on r , n e e r, n

n ae m P e s s
u
( n r n ce d
) t h e aam d i
n ou t d b y C ik i C l ar e d o n P s s ; th s e , e e ra , n n re e

d i te d b y P e s H o l t s E g li s h R e d i g s B a t t l f th e B o ok s i
’
s am e , e tt r co , In n a n . e o , n

K i n g s C l as s i cs B o h L i b a ry
’ ’
tc
, n s r , e .

Ad d i d St l
s on S i R o ge d e C v e l e y P p e rs i n S t a d a d E gli h
an ee e . r r o r a , n r n s

C l as s i c s R iv rs i d L i t
, t e e tc ; S l c t i e f r m Ad d i s e ra u ree d it e d b
y We , . e e on s o on , n

d e ll a d G n o gh a d S e l c t i o n
re e n f m St el
u d i t e d b y C a rp
, n te b th i
e s ro e e , e en r, o n

A t h ae m P e s ; v a ri o s t h
en u r l t i n s i G l d e n T e as ry S e ri e s C a m e
s u o e r se ec o , n o r u ,

l t S e i s H l t E g li s h R e d i g e t c
’
o r e , o s n a n s, .

j /z Liv e s f the P t i n C s s e ll s N a t i on a l L ib a ry ; S l e c t e d E s
’
o n s on . o oe s, a r e

s ys e d i te d b G B H ill t) ; S e l e c t i s i n L i t t l e M as t e r i e c e s S e i e s ;
a , y ( D . .
p en on , r

R as e l as i n H l t s E g li h R a d i gs a d i n Mo l y
s , o
’
nU iv e s a l Lib
s y e n , n r e
’
s n r ra r .

B w e l l Li f e f J h n
os .
( 2 i n E v e y m a s Li b ary ; t h e s m e ( 3
o o son r n
’
r a

i n Lib y o f E g li s h C l a s i c s ; a l s o i T m p l e C l s s i c s d B h Li b a y
ra r n s n e a , an o n s
’
r r .

B k ur Am e i c e. T x at i o C c ili a t i
r w i t h Am
an ic Le tt e r t o a N b l e
a n , on on er a, o

L d i
or ,S t d d E g li h C l as s i c ; v ri
n an ar s s p e ch e s n i n Po c k e t C l as s i c s
s s a ou e , ,

R iv e i d Li t e a t e S e i e s e t c ; S l e c t i e d ite d b e r ry ( H o l t ;
rs e r urs
y B P r , ) . e on , .

S p e c h s o n Am e i ca ( H
e e th r ea ,

Gi b b Th e S t d t s G ib b ab i d g e d M r ay ; M e m oi s e d it e d b
’
on .
( u
)
en
y on , r u r r ,

E m e r s on , i n At h e n m u m Pre s s .
Gr ay . Se l e c ti on s , e d t e d b y W . L . Ph e p s , i n At h e n ae u m P re s s ; S e e c t on s
i l l i
fr o m G ra y an d C o w p e r , i n C an t e rb u r P o e t s , R e rs d e L t e ra t u re , e t c . ; y iv i i
G ra y s El e gy
’
, in S e l e c t i on s f ro m F iv e En g lis h Po e t s ( Gi nn an d C o m p an y) .
3 60 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Gol ds m i tlz. D i n S t an d ar d E n g s h C ass cs , e t c . ;

e s e rt e d Vill
c a r of age , li l i Vi
W a e e d , i n S t an d a rd En g s h C a s s cs , E e r m an s L b ra r , K n g s C as s c s ,
k fi l ’ ’
li l i v y i y i l i
e t c ; S h e S t o o p s t o C o n q u e r , i n P oc e t C as s c s , B e
. e s Le tt re s S e r e s , e t c k l i ll i .

l i
Cowp e r . S e e c t o n s , e d t e d b y M u rr a , i n A t h e n ae u m Pr e s s ; S e e c t o n s , i n i y l i
ll i l i
C a s s e s N a t o n a L b ra r , C a n t e rb u r Po e t s , e t c ; T h e Ta s , i n T e m p e
’
y y . k l
C l a s ic s s .

B u r n s . R e p re s e n t a t e Po e m s , w th C a r e s Es s a o n B u rn s , e d te d b
yiv i ly l ’
y i
C . L . H an s o n , i n S t an d a r d E n g s h C as s c s ; S e e c t on s , i n Po c e t C as s c s , li l i l i k l i
iv i
R e rs d e L t e rat u re , e t c i .

B l a ke . Po e m s , e i
d te d b y W . B. Y e at s , in Mu s e s ’
L b rar i y; Se le c tio n s, in
C a n t e rb u r y Po e t s , e tc.

M i n or P oe ts . T h o m s on , C o lli ns, C rab b e , e tc. Se l e c t io n s Ma n l y s E n g

, in ’

li sh Poe tr y . Tho m s o n
’
s T h e S e as o n s , an d C as t le of I n d o l e n c e i n Mo d e rn ,

C l as s i c s ; t h e s am e p oe m s in C l re a n d on Pr e s s , an d in Te m p le C l as i c s ;s Se le c
i
t on s f ro m T h o m s on , i n C as s e ll s
’
N a t i o n a l L i b ra r y . C h at t e rt o n
’
p oe m s , i n
s

C an t e rb u r y Po e t s . Mac p h e rs o n ’
s Os s ia n , i n C a n t e rb u r y Poe t s. ’
Pe r c s R e l y
iq i Ev e y m a
i y C ha d s C l as s ic s B h s Lib a ry e tc M e
’ ’
u e s, n r n s L b ra r , n o , o n r , . or

r e ce n t and li b l e
c ll c t i o s o f p p l ar b ll d s
re a for s choo l s e a e G m
o e n o u a a , u , r u

O l d E gli s h
B a ll a d i Ath e ae m P e s s ; Th e B ll d B o k e d i t e d b y
’
m e re s n s, n n u r a a o ,

A lli gh am i n Go l d e m T re as ry S e ri e s ; C ay l y a d F l h e ty s Po e t ry o f t h e
’
n , u e n a r

Pe op l e ( G i a d C m p an y ) e t c S e e B ib li og ap h y o p 64
nn n o , . r n . .

D f R ob i s on C s e s c h o l d i t i o
e oe . b y Gi n a d Com p y ; th e s m e
ru o , o e n, nn n an a

i P c k t C l as s i c s e t c
n o Joe l f t h Pl a g e Y e d ite d b y H
, l b t ( Gi n u rn a o e u ar, e ur u n

a d Com p a y) ; th e E v e ry m a s Lib ra ry e t c ; E s s y o P j e ct
’
n am e i n s , n n , . a n ro s,

i C s s ll s N a t i o
n a l Li b a y
e
’
na r r . a

Tb N v l i t M l y s E g li s h P os e ; C ik E gli s h P o e S e l c t i s
c o e s s. an
’
n r ra
’
s n r s e on

v l 4 ; G l d m i th s V
,

o . i c f W ak fi l d ( e b o ve ) ; S l e c t e d E ys f F i e l d
o s
’
ar o e e s e a e ssa o

i n g d i t e d b y Ge
,
e l d i n At he ae m Pr e s ro u , n u s .

B i b l i ograp h y 1
. H is tory . Te x t b ook, -
M o n t go m e ry , pp . 2 80— 3 2 2 ; Che y y ne ,

pp .
5 1 6—
5 74 . Gen e r al Wor ks . G re e n e , ch. 9 , s e c. 7, t o ch . 1 0, s e c. 4; T ill ra ,

Ga rd i n e r , M ac a u l ay , e t c . Sp e c i a l Wor ks . Le c k y s H
’
i s t o ry of En g l an d i n the
i
E gh t e e n t h C e n t u r , 3 ; Mo rr s s Th e Age o f Q u e e n An n e a n d t h e
y v l i ’
o s. 1 -

E ar ly v i
H an o e r an s ( Ep o c h s o f Mo d e rn H s t o r ) ; S e e e s T h e E p an s o n o f
’
i y l y x i
l
E n g an d ; Mac a u a s C
’
e , an d C h a t h a m ; T h a c e ra
’
l y
k liv
s T h e F o u r Ge o r e s ,
g y
a d t h e E g li s h H A s h t o s S o c i a l Li fe i n t h e R e i gm o i s ts ;
’
n n u f Q ren n n o ue

A e ; S s H a l e s Me a d M e s of th E i gh t e n t h C e n t y ; S y d e y s
’ ’
nn u an n n an n r e e ur n

E gl n d a d t h e E gli s h i t h e E i gh t e t h C e t y
an n n n e n n ur .

Li te ra tu re G l W k Th e C a m b ri d ge Li t e ra t e T a i e S a i t s b ry
. en era or s. ur , n , n u ,

Sp i l W k P rry E gli s h Li t e t e i E i gh t e e th C e t y ;
’
e tc . ec a or th s. e s n ra u r n e n n ur

L S t e p h e s E g li s h Li t e a t i t h e E i gh t e e th C e t ry ; S e c c m b e s T h e
’ ’
. n n r u re n n n u o

A ge f J h n s o ; D e o
i s s T h e A ge
o f P pe ; G ss
n H i s t ry f E g li h
nn
’
o o o e s
’
o o n s

Li t ra t i t h e E i gh t th C t ry ; W h i tw ll S m e E igh t e e t h C e t ry
’
e u re n een en u e s o n n u

Me n f L e tt e ( C o w p e S t e e F i e l d i g G o l d s m i t h G ay J o h s o a d
o rs r, rn , n , , r , n n, n

1 F t i tl d p b li h
or f g l f
e s an w k d f i xp
u iv t xt
s e rs o e n e ra r e e re n ce or s , an o ne e ns e e s, se e

G l B ib li g aphy t d f t hi b ook
e n e ra o r a en o s .
 3 6 2 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

( D ent ) ; the s am e , i n Cam e l o t

va ri s s c ho o l e d i t i on s b y se r e s i ; R as s e l as , ou ,

Gi nn a d C om p y H o l t e tc ; S l e c t i s f m L iv e s f t h e Po e ts w i th
n an , , . e on ro o ,

Maca l ay s Li f e o f J h n s o n e d i t e d b y Ma t th e w Arn l d ( Ma c m ill an ) L ife

u
’
o , o . :

B os w e ll s L ife of J o h s o i n E v e ry m n s Lib a ry T m p l C l as s i c s Lib a ry

’ ’
n n, a r , e e , r

o f En g li s h C l as s i c s e t c ; b y L S t e p h e n ( E n g li s h M e o f Le tt e s ; b G
,) y a t . . n r r n .

C i t i c i s m : G B H ill s D
r J o h n s o h i s F i e d s a n d C ri t i c s ; E s s y s b y
. .
’
r. n , r n a ,

L S te p h e n i n H o
. i a Li b a y ; b y Ma c a l y B i rr e ll e t c
, u rs n r r u a , , .

B w l l T xts
os L i fe o f J o h s o
e . e d ite d b
e
y G B H ill ( L on d on
: n n, . .
,

v ari o s th e e d i t i o s (s e e ab v e ) L if b y F i t zge ral d ( L d o

u o r n o . e : on n,

R g e r s B o s w e lli a a ( Lon d on
o
’
W hi tfie l d s S o m e E i gh t e e th C e t ry
n ,
’
n n u

Me n of Le t t e rs .

B u r ke . T e t s x
v o ls ( B os t o : W o rk s re p ri n t e d 6 v o l s , 12in B h s . n, , .
, o n
’

L i b ry ; S e l e c t e d
ra d i t e d b y Pay n e i C l a e d W o rk s Pre s s ; O n t h S b
, e , n r n on e u

lim an d B e a t i f l i T e m p l e C l s s i c s F or v a ri o S p e c h e s s e e S e l e c t i s
e u u , n a . us e , on

f or R e a d in g ab o v e Lif e , b y Pr i ; b y M o l e y ( E g li s h M e n
. : f L tt e s ) or r n o e r .

C i tic is m
r Es s ay b y B i re ll i n Ob i t e r D i c t a S e e
: , ls D w de s F n ch
r , . a o o n
’
re

R e v o l t i o n a d E n gli s h Li t e rat e a d W o d ow W il s o s M e e Li te ra t e
’
u n ur , n o r n r ur .

Gi bb T e xts on D e c li e a d F a ll o f t h e R m n E m p i re e d i t e d b y B y
. : n n o a , ur ,

7 v o l s
( L o
. d o 1 89 6 1 9 )
0
n 0 v a i on , t h r e d i t i s ; Th e S t d e t s Gib b o
— r us o e on u n
’
n ,

ab ri d ge d M r ra y ) M i e d i te d b A i
( m o us
y E m e s i teh e ae m P srs
( G, n r on , n n u re n

an d C o m p a y ) L i fe b y M i o ( E g li s h M
n . of L e t t
) C i t i c i s mor s E s y s n n en e rs . r sa ,

b y B i e ll i C o ll e c t d E s a y s a d R e s J d i c t ae ; b y S t e p h e
rr , n e s i n S t d ie s f a n u a n, u o

B i og ap h e ; b y R ob e t s o
r r i n Pi ee H m n i t ; b y F e d e r i c k H a ri o
r n, in on r u a s s r r s n ,

R s ki
u a d O t h e r L i t e a y E s t i m a t e s ; b y B ag e h o t i
n n L i t e ry S t d i e s ; b y
r r , n ra u

S a i t e B e v e i E g li h P t ra i t s S e e a l s o A t o s Mas t e s i n H i t y
’
n -
u ,
n n s or . n n r s or .

Sk i er aanT xts ’
S p e ch s 5 v ls ( L
. e do : Pl ay s e d i t e d b y
e e , o . on n, ,

W F R ae ( Lo d
. . t h e s am e e d i t e d b y R D i c k s i n C am e l t S e ri e s ;
n on , , . r , o

Maj or D ra m as i At h e ae u m Pr e s s : Pl ay s l s i n M l e y s U iv e s a l Li b a ry
, n n a o or
’
n r r
,

Mac m ill an s E g li s h C l s s i s e t c Li f
’
n b y R a ; b y M O li p h an t ( E g li s h
a c , . e : e . n

Me n o f Le t t e s ) ; b y L S d s ( G e t W ri t e s )
r . an er r a r .

Gr y T e x t s W o k s e d i t e d b y Go s s e ( M m ill an ) Po e m s i n R o t l e d g e s
’
a . r , ac , u

Po c k e t Li b ary C h a d s C l s s i s e t c ; S e l c t i
r , s i n At h e
n o m P s a e tc ; c ,
. e on , nae u re s, .

L e tt e e d ite d b y D C T v e y ( B oh )
rs , L i fe b y G s s e ( E g li s h M e of L t t e s )
. . o n . : o n n e r .

C i tic is m
r Es s a y s b y L o w e ll i
: La t e t L i t e rary E s ay s ; b y M A rn l d i n
, , n s s . o ,

E s y s i C ri t i c i s m ; b y L S t e p h e n i n H o s i n a Lib ra ry ; b y A D ob s n i n
s a n ur o

E i gh t e e n t h C e t ry V
. , . ,

i gn e tt e s n u .

G l d m i tk T e x t s e dite d b M G l ob e e d i t i o n ; W o rk s e dit d b
o s .
y as s :
y on , , e

Aik e an d T c k e m n ( C w e ll ) ; t h e s am e
n u r dit d b y A D b o
a ro ( D e t) , e e . o s n n

Mo l ey s U iv e s a l Lib ary ; Arb r s Th e G l d m i th A t h o l gy ( F row d e ) S e

r
’
n r r e
’
o s n o . e

a l s o S l e c t i o s f o r R e d i g ab o v e
e n Li f e b y W s h i gt a I vi g ; b y A D b s on
n , . a n on r n . o

G e at W i t e e ri e s ) ; b l ck li M e tt e s ) ; b J F
( S ( E h f L
’
r r
y B r s g s e y o s t r; a n n o r . r e

b y Pri o C ri t i c i s m
r. E s ay b y Mac a l ay ; b y T h ac k e a y ; b y D e Q i c y
: s s, u r u n e

by A D b so . i M i s c e ll
o ie s n , n an .

C wp e o Te x t s r. W o k s G l b e an d Al d i e d i t i o n s ; a l s i Ch d s
: r , o n e o n an o

C l as s i c s ; S e l e c t i o s i At h e m m P e s s C n t b , y P ts e t c Th C o rre
n n u r , an er ur oe , . e

S p on d e n c e of W illia m C w p e r e d i t e d b
y T W ri gh t 4 v o l s o
( D dd M e ad 8 : , . , . o ,
 EI G H TEENTH CENTU
— R Y LI TERATU R E 363

C o m p an y) . L fe i : b y Go l d w i n S m i th ( En g li s h M e n L e tt e rs ) ; b y W r gh t ; of i
b y S o u th e y
i t ic i s m : Es s ay s b y L
. Cr i , . S t e p h e n ; b y B ag e h o t ; b y S a n t e
B e u v e ; b y B i re ll ; b y S t op fo rd B o o k e r v r ; b y A. D o b s o n ( s e e ab o e ) . S e e
a l s o W o o d b e ry s M ak e s o f Li t e at re
’
r r r u .

T x t s W k s C a m b r i d g e Po e t s E d i t i o n ( c o n t a i n i n g H e l e y s
’
B u r n s. e : or , n

S t d y of B r s ) G l o b e an d Al d i e e d i t i o s C l a e n d o n Pr e s s C a t e b ry
u u n ,
n n , r , n r u

Po e t s e tc ; S l e c t i n s
, , i n Ath e n ae m P e
. et c ; Le t t e r s i n C a m e l o t S ri e s
o u r ss, e . , e .

Lif e : b y C n i gh a m ; b e le y ; b y S e t u b l ac ki e G e a t W ri t e s
,
y H un ;
n
y B ( ) n o n r r

b y S h a i rp ( En g li s h Me n f Le tt e s ) C i t i c i s m : Es s a y s b y C a l y l e ; b y R L o r . r , r . .

S t e v e n s on i F m ili ar S t d i e s ; b y H azli t t i L e c t
, n a s o n t h e E n g li s h Po e t ; u , n u re s

b y S tO p fo d B o k e i n Th e o l o gy i n t h e E n gli s h Po e t s ; b y J Fo rs t e
r ro , i . r, n

Gre at Te ac h e rs .

B l a ke . T e t s x : Po e m s , A d y Po e t s ; C o m l i ne ed i tio n ; a sol i n C a n t e rb u r
p le te Wo k s d i t e d b y E lli s a n d Y e t ( Lo d o
r
,
e S e l e c t io s e d ite d a s n n , n ,

b y W B Y e t s i n t h e M s e s Li b a y ( D t t o ) ; L e tt s w i th L i fe b y
’
. . a , u r r u n er ,

F Ta th am e d i t e d b y A G B R s s ll ( S c ib e s Li fe b y Gil c h i t ;
’
. , . . . u e r n r , : r s

b y S t o ry ; b y S y m on s C i tic i s m Swi b e s W illi am B l ak e a C i t ic a l

. r : n u rn
’
, r

S t d y ; E lli s Th e R a l B l k e ( Mc C l e E li za b e t h C a y s Th A rt
’ ’
u s e a ur , r e

o f W illi am B l ak e M o ffa t Y a d y s ay b A
( C o m p an E s
y C B e , r , , . . n s on ,

i n E s ay s s .

Tn m a T x t s : W o k s Al d i e e d i t i on ; Th e S e as o n s a d C as t l e f I d o
s on . e r , n , n o n

l e n c e i C l a d P e s s e t c Life b y Bayn e ; b y G B Mac a l y ( E gli s h

, n re n on r , . : . . u a n

Me n o f Le tt e ) E s s ay b y H a zli t t i n L ct rs . s on t h e E g li s h Po e t s , , e u re n .

C l li o W k s e d i t e d b y B o s o i At h e n ae m P e s s ; a l s o i A l d i e
n s. or , r n n, n u r n n

e d it i o Lif e : b y J o h s o
n . i n L iv e s o f t h e Poe t s E s s a y b y S w i b n e
n, i . , n u rn , n

Mi s c e ll a i e s S e e al s o B e e rs E n gli h R m t i c i m i t h e E i gh t e e n t h C n t ry
n .
’
s s o an s n e u .

C bb ra W k s w i th m e m o i r b y h i s s o G C rab b e 8 v l s ( L d o
e. or , n, .
,
o . on n,

1 83 4 Po e m s d i te d b y A W Wa d 3 vo ls i , C a m b ri d g e E g li h
e . . r , .
, n n s

C l as s i c s ( C a m b i d g S e l e c t i o s i Te m p l C l as s i c s C
r e , t e b ry P o t s n , n e ,
an r u e ,

e tc .Li f e : b y K b b l ( G e a t W i t e s ) ; b y Ai g r ( E gli s h Me o f Le t t e s )
e e r r r n e n n r .

E s s ys b y L S t p h e n i
a , H o u rs i a Lib
. ey ; b y W o db e rry i n Mak , n f n ra r o , e rs o

Li t t
e ra u re ; b
y S i t b y i E s ys i E gli s h Li t a t e ; b y C o t h p e
a n s ur , n sa n n er ur ur o ,

i n W d s E g li h P t s ; b y Ed w ard F i tzge l d i Mi s c e ll a i e s ; b y H a zli t t

ar
’
n s oe ra , n n ,

i S p i i t f t h e Ag e
n r o .

M pk ac T xts Os s i a
e r s on . i n C a t e b ry P e t s ; Po e m s t ra s l a t e d b y
e : n , n r u o , n

Ma h e dit d b
e rs o n ,
y T d d ( Lo d o e Li f d Le t t e s e d i t e d b y o n n , e an r ,

Sa d s (L d C it ic is m J S S m a rt s J am e s Mac p h e s ( N t t ’
un er on on , r : . . r on u ,

S e e al B e s s E gli s h R o m ti i m F r re l t i o f M ac p h
’ ’
so e r n an c s . o a on e rs o n s

k t th e o i gi l O s s i s e D a f L i m k e dite d b y M c
'

’
w or o r na s B an , e e n o s o re oo ,
a

La c h l n ( Ed i b
u a
g h a l s o P o n
e m s o f O
ur s s i n t a s,
l a t d b y C l k a , r n e er

( i b gh
E d n ur ,

Cl tt t i a W k s e dite d b y S k e t ( L d
er on . or P ms i ,
C t a on on , oe ,
n an er

b y P t s Li fe b y R s s ll ; b y W il s
ur oe . ; M : C h at t e t o a B i og
u p hy e on as s on s
’
r n ,
ra .

C i t i c i m : C E R s s ll s Th m s C h t t e t
r s . .
( M ff ut t Y a d e C m
’
p y ); o a a r on o a ,
r o an

Es y sa b y W a tt s D
s, to i W a d s E gli h P e t s ; b y M s s
-
un i n E s s ay s
n , n r
’
n s o a on ,

B i ogra p h i ca l an d Cri t i c a l S e e a l s o B e e rs s E gli s h R o m an t i c i s m .

’
n .
 6
3 4 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

P e r cy li q s e d i t e d b y W h e at l e y ( Lo d
. Re ue ,
the a m e i n E v e ry n on , s ,

m an s Li b a ry
’
C ha do C l as s i cs
r tc
,
E s y b y J W H a l s R viv l
n s f , e . s a , . . e , e a o

B ll a d P e t ry i F li L i te a i S e e a l s B e s s E g li s h R m an t i c i s m e t c
’
a o , n o a r r a. o e r n o ,
.

S c ial w k s ab o v )
( p e or ,
e .

D f e Te xts e o R m a c s a d N arr a t iv e s e d i t e d b y Ai tk e n ( D e t)
. o n Po e m s
e n , n

a d Pa m p h l e t s i A b e r s E gli s h G a rn e v o l 8 ; s c h l e d it io f R bi
’
n , n r n r, . oo ns o o n s on

C s oe a d Jo
ru , al f thn Pl g u e Y e (
u rnG i d C m p a
o y e t c
) C ap t ai
e a ar nn an o n , . n

S in g l e t o a d Me m i rs f a C a v a li e r i E v e y m a L i b a y ; E a l y W ri t i gs
’
n ,
n o o , n r n s r r r n ,

i n Ca i b k Lib ary ( R t l e d ge ) Lif e b y W Le e ; b y Mi t o ( E gli h

r s ro o e r ou . : . n n s

M e Of L t tn ) ; b y W igh t ; a l s i W e s tm i s t e B i g ap h i e s ( S m all May

e e rs r o n n r o r ,

n a d) r E s ay b y L S te p h
. s i H , s i a Lib ry . e n, n our n ra .

Ri k d c W k s e d i t e d b y L S t e p h e ( L d on
ar s on . or : e d i te d b
y . n on ,

Ph ilip s w i t h lif e ( N e w Y o k
, Co p on d e c dit d b y A B b r ld , rre s n e , e e . ar au ,

6 v l s ( Lo d o
o . Lif n b y Th m n , ; by A D b E ys b y L e : o s on . o s on . ssa , .

S te p h e n i H o s i n a L i b r y ; b y A D ob s
n ur i E i gh t e th C t ry ra on , n en en u

V
.
,

ig e t t e s
n .

Fi l d i g W o k s T e m p l e E d i t i
e n d i t d b y S i t b ry ( D
r : t) ; S e l e cte d on , e e a n s u en

l f a Vyage t o Li s b
.

E s s ay s i At h e m P e ss ; Jo i ll s ’
, n n ae u Cr u rn a o o on , n as s e

N ti a l Li b a y Li fe b y D b n ( E gli h Me f L t t e ) ; Law c s
on a r r . : o so n s n o e rs re n e
’

Lif e a d T i m e s o f F i e l d i g E s s ay s b y L w e ll ; b y Th ac k
n y ; b y L S te p he
n . , o e ra . n

b y A D ob s o ( s e ab v ) ; b y G B S m i t h i n Po e t s a d N o v e li s t s
. n e o e . . ,
n .

S m ll tt W o k s e d i t e d b y S a i t s b ry ( Lo d
o e . r ,
Wo k s d ite d b y n u n on ,
r , e

H e l e y ( S c ib e ) Li f e b y H an ah ( G e a t W i t e s ) b y S m at n ; b y C h a m
n r n r . : n r r r e o

b e rs E s s ay s b y Th a c k e ay ; b y H e n l e y ; b y D b i E i gh t e e n t h C e t ry
r o s on , n n u

Vig e tt e s
. ,

n .

St Wo ks
er n e. d i t e d b y S a i t s b y ( D e t ) ; T i t ram S h a d y a d A
r : e n ur n r s n , n

S e t im t l J y i T m p l e C l s i c s ; M l y s U iv e l Lib a y e tc ’
n en a o u rn e , n e a s or e n rs a r r , .

Lif e b y F i t zg e
: l d ; b y T ill ( E g li s h Me f Le t t e s ) ; Li f a d Ti m e s b y
ra ra n n o r e n ,

W L C o s s ( Mac m ill a ) E ys b y Th ac k y ; b y B g h o t i Li t e a ry
. . r n . ss a , e ra a e , n r

S t d ie s
u .

H W lp l e T e x ts C as t l e f O t a t i K i g C l as s ic s C as s e ll s
or a c e a o . : o r n o, n n
’
s ,
’

N at i o a l L i b n y e t c Le tte s e d i t e d b y C D Y o g M l e y s W al p l e i n
rar , . r , . . n e . or
’
o ,

Tw e lv e E gli h S t a t e s m e M ac m ill a ) E ss y b L S i H s i
n
( s
y t e p he on a n . a , . n , n ur n

Lib ry S e e l s B e s s E g li s h R o m a t i c i s m
ra . a o e r
’
n n .

F B y ( Ma d m e d A b l ay) T x t s E v e li a i n T e m p l e C l s s i c s
’
r a n ce s ar ne a r . e : n , a ,

2 v o ls ( M c m .ill ) D i y a d L tt e rs e d i t e d b y S C W o o l s e y S e e l e y s
a an . ar n e , . . .
’

F an y B n e y a d h r F ie d
u rn E y by M c l y
n e r n s. s sa , a au a .

S u gge s t i v e Q u e s t i on s . 1 . D e scr ib e ie fl y
br th e s oc a i l de v l op m e n t
e of the
e i gh t e e n th c e n t u r y Wh. at e ffe c t d i d t h i s h av e on li t e ra t u r e ? W h at ac c o u n t s

fo r t h e p r e val c f p o ? W h t en d id th fi t e w sp p e
e o r x rt se a i fl e ce
n u n e rs n a rs e e

on li
fe an d li t e t ? H ow d t h e a d e s f t h i s g c m p w i th t h o s e o f
ra u re o re r o a e o are

t h e Age f E li zab e t h ? o

2 H o w d y o e xp l i n t h e fa c t t h a t s a t i e w a l a g e l y s e d i b th p
. o u a e r s r u n o ro s

a d p
n t y ? N am
oe t h e p ri c i p l
r ti e s f th g e W h et i s th c h i e f ob j e ct n a sa r o e a . a e

of t i e ? of li t e ra t u e ? H o w d o t h e t w o o b j c t s c o n fl i c t ?
sa r r e
 3 6 6 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

1 2. Gol ds m it k . Te ll the s t or y of Go l d s m i th ’s l ife What a re his ch e f i

t d V
.

w or k s ? S h o w f ro m Tb D i l l g e the e s o c a ll e d c la s
e se r e a ro m an t i c an d t h e -

s i c e l e m e n t s i n hi s w k Wh at gre a t w o k d i d h e d o fo r t h e e arl y o v e l i n
or . r n

V
,

Tli e i r of W kefi l d ? C a y u e x p l a i n t h e p p l ri ty of S k S t p t C
ca a e n o o u a e oo s o on

N s o m e o f G l d s m i t h s c h a ac t e rs w h o h av e f o n d a p e rm a e t
’

g u er? am e o r u n n

p l ac e i o r nli t atu e uW h a t p e rs on a l
er e m i i s c e c e s h av e
r
y ou o t e d i n Tb r n n n e

V
.

T r a ve ll e r , Tlze D e s e r te d ill g a e , an d S k e S toop s to Con qu e r .

7

1 3 . Cowp e r . D e scr ib e Cow p e r

’
s Tb e Ta s k. H o w d o e s i t S h ow t h e ro m an t c i
sp r i it ? Giv e p as s a ge s fro m
“
J oh n G il p i n to ill u s t ra t e C ow p e r
’
s h u m o r.
1 4. B u r n s . Te ll the s tor y of B u rn s
’
s l ife . S om e on e h as sa id , Th e m e as
u re o f a m an
’
s s in i
i s t h e d ffe r e n c e b e t w e e n w h at h e i s an d w h a t h e m gh t b e . i ”

Com m e n t u p on i
t h s , w th i r e f e re n c e t o B u rn s . Wh at
i s t h e g e n e ra c h ara c t e r l
of h i s p o e t r ? Why i s h e c a y ll de th e p o e t o f c o m m o n m e n ? W h a t s u b e c ts j
d o e s h e c h o o s e f o r hi s p o e t r y? C o m p a re hi m , i n t h is re s p e c t , i
w t h Po p e .
Wh a t e l e m e n t s i n t h e p o e t s c h a rac t e r a re r e e a e d i n s u c h p o e m s as
’
v l To a

Mo u s e ”
an d
“
T o a Mo u n t a n D a s
”
y re ga d
i
? H o w d o B u rn s a n d G ra iy
'

n a t re ?
u W h a t p e m s S h ow hi s s y m p at h y w i th t h e F e c h R e v o l t i
o nd r n u on , a

w i t h d e m oc rac y ? R e a d S t r d a y N i gh t a d e xp l a i
”
Th e C o t t i ts e u
’
er s a u , n n

d u i g i n t e e s t C an y e xp l ai th e s e c e t of B s s g e a t p o p l a i ty ?
’
r n r . ou n r u rn r u r

B l ke W h a t a e t h e c h ac t e ri s t i c s f B l k e s p o e t y ? C a y
’
15 . a . r ex
ar o a r n ou

p l a i n w h y B l ak e t h o gh t h e g e a t e s t p o e t i c g e i s of t h e ag e i s s o li t t l e
, u r n u ,

ap p e c i t e d
r a

16 P I n w h a t e s p e c t d id P e c y s R l i q i fl u e c e th e r m ti c ’
erc r r e u es n n o an
.
y .

m v e m e t ? W h a t a e t h e d e fe c t s i
o n hi s c ll e c t i o
r f b ll d s ? C an y ex n o n o a a ou

p l i n w h y s c h a c r d e p o e m as
a u Che vy C h s e
u S h o l d b e p op l ar w i t h a a u u n

ag e t h t d e li gh t d i P pe s Es s a y o Man
’
a e n o n

17 M .
pk W h t i s m e a t b y Mac p h e rs o s O s s i a ? C an y o
ac e r s on . a n n
’
n
”
u

ac c o n t f o r t h
u e m a k ab l e c c e s s o f th e O s i a i c f
e r r
g i ?
su s n or er es

1 8 Ck tt . t T ll t h e s t y o f C h tt e t
a e r on . e a d th R o w l e y Po e m s R e a d
or a r on n e .

C h a t t e t o s B i s t o w e T ra ge d i s ty l d i t e s t w i th
’ ”
r n r a d c mp e it i e , n o ar , n e an n er ,

t h e o l d b a ll ad s lik B t t l e o f O tt e b rn ti g
” “
Th ,
e or Th e H
e a f th r u un n o e

C h e vi o t ( all i M l y E g li k
n P e tany)
’
s n s o r .

19 Tb Fi t N
. e li t W h a t i s m e an t b y th e m o d e rn n o v e l ? H w d o e
rs ov e s s. o s

i t d i ff e f m t h e e a l y ro m a c e
r ro d f m t h e ad v e n t re s t o ry ? W h t a e
r n an ro u a r

s om e of t h e
p e c s s f t h er n o v l ?
u r or W h t w as t h o p p s e f s t ri s m od e a e ur o o o e

l d ft e r D W h i h i ifi f l 7 W h a t e l e m e n ts
e e a Q i x t on t s t u e s g
o e c an c P m . a n e o a e a

di d F i e l d i g a d d t t h e v l ? W h at goo d w k d i d G ol d s m i th V
'

i f
’
n o no e or s ca r o

W k fi l d a cc o m p li s h ? C o m p a e Go l d s m i th i n t hi s e s p e c t w i th S t e e l e
a e e r d , r ,
an

Ad d i s n o .
 EI G H TEENTH CE NTU R Y LI TER ATU R E 3 67
—

C H R O N O LO G Y
End o
f S e v e n te e n t/i and tk e E z
g k t e e n t/z Ce n tu ry

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

1 683 -
1 7 1 9. D e fo e s e ar
’
ly w ri t in gs
1 689. W illi a m an d Mary
B ill of i
R gh t s . T o le ra t o n i Ac t
1 69 5 . Pr e s s m a d e f re e
1 700 ( )
P B eg i i
nn n
g of Lon d o n l
c ub s

1 70 2 . An n e ( d 71 4 )
. 1

W ar i
o f S p an s h S u c c e ss ion
1 70 2 . F i rs t da il y n e w s p ap e r
1 704. B a tt le of B l e n h e im 1 i
704 . Ad d s o n s T h e C a m p a gn
’
i
i
S w ft s Ta e O f a T u b
’
l
I 707. U n i o n of En gl an d a n d S c o t l an d
1 709 . T h e Ta t le r
J oh n s on b o rn (d 784 ). 1

1 71 0—1
71 3 . i
S w ft i n L o n d on . J ou rn al
to S t e ll a
1 71 1. Th e S p e c t a t o
1 71 2 . P o p e s R ap e o f t h e Lo c
’
k
1 71 4 . G e o rg e I ( d . 1 72 7)
1 71 9 . R ob in s o n C ru s o e
1 72 1 . Cab in e t
g v e rn m eon t W a l p o l e ,

fi s t p ri m e m i i s t e r
r n

72 6 G u lliv e r T ra ve ls
’
1 . s

1 72 6 Th o m s o n Th e S e as o n s
’
— 1
7 0.3 s

1 72 7. G e o rg e I I ( d . 1 760
)
1 73 2— 1 73 4 . Ess a y on M an
1 73 8 R . is e of M e th o d i s m
1 74 0 . R i c h a rd s on ’
s Pam e l a

1 74 0. War of Au s t r i an S u c c e s s i on
1 74 2 . F i ldi
e ng s
’
J os e p h An d re w s
1 74 6. J ac o b i t e Reb e lli o n

1 74 9 . F i e l d i n g s To m J o n e s
’

1 75 0— 1 75 2 J o h n s o n s Th e R am b l e r
.
’

1 75 0— 1 75 7. C on q u e s t of I nd a i 1 75 1 . G ray s E l e gy
’

1 75 5 . J o h n s o n s D i c t i o ary
’
n

1 75 6 . W a r w i th F ran c e
1 75 9. W o lf a t Q u e b e c
1 760 . G e o rg e I I I ( d . 1 82 0
) 1 76 0— 1 76 7. S t e rn e i s t ram S h a dy ’
s Tr n

1 764 . J o h s o s Li t e ra ry C l b
n n
’
u

1 76 5 . S t a m p Ac t 76 5 . Pe rc y s R e li q e s
’
1 u

1 766 . G l d s m i th s V i ar o f W ak e fi e l d
’
o c
3 68 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

H I STO R Y L I T E R AT U R E

1 l
770. G o d s m t h s D e s e r t e d i a e
g
’
Vill
i i
1 771 . B e g n n n g o f g r e a t n e w s p a p e rs

1 773 . B os t o n T e a Pa r t y
1 774 . H o w a rd
’
s p i
r s on re f o rm s 1 774 —1 . k
775 B u r e s Am e r c an s p e e c h e s
’
i
1 i
775 . Am e r c an R e o u t on v l i 1 776 1 788 G b b o n s R o m e
— ’
. i
. l i
1 776 D e c ara t o n o f I n d e p e n d e n c e 1 l y y
779. C o w p e r s O n e H m n s
’

1 779 81 .
— J ’
ohn s on s L iv
e s o f t h e Po e t s

783 . Tr e a t y of Par is 783 . B l ak s P e t i c a l S k e t c h e

’
1 1 e o s

1 785 . C wp s Th Ta k
’
o e r e s

T h e Lo d Tim s
n on e

1 786. Tr i al of W a r re n H as t i n
g s 1 786 . B u rn s s fi st
p
’
e m ( h Ki l m
t r o s e ar

no ck B n ) ur s

B ke s W H as t i g
’
ur e a rr n n s

1 8 —1
7 9 799 . Fre n ch R e v ol ti
u on

1 790 . Bur k e s
’
F re n c h Re v o l t i on
u

ll i o f J hn s on
'

79 1 . B o s w e L fe
’
1 s o

1 79 3 . W ar i
w th F ran c e
3 70 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

M
T h om a s Pai n e
’
P oe m s an d R i g/i ts
’
B ur n s s f a n all r e ad s o ,

e ag e r l b h e c o m m on p e opl e all p ro cl a i m i n h di it f
‘

y y t g t e g n o
,
y
c om m on li fe an d al l u tt e r i n g t h e s am e p as s i on at e c r y agai n s t
,

e ve r
y f or m o f cl a s s or c as t e Opp r e s s i on .
,

F i r s t t h e d re am t h e id e al i n s om e hu m an s ou l ; th e n t h e
,

w r itt e n w or d which p r ocl ai m s it an d i m p r e s s e s oth e r m i n d s ,

with i t s t r u th an d b e au t y ; th e n t he u n it e d an d d e t e r m i n e d
e ffor t of m e n t o m ak e t h e d re am a r e alit y th at s e e m s t o ,
—

b e a fa i r e s ti m at e of t he p ar t th at lit e ra t u r e pl ay s e v e n i n ou r ,

p olitic al p r og re s s .

H i s t or i cal S u m m ary . The p e ri od w e ar e c on sid e ri n g b e gi n s i n th e

lat te r hal f of t h e r e ign o f G e orge I II an d e n d s w i th the ac c e ssi on of
"

V
i c t o ri a in 1 83 7. Wh e n on a foggy m orn in g i n No v e m b e r , 1 783 ,
Kin g G e orge e n t e re d th e H ou se of Lord s an d i n a tre m blin g v oic e
r e c o n i ze d th e i n d e p e n d e n c e of th e U n i t e d S t at e s of Am e r i c a he
g ,

u n c on sc i o u sl p roc l ai m e d t he t ri u m h of t hat fr e e v m t by
y p go e r n e n

fre e m e n w h i c h had be e n t h e id e al of En gli sh li t e ratu r e fo r m o r e

than a thou san d y e ars thou gh i t w as n o t til l 1 83 2 w he n the R e fo rm ,

B il l b e c am e th e l aw of t he l an d t hat En gl an d h e rs e l f l e arn e d t h e
,

l e sson tau ght h e r by Am e ric a an d b e c am e t he d e m oc racy of w hic h

,

h e r w r it e rs h ad al w ay s d re am e d .

Th e h al f c e n t u ry b e tw e e n t h e s e t w o e v e n t s i s on e o f gre at tu rm o il ,

y e t o f s t e ad y ad v an c e i n e v e r
y d e p ar t m e n t o f En gli s h li fe Th e .

Th e F r e n ch s t o rm c e n t e r of t he p olitic al u n re s t w as the Fr e n c h
R e v omfi on R e v ol u t i on t hat fr i gh tfu l u p r i s in g w h i c h p r oc l ai m e d t h e
,

n a tu ral r i gh ts of m an an d th e ab oli t i on o f c l as s di s t i n c ti on s I ts .

e ffe c t o n t h e w hol e c i v ili ze d w o rl d i s b e y on d c o m p u tati on Patri ot i c .

c l u b s an d s o c i e t i e s m u l t i li e d i n En gl an d a l l ass e rti n g t h e d oc
p ,

t r in e of Lib e rty Equ ali ty F rate rn i ty th e w atc hw ord s of th e R e vo

, , ,

l u t i on. Y ou n g En gl an d l e d b y Pi tt th e y ou n ge r hail e d th e n e w
, ,

Fre n c h r e p u bli c an d O ffe r e d it fr i e n d sh i p old En gl an d w h i c h p ar ,

d on s n o r e vol u t ion s b u t h e r own l ook e d w i th ho rror on t he tu rm o il

,

i n Fran c e an d m i sl e d b y Bu rke an d th e n obl e s of t h e r e al m fo rc e d

, ,

th e tw o n at i on s i n t o w ar Eve n Pi tt s aw a bl e ss i n g i n t hi s a t fi rst ;
.

be c au s e the Su d d e n ze al for fi ghtin g a fo re i gn n ati o n — w hi c h b y

som e ho rr ibl e p e r v e rs i on i s ge n e r ally c all e d p a t r i o t i sm — m i ght t u rn

m e n s t hou gh t s from t h e i r ow n to t h e i r n e i ghbors a ffai rs an d s o p r e
’ ’
,

ve n t a t hre ate n e d re volu t ion at hom e .

 TH E AGE O F R O MANT I C I S M 3 71

The c au s e s i s thre ate n e d r e vol u tion w e re n ot p olitic al b u t

of th
e c on o m ic By h e r i n ve n ti on s i n s te e l an d m ac hi n e ry an d by he r
. ,

Econ om i c m on opo ly of t h e c arry i n g t rad e En gl an d had b e c om e ,

”
Co di ti on s
n t h e w orksh op of t h e w orld H e r w e al th had i n c r e ase d
.

be yon d he r w il d e st d re am s ; b u t t he u n e qu al dist ribu t ion of that

w e al th w a s a s p e c ta c l e t o m ak e an ge l s w e e p Th e i n v e n ti on of .

m ac h i n e ry a t fi r s t t hre w t hou san d s of Skill e d han d w o rke rs ou t o f

e m p l oy m e n t ; in o rd e r t o p r o t e c t a fe w agr i c u l tu ri s t s h e avy d u ti e s ,

w e r e i m p ose d on c orn an d w h e at an d b r e ad ro s e t o fam i n e p r i c e s

,

j u st w he n l ab ori n g m e n had the l e ast m on e y to p ay for i t Th e re .

foll ow e d a c u r i ou s s p e c tac l e Whil e En gl an d i n c r e as e d i n w e al th

.
,

an d s p e n t vast s u m s to su p p o r t he r a rm y an d su b s idize h e r alli e s in

Eu rop e an d w h il e n obl e s l an d own e rs m an u fac tu r e rs an d m e rc han ts

, , , ,

li v e d i n in c re as in g lu xu ry a m u lti tu d e o f S kill e d l ab or e rs w e re c l am
,

o r i n g fo r w ork Fa th e r s s e n t t h e i r w iv e s an d li ttl e c h ild r e n i n to th e

.

m in e s an d fa c t ori e s w h e r e s i x t e e n h ou rs l ab or w ou ld h ardly p ay for

’
,

t h e d aily b r e ad an d i n e v e ry l arge c ity w e r e r i o t ou s m o b s m ad e u

p
c h i e fly of h u n gry m e n an d w o m e n It w as thi s u n b e arabl e e c on om ic
.

c on di t i on an d n o t an y p o li t i c al t h e o ry
, as B u rk e su p p o s e d w h i c h
, ,

o c c as i on e d t h e d an ge r o f an o t h e r En gli sh r e vol u t i on .

It i s on ly w h e n w e r e m e m b e r the se c o n d i t ion s that w e c an u n d e r

s tan d t w o b o ok s Ad am S m i th s We a l tk of N a ti on s an d T h om as
’
,

Pain e s R zgk ts of M a n w h i c h c an hard ly b e c on s i d e r e d as li t e rat u re

’
, ,

b u t w hi c h e x e rc i s e d an e n o rm o u s i n fl u e n c e i n En gl an d S m ith w a s .

a Sc o t t i s h t h i n k e r w h o w ro t e t o u p hold t h e d o c t ri n e t h at l ab o r i s
,

t h e on ly s ou rc e of a n at i on s w e al th an d t ha t an y att e m p t t o fo rc e
’
,

l abor in to u n n atu ral c han n e l s o r to p r e v e n t i t by p rot e c t ive d u t i e s

,

fro m fre e ly ob t ain i n g t h e r aw m at e ri al s for i t s i n d u st r y i s u n j u st an d ,

d e s tru c ti v e Pain e w a s a c u ri ou s c o m bi n ation of J e kyl l an d H yd e

. ,

s hall o w an d u n t ru s t w o rth o ll b u t w i th a p as s i o n at e d e vo t i on
y p e r s n a y ,

t o p op u lar lib e rt y H i s R i g/i ts of M a n p u bli s h e d i n Lon d on i n

. ,

1 79 1 w as lik e o n e o f Bu rn s s l r i c o u t c r i e s a gai n s t i n s t i tu t i on s w h i c h
’
, y
O pp r e s se d hu m an i ty Com i n g so soon afte r th e d e s t ru c t i on Of t he
.

Ba st ill e it ad d e d fu e l t o t h e fl am e s ki n dl e d i n En gl an d by the
,

Fre n c h R e vol u t i on Th e au t hor w a s d r i v e n ou t of t h e c ou n t ry on

. ,

t h e c u r i ou s grou n d t hat h e e n d an ge r e d t h e En gli s h c on s t i tu t i on b u t ,

n ot u n t il hi s b oo k had ga i n e d a w id e sal e an d i n fl u e n c e .

All the se d an ge rs r e al an d i m agin ary p as se d a w a y w h e n En gl an d

, ,

tu rn e d from t h e aff ai rs of Fr an c e t o r e m e dy h e r ow n e c o n o m i c c on
d i t i on s The l on g Con t in e n tal w ar c am e t o an e n d w i th N ap ol e on s
’
.
3 72 E NG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

o ve r throw at Wate rl oo i n 1 8 1 5 an d En gl an d havin g gain e d e n or

, ,

m o u s ly i n p re s ti ge ab road n ow t u rn e d t o th e w or k of r e form at
,

h om e Th e d e s tru c t io n of t h e Afric an sl av e t rad e ; th e

.
R e form s
m i ti gat i on of h o rr ibly u n j u s t l aw s w hi c h i n c l u d e d p oor,

d e b tors an d p e tty c ri m in al s i n the sam e c l ass ; t h e pr e ve n tion of

c h il d l ab or ; t h e fr e e d om o f t h e r e ss ; t he e x t e n s i on o f m an ho od
p
s u ffrage t h e ab oli t io n of r e s tr i c t i on s agai n st Ca th ol i c s i n Parli am e n t
t h e e s tabli s h m e n t of hu n d r e d s of p op u l ar s c h oo l s u n d e r t he l e ad e r ,

s h i p o f An d r e w B e l l an d J o s e p h Lan c as t e r — th e s e a r e b u t a fe w of
,

t h e r e form s w h i c h m ark t h e p r ogr e s s of c ivi li zat i on i n a s i n gl e half

c e n t u ry Whe n En gl an d i n 1 83 3 p roc l ai m e d t he e m an c i pation of
.
, ,

al l s l a v e s i n all h e r c ol on i e s s h e u n c on sc i o u sl p roc la i m e d h e r fin al
, y
e m an c i p at i on fro m b arb ar i s m .

Li t e r ary Ch ar act e r i s t i cs of Age I t is

i n t e n s e ly i n t e r
the .

e s ti n g t o n ot e h o w lit e ra t u r e at fi r s t r e fl e ct e d t h e p o litical

t u r m oil Of t he age an d th e n wh e n t h e t u r m oil w a s ov e r an d

,

E n gl an d b e ga n h e r m i g ht y w or k o f r e for m h ow lit e r at u r e ,

s u dd e n l d e v e l o p e d a n e w c r e a tiv e s pi r it which s h ow s it s e l f
y ,

i n t h e p oe t ry of Wor d s w or th Col e r id g e B y r on S h e ll e y , , , ,

K e at s an d i n t h e p r os e o f S c ott J an e A u s t e n Lam b an d
, , , ,

D e Q u i n c e y — a w o n d e r fu l g r ou p of w r it e r s wh os e p at r i otic
, ,

e n th u s i as m s u gg e s t s t h e E li zab e th an d a s a n d wh o s e g e n i u s
y ,

has c au s e d th e i r ag e t o b e k n ow n as t h e s e c on d c r e ativ e
p e r i od Of o u r lit e r at u r e Th u s i n t h e e ar ly d ay s wh e n o ld
. ,

i n s tit u ti on s s e e m e d c r u m bli n g with t h e Bas till e Col e r idg e an d ,

S ou th e y for m e d th e i r y ou th fu l s ch e m e of a Pan ti s o cra c y on

R o m a t ic
n
t h e b a n k s o f t h e S u s q u e h an n a a n id e a l c om ,

E th u s i a s m m on w e al th i n which t h e p r i n cipl e s of Mor e s U t op i a

’
n
,

s h o u ld b e p u t i n p r actic e E v e n W or d s w orth fi re d with p o

.
,

li t i c al e n th u s i as m c ou ld w r it e
, ,

B l i ss w as i t i n th at d aw n t o b e a l i v e ,

B u t t o b e y ou n g w as v e r y h e av e n .

Th e e s se n ce of it m u s t b e r e m e m b e re d th at
R om an tici s m w a s , ,

lit e r at u re m u s t r e fl e ct all t h at i s S p on t an e ou s an d u n affe ct e d

i n n at u re an d i n m an a n d b e fr e e t o foll ow i t s ow n fan c y i n
,

i t s ow n w ay We h av e a l re ady n ot e d thi s c haract e r i s tic i n t h e

.
3 74 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

re as on thi s i n t e r e s ti n g ph e n om e n on li e s i n the fact th at

for
wo m an w as for t he fi r s t t i m e giv e n s om e s light ch an c e of
Wom e n as e d u c ati o n o f e n t e r i n g i n t o t h e i n t e ll,e ct u a l li fe of
“w e ns“ t he r a c e a n d a s i s al w a s t h e c a s e wh e n w om an i s
y ,

iv e a thi n g lik e a fa i r Opp or tu n it s h e r e s p on d e d m a n i fi

g n n
y y g ,

c e n t ly A s e c on d ary r e as on m ay b e fou n d i n t he n at u re of
.

t h e age it s e l f which w as i n t e n s e l y e m ot i on al
,
Th e Fr e n ch .

R e v ol u ti on s t i rr e d al l E u r op e t o i t s d e pth s an d d u r i n g t h e ,

foll owi n g h al f c e n tu r y e v e ry gr e at m ov e m e n t i n lit e rat u r e as ,

i n p olitic s an d r e lig ion w a s ch ara ct e r i ze d b y s t r on g e m oti on ,

which i s all th e m ore n otic e abl e b y c on t ra s t with t h e c old ,

form al s ati r ic s pi r it of t h e e ar l y e i ght e e n th c e n tu ry

, As .

w om an i s n atu rall y m or e e m oti on al th an m an it m ay w e ll b e ,

th at t he s pi r it of thi s e m oti on al age att ract e d he r an d gav e ,

h e r t h e opp or t u n it y t o e xp re s s h e rs e l f i n lit e r atu re

'

A s al l s t ron g e m ot i on s t e n d t o e xt r e m e s t h e a ge p r oduc e d ,

a n e w t y p e o f n ov e l which s e e m s rath e r h s t e r ic al n o w b ut
y ,

which i n i t s ow n d ay d e lig ht e d m ultitud e s of re ad e r s wh os e

“
n e r v e s w e r e s om e wh a t e xcit e d an d w h o r e v e l e d i n b og e y ,

s t or i e s o f s u p e r n at u r al t e rr or Mr s An n e R a dcli ffe ( 1 76 4 . .

1 82 3 ) w a s on e of t h e m os t s u cc e s s ful w r it e r s of thi s s ch ool

of e x ag g e r at e d r om an c e H e r n o v e l s wit h th e i r a zu r e e y e d . ,
-

h e r oi n e s h au n t e d c as tl e s t r apd oor s ban dit s abd u cti on s r e s

, , , , ,

c u e s i n t he n ick of ti m e an d a g e n e ra l m e dl e y of o v e r w rou g ht ,

1
j oy s a n d h orror s we r e i m m e n s e l y p opul ar n ot on l y with t he
, ,

1 M rs R a d c li ffe
.
’
s b e s t w or ki s t he My s te r i e s of U d olp k o. Th i s i s t he s tor y of a t e n de r
h e ro i n e s hu t u p in a g l oom y l
ca s t e . O e r h e r v b r ood s t he t e rr b e i l s h ad o w o f a n an ce st or s
’

cr im e. T he r e a re th e u su a
"
l - ”
pa n m e n t s of h au n t e d r oo m s , se c r e t
g oo s e fl e s h a c com i
li i l y i fi i
d oor s , s d n g p a n e s , m s t e r ou s gu r e s b e h n d ol d p ct u r e s , a n d a s u b t e r ra n e a n p as sa ge i
l i
e ad n g t o a a u t , d ar v l k
a n d c r e e p y a s a t o m b . H e re t h e h e r o n e n d s a che s t w i t h i fi
l i
b oo d-s ta n e d p a p e rs . B y t he g h t o f a fl c e r n g c a n d li
e s h e r e a d s ,
w t h c h ik i
s an d l i ill
sh iv i l i
e r n g, t he re co rd of on g b u r e d c r m e s . At t h e p s c h o og c m om e n t t h e
-
i tt e c an d e y l i li l l
s u dde n g oe ly
s o u t . T h e n o u t o f t h e d a r n e s s a co d , c a m m y ha n d — u gh ! F o o s h k l l li
as s u ch s t or e s s e e m i to u s n ow ,
the y S h ow , firs t , a w il d ti re ac on fr o m t h e s k ii
e pt c s m of

t h e p re ce d i n
g a ge ; a n d s e con d , a de vl
e op m e n t o f th m d i v l
e e e a r o m an ce of a dv t
e n u re ;
on ly t h e ad v e n t u re i s h e re i n w ar d rat he r t h an ou t w a r d . I t fa ce s a i
g h o s t n s t e a d of a
d r agon ; an d for t h i s i
w o rk a n u n w t h h e r b e a d s i s b e t t e r t h an a k i n gh t i n a r m or . S o

h e ro n e s i ab ou n d , i n s t e a d of h e r oe s . T h e age w as t oo e d u ca te d for m e d i mva l m on s te rs

an d m ag ic ,
but n ot e d u cat e d e n ou g h to j
re e ct ghos t s a n d ot h e r b oge ys .
 TH E AGE O F R OMANT I C I SM 3 75

c rowd of n ov e l r e ad e r s b u t al s o wit h m e n of u n qu e s ti on e d
,

lit e rary g e n i u s lik e S c ott an d By ron

,
.

I n m ar k e d c on t ra s t t o th e s e e xt ravag an t s t or i e s i s t h e
e n d u r i n g w or k of J an e A u s t e n with he r ch arm i n g d e s c r ip
,

ti on s of e v e ry d ay life an d of Mar i a Ed g e w o r th wh os e w on
, ,

d e rfu l pictu r e s of I r i s h li fe s u gge s t e d t o Walt e r S c ott th e

id e a of w r iti n g h i s S c otti s h r om an c e s Tw o oth e r w om e n w ho
.

att a i n e d a m or e o r l e s s l a s ti n g fam e w e r e H an n a h M or e p oe t , ,

d ram ati s t an d n ov e li s t an d J an e Por t e r wh os e S cott i s /z Cki qfs

, , ,

an d Tka d d e u s of Wa r s a w a re s till i n d e m an d i n ou r lib r a r i e s .

B e s id e t h e s e w e r e F an n y B u r n e y ( Mad am e D A r b lay ) an d
’

s e v e r a l o th e r w r it e r s wh o s e w or k s i n t h e e ar l y p a r t of t h e
,

n i n e t e e n th c e n t u r r a i s e d w o m an t o t h e high pl ac e i n lit e r
y ,

at u r e which s h e h a s e v e r s i n c e m a i n t a i n e d .

I n thi s ag e lit e rary c r itici s m b e c am e fi r m l y e s t abli s h e d b y

t h e app e aran c e of s u ch m agazi n e s a s t h e E d i n b u rg k R e v i e w
Tke Qu a r te r ly R e v i e w
’

Th e Mod e rn B l a ck w ood s
magn ifi se
M ag a zi n e t h e We s t m i n s t e r R e v i e w

Tb c Sp e c ta to r Tb e Atke n w u m an d F ’
ra s e r s

M ag a zi n e Th e s e m agazi n e s e dit e d b y s uch m e n a s

,

F r an ci s J e ffr e y J oh n Wil s on (w h o i s k n ow n t o u s as Ch r i s
,

t op h e r N o r th ) an d J oh n G ib s on L ockh ar t w h o g av e u s t h e
, ,

L if e of S cott e x e r ci s e d an i m m e n s e i n fl u e n c e on al l s u b s e
,

q u e n t lit e rat u re A t fi r s t th e ir c r iti ci s m s w e r e l arg e l y d e

.

s t r u ctiv e a s wh e n J e ffr e h am m e r e d S c ott W or d s w o r t h an d

, y , ,

B yr on m os t u n m e r ci fu ll y ; an d L o ckh ar t c ou ld fin d n o g oo d
i n e ith e r K e at s or Te n n y s on b u t with add e d wi s d om c r i t i ,

c i s m a s s u m e d i t s t r u e fu n cti on of c on s t r ucti on An d wh e n .

t h e s e m agazi n e s b e g an t o s e e k a n d t o p u bli s h t h e w or k s of
u n k n ow n w rit e r s lik e H azlitt Lam b an d Le i gh H u n t t he y
, , , ,

di s c ov e r e d t h e chi e f m i s s i on of t h e m od e r n m agazi n e which ,

i s t o g iv e e v e r y w r it e r of abilit y t he Opp or tu n it y t o m ak e h i s
w ork k n ow n t o t h e w or ld .
376 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

I . T H E P O E T S O F R O M AN T I C I S M

WI L L I AM WOR D S WOR TH ( 1 770 — 1 8 5 0)

I t w as i n 1 th at t he n e w r om an tic m ov e m e n t in ou r
79 7
lit e rat u r e as s u m e d d e fi n it e for m W ord s w or th an d Col e r idg e
.

r e ti r e d t o t h e
Q u an t o ck H ill s S o m e r s
, e t a n d th e r e f or m e d
t h e d e lib e rat e p u r p os e t o m ak e lit e rat u r e a d apt e d t o i n t e r e s t

m an ki n d p e rm an e n tly ,

w hich th e y d e cl ar e d
, ,

c l a s s i c p oe t r y c o u l d
n e ve r d o H e lpi n g t h e
.

t w o p oe t s w as Wor d s -

’
w o r th s s i s t e r D or othy ,
’
with a w om an s l ov e for
fl ow e r s an d al l b e auti fu l
thi n g s an d a w om an s ,
’

d ivi n e s y m p a th y f or
h u m an life e ve n i n i t s
l owli e s t form s Th ou g h .

a s il e n t par t n e r s h e ,

fu r n i s h e d p e rh ap s t h e
l a r g e s t s h ar e o f t h e i n
s pi rati on W hich r e s u lt e d
W I L L I AM W O R D S WO R TH
i n t h e fa m ou s Ly r i ca l
B a l la ds of -1 79 8 . th e i r p ar t n e rs hip Col e r id g e w as t o t ak e u p
In
the s u p e r n at u ral o r at l e a s t r om an tic
,
whil e Word s w orth
w as t o g iv e t h e ch a r m Of n ov e lt y t o thi n g s o f e v e ry d ay
b y aw ak e n i n g t h e m i n d s att e n ti on fr om t h e l e th arg y Of c u s t om
’

a n d di r e ct i n g it t o t h e l ov e li n e s s an d t h e w o n d e r s of t h e w o r ld
”
b e fo r e u s . The wh ol e S pi r it of th e i r w or k i s r e fl e ct e d i n t w o
p oe m s of thi s r e m ar k a bl e littl e v ol u m e The R i m e of t he A n
,

ci e n t Mar i n e r which i s Col e r id ge s m as t e r pi e c e an d Li n e s

”
,
’

Writt e n a F e w Mil e s a b ov e Ti n t e rn Abb e y which e xpre s s e s

”
,

Wor d s wo rth s p oe t ic al c r e e d an d wh ich i s on e of t h e n obl e s t

’

an d m os t s i g n ific an t of ou r po e m s Th at t he Ly r i ca l B a l la ds
.
378 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

e x e rt e d an in flu e n c e w hi c h l aste d all h i s life so that he c oul d r e ,

m e m b e r h e r as th e h e a rt of all ou r l e arn in gs an d ou r l ove s Th e .

fath e r d i e d som e si x y e ars l at e r an d t h e orp han w a s t ake n i n c harge

,

b y r e l at ive s w h o s e n t h i m to sc hool at H aw kshe ad i n t h e b e au tifu l

, ,

l ake re gion H e re
. a pp ar e n t l
, y t h e u n roofe d s c h ool o f n atu re,

a ttrac t e d hi m m or e t han th e di s c i p lin e of th e c l assic s an d h e

‘

l e arn e d m or e e age rly from fl ow e r s an d hil l s an d s tars t h an from h i s

books b u t on e m u st re ad Word sw orth s ow n re c ord i n l e P r e l u de
‘

’
, ,

to ap p re c i at e th i s Thr e e thi n gs i n t hi s p oe m m u st i m p re ss e v e n
.

th e c asu al r e ad e r fi rst Wo rd sw orth l o v e s t o b e al on e an d i s n e v e r

, ,

l on e ly w i th n atu re s e c on d like e ve ry o the r c hild w ho sp e n d s m u c h

, ,

ti m e al on e in the w ood s an d fi e ld s h e fe e l s th e p r e se n c e of som e ,

livin g spiri t re al thou gh u n s e e n an d c om p an ion abl e thou gh S il e n t ;

, ,

t hi rd,
hi s i m p r e s si on s are e x ac tl y like ou r ow n an d d e li ghtfu lly ,

fam i l i ar Wh e n h e te ll s of t he l on g su m m e r d ay s p e n t i n sw i m m i n g
.
,

b askin g i n the su n an d qu e stin g o v e r th e h ill s ; o r of the w in t e r

,
‘

n i gh t w h e n on hi s skat e s h e c ha s e d t h e r e fl e c t i on of a s tar i n t he
, ,

bl ac k i c e ; or of hi s e x p l orin g the l ake i n a b oat an d ge ttin g su d ,

d e n l y fri ght e n e d w h e n t h e w orld gre w b i g an d s tran ge i n al l t hi s ,

h e i s s i m pl y r e c alli n g a m u l t i t u d e of ou r own vagu e h ap p y m e m o ,

r i e s o f c h il d h ood H e goe s ou t i n to th e w ood s a t n i gh t t o t e n d hi s

.

w ood c oc k sn ar e s h e ru n s Ac ross an o t h e r b oy s sn ar e s foll ow s t h e m

’
, ,

fin d s a w ood c oc k c au ght take s i t hu rri e s aw ay throu gh the n ight

, , .

An d th e n ,
I h e a rd am o n g th e so l i t ar y hi ll s
Low b re ath i n g s c o m i n g a fte r me, an d s o u n d s

Of u n d i s ti n
g u i s h ab e l m o t i on .

That i s like a m e n tal p hotograp h . An y b oy w ho ha s c om e hom e

thr ou gh t h e w oo ds at n i gh t w ill r e c ogn ze i it in s tan tly . Again he te ll s
u s of go nig bird ’
s- n e s tin g on t he c liffs :
Oh , w h e n I h a v e h u n g
Ab o v e th e r a v e n s n e s t , b y k n ots o f g ra s s
’

An d h al f i n c h fi s s u re s i n th e s l i pp e r y r oc k
-

B u t i ll -
l m os t ( s o i t s e e m e d )
s u s tai n e d , a n d a

S u s p e n d e d b y t he b l as t tha t b l e w a m ai n ,

S h ou l d e r i n g th e n a k e d c rag — oh a t th at ti m e , , ,

W hi l e o n th e p e ri l ou s ri dge I h u n g al o n e ,

Wi th w h at s tra n ge u t te ran c e d i d th e l ou d d ry w i n d
B l ow th r o u gh m y e ar ! Th e s k y s e e m e d n ot a S k y
O f e arth — an d w i th w h at m oti on m ov e d th e c l ou d s !
,
 TH E AGE O F R O MANT I CI S M 3 79

N o m an c an r e a d d s w ithou t fi n din g hi s ow n b oyh ood again

s u c h r e c or ,

an d hi s ow n ab ou n di n g joy o f l i fe i n th e p oe t s e arly i m p re ss i on s
’
.
,

Th e s e c on d p e r i o d of Wo rd sw o rt h s l ife b e gi n s w i t h h i s u n ive rsi ty

’

c ou r s e a t Cam b r i d g e i n 1 78 7 I n t h e t h i rd b ook of Tb e P r e l u d e w e
, .

fin d a di sp assi on a t e ac c ou n t o f s tu d e n t li fe w i t h i ts t ri vi al o c c u p a ,

t i on s i t s p l e as u r e s an d ge n e ral ai m l e ssn e s s Word sw or th p rove d to

'

.
,

b e a v e ry o rd i n ary sc hol ar fo ll ow i n g h i s o w n ge n i u s rat h e r t han th e

,

c u rri c u l u m , an d l ooki n
g fo r w ar d m o r e e a g e r ly t o h i s v a c at i on am on g

t h e h ill s t h an t o hi s e x am i n at i o n s Pe rha p s t h e m ost i n te r e s ti n g

.

t h i n g i n hi s li fe a t Cam b ri d ge w as hi s fe ll ow s h i p w i t h t h e y ou n g

p o li t i c a l e n t h u s i a s t s w h o
, s e S p i r it i s e x p r e ss e d i n h i s re m a r k abl e

oe m o n t h e Fr e n c h R e v ol u t i on a o —
e m w h i c h i s b e t t e r t h a n a
p p,

volu m e of hi s to r y to S how th e h op e s an d am bi tion s t hat s ti rr e d all

Eu rop e i n th e fi r s t d a y s of t ha t m i gh t y u p h e a v al Word sw o rt h m ad e .

tw o t ri p s to Fran c e i n 1 79 0 an d 1 79 1 s e e i n g t h i n gs c hi e fl y t h r ou gh
, ,

t he r osy sp e c tac l e s of t h e y ou n g O x fo rd R e p u bl i c an s On hi s s e c on d .

vi si t he j oin e d th e G i ron di sts or th e m od e rate R e pu bl i c an s an d

, ,

o n ly t h e d e c i s i on of h i s r e l at iv e s w ho c u t o ff h i s all o w an c e an d
,

h u rr i e d h i m bac k t o En gl an d p r e v e n t e d hi s goi n g h e adl on g t o t h e

,

g u i ll o t i n e w i t h t h e l e ad e r s o f hi s p a r ty T w o t h i
. n g s r a p i d ly c oo l e d
Word sw or th s re v ol u ti on ary e n t hu s i asm an d e n d e d t h e on ly d ram ati c
’
,

i n te r e st of hi s p lac id life On e w as t he e x c e ss e s of the R e vol u tion

i tse lf an d e sp e c i ally the e x e c u ti on o f Lou is X V
.

, I t h e o th e r w as t h e
r i s e Of Na ol e on an d t h e sl avi s h ad u l at i on a c c ord e d by Fran c e t o
p ,

t h i s m o s t v u l gar an d d an ge r ou s Of ty ran t s H i s c ool n e ss s oon gre w t o

.

di sgu s t an d O p p o si ti on as S how n by hi s su b se qu e n t p oe m s an d thi s

,

b rou gh t u p on hi m the c e n su re of S he l l e y B y ron an d o the r e x tr e m , ,

i s t s t hou gh i t gai n e d th e fri e n d sh i p of S c ott w ho fro m t h e fi rs t had n o

, ,

s m p a t h y w i t h t h e R e v ol u t i on o r w i t h t h e E li h t h i t
y y ou n g n g s e n u s as s .

O f t h e d e c i s i v e p e ri od of Wo rd sw or th s life w h e n h e w as l i v i n g
’
,

w i t h hi s s i s t e r D oro thy an d w i th Col e r i d ge a t Alfoxd e n w e h av e ,

al r e ad y s p ok e n . Th e i m p or tan c e of t hi s d e c i s i on t o giv e h i m s e l f t o
p o e t r y i s e v id e n t w h e n w e r e m e m b e r t h a t a t t h i r t y y e, a rs o f a g e h e ,

w as w i t h o u t m on e y o r an y d e fi n i t e a i m or oc c u p at i on i n life He .

c on s i d e r e d t h e l aw b u t c o n fe ss e d h e h ad n o s y m ath fo r i t s c on
, p y
t rad i c tory p r e c e p t s an d p rac t i c e s ; h e c on sid e r e d t h e m i n i st ry b u t ,

t h o u gh s tr on gly i n c li n e d to th e Chu rc h h e fe l t h i m se l f n ot goo d ,

e n o u gh fo r t h e s ac r e d offi c e o n c e h e h a d w a n t e d t o b e a s o l d i e r
;
an d s e r v e h i s c ou n t ry b u t had w av e r e d at th e o e t o f dyi n g of
, p r s p c

d i s e as e i n a fo r e i gn l an d an d t hr ow i n g aw ay hi s li fe w i t h ou t gl ory o r
3 82 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Wor d s w orth hi m se l f t o t h e t as k of fr e e in g p oe t ry fr om al l
se t
”
i ts c on c e it s of s p e a ki n g t h e l an g u age of s i m pl e t r uth an d
, ,

of p or t ra i n g m an an d n at u r e a s th e an d i n thi s g ood
y y ar e

w or k w e ar e ap t t o m i s s t h e b e au t y t h e p as s i on t h e i n t e n s it y , , ,

th at hid e th e m s e lv e s u n d e r h i s s i m pl e s t li n e s Th e s e c on d .

diffi c u lt y i s i n t h e p oe t n ot i n t h e r e ad e r I t m u s t b e c on
, .

fe s s e d th a t Wor d s w or th i s n ot a lway s m e l odi ou s ; th at h e i s

s e ld om g ra c e fu l a n d on l y o cc as i on all
, y i n s pi r e d W h e n he i s .

i n s pi re d fe w p oe t s c an b e c om par e d with h im at oth e r ti m e s

,

t h e b u lk o f h i s v e r s e i s s o w ood e n an d p r osy th a t w e w on d e r

h ow a p oe t c ou ld h av e w r itt e n it Mor e ov e r h e i s ab s ol u t e l y
.
,

with ou t h u m or an d s o h e Oft e n fail s t o s e e t h e s m all s t e p

,

th at s e p arat e s th e s ubli m e from t h e r idic u l ou s I n n o oth e r .

“ ”
w ay c an w e e xpl ai n Th e Idi ot B oy o r p ar d on t h e s e r i ou s
,
”
ab s u r dit
y of P e t e r B e ll an d h i s g r i e vi n g j a ck as s .

On a cc ou n t of th e s e di ffi c u lti e s it i s w e ll t o av oid at fi r s t
1
t h e l on ge r w or k s an d b e g i n with a good b oo k of s e l e cti on s .

p oe m s of W h e n w e re a d th e s e e xqu i s it e s h or t e r p oe m s with ,

N at u re th e i r n obl e li n e s th at liv e for e v e r i n o u r m e m ory ,

w e r e ali ze th at W or d s w or th i s t h e gr e at e s t p o e t O f n a tu r e
th at ou r lit e rat u r e has p r od u c e d I f w e g o fu r th e r an d s t u dy .
,

t h e p oe m s th at i m p re s s u s w e S h all fin d fou r r e m ar k abl e

,

ch aract e r i s tic s : ( 1 ) W or d s w or th i s s e n s itiv e a s a b ar om e t e r

t o e v e r y s u btl e ch an ge i n t h e w or ld a b ou t h i m I n Tb e P r e .

l u d e h e c om p ar e s him s e l f t o an ae o li an h arp which an s w e r s ,

with h ar m on y t o e v e ry t ou ch of t he wi n d ; an d t h e fi gu r e i s ,

s t r iki n gl a cc u rat e as w e ll a s i n t e r e s t i n g for th e r e i s h ar dl y

y , ,

a s i g ht or a s ou n d fr om a vi ol e t t o a m ou n t a i n a n d fr om a
,

bir d n ot e t o t h e t h u n d e r of t h e c at aract th at i s n ot re fl e ct e d ,

i n s om e b e au tifu l w ay i n W or d s w o r th s p oe t ry
’
.

O f l l h p t h h a v e w ritt e n of n at u r e th e r e i s
( )
2 a t e oe s w o

n on e th at c om p ar e s with h i m i n t h e t r u th fu l n e s s of hi s r e p r e

s e n t at i on B u r n s lik e G ray i s ap t t o r e ad h i s ow n e m oti on s

. , ,

1 D ow d e n s
’
S e l e ct i on s f r om Wor d s w or t/z i s the b e s t of m an y s u ch c o ll ti
ec on s . S ee
Se l ti
ec on s for R e ad i n g, a n d i li
B b ogr ap h y , at t he e n d of th i s c ha p t e r .
3 82 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Wor d s w orth hi m s e l f t o t h e t as k of fr e e in g p oe t ry fr om al l
se t
”
i t s c on c e it s of s p e a ki n g t h e l an g u age of s i m pl e t r uth an d
, ,

of p or t ra i n g m an an d n at u r e a s th e a r e ; an d i n thi s d
y y g o o

w or k w e ar e ap t t o m i s s t h e b e au t y t h e p as s i on t h e i n t e n s it y, , ,

th at hid e th e m s e lv e s u n d e r h i s S i m pl e s t li n e s Th e s e c on d .

diffic u lt y i s i n t he p oe t n ot i n t h e r e ad e r I t m u s t b e c on
, .

fe s s e d th a t Wor d s w or th i s n ot a lw ay s m e l odi ou s ; th at h e i s
s e ld om g ra c e fu l a n d on l
y o cc as i on all
, y i n s pi r e d W h e n he i s .

i n s pi r e d fe w p oe t s c an b e c om par e d with him at oth e r ti m e s

,

t h e b u lk o f h i s v e r s e i s s o w ood e n an d p r os y th a t w e w on d e r

h ow a p oe t c ou ld h av e w r itt e n it Mor e ov e r h e i s ab s olu te l y

.
,

with ou t h u m or an d s o he Oft e n fail s t o s e e t h e s m all s t e p

,

th at s e p arat e s t h e s u bli m e from t h e r idic u l ou s I n n o o th e r .

“ ”
w ay c an w e e xpl ai n Th e Idi ot B oy o r p ar d on t h e s e r i ou s
,
”
ab s u r dit
y of P e t e r B e ll an d h i s g r i e vi n g j a ck a s s .

O n a cc ou n t of th e s e di ffic u lti e s it i s w e ll t o av oid at fi rs t

1
t h e l on ge r w or k s an d b e g i n with a g ood b ook of s e l e cti on s .

p oe m s of W h e n w e re a d th e s e e xq u i s it e S h or t e r p oe m s with ,

N at u re th e i r n obl e li n e s th at liv e for e v e r i n o u r m e m or y ,

w e r e ali ze t h at W or d s w or th i s t h e gr e at e s t p oe t Of n a t u r e

th at ou r lit e rat u r e has p r od u c e d I f w e g o f u r th e r a n d s t u dy

.
,

t h e p oe m s th at i m p re s s u s w e s h all fin d fou r r e m ar k abl e

,

ch aract e r i s tic s : ( 1 ) W or d s w or th i s s e n s itiv e a s a b ar om e t e r

t o e v e r y s u btl e ch an ge i n t h e w or ld a b ou t h i m I n Tb e P r e .

l u d e h e c om par e s hi m s e l f t o an ae o li an h arp which an s w e r s ,

with h ar m on y t o e v e ry t ou ch of t he wi n d ; an d t h e fi gu r e i s
s t r iki n gl a cc u ra t e as w e ll a s i n t e r e s t i n g for th e r e i s h ar dl y
y , ,

a S i g ht or a s ou n d from a vi ol e t t o a m ou n t a i n a n d from a
,

bi r d n ot e t o t h e t h u n d e r of t h e c at aract th at i s n ot re fl e ct e d ,

i n s om e b e au tifu l w ay i n W or d s w o rth s p oe t r y
’
.

O f l l h p t h h av e w ritt e n of n at u r e th e r e i s
( )
2 a t e oe s w o

n on e th at c om p ar e s with h i m i n t h e t r u th fu l n e s s of hi s r e p r e

s e n t at i on B u r n s lik e G ray i s ap t t o r e ad h i s ow n e m oti on s

. , ,

1 D ow d e n s
’
S e l e ct i on s f r om Wor d s w or t/i i s the b e s t of m an y l i
s u ch c ol e ct on s . S ee
Se l ti
ec on s for i
R e ad n g, an d B b i li ograp h y , at t he e n d of th i s c ha p t e r .
 TH E AGE O F R O MANT I C I S M 3 83

in to t
n a u ra l Obj e ct s , so th at th e r e i s m or e of t he p oe t th an of

t
n a ure v e n i n h i s m ou s e an d m ou n t ai n d ai s y ; b u t Wor d s
e

w orth g iv e s y ou t he bir d an d t h e fl ow e r t h e win d an d t h e ,

t r e e an d t h e r iv e r j u s t as th e y ar e an d i s c on t e n t t o l e t th e m
, ,

s p e ak th e i r ow n m e s s ag e .

(3) N o o th e r p o e t e v e r f o u n d s u ch ab u n d an t b e au t
y i n th e

com m on w or ld H e h ad n o t on l y S ight b u t i n s ight th at i s h e

. , , ,

n ot on l s e e s cl e ar l an d d e s c r ib e s a ccu ra t e l y b u t p e n e t rat e s
y y ,

t o t h e h e ar t of thi n g s an d alway s fi n d s s om e e xqui s it e m e a n in g

th at i s n ot w r itt e n on t he s u rfac e I t i s idl e t o s p e ci fy or t o .

q u ot e li n e s on fl ow e r s or s t ar s on s n ow or v ap or N othi n g i s
, .

ug l y o r c om m on pl a c e i n h i s w or ld ; on t h e c on t r ary th e re ,

i s h ardly on e n at u ra l ph e n om e n on which h e h as n ot gl ori fi e d

b y p oi n ti n g ou t s om e b e au t y th a t w a s hidd e n fr om o u r e y e s .

( )
4 I t i s t h e l f
i e o f n a t u r e which i s e v e r
y wh e r e r e c og n i ze d
n ot m e re g ro wth a nd c e ll ch an g e s b u t s e n ti e n t
, p e rs on al ,

li fe ; an d t h e r e c ogn iti on Of thi s p e r s on alit y i n n at u r e ch ara c

I n h i s childh oo d Wor d s
’
t e r i ze s al l t h e w or ld s g r e at p oe t ry .

w ort h r e gar d e d n at u ral obj e ct s t h e s t r e am s t he hill s t h e

, , ,

fl ow e r s e v e n t he wi n d s a s hi s c om p an i on s ; an d with h i s
, ,

m at u r e b e li e f th at al l n at u r e i s t h e r e fl e cti on of t he livi n g
God it w a s i n e vit abl e th at h i s p oe t ry s h ou ld th r ill with t h e
,
“ ”
s e n s e of a S pi r it th at r oll s th r ou gh all th in g s C owp e r . ,

B u r n s K e at s T e n n y s on — al l th e s e p oe t s giv e y ou t h e o u t
, , ,

w ar d as p e ct s of n at u r e i n vary i n g d e gr e e s ; b u t W or d s w or th
g iv e s
y o u h e r v e r
y li f e a n d t h e i m p r e s s i on o f s om e p e r s o n a l
,

livi n g s pi r it th at m e e t s an d a cc om pan i e s t h e m an w h o goe s

a l on e th r ou g h t h e w ood s an d fi e ld s We s h all h ar dly fin d
.
,

e v e n i n t h e phil os oph f L ib n it z or i n t h e n at u r e m th f
y o e , y s o

ou r I n di an s a n s uch i m p r e s s i on of livi n g n atu re as thi s p o e t

, y
aw a k e n s i n u s An d th at s u gg e s t s an oth e r d e li ght fu l ch arac
.

t e ri s t i c of W or d s w or th s p o e t r y n am e ly th a t h e se e m s t o
’

, ,

aw ak e n r ath e r th an c r e a t e an i m p r e s s i on ; he s ti r s o u r m e m

or
y d e e pl
y s
, o th a t i n r e adi n g h i m w e liv e on c e m or e i n t h e

v agu e b e a utiful w on d e rlan d of ou r ow n childh ood

, .
3 84 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

S uch i s t h e phil os oph y of W ord s w or th s n at ur e p oe t ry I f ’

.

w e s e ar ch n ow for hi s phil os oph y of h u m an li fe w e s h all fin d ,

p oe s o
m f E u f ou r m or e d o ct r i n e s which r e s t u p,on h i s b as al c on
m an Lif e c e p t i on t h at m an i s n ot ap ar t fr om n at u r e b ut is ,
”
t h e v e ry li fe of he r life ( )
1 I
. n childh o od m an i s s e n s itiv e

a s a wi n d h a r p t o all n at u r al i n fl u e n c e s ; h e i s an e pit om e of

t h e gl ad n e s s an d b e a u t y of t h e w or ld Word s wor th e xpl ai n s.

thi s gl ad n e s s an d thi s s e n s itiv e n e s s t o n at u r e b y t h e d oct r in e

th a t t h e c h i l d c om e s s t r aight fr om t h e Cr e at or of natu re
'

O u r b i r th i s b u t a S le e p an d a forg e tti n g
Th e S ou l th a t ri se s w i th u s , l i fe ’
ou r s S tar,
H ath h ad l
e s e w h e re i ts se t ti n g ,
An d com e th f r om a far
N o t i n e n t i r e fo rg e t fu l n e s s
An d n o t i n u t te r n ak e d n e s s ,
B u t tra i l i n g l
c ou d s o f g l ory d o w e c om e

F r om G o d , w h o i s ou r h o m e .

In thi s e xqui s it e od e which he c all s I n ti m ati on s of I m m ort alit y

,

fr o m R e c oll e cti on s of E ar l y Childh ood

”
W ord s w orth
s u m s u p h i s phil os o ph of childh oo d ; an d h e m a p os s ibl
y y y
b e i n d e bt e d h e re t o t h e p oe t au gh an
“
V
w h o m or e th an a
”
, ,

c e n tu r y b e for e had p r o cl ai m e d i n Th e R e t r e at t h e s am e
,

d oct r i n e Thi s ki n s hip with n at u r e an d with God which

. ,

l i
’

g o r fie s childh o o d o ,u g ht t o e xt e n d th rou h a m an s wh ol e
g
li fe an d e n n obl e it T hi s i s t h e t e achi n g of Ti n t e rn A bb e y
. ,

i n which t h e b e s t p ar t of ou r li fe i s S h own t o b e t h e r e s u lt of
n at u r al i n fl u e n c e s A cc or di n g t o Wor d s w o rth s o ci e t y an d
. ,

t h e c rowd e d u n n atu ra l li fe of citi e s t e n d t o w e ak e n an d p e r

v e r t h u m an it y ; an d a r e t u rn t o n at u ra l an d s i m pl e livi n g i s
t h e on l y r e m e d y for h u m an w r e t ch e d n e s s .

2 ) Th e n at u ra l i n s t i n ct s an d pl e as u r e s of childh ood ar e t h e
(
t r u e s t an d ar d s o f a m an s h appi n e s s i n thi s li fe A l l ar tifici al
’
.

pl e as u r e s s oon gr ow t i r e s om e The n at u ral pl e as u r e s which

.
,

a m an s o e as il n e g l e ct s i n h i s w ork ar e t h e chi e f m e an s b y
y ,

which w e m ay e xp ect p e r m an e n t an d i n c re as i n g j oy I n .

“ ” “ ” “
Ti n t e r n A bb ey , T he R ai n b ow Ode t o D u t y
, an d ,
3 86 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Word s wor th l on g e r p o e m s s i n c e th e y c on t ai n m uch t hat

’
s ,

i s p ros y an d u n i n t e r e s tin g m ay w e ll b e l e ft till aft e r w e h av e

,

r e ad t h e o d e s s o n n e t s an d S h ort d e s cr iptiv e p o e m s
, ,
Th e R e cl u s e
that h av e m ad e hi m fam ou s A s s h owi n g a c e r t ain .

h e r o ic c a s t o f W o r d s w o r th s m i n
’
d it i s i n t e r e s tin g t o l e arn
,

th at t h e g r e at e r p ar t of hi s w or k i n cl u di n g Tke P r e l u d e an d ,

Tke E xcu rs i on w as i n t e n d e d for a pl ac e i n a S i n gl e gr e at

,

p oe m t o b e c all e d Tb e R e cl u s e which s h ou ld t r e at of n atu r e

, , ,

m an an d s o ci e t y
, Tke P re l u d e t r e ati n g of t h e grow t h of a
.
,

p oe t s m i n d w as t o i n t r od u c e t h e w or k Th e H om e a t Gra s
’
, .

m e re which i s t h e fi r s t b ook Of Tb e R e c l u s e w as n ot p u bli s h e d

, ,
’
till 1 888 l on g aft e r t h e p oe t s d e ath Tli e E x c u rs i on ( 1 8 1 4 )
, .

i s t h e s e c on d b oo k of Tli e R e cl u s e ; an d t h e thi r d w as n e v e r
c om pl e t e d th ou g h Word s w or th i n t e n d e d t o i n cl u d e m os t of
,

h i s s h or t e r p oe m s i n thi s thi r d p ar t a n d s o m ak e an i m m e n s e ,

p e r s on al e pic of a p oe t s li fe an d w or k I t i s p e r h ap s j u s t as
’
.

w e ll th at t he w or k r e m ain e d u n fi n i s h e d Th e b e s t of h i s w or k .

app e ar e d i n t h e Ly r i ca l B a l la ds ( 1 79 8 an d i n t h e s on n e t s
) ,
“
o d e s an d l r ic s Of t h e n e xt t e n th u gh Th e D u dd on
, y y e ar s o
“ “
S on n e t s T o a S ky l ar k an d Yarr ow R e
”
vi s it e d ( 1 83 1 ) s h ow th at h e r e t ai n e d till pas t s ixt y m u ch of
h i s y ou t hfii l e n thu s i as m I n h i s l at e r y e ar s h ow e v e r h e p e r
. , ,

h ap s w rot e t oo m u ch hi s p oe t ry lik e hi s p r os e b e c om e s d u ll , ,

an d u n i m ag i n ativ e ; an d w e m i s s t h e fl a s h e s o f i n s ig ht t h e ,

t e n d e r m e m ori e s of childh ood an d t h e r e c u r r e n c e of n obl e

,

li n e s — e ach on e a p oe m — th at c on s tit u t e s t h e s u rp ri s e an d
t h e d e light o f r e adi n g W or d s w or th .

Th e ou tw ar d s h ow s of s k y an d e ar th ,

O f hi ll an d v a ll e y , h e h as Vi e w e d ;
An d i m p u l s e s of d e e p e r b i rth
H av e c om e t o h i m i n s o i tu d e . l
In c om m on th i n g s th at r ou n d u s lie
S om e r an d om t r u th s h e c an i m p ar t
T h e h arv e s t of a q u i e t e ye
Th a t b r ood s an d s l e e p s on hi s ow n h e a rt.
 T H E AGE O F R O M ANT I C I S M 8
3 7

S AMU E L T A Y L OR C O L E R I D GE ( 1 772 — 1
83 4 )

A g ri e f w i th ou t a p an g , v o i d d a r k a n d d r e a r, ,

A s ti fl e d , d row s y , u n i m p as s i on e d g r i e f,
Whi c h fi n ds n o n at u r a l Ou t e l t, n o re lie f ,

I n w ord , o r si h
g , or t e ar .

I n the w on d e r ful Od e t o D e j e cti on fr om which t h e ,

ab ov e fr ag m e n t i s t a k e n w e h a v e a s i n g l e s t r on g i m p r e s s i on
,

of Col e r id ge s wh ol e li fe a sad b r ok e n t r ag ic li fe i n m ar k e d
’

, , , ,

c on t ras t with t h e p e a c e fu l e xi s t e n c e of h i s fr i e n d Wor d s w or th .

F or hi m s e l f d u r i n g t h e g r e at e r p ar t of h i s li fe t h e p oe t h ad
, ,

on ly g r i e f an d r e m or s e a s hi s p or ti on b u t fo r e v e ry b od y e l s e ,

for t h e au di e n c e s th at w e r e ch ar m e d b y t h e b r illi an c y o f h i s
lit e r ary l e ct u r e s for t h e fr i e n d s w ho g ath e re d a b o ut h i m t o
,

b e i n s pi r e d b y h i s id e a l s an d c on v e r s ati on an d for al l h i s ,

r e ad e r s w h o fou n d u n e n di n g d e li g ht i n t h e littl e v ol u m e whi ch

h old s hi s p oe t r y h e h ad an d s till has a ch e e r i n g m e s s ag e fu ll

, ,

o f b e au t a n d h op e an d i n s pi r ati on S u ch i s Col e r id g e a m an
y . ,

of gr i e f w h o m ak e s t h e w or ld g l ad .

Life . I n 1 772 t h e re live d i n O tt e ry S t . Mary , D e von shir e , a qu e e r

littl e m an , t he R e v . J ohn Col e rid ge vi c a r , of t he p a r sh c hu rc h i an d

m as te r of the l oc al gra m m ar s c h oo l . In i y he
t h e fo rm e r c a p ac t

p r e a c h e d p r o fou n d se r m o n s q u o ti n g t,
o o p e n m ou t h e d r u s t i c-
s l on g

as sage s from t h e H e b r e w w h i c h he t old t he m w as t h e v e r t on ue

p , y g
of th e H oly G h o s t I n t he l att e r c ap ac i ty h e w rot e for h i s b oy s a
.

n e w Lati n gram m ar to m i ti gat e s om e o f th e d i ffi c u l t i e s of t ra v e rs i n g

,

that te rribl e j u n gl e b y m e an s of in ge n i ou s by p aths an d sho rt c u ts .

For in s tan c e w h e n h i s b oy s fou n d th e abl at i v e a s om e w ha t di ffi c u l t

,

c as e t o u n d e r st an d h e t old t h e m t o t h i n k of it a s t h e gu a l e gu a r c
,
-

g u i dd i ti ve c a s e w h i,c h O f c o u r se m a k e s i t s m e an in g p e r fe c tl y c l e ar .

I n b ot h th e s e c ap ac i t i e s t h e e ld e r Col e rid ge w as a s in c e r e m an ,
“”
g e n tl e a n d ki n dl y w h o s,e m e m o r
y w a s li k e a r e l i g i o n t o h i s s o ns

an d d au ght e rs I n that sam e ye a r w a s born S am u e l Tayl or Co l e r idge

. ,

t he y ou n ge s t of t h i rt e e n c hi ld re n H e w a s an e x t rao rd in arily p r e c o
.

c i ou s c h il d w h o c o u ld r e ad at t hr e e e ar s o f age an d w ho b e fore
, y , ,

he w as fiv e h ad r e ad t he B ibl e an d th e Arabi an N i ghts an d c ou l d

, ,

r e m e m b e r an ast on i sh i n m u t f m b t h b o k s F r o m t h re e to
g a o n r o o o .
3 88 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

s ix he a t te n ded a d am e s c h oo l an d fro m six t ill n in e

( w h e n hi s
fat h e r d i e d an d l e ft th e fam ily d e s t i tu t e ) h e w a s i n h i s fa th e r ’
s sc hoo l ,

l e arn i n g th e c la ss i c s re ad in g an e n or m ou s q u an ti ty of En gl i sh books
, ,

a v oi d i n g n ov e l s an d d e l i gh ti n g i n c u m b rou s t h e ol o gi c al an d m e ta
,

p h y s i c al t r e at i s e s At t e n h.e w a s s e n t t o t h e Cha ri ty S c ho o l o f

Ch r i s t s H os p i tal Lon d on w h e r e h e m e t Ch arl e s Lam b w h o re

’
, , ,

c o rd s h i s i m p r e s s i on Of t h e p l ac e a n d o f C ol e r i d ge i n on e o f h i s

fam o u s e s say s 1
Col e r i d ge s e e m s t o h a v e r e m ai n e d i n t h i s s c h o ol
.

fo r s e v e n or e i gh t y e a r s w i th ou t v i s i t i n g h i s ho m e a p o o r n e gl e c t e d ,
—
,

b oy w h o s e c om fo r ts an d e n t e rta i n m e n ts w e r e a ll w i thi n h i m s e l f
, .

J u s t as w h e n a l i ttl e c h ild h e u se d t o w an d e r o v e r th e fi e l d s w i th
, ,

a s ti c k i n h i s h an d s l as h i n g t h e t o p s fr om
, w e e d s an d t hi s tle s ,

an d t h i n ki n g h i m s e l f t o b e t h e m i gh t y

c ham p i on Of Ch r i s t e n d o m a ga i n s t t h e

i n fid e l s s o n ow h e w ou l d l i e on t h e
,

r oof o f t h e s c h oo l fo rge t t i n g t h e l o f
p y a ,

h i s fe l l ow s a n d t h e r oar of the Lon d on

s t r e e t s w a t c h i n g t h e Wh i t e c l o u d s d r i ft
,

i n g o v e r an d foll ow i n g t h e m i n sp i r i t
i n to all s o r ts of ro m an ti c ad v e n tu re s .

At n in e t e e n t hi s h op e l e ss d re am e r ,

w ho had r e ad m o r e b ooks than an

o l d p r o fe s s o r e n t e r e d Ca m b r i d ge as ,

a c h ar i t y s t u d e n t H e r e m ai n e d for .

n e arly t h r e e y e ar s t h e n r an aw ay b e
S A M U E L T A Y L O R C O L E R I D GE ,

c au s e o f a t r i fl i n g d e bt an d e n l i s t e d i n

th e D rago on s w h e r e h e s e rv e d s e v e ral m on t h s b e for e h e w a s d i s c o v

,

e r e d an d b r ou gh t b a c k t o t h e u n i v e r s i ty H e l e ft i n 1 79 4 w i thou t
.

ta k i n g h i s d e gr e e ; a n d p r e s e n t l y w e fin d h i m w i t h t h e y ou t hfu l
S ou th e y — a ki n d r e d s p i ri t w ho had b e e n fi r e d t o w il d e n thu s i as m
, ,

by the Fr e n c h R e v olu ti on fou n d in g h i s fam ou s Pan t i s oc rac y for

,
—

“
t h e r e ge n e r at i on of hu m an s oc i e t y Th e Fal l o f R ob e s p i e r re
. a ,

m c o m p os e d by t h e t w o e n thu s i as t s i s fu ll o f t h e n e w r e v ol u
p o e ,

t i on a ry s p i ri t .Th e Pan t i soc rac y o n t h e b an k s of t h e S u s qu e han n a

, ,

w as to b e an i d e al c om m u n i t y i n w h i c h th e c i t i ze n s c om bi n e d farm
,

i n g an d li t e rat u r e ; an d w ork w as t o b e li m i te d t o t w o hou r s e ac h .

d ay . Mor e o v e r e ac h m e m b e r of t he c om m u n i ty w a s to m arry
,

a good w o m an an d t ak e
,
h e r w i th h i m Th e tw o p oe t s ob e y e d .

t h e l att e r i n j u n c t i on fir s t m ar r y i n g t w o s i st e r s a n d t h e n fou n d
, ,

Ch i t H p it l F iv d Th i t y Y ”
1 S ee r s
’
s os a Ag
e an i E r y f El i
e ar s o, n ss a s o a.
3 90 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

£4 0 0 ,
h e ive d al m ost n othin g fo r hi s p oe try I n d e e d he s e e m s
re c e
“
.
,

n ot t o ha v e d e si re d i t for h e say s : Po e t ry has b e e n t o m e i t s own

e x c e e d i n g gre at r e w ard ; i t h as s o o th e d m y affl i c t i on s ; i t ha s m u l t i

p li e d an d r e fi n e d m
y e n j o y m e n t s ; i t ha s e n d e ar e d soli tu d e an d i t ,

has gi v e n m e t he habi t of w i s hi n g t o d i s c ove r t h e good an d t h e

”
b e au t ifu l i n all that m e e ts an d su rrou n d s m e O n e c an b e tt e r u h .

d e rs tan d h i s e x qu i si t e v e r s e aft e r s u c h a d e c l arat i on A t h i rd ray of .

su n li gh t c a m e from th e ad m i rat i on of hi s c on t e m p or ar i e s for t hou gh

h e w rote c om p ara t i v e ly li t tl e h e w as by h i s tal e n t s an d l e arn i n g a
,

l e ad e r am on g li te rar y m e n an d hi s c on v e rsati on s w e re as e age rl y

,

l i s te n e d t o as w e r e tho s e of D r J ohn son Wo rd sw or th say s o f hi m

. .

t ha t t hou gh o th e r m e n of t h e age had d on e s o m e w on d e rfu l t hi n gs

, ,

Col e r id ge w a s t h e on ly w on d e rfu l m an h e had e v e r kn ow n Of hi s .

l e c tu r e s on li t e ratu r e a c on t e m p orar y say s : H i s w ord s s e e m to -

fl ow as from a p e rson r e p e ati n g w i t h grac e an d e n e rgy s om e d e li gh t

”
fu l p o e m . An d of hi s c on v e rsat i on i t i s r e c ord e d : Throu ghou t a
l on g d raw n su m m e r s d ay w ou ld thi s m an talk to y ou i n l ow e qu abl e
-
’
,

b u t c l e ar an d m u si c al t on e s c on c e rn i n g t hi n gs hu m an an d d i v in e ;
,

m ars hallin g al l hi s t or y harm on i zi n g all e x p e r i m e n t p r ob in g t h e

, ,

d e p ths of y ou r c on sc iou sn e ss an d r e v e alin g v i sion s of gl ory an d

,
”
t e rror t o t he i m agi n a t i on .

T h e l a s t b r i gh t ray of s u n li gh t c om e s from Col e r i d ge s own s ou l

’
,

fro m t h e ge n tl e ki n d ly n atu re w hi c h m ad e m e n l o v e an d re s p e c t h i m
,

i n s p i t e Of hi s w e akn e s s e s an d w h i c h c au s e d Lam b to s p e ak of h i m
,
“ ”
hu m orou sly as an arc h an ge l a li t tl e d am age d Th e u n i v e rsal l aw .

of s u ff e r i n g Se e m s t o b e t hat i t r e fi n e s an d so ft e n s hu m an i ty ; an d

Col e ri d ge w as n o e x c e p t ion to th e l aw I n hi s p oe t ry w e fin d a n o t e .

of hu m an s y m p athy m or e t e n d e r an d p r ofou n d t han c an b e fou n d

,

i n Word sw o rt h o r i n d e e d i n an y o th e r of t h e gr e at En gl i s h p o e t s
, ,
.

Eve n i n hi s l at e r p oe m s w h e n h e h a s l o s t hi s fi r s t i n sp i rat i on an d
,

som e thi n g o f t h e s p l e n d id i m agi n at i v e p ow e r t h at m ak e s h i s w ork

e q u al t o t h e b e s t o f B l ak e s w e fin d a sou l t e n d e r t ri u m p h an t
’
, , ,
“ ”
qu i e t i n th e s till n e ss of a gre at p e ac e
, H e di e d i n 1 83 4 an d w as .
,

bu ri e d i n H ighgate Chu rc h Th e l as t stan za of th e b oatm an s son g

.
’
,

i n R e m or s e s e rve s b e t t e r t o e x p r e ss t h e w orld s j u d gm e n t than an y

’
,

e p i tap h

H a r k ! th e c ad e n c e d i e s aw a y
O n th e q u i e t m oon l i t s e a ; -

T h e b oa t m e n r e s t th e i r o a rs an d s ay ,

M is e r e r e D om i n i !
 TH E AGE O F R OMANTI CI S M 391

Work s of Col e ri dge . Th e w or k s of Col e r idg e na tu rally

divid e t h e m s e lv e s in t o th re e cl as s e s t h e p oe tic t h e , , c r itical ,

an d t h e phil o sophic al c or r e s p on di n g t o t h e e ar l y t h e
, , m iddl e ,

an d t h e la t e r p e r i od s of h i s c ar e e r Of h i s p oe t ry S t Op for d .

“
B ro ok e w e ll s ay s : A ll th at h e did e x ce ll e n tl y m i g ht b e
b o u n d up i n tw e n t y p ag e s b u t it s h ould b e b ou n d i n pu r e
,

g o ld. H i s e a r l y p oe m s S h o w t h e i n fl u e n c e o f G ra
y a n d B l a k e ,

e s p e ci all
y of t h e lat t e r W h e n Col e r id g e b e g i n s h i s
. D a
y
D r e am
”
with t he li n e My e y e s m a k e pictu r e s wh e n th e y r e
,
’

” ’
Shut ,
w e r e c all i n s t an tl y B l ak e s h au n ti n g S ong s of I n n oc e n ce .

B u t th e r e i s thi s di ffe r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o p oe t s i n B l ak e ,

w e h av e on l y a d r e am e r i n Col e r id g e w e h av e t h e rar e c om
bi n ati on of t h e d r e am e r an d t h e pr ofo u n d s ch ol ar The qu al .

i t y of thi s e ar ly p oe t r y with i t s s t ron g s u g ge s ti on of B l a k e

, ,

m ay b e s e e n n s u ch p oe m s a s A D ay D r e am
”

j
’
Th e D e vil s ,

Th e Wan d e r
” “
The S u icid e s Ar gu m e n t
’
T h ou g ht s ,
an d ,

in g s of Cai n . H i s l at e r p o e m s wh e r e i n w e s e e h i s i m ag i n ati on
,

b r idl e d b y th o u g ht an d s t u dy b u t s till r u n n i n g v e ry fr e e l y m ay
, ,
”
b e s t b e appr e ciat e d i n K u b la K h an Ch r i s t ab e l an d Th e , ,

R i m e of t h e An ci e n t Mar i n e r I t i s di ffi c u lt to c r itici s e s u ch
.

p oe m s ; on e c an on l y r e ad th e m an d w on d e r at th e ir m e l od y ,

an d at t h e v agu e s u gg e s ti on s which th e c on j u r e u p i n t h e m i n d
y .

“ ”
K u hl a K h an i s a fra gm e n t p a i n ti n g a g o r g e ou s O r i e n t a l
d re am pict u r e s u ch as on e m ight s e e i n an O ct ob e r s u n s e t
, .

Th e wh ol e p oe m c am e t o Col e r idg e on e m or n i n g wh e n h e had

fall e n a s l e e p ov e r Pu r ch a s an d up on awak e n i n g h e b e gan t o
,

w rit e h as til y ,
I n X a n a d u d i d K u b l a Kh an
A l y p l e as u r e d om e d e c re e
s t a te -

Wh e r e Al p h th e s ac re d r i v e r r a n
, ,

T h r ou gh c a v e rn s m e as u re l e s s to m an
D ow n to a s u n l e s s s e a .

H e w as i n t e r ru pt e d aft e r fift y fo u r li n e s w e r e w r itt e n an d he

-
,

n e v e r fi n i s h e d t h e p oe m .

Ch r i s t ab e l i s al s o a frag m e n t which s e e m s t o h av e b e e n ,

pl an n e d as t h e s t ory of a pu re y ou n g g i r l w h o fe l l un d e r th e
39 2 ENG LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

S p e ll of a s or c e r e r i n t h e S h ap e of t h e w om an Ge raldin e I t
, .

i s fu ll of a s t r a n ge m e l o dy a n d c on t ai n s m an y p a s sag e s o f
,

e xqui s it e p o e t r
y ; b u t it t r e m bl e s with a s t r an e
g u n k n o w n ,

h orr or an d s o s u gg e s t s t h e s u p e rn atu ra l t e rr or s of t h e p op u
,

l ar h y s t e r ic a l n ov e l s t o which w e h av e r e fe r r e d
, O n thi s .

a cc ou n t it 1 5 n ot wh ol e s o m e r e a di n
g ; th o u g h o n e fl i e s i n t h e

f ac e of S wi n b u r n e an d o f oth e r c r itic s b y v e n t u r i n g t o s u gg e s t
s u ch a thi n g .

The R i m e of t h e A n ci e n t M ar i n e r
“
i s Col e r id g e s chi e f
’

c on t r ib u ti o n t o t h e Ly r i ca l B a l l a d s of 1 79 8 an d i s on e of t h e ,
’

Th e Ri m e of
w or ld s m a s t e r pi e c e s T h ou g h it i n t r od u c e s t he
.
'

t h e A ci e t
n r e ad e r t o a s u p e r n a t u r al r e al m
n with a ph an t om ,
man e r n
S hip a c r e w of d e a d m e n
, t h e ov e r h an gi n g c u r s e of
,

t h e a lbat ro s s t h e p ol ar s pi r it an d t h e m ag ic b r e e ze it n e v e r
, , ,

t h e l e s s m an ag e s t o c r e at e a s e n s e o f a b s ol u t e r e alit y c on c e r n

i n g th e s e m an i fe s t ab s u r diti e s Al l t h e m e ch a n i s m s of t h e
.

p o e m i t s m e t e r r i m e an d m e l ody ar e p e rfe ct ; a n d s om e of
, , ,

i t s d e s c r ipti on s of t he l on e l y s e a h a v e n e v e r b e e n e q u al e d .

Pe r h ap s w e s li ou l d s ay s u gg e s ti on s r a th e r th an d e s c ripti on s ,

for C ol e r id g e n e v e r d e s c r ib e s thi n g s b u t m a k e s a s u g g e s ti on , ,

a l w a s b r i e f an d alw a s e x a ctl y r i g ht a n d o u r ow n i m ag i n a
y y ,

ti on i n s t an tl y s u ppli e s t h e d e t a il s I t i s u s e l e s s t o q u ot e frag
.

m e n t s ; on e m u s t r e ad t h e e n ti r e p oe m i f h e r e ad s n othin g ,

e l s e of t h e r o m an tic s ch oo l of p oe t r y .

Am on g Col e ridg e s s h or t e r p oe m s t h e r e i s a wid e v ari e t y

’

an d e a ch r e a d e r m u s t b e l e ft l ar g e l t o f oll ow h i s o w n t as t e
y .

The b e g i n n e r will d o w e ll t o r e ad a fe w o f t h e e ar l y p o e m s t o ,
”
which w e h av e r e fe rr e d an d th e n t r y t h e O de t o F r an c e
, ,

“ “ ” ” “ “
Y ou th an d Ag e
”
D e j e cti on
,
L ov e Poe m s ,
F e ar s i n ,

S olit u d e
”
R e li g i o u s Mu s i n g s W or k W ith ou t H o p e an d
” ”

V
, , ,

t h e g l o ri o u s H y m n B e fore S un r i s e i n t h e al e o f Ch am ou n i

V
.

O n e e xq u i s it e littl e p o e m f r om t h e Lati n Th e i rg i n s C radl e

’

a n d h i s v e r s io n of S chill e r s Wa l l e n s te i n S h ow C ol e
’
H ym n , ,

r id e s r e m ar k a bl e p ow e r a s a t r an s l a t or T h e l att e r i s o n e of
’

g .

t h e b e s t p oe tic al t r an s l ation s i n o u r lit e rat u re .

3 94 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

c on s id e r an
y o th e r cc
o u p ati on . H e c on s id e r e d hi m s e l f s e r i

ou s l a s on e o f t h e gr e at e s t w r it e r s of t h e d a an d a r e adi n g
y y ,

o f h i s b all a d s — which c on n e ct e d h i m at on c e with t h e r o

m an tic s ch ool l e ad s u s t o thi n k th at had he w r itt e n l e s s
, ,

h e m i ght p o s s ibl y h av e j u s tifi e d hi s ow n Opi n i on o f hi m s e l f .

U n fort u n at e ly he c ou ld n o t w ait for i n s pi rat i on b e i n g o bli g e d ,

t o s upp or t n ot on l y h i s o w n fam ily b u t a l s o i n l arg e m e a s u r e

, ,

th at of hi s fr i e n d Col e r id g e .

S ou th e y g rad u all y s u rro u n d e d hi m s e l f with on e of t h e m os t

e xt e n s iv e lib ra r i e s i n E n g l an d a n d s e t hi m s e l f t o t h e t as k of
,

Work s of w r iti n
g s om e thi n
g e v e r
y w o r ki n
g d a
y T h e r.e s u lt s

S ou th e y of h i s i n du s t r w e r e on e h u n d re d an d n i n e v o l u m e s
y ,

b e s id e s s om e h u n d re d an d fi ft y ar t icl e s for t he m agazi n e s ,

m os t of w h ich ar e n ow u tt e r l y forg ott e n H i s m o s t am biti o u s

.

p oe m s ar e Tka la ba a t al e of ,

A rabi an e n chan t m e n t Tb e
Cu r s e of K e ka m a a m e dl e y Of ,

H i n d oo m y th ol ogy M a d oc a ,

l e g e n d of a W e l s h p r i n c e w h o
di s c ov e r e d t h e w e s t e r n w or ld
an d R od e r i ck a t al e
, of t h e

l as t of th e G oth s A l l th e s e . ,

an d m a n y m or e a l t h ou g h ,

c on t ai n in g s om e e x c e ll e n t p as
s ag e s ar e on t h e wh o l e e xag
,

e t d n d u n r e al b oth i n
g r a e a ,

m an n e r a n d i n m att e r S ou th e y .

w rot e far b e tt e r p ro s e than

p oe t ry an d hi s ad m i rabl e L ife
,
R OB E R T SO U T H E Y
o f N e l s o n i s s till o ft e n r e ad .

B e s id e s th e s e are h i s L i ve s of B r i t i s k Ad m i ra ls hi s liv e s of ,

C owp e r an d We s l e y an d h i s hi s t ori e s of B razil an d of t he

,

Pe n i n s u l ar W ar .

S ou th e y w a s m ad e Poe t Lau r e a t e I n 1 8 1 3 an d w as t h e ,

fi r s t t o r ai se th at Offi c e from t h e l ow e s t at e i n t o which it had

'
 TH E AGE O F R OMANTI C I S M 395
~

fall e n i c e t h e d e ath
s n of D ry d e n . Th e o p e n i n g li n e s of

Th a lab a b e gi n n i n g
, ,

H o w b e au ti fu l i s n i gh t !
A d e w y fr e s h n e s s fill s th e l
s i e n t a i r,

ar e s till ti m es q u ot e d
s om e an d a fe w
b e s t k n o w n s h or t Of hi s
Th e W e ll of S t
“ “ ” ” “
poe m s ,
lik e The S ch ol ar A uld Cl oot s , , .

” ”
K e yn e ,
Th e I n c h c ap e R o ck an d L od or e will re pay t h e
, ,

c u r i o u s re ad e r Th e b e au t y of S ou th e y s ch ar a ct e r h i s p a
.
’

t i e n c e a n d h e lp fu l n e s s m ak e h i m a w or th y a s so cia t e of t h e
,

t w o gre at e r p oe t s with wh om h e i s g e n e ra ll y n am e d .

WA L T E R S C O TT ( 1 771 — 1 83 2 )

We h av e al re ady call e d att e n ti on i gn ific an t m ov e to tw o s

m e n t s of t he e i ght e e n th c e n t u r y which w e m u s t for a m om e n t

,

r e c all i f w e ar e t o app r e ci at e S c ott n ot s i m pl a s a d e li g ht fu l

y ,

t e ll e r of t al e s but as a t r e m e n d ou s for c e i n m o d e rn lit e r at u r e

, .

Th e fi r s t i s t h e t r i u m ph of r om an tic p o e t ry i n Word s w o r th
an d Col e r id g e ; t h e s e c on d i s t h e s u cc e s s of ou r fi r s t En g li s h

n ov e li s t s an d t h e p op u l ar i zati on of lit e r at u r e b t aki n g it fr o m

, y
t h e c on t r ol of a fe w p at r on s a n d c r it ic s an d p u tt i n g it i n t o

t h e h an d s of t h e p e opl e a s on e of t h e for c e s which m old

o u r m o d e r n li fe S c ott i s an e pit om e of b o th th e s e m ov e
.

m e n t s T h e p o e t ry o f Wor d s w o r th an d Col e r id ge w a s r e ad b y
’
.

a s e l e ct fe w b u t S c ott s M a r m i on an d h i s L a dy of tb c L a ke
’

ar ou s e d a wh ol e n a ti on t o e n th u s i as m a n d fo r t h e fi r s t ti m e ,

r om an tic p oe t r
y b e c am e r e all
y p o p u l ar S o a l s o t h e n o v e l h ad .

b e e n c on t e n t t o p ai n t m e n an d w om e n of t he p r e s e n t u n til ,

t h e w on d e r fu l s er i e s of Wav e r l e y n ov e l s app e a r e d wh e n s u d
d e n l y b y t h e m ag ic of thi s Wi zar d o f t h e N or th
, a ll hi s t or
y ,

s e e m e d ch an g e d Th e p as t which h ad hith e rt o app e ar e d as

.
,

a d r e ar r e g i on o f d e a d h e r o e s b e c am e a liv e a ai n a n d fill e d
y ,g ,

with a m u ltit u d e of m e n an d w om e n w h o had t h e s u r p r i s i n g

I t i s of s m all c on s e q u e n c e th at S c ott s
’
ch arm o f r ea lit y .

p oe t ry an d p r os e a r e b oth fau lt y ; th at h i s p oe m s a r e r e ad
39 6 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

chi e fl y for t he s t ory rath e r than for th e i r po e t ic e xc e ll e n c e ;

,

an d th at m u ch o f t h e e vid e n t c r u dit y a n d b ar b ar i s m of t h e

Middl e A ge s i s ig n or e d or forg ott e n i n S c ott s w r iti n g s B y ’

.

th e i r vi g or t h e i r fre s h n e s s t h e i r r apid a cti on an d th e i r

, , ,

b r e e zy ou t Of d oor at m o s ph e r e S c ott s n ov e l s att r act e d t h ou

,
- -
,
’

s an d s Of r e ad e r s w h o e l s e had k n o w n n o t h i n g of t h e d e li g ht s

o f lit e ra tu r e H e i s th e re fore t h e gr e at e s t k n own fa ct or i n

. , ,

e s t abli s hi n g an d i n p op u l ar i zi n g that r om an tic e l e m e n t i n

p r os e an d p oe t ry which h as b e e n for a h u n d re d y e ars t h e
chi e f ch ara ct e r i s t ic of ou r lit e ra t u r e .

Lif e . S c ot t w as b orn i n Ed in bu rgh , on Au gu st 1 5 , 1 771 . On

b ot h h i s m ot he r
’
s an d fa th e r
’
s s id e h e w as d e sc e n d e d from Old
Bo rd e r fam ili e s , di stin gu is he d m ore for th e i r fe u d s an d fi gh tin g than
for t h e i r i n t e ll e c tu al a t tai n m e n t s H i s fat h e r w as a barri st e r a j u st
. ,

m an w ho oft e n l ost c lie n t s by a d v i s i n g t h e m t o b e fi rs t of all h on

, , ,

e s t i n t h e i r l aw su i ts H i s m o th e r w as a w om an o f c harac t e r an d
.

e d u c at i on s t ron gly i m agi n at i v e a t e ll e r of tal e s w h i c h s t i rre d y o u n g

, ,

Wal te r s e n thu sias m b y r e v e alin g the p ast as a w orld Of livin g h e ro e s

’
.

As a c h ild Sc o tt w as l a m e an d d e li c ate a n d w as t he re for e s e n t

, ,

aw ay fro m th e c ity t o b e w i th hi s gran d m o t h e r i n th e o p e n c o u n try

-

at S an d y K n o w e i n R o x bu rghshi re n e ar t h e Tw e e d
, Th i s gran d
, .

m ot h e r w a s a p e rfe c t t r e as u re hou s e of l e ge n d s c on c e rn i n g t he ol d
-

B ord e r fe u d s From he r w on d e rfu l tal e s S c ott d e v e l op e d th at i n

.

t e n s e l o v e of S c otti s h h i story an d t rad iti on w h ic h c h arac t e r ize s al l

hi s w ork .

By th e ti m e h e w as e i gh t y e ars Old w h e n h e r e tu rn e d to Ed in ,

bu rgh S c ott s t as te s w e re fi x e d for life At t h e hi gh sc hool h e w as

,
’
.

a fa i r s c h ol ar b u t w i t h o u t e n t h u s i a s m b e i n g m o r e i n t e r e s t e d in
, ,

Bord e r s t ori e s than i n t h e t e x t b ooks H e r e m ai n e d a t sc h o ol on ly

. -
.

S i x o r s e v e n y e ars an d t h e n e n t e r e d h i s fat h e r s o ffi c e t o s tu dy l aw
’
, ,

at t h e s am e t i m e att e n d i n g l e c tu r e s at t h e u n ive rs i ty H e k e p t t hi s .

u
p f o r so m e S i x
y e ar s w i t h ou t d e v e l o i
p gn an
y i n t e r e s t i n h i s p r ofe s

s i on, n o t e ve n w h e n h e p as se d h i s e x am i n a t i on s an d w as ad m i tt e d

t o th e Bar i n 1 79 2 , Aft e r n in e te e n y e ars o f d e su ltory w o rk i n

. ,

w h i c h h e s how e d far m o r e ze al i n ga the ri n g H i ghl an d l e ge n d s t h an

i n gai n i n g c li e n t s h e had w on t w o sm al l l e gal o ffic e s w h i c h ga v e h i m
,

e n o u gh i n c o m e t o s u p p o rt h i m c o m for tably H i s h om e m e an w hil e . , ,

w as at As h e s t i e l o n t h e Tw e e d w h e r e all h i s b e s t p o e try w as w ri tte n

,
.
39 8 ENG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

t he ge n e rou s hospitality of a hic h he had b e e n

S c ot c h l ai rd , of w
d re am in g for y e ars I n 1 82 0 h e w as m ad e a baron e t an d h i s n e w
.
‘

t i tl e of S i r Wal t e r c am e n e ar e r to tu rn in g hi s hon e st h e ad than had

all h i s li t e ra ry s u c c e ss H i s bu s in e ss p artn e r ship w as k e p t s e c r e t an d
.
,

d u r in g al l th e y e ars w h e n the Wave rl e y n ove l s w e re th e m ost p opu lar

b ooks i n the w orld the i r au thorsh ip re m ain e d u n kn ow n ; fo r S c ott
,

d e e m e d it b e n e a th the d i gn i ty of h i s t i tl e to e arn m on e y b y b u si n e s s
o r li t e ra tu r e an d s ou gh t t o giv e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t hat th e e n o r m o u s
,

s u m s s p e n t a t Abb ot sfo rd i n i m p r ovi n g th e e s ta t e an d i n e n t e rtai n

i n g l avi shly w e r e p art of the d ign ity of t h e p os i t i on an d c am e from

an c e s t ral sou rc e s .

I t w as t h e s u c ce s s of Byron s Ck i l de H a r ol d an d th e c om p arat i v e
’
,

failu r e o f S c ot t s l at e r p o e m s R oke by Tb e B r i d a l of Tr i e r m a i n an d
’
, , ,

Tli c Lor d of tlze I s l e s w h i c h l e d ou r au thor i n to th e n e w fi e l d w he re

, ,

h e w as t o b e w i t hou t a r ival R u m m agin g t hr ou gh a c abi n e t on e d ay

.

i n s e arc h of som e fi s hi n g tac kl e S c ott fou n d t h e m an u sc r i p t of a

,

s t o ry w h i c h h e ha d b e gu n an d l aid a s id e n i n e y e ar s b e fo r e H e r e ad .

t hi s o ld s tory e age rl y a s if it had b e e n an o t h e r s w ork ; fi n i sh e d

’
,

it w i thin thr e e w e e ks an d p u bli sh e d it With ou t s i gn in g h i s n am e

, .

Th e su c c e s s of t h i s firs t n o v e l Wa ve r l ey ,w as i m m e d i at e an d
u n e x p e c te d I ts gre at sal e s an d t h e ge n e ral c horu s of p r a i s e for i ts
.

u n kn ow n au t ho r w e r e w i th o u t p r e c e d e n t ; an d w h e n Guy M a n n e r

i ng , Tke A n ti q u a ry , B l a ck D w a rf, Old M or ta l i ty , R ob R oy , an d

Tb e H e a r t of Al i dl otlzi a n a pp e ar e d w i th i n t h e n e x t fou r y e ars , En g
l an d s d e light an d w on d e r kn e w n o bou n d s N ot o n ly a t hom e b u t
’
.
,

al s o on t h e Con t i n e n t l arge n u m b e r s of t h e s e fre sh an d fas c i n ati n

, g
s to r i e s w e r e sol d a s fa s t a s th e y c o u l d b e p ri n t e d .

D u r i n g t h e s e ve n t e e n y e ars w h i c h foll ow e d t h e a pp e aran c e o f

Wa ve r l ey Sc ott w ro te o n an ave rage n e arly tw o n ove l s p e r y e ar
, ,

c r e ati n g an u n u su al n u m b e r of c harac t e rs an d ill u s t ra t i n g m an y

p e r i o d s o f S c ot c h En li s h an d Fr e n c h h i s tor y fr om t h e t i m e o f t he
g , , ,

C ru sad e s t o t h e fal l of t h e S tu art s I n ad di t i on t o t h e s e h i st or i c al

h e w r o t e Ta l e s of a Gr a n dfa tke r D e m on ol ogy a n d I V
.

n ov e ls ,
i tclz
,
/

c r af t bi ograp h i e s of D ry d e n an d o f S w i ft
, t h e L if e of N ap ol e on i n , ,

n i n e v ol u m e s an d a l arge n u m b e r of art i c l e s fo r t h e r e v i e w s an d
,

m agazi n e s I t w as an e x traordin ary am ou n t of li t e rary w ork b u t it

. ,

w as n ot q u i t e s o rap i d an d s p on tan e ou s as i t se e m e d H e h ad b e e n .

v e ry dili ge n t i n l ookin g u p Ol d r e c ord s an d w e m u st r e m e m be r ,

t hat i n n e arly all h i s p o e m s an d n o v e l s S c o tt w as d raw i n g u p on a

, ,

fu n d of l e ge n d tradi t i on h i story an d p oe try w hi c h h e h ad b e e n

, , , ,
 T H E AGE O F R O MANT I CI SM 3 99

ga the rin g for fo rty y e ar s an d w hic h hi s m e mory e n abl e d hi m to p ro

,

d u c e a t w ill w i th al m os t t he ac c u rac y of an e n c y c l op e d i a .

For t h e fi rst s i x y e ar s S c o tt h e l d h i m s e l f t o S c o tt i sh h i story gi v ,

”

i n g u s i n n i n e r e m arkabl e n ove l s t h e w ho l e o f S c o tlan d i t s h e ro i sm , ,

i ts su p e rb fa i th an d e n thu sia s m an d e sp e c i ally i ts c l an n i sh l oyal ty to

,

i ts h e r e ditary c h i e fs ; givi n g u s al s o all p art i e s an d c harac t e r s from ,

Co v e n an t e rs t o R o y ali s ts an d fro m kin gs t o b e ggar s Aft e r r e adi n g

, .

t h e s e n i n e vol u m e s w e kn ow Sc otl an d an d S c o t c hm e n as w e c a n
kn ow the m i n n o othe r w ay I n 1 8 1 9 he tu rn e d ab ru ptly fro m
.

S c otlan d an d i n I va n /t oe th e m os t p op u l ar o f hi s w orks sh ow e d w h a t
, , ,

a m in e o f n e gl e c t e d w e al th l ay j u s t b e n e at h t h e s u rfac e o f En gli sh

AB B O T S F O R D

hi story I t i s hard t o re alize n ow as w e re ad i ts rap id m e l od ram atic

.
, ,

ac t i on i ts vi v i d p o rt ray al o f S a x o n an d N o rm an c h arac t e r an d a ll i ts
, ,

p i c tu re s q u e d e ta il s , t h a t i t w a s w r i tt e n ra p idl y a t ,a ti m e w h e n t h e

au t h o r w as su ffe r i n g fro m di s e as e an d c ou ld hardl r e p r e s s an o c c a

y
s i on al gr oan from fi n d i n g i t s w ay i n t o t h e ra id di c tat i on It s t n d
p . a s

t od ay as th e b e st e x am p l e of th e au th or s o wn t he ory t hat t h e w il l
’

o f a m an i s e n ou gh t o h old hi m s t e adil a a i n s t l l O b s t ac l e s t o
y g
K e n i l w or tli I V
, a ,
“ ”
t h e task of d o in g What he has a m i n d to d o . zg el
, ,

Pe ve r i l an d Woods tock all w r itt e n i n t h e n e x t fe w y e ar s S h ow h i s

, , ,

g ras p o f t h e r o m an t i c s id e o f En gli sh an n al s ; Cou n t R ob e r t an d Tb e

Tol i s m a n S how h i s e n thu s iasm for t he h e r oi c S id e of t h e Cru sad e rs ’

n atu r e ; an d Q u e n ti n D u r w a r d an d An n e o Ge i e r s te i n s u s t an
f g g e

o the r m i n e of r om an c e w hic h h e d i sc ov e r e d i n Fre n c h his tor

y .
4 00 ENG LI S H L I T ERATU R E

F or tw e n ty ye ars Sc ott l abore d s te adily at lit e ratu re w ith the ,

d ou bl e obj e c t of givin g w hat w as i n h im an d of e arn in g l arge su m s ,

to s u p p ort t h e l avi s h di s p l ay w h i c h h e d e e m e d e ss e n tial t o a l ai rd

of S c o t l an d I n 1 82 6 w h i le he w a s bli t h e ly a t w o rk on Woods tock
.
, ,

t h e c ras h c am e No t e v e n t he vas t e arn in gs of all th e s e p op u lar

.

n ov e l s c ou ld l on ge r k e e p th e w r e tc h e d b u si n e ss of B all an ty n e o n i t s

fe e t an d t he firm fail e d afte r y e ars o f m i s m an age m e n t Thou gh a

, , .

s i l e n t p ar tn e r S c ott ass u m e d fu ll r e s p on s ibili ty an d a t fifty five

, ,
-

y e a r s of age s i c k
, s u ffe r i n
, g a n d w i t h al l h i s b e st w o rk b e h i n d h i m
, ,

h e fou n d h i m s e lf fac i n g a d e b t of o v e r hal f a m illi on d oll ars Th e .

firm c ou ld e asily ha v e c o m p ro m i s e d w i th i ts c r e di tors ; b u t S c ott

r e fu s e d t o h e ar o f b an k ru p tc y l aw s u n d e r w h i c h h e c ou ld h ave tak e n

r e fu ge H e a s su m e d t h e e n t i r e d e bt as a p e rson al on e an d se t
. ,

re s ol u t e l y t o w o rk t o p ay e v e ry p e n n y T i m e s w e r e i n d e e d c han ge d
.

i n En gl an d w h e n i n st e ad of a l i t e rary ge n iu s s t ar v i n g u n ti l som e
,

w e al th y p a t ron ga v e h i m a p e n s i on t hi s m an a id e d b y h i s p e n al on e
, , ”
.
,

c ou l d c on fid e n t l b e i n t o a t h at o m o s a m o u n t o f m on e y
y g e r n e n r u .

An d thi s i s on e o f t h e u n n o ti c e d r e su l ts of th e p op u l ari zat i on o f l i t

e rat u r e Wi thou t a d ou b t S c ott w ou ld ha v e ac c om p li sh e d t he task
. ,

had h e b e e n gran t e d on ly a fe w y e ars of h e al th H e s t ill li ve d at .

Abb ot sfo rd w h ic h h e had off e r e d to h i s c r e d i tors b u t w hi c h t h e y

, ,

ge n e rou sly r e fu s e d t o ac c e p t ; an d i n t w o y e ars b y m i sc e ll an e ou s ,

work h ad p aid s om e t w o h u n d re d t hou san d d ollars of h i s d e b t

, ,

n e arly h al f of t hi s s u m c om i n g fro m hi s L if e o f N ap ole on A n e w .

e d i t i on o f t h e Wa v e rl e y n ov e l s a pp e ar e d w h i c h w as v e ry s u c c e ss fu l
,

fi n an c i ally an d S c ott had e v e ry r e ason to h o p e that h e w ou ld soon

,

fac e th e w o rl d ow i n g n o m an a p e n n y w he n h e su dd e n l y b roke ,

u n d e r t h e s t ra i n I n 1 83 0 oc c u r re d a s t rok e of p ar aly s i s from w hi c h

.

h e n e v e r fu lly r e c o v e r e d th ou gh afte r a littl e tim e he w as again at

w ork d i c ta t i n g w i t h s p l e n did p a t i e n c e an d r e so l u t i on
, H e w ri te s i n
.

“
h i s d i a ry at t h i s t i m e Th e bl ow i s a s tu n n i n g on e I su pp os e fo r I
, ,

s carc e l
y f e e l i t I t i s
. S i n g u l ar b u t i t c om e s w i th as li ttl e s u rp r i s e as
,

i f I had a r e m e d y r e ad y y e t God kn ow s I am at s e a i n th e d ark

, ,

an d t h e v e s s e l l e ak y
”
.

It i s good to re m e m b e r t hat gove rn m e n ts are n ot al w ay s u n grate

fu l an d t o r e c ord th at w h e n i t b e c am e kn own t hat a voy age to
, ,

I taly m ight i m p r o v e Sc ot t s he al th th e B riti sh gov e rn m e n t p rom p tly

’
,

p l a c e d a n a v a l v e ss e l a t t h e d i s p o sa l o f a m a n w h o h ad l e d no

arm i e s t o t h e S l au h t e r b u t h ad on ly i v l t o m u l t i tu d e s Of
g , g e n p e a s u r e

pe ac e abl e m e n an d w om e n b y hi s stori e s H e visi te d Mal ta N aple s . , ,

4 02 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

ra pid acti on an d s ucc e s s io n of a dv e n tu r e s which h old an d d e ,

li ght u s s till as th e y h e ld a n d d e li ght e d t he fi r s t w on d e ri n g

,

r e ad e r s . An d on e fi n d s h e re an d th e re t e r s e d e s c r ipti on s or ,
”
s n atch e s of s on g an d b all ad l i k e t h e , B oa t S o n g an d Loch
i n var which ar e am on g t h e b e s t k n own i n ou r lit e rat u r e
, .

I n hi s n ov e l s S c ott pl ai n l y w ro t e t oo rapidl y an d t oo m uch .

Wh il e a ge n i u s of t h e fi r s t m agn it u d e t he d e fi n iti on of ge n i u s ,
“
S cot t s’ a s t h e i n fi n it e capa cit y for t aki n g pa i n s h ardly
N °V e ls
b e l on gs t o h i m F or d e t ail s of li fe an d h i s t ory for
.
,

fi n e ly d raw n ch ara ct e r s an d for t raci n g t h e l og ic al c on s e

,

e e s o f h u m a n a cti o n h e h u all i cli n at i on H

q u n c a s
, u s
y n o n e .

s k e t ch e s a ch ara ct e r r o u g hl plu n e s h i m i n t o t h e m id s t o f
y g ,

s ti rr i n g i n cid e n t s an d t he a cti on of t he s t ory c ar r i e s u s

,

o n b r e athl e s s l y t o t h e e n d S O h i s s t or i e s a r e l ar g e l y ad v e n
.

tu r e s t or i e s at t h e b e s t ; an d it i s thi s e l e m e n t of adv e n t u r e
,

an d g l or i ou s acti on ra th e r th an t h e s t u d o f ch ara ct e r which

, y ,

m ak e s S c ott a p e r e n n ia l fa v o r it e of t h e y o u n g Th e s am e e le .

m e n t o f e xcit e m e n t i s wh a t c au s e s m at u r e r e ad e r s t o t u rn
fr om S c ott t o b e tt e r n ov e li s t s w ho hav e m or e p ow e r t o d e li u
,

e at e h u m an ch ara ct e r an d t o c r e at e , or di s c ov e r a r om an ti c
, ,

i n t e r e s t i n t h e i n cid e n t s of e v e ry d ay li fe rath e r th an i n s ti r
1
r i n g adv e n t u r e .

N otwith s t an di n g th e s e li m it ati on s it i s w e ll — e s p e ciall y i n ,

t h e s e d ay s wh e n w e h e ar th at S c ott i s ou t g r ow n
, t o e m p ha

S cott s W ork
’ s i ze f o u r n o t e w o r t h y thi n g s th a t b e a cc o m pli s h e d .

f °f L i t e rat u re H
( )
1 e c r e at e d t he hi s t or ic al n o v e l
2
; a n d al l n o v

e li s t s of t h e l as t c e n t u r w h o d r a w u p o n h i s t or fo r th e i r
y y
ch ara ct e r s an d e v e n t s ar e foll ow e r s of S c ot t an d a ckn owl e d ge
h i s m as t e r y .

2 ) H i s n ov e l s ar e o n a v as t s c al e c v r in g a ve r wid
( o e y ,
e

ran g e of a cti on an d ar e c on c e rn e d with p u bl ic r a th e r th an

,

1 iii
S e e S cott s c r t c s m of hi s ow n w or , i n
’
k c om p ar son w i it h J an e Au s te n ’
s, p . 4 3 9.
vl
2 S c ott ’ s n o e s w e re n ot t he fi
rs t t o h a e v an i
h s t or i lb i
ca as s. i
F or t h rt y y e ars p re
c e d n g t he a p pe a ra n c e oi Wa ve r l e
i i i l l ar ; b ut i t w as d u e to
y , h s t or ca r o m an c e s w e r e p op u
i i i l
S cott s ge n u s t h at t he h s t or ca n o e b e ca m e
’
vl a
pe r ma ne n t t yp e f li te
o rat u re . S e e Cros s,
Tlze D e ve l op m e n t of tke E n g l is k N ove l .
 TH E AGE OF R OMANTI CI S M 4 03

with p rivat e in t e re s t s S o wit h t h e e xc e pti on of Tli e B r i d e of

. ,

La m m e r m oor t he l ov e s t ory i n h i s n ov e l s i s g e n e ra ll y pal e

,
-

a n d fe e bl e but t h e s t r i fe an d p as s ion s of big p ar ti e s ar e m ag

n i fic e n t l
y p or t ray e d A gl an c e ov e r e v e n t he t itl e s of h i s
.

n ov e l s s h ow s how t h e h e r oi c s id e of hi s t ory for o v e r s i x h u n

d r e d y e ars fi n d s e xp re s s ion i n hi s p ag e s ; an d all t he p ar ti e s

of th e s e s i x c e n t u r i e s — Cr u s ad e r s Cov e n an t e r s Cavali e rs
, , ,

R o u n dh e a d s Papi s t s J e w s G y p s i e s R e b e l s — s t ar t i n t o li fe
, , , ,

a gai n a n d fi g ht o r g iv e a r e as on f or t h e fa ith t hat i s i n th e m

, .

N o oth e r n ov e li s t i n E n gl an d an d on ly Bal zac i n F ran c e, ,

app r o ach e s S c ott i n t h e s c o p e of hi s n ar rativ e s .

(3 ) S c ott w a s t h e fi r s t n o v e li s t i n a n
y l a n g g
u a e t o m a k e

t h e s c e n e a n e s s e n t i al e l e m e n t i n t h e a cti on H e k n e w S c ot
.

l an d an d l ov e d it an d th e r e i s h ar dl y an e v e n t i n an y of hi s
,

S c otti s h n ov e l s i n which w e d o n o t b r e ath e t h e v e r y at m os

p h e r e o f t h e pl a c e a n d f e
, e l t h e p r e s e n c e o f i t s m o or s a n d
m o u n t ai n s Th e pl a c e m or e v e r i s u s u all y s o w e ll ch os e n an d
. , ,

d e s c r ib e d th at t h e a cti on s e e m s al m os t t o b e t h e r e s u lt of
n at u r a l e n vi ron m e n t Pe r h ap s t h e m o st s t r iki n g ill u s t rati on
.

o f thi s h ar m on b e tw e e n s c e n e an d i n cid e n t i s fou n d i n Ol d

y
M or ta l i ty wh e r e Mo r t on a pp roach e s t h e cav e o f t he Ol d Cov e
,

n an t e r an d wh e r e t h e s pi r it u al t e rr or i n s pi r e d b h e fa n atic s
’

, y t
s t r u g gl e with i m ag i n ar fi e n d s i s p ar all e l e d b t h e ph s ic a l
y y y
t e rr or of a g u l f an d a r oar i n g fl oo d s p an n e d b y a s lipp e r y t r e e
t ru n k A s e c on d ill u s t r ati on o f t h e sam e har m on y of s c e n e
.

an d i n cid e n t i s fo u n d i n t h e m e e ti n g of t h e a rm s a n d id e a l s

of t h e Eas t an d W e s t wh e n t h e t w o ch am pi on s fi ht i n t h e
, g
b u rn i n g d e s e r t an d th e n e at b r e ad t og e th e r i n t h e c ool s h ad e
,

o f t h e oas i s a s d e s c r ib e d i n t h e o p e n i n g ch apt e r o f Tb e Ta l i s
,

m an . A thi r d ill u s t rati on i s fou n d i n th at fas c m a t i n g l ov e

s c e n e wh e r e I van h o e li e s w o u n d e d r a i n g at h i s h e lpl e s s n e s s
, g , ,

whil e t h e g e n tl e R e b e cc a al t e rn at e l y hid e s an d r e v e al s h e r
l ov e as s he d e s c r ib e s t he t e r r ific a s s au lt on t h e c as tl e which ,

g o e s o n b e n e a th h e r wi n d o w H i s th .o u g ht s a r e a l l o n t h e

fi g ht ; h e r s on t h e m an S h e l ov e s ; an d b oth ar e n atu ral an d ,

4 04 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

b oth ar e e x actl y wh at w e e xp e ct u n d e r t h e cir c u m st an c e s .

T h e s e are b ut s t r iki n g e xam pl e s of t h e fa ct th a t i n al l h i s ,

w or k S c ott t r i e s t o p re s e r v e p e rfe ct h ar m on y b e tw e e n t he
,

s c e n e an d t h e a ct i on .

n e s s li e s i n t h e fa ct th a t h e
’

( )
4 S c o tt s chi e f cl ai m t o
g r e a t
w a s t h e fi r s t n o v e li s t t o r e c re at e t h e p as t ; th at h e ch an g e d

o u r wh o l e c on c e pti on o f hi s t or b m a ki n g it t o b e n ot a
y y ,

r e c or d of d r
y fa ct s b u t a s t a e on which livi n
g , g m e n a nd

w om e n pl ay e d th e i r p ar t s Car l y l e s c r itici s m i s h e r e m os t
.
’

“
p e r ti n e n t : Th e s e hi s t or ic al n ov e l s h av e t au g ht thi s t ru th
u n k n ow n t o w r it e r s of hi s t or : th a t t h e b y g on e ag e s o f
y
t h e w o r ld w e r e a ct u all y fill e d b y livi n g m e n n ot b y p r ot o c ol s , ,
”
s t at e p a p e r s c on t r ov e r s i e s an d ab s t r acti on s o f m e n
, , N ot .

on l t h e p age s of hi s t or b u t a ll t h e hill s an d v al e s of h i s b e
y y ,

l ov e d S c otl an d ar e fill e d with livi n g ch ara ct e r s — l ord s an d ,

l adi e s s oldi e r s pi rat e s g y p s i e s p r e ach e r s s ch ool m as t e r s

, , , , , ,

cl an s m e n b aili ffs d e p e n d e n t s
, , a l l S c o tl an d i s h e r e b e for e
,
—

o u r e e s i n t h e r e alit of li fe it s e l f I t i s t on i s hi n g with
y , y s a .
,

h i s l ar g e n u m b e r s of c h ar a ct e r s th at S c ott n e v e r r e p e at s h i m,

s e lf. N at u rally h e i s m o s t at h om e i n S c otl an d an d with ,

h u m bl e p e opl e S c ott s o w n r om an tic i n t e re s t i n fe u d ali s m

.
’

c au s e d h i m t o m ak e h i s l o r d s a lt og e th e r t oo l or dl y ; h i s ar i s
t o c rat i c m a id e n s a r e u s u ally bl oodl e s s c on v e n ti on al e xa s p e r , ,

a ti n g c r e at u r e s w h o t alk lik e b ook s an d p os e lik e fi g u r e s i n

,

a n ol d t a p e s t r
y B u t wh e n h e d e s c r ib e s ch ar a ct e r s lik e J e an i e
.

D e an s i n Tke H e a r t of M i d l otk i a n an d t h e Old cl an s m an

, , ,

Evan D h u i n Wa v e r l ey w e k n ow t h e v e ry s oul of S c otch

, ,

w om an h o od an d m an h oo d .

Pe r h ap s on e thi n g m or e s h oul d b e s aid o r rath e r r e p e at e d , ,

o f S c ott s e n d u r i n g w or k H e i s alway s s an e wh ol e s om e
’
. , ,

m an l y i n s pi r i n g
, We k n ow t h e e s s e n ti al n obilit y Of h u m an
.

li fe b e tt e r an d w e ar e b e tt e r m e n an d w om e n ou r s e lve s
, ,

b e ca u s e of wh at he h as w r itt e n .
4 06 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

h av e d e v o t e d so m uch of h is
t al e n t t o d e s c r ibi n g t r ivial or
u n w h l e s om e i n t r i g u e s an d p o s i n g a s t he h e ro of h i s o w n
q
v e r s e d The re al t rag e dy o f By r on s li fe i s th at h e di e d j u s t ’

a s h e w as b e gi n n i n g t o fin d hi m s e l f .

Li fe . B y ron w as b orn i n Lon d on i n 1 788 the y e ar p re c e din g the ,

Fre n c h R e vol u t i on We shall u nd e rs tan d hi m b e tte r an d j u d ge

. ,

h i m m ore c har i tably if w e re m e m b e r t h e tai n t e d s to c k from w hi c h

,

h e s p ran g H i s fath e r w as a di s s i p a t e d s p e n d thrif t o f u n s p e akabl e

.

m oral s hi s m oth e r w as a S c o tc h h e i re s s p as si on at e an d u n b al an c e d , .

Th e fath e r d e s e rt e d hi s w i fe afte r s qu an d e ri n g h e r fo rt u n e an d t he
“
b oy w as b rou ght u p b y t he m othe r w ho a l t e rn at e ly
p e tte d an d
ab u s e d h im I n h i s e l e ve n th y e a r t h e d e ath of a gr an d u n c l e l e ft
.

h i m h e i r t o N e w s t e ad Abb e y an d t o t h e baron ia l t i tl e of o n e o f t h e
o l d e s t ho u s e s i n En gl an d H e w a s s i n gu l arly han d som e ; an d a
.

l am e n e ss re su l tin g from a d e fo rm e d foot l e n t a s u gge s t i on of p athos

t o h i s m ake u p -
All t hi s w i th h i s s oc i al p o s iti on h i s p se u d o h e roic
. , ,
-

p o e t ry
, an d h i s d i s s i p a t e d li fe — O v e r w h i c h h
, e c o n t r i v e d t o t h row

a v e i l of r o m a n t i c s e c r e c y m ad e hi m a m a gn e t of att rac ti on t o
,
—

m an y t hou gh tl e s s y ou n g m e n an d fo oli sh w om e n w ho m ad e t he ,

d ow n h i l l p at h b o th e asy an d r apid t o on e w hos e i n c li n a ti on s l e d h i m

i n t hat d i r e c ti on N atu ral ly h e w as ge n e rou s an d e a s ily l e d by
.
,

a ffe c t i on. H e i s th e r e fo r e l arge ly a vi c ti m of h i s own w e akn e ss

, ,

an d o f u n fo rtu n at e su rro u n di n gs .

At s c hool at H ar row an d i n t he u n i v e r s i ty a t Cam brid ge By ron

, ,

l e d an u n b alan c e d li fe an d w as m or e gi v e n to c e r tai n s p ort s from

,

w h i c h h e w a s n o t d e b arr e d by l am e n e ss t han to b o ok s an d s tu d y , .

H i s s c hoo l li fe like h i s i n fan c y i s s adly m ark e d b y van ity vi o l e n c e

, , , ,

an d r e b e l li on a gai n s t e v e ry fo rm of au tho ri t y ; y e t i t w as n o t w i th
“
o u t i ts h ou r s o f n obili t y an d g e n e ro s i ty S c o tt d e sc r ib e s h i m a s a
.

m an of r e al good n e ss of h e ar t an d t h e ki n d e s t an d b e s t fe e li n gs
, ,
”
m i s e rably t h row n aw ay b y h i s fooli sh c on t e m p t o f p u bli c O p i n i on .

Whil e at Cam brid ge By ron p u bli sh e d hi s fi r st v ol u m e of p oe m s

, ,

H ou r s of I dl e n e s s i n 1 80 7 A s e v e re c r i t i c i s m of th e vol u m e i n t h e
, .

E d i n b u rg k R e vi e w w ou n d e d By r on s v an i ty an d t h re w h i m i n to a
’
,

vi ol e n t p as si on th e r e su l t of w hi c h w as the n ow fam ou s sati r e c alle d

,

E ng l i s k B a r d s a n d S cotclz R e vi e w e r s i n w hi c h n o t o n l y hi s e n e m i e s
, ,

b u t al so S c ott Word sw or t h an d n e arly al l t h e li t e rary m e n o f h i s

, ,

d ay w e r e sat i ri ze d i n h e r oi c c ou p l e t s aft e r t h e m an n e r of Pop e s

’
,

D u n ci a d It i s on ly j u st to say t hat h e afte rw ard s m ad e frie n d s w i th

.
 TH E AGE OF R O MANTI C I SM 4 7
0

Sc ott an d w i th oth e rs w hom h e had ab u s e d w i thou t p rovoc ati on ; \ L

an d i t i s i n t e r e s ti n g to n ot e , i n v i e w of hi s o wn ro m an ti c p oe try , t h at

h e d e n oun c e d al l m a st e rs of rom an c e an d ac c e pt e d th e art ifi c i al

s tan d ard s of Pop e an d D ryd e n . H i s t w o fav or i t e b ooks w e re the O ld
T e s tam e n t an d a vo lu m e of Pop e s p o e t ry Of the l att e r h e say s
’
.
,
”
H i s i s th e gre at e s t n am e i n p oe t ry al l t h e r e s t a re b arb ari an s .

I n 1 80 9 By ron w h e n on ly t w e n t y o n e y e ar s of age s tart e d o n a

,
-
,

t ou r o f E u rop e an d t h e O ri e n t Th e p o e ti c r e su l ts of t h i s t ri p w e re
.

t h e fi rs t tw o c an to s of C/zi l de H a r ol d s P i lg r i m ag e w i th t h e i r fam ou s
’
,

d e s c r i p ti on s of rom an t i c sce n e ry Th e w ork m ad e h i m i n s t an tly

.

o p u l ar an d h i s fam e o v e rs had ow e d S c o t t s c o m l e t e l A h
’

p , p y s . e sa s
y
“
hi m se l f ,
I aw oke on e m orn
”
i n g t o fin d m y s e l f fam ou s an d ,
“
s e n tl
p r e y h e s tyl e s hi m s e l f th e
an d Na ol e on o f t h e r e al m s
g r p
of r h y m e . Th e w o r s t e l e m e n t
i n Byron at th i s t i m e w as h i s
in s in c e ri ty hi s c on tin u al p o s
,

i n g a s t h e h e r o of h i s p o e t r y .

H i s b e s t w o rk s w e r e t ran sl at e d ,

an d hi s fam e s re ad al m o s t a s
p
ra i d l on t h C t i e n t as
p y e o n n

i n En gl an d Eve n Go e th e w as
.

d e c e i v e d an d d e c l a r e d t hat a
,

m an s o w on d e rfu l i n c h arac t e r
h a d n e v e r b e for e a p p e ar e d i n
l i te ratu r e an d w o u l d n e v e r ap
, GE O R G E GO R D O N L O R D B Y R O N
,

p e ar a g a i n N
. o w t hat t h e t i n s e l
ha s w orn O ff a n d w e c a n j u d ge t h e m an an d h i s w o rk d i s p a ss io n
,

a t e ly w e se e h ow e as i ly e v e n t h e c r i t i c s o f t h e a e w e r e o v e e d by
, g g r n

r o m an t i c i m u l s e s
p .

Th e ad u l a t i on o f By ro n l as t e d on ly a fe w y e ars i n En gl an d . In
1 8 1 5 h e m ar r i e d M i s s M i lban k e a n En gli s h h e i r e s s w h o ab ru p tly
, ,

l e ft hi m a y e ar l at e r With w o m an ly re s e rv e she ke p t S i l e n c e ; b u t
.

t h e p u bli c w as n ot s l ow t o i m agi n e l n t y o f r e as on s fo r t h e s e p ara

p e

t ion . Thi s t oge t h e r w i th t h e fac t tha t m e n h ad b e gu n t o p e n e tra t e

,

th e v e il of r o m an t i c s e c re c w i t h w h i c h B y r o n s u rr o u n d e d h i m s e l f
y
an d fou n d a ra th e r b ra ss i d l b t h t d t h e t i d e o f p u bl i c
y o e n e a u,rn e

Op i n i on a ain s t h im H e l e ft En gl an d u n d e r a c l ou d of d i s t ru s t an d
g .

di sappoin tm e n t in 1 8 1 6 an d n e ve r r e tu rn e d Eight y e ars w e re

, , .
4 0 8 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

sp e n t a broad large ly i n I taly w h e re h e w as a ss oc iate d w i th S he ll e y

, ,

u n til t h e l atte r s t ragi c d e ath i n 1 82 2 H i s hou s e w as e ve r t h e

’
.

m e e t in g p l ac e for R e v ol u t i on i s t s an d m al c on t e n t s c alli n g t he m se lve s

p a t r i o t s w ho m h e t ru s t e d t oo gre atly an d w i t h w ho m h e s har e d hi s

, ,

m on e y m o s t g e n e r o u s ly Cu r i ou sly e n o u gh w h il e h e t ru st e d m e n
.
,

too e as ily h e h ad n o fa i th i n hu m an s oc i e ty o r gove rn m e n t an d

, ,

w r ot e i n 1 8 1 7 I ha v e s i m p lifi e d m y p oli tic s to an u tte r d e t e s ta

”
t i on o f al l e x i s ti n g go v e rn m e n ts D u ri n g h i s e x il e h e fi n i sh e d
.

Cli i l de H a r ol d , Tli e P r i s on e r f
o Ck i l l on , h i s d ram as Ca i n an d Man
f r e d , an d n u m e r ou s o t h e r k
w o r s , i n s o m e of w h ic h , as in D on
j uan ,

h e d e li gh t e d i n ve n gin g h im s e lf u p on h i s c ou n try m e n b y hol d in g

re

u t o r i d i c u l e al l t ha t t h e y h e l d m o s t s ac r e d
p .

I n 1 82 4 By ron w e n t t o G r e e c e t o gi v e h i m s e l f an d a l arge p a rt
,

of h i s for tu n e t o h e l p t hat c ou n t ry i n i t s s t r u ggl e fo r lib e r t y agai n s t

th e T u rks H ow far h e w as l e d b y h i s d e s i r e for p osi n g as a h e r o

r ta i n vi gor ou s V
.
,

an d h ow far b
y a c e iki n g s p i r it t hat w a s c e r ta in ly i n

hi m w il l n e v e r b e kn ow n
, T h e G r e e ks w e l c o m e d h i m an d m ad e
.

h i m a l e ad e r an d fo r a fe w m on t hs h e fou n d h i m s e l f i n t he m id s t
,

of a w r e t c h e d sq u abbl e of li e s se l fis h n e s s i n s in c e rity c ow ard ic e

, , , ,

an d i n t r i gu e i n s t e ad o f t h e h e ro i c s tru ggl e for li b e rty w h i c h h e had

,

an ti c i p a t e d H e d i e d o f fe v e r i n Mi s s ol on ghi i n 1 82 4 ; On e of hi s
.
, ,

l a st p oe m s w r i t te n t h e r e On h i s t hi rt y s i x t h bi r thd a y a fe w m on t h s
,
-
,

b e for e he di e d e x p re s se s h i s o w n vi e w of hi s di sap p oin tin g life

,

My d ay s a re y e ll o w l e a f
i n t he ,

T h e fl ow e r s a n d f ru i ts o f l o v e a r e g on e
T h e w o r m th e c a n k e r a n d t h e g r i e f
, ,

A r e m i n e al on e .

Work s of di n g By r on it i s w e ll t o r e m e m b e r
B y r on . I n re a

th at h e w a s a di s app o i n t e d a n d e m bitt e r e d m an n ot on l y i n ,

hi s p e r s on a l li fe b u t al s o i n h i s e xp e ct a ti on of a g e n e r al t ra n s
,

fo rm ati on of h u m an s o ci e t y A s h e p ou r s o u t h i s ow n fe e li n g s
. ,

chi e fl y i n h i s p o e t ry h e i s t h e m os t e xp r e s s ive w r it e r of hi s
, ,

ag e i n v o ici n g t h e di s c on t e n t o f a m u ltit u d e o f E u r op e an s w h o

w e r e di sapp oin t e d a t t he fail u r e of t he F r e n ch R e v ol u ti on t o

p rod u c e an e n t ir e l y n e w for m o f g ov e r n m e n t an d s oci e t y .

’
O n e w h o wi s h e s t o u n d e r s t an d t h e wh ol e s c op e of B y ron s
g e n i u s an d p oe t r
y will do w e ll t o b e g i n with h i s fi r s t w or k ,
4 10 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

will do w e ll t o c on fi n e hi m s e l f t o a s m all v olu m e of w e ll

,

1
ch os e n s e l e cti on s .

B y r on i s oft e n c om par e d with S c ott as h avi n g giv e n t o ,

u s E u rop e an d t h e O r i e n t j u s t a s S c ott gav e u s S c otl an d

,

an d i t s p e opl e ; b u t whil e th e r e i s a c e r t ai n r e s e m bl an c e i n

t h e s wi n g a n d d as h of t h e v e r s e s t he r e s e m bl an c e i s al l on ,

t h e s u rfa c e an d t he u n d e r ly i n g di ffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e t w o
,

p oe t s i s as gr e at a s that b e tw e e n Th ack e ray an d B u lw e r Lytt on -

.

S c o tt k n e w h i s c o u n t r
y w e ll — i t s hill s a n d vall e s which a re
y ,

in t e r e s ti n g a s t he ab od e o f livin g a n d l ov abl e m e n an d w om e n .

B y ron p r e t e n d e d t o k n ow t h e s e c r e t u n wh ol e s om e s id e of ,

E u rop e which g e n e rally hid e s it s e lf i n t h e d ar k ; b u t i n s t e ad

,

of gi v i n g u s a v ar i e t y o f livi n g m e n h e n e v e r ge t s awa fr om
y ,

hi s ow n u n b al an c e d an d e g oti s t ic al s e l f All h i s ch ara ct e r s .

,

i n Ca i n M a nf re d Tli e Cors a i r Tli e Gi a ou r Cki l de H a r ol d

, , , , ,

D on j u a n ar e ti r e s om e re p e titi on s of hi m s e l f — a v ai n d i s
, , ,

a ppoi n t e d c y n ic a l m an
,
w h o fi n d s n o g ood i n life or l ov e o r
,

an thi n g
y N.a t u rall
y w ith s uch a di s p os iti on
, h e i s e n ti r e l
y ,

i n c ap abl e of p ort ray i n g a t r u e w om an T o n at u r e al on e .

,

e s p e ciall y i n h e r m agn ific e n t m oo d s Byr on r e m ai n s faith fu l ; ,

an d h i s p or t r a a l of t h e n i ght an d t h e s t or m an d t h e o c e a n
y
i n Cki l d e H a r ol d ar e u n s u r p as s e d i n o u r l an g u ag e .

PE R C Y B Y S S H E S H E L L E Y ( 1 79 2 — 1 82 2 )

M ak e m e t hy l y r e e v e n as th e for e s t I s
,

W ha t i f m y l e av e s a r e fa ll i n g l i k e i ts ow n !
T he t u m u l t of th y m i gh t y h a rm on i e s
Wi ll ta k e from b o th a d e e p a ut u m n a l ton e , ,

S w e e t th ou gh i n s a d n e s s B e th ou s p i ri t fi e r c e
.
, ,

My s p i ri t ! B e th ou m e , i m p e t u ou s on e !

: Ih thi s fragm e n t , fr om th e O d e t o t he We s t Wi n d , we

h ave a s u gg e s ti on o f S h e ll e y s ow n s pi rit a s r e fl e ct e d i n al l ’

hi s p oe t ry The v e r y s pir it o f n at u r e which a pp e al s t o u s i n

. .
,

t h e wi n d an d t h e cl ou d t h e s u n s e t a n d t h e m oon r i s e s e e m s
, ,

1 S e S l ti
e f R di g
e ec d B ib li g p h y t t h
on s or ea n d f t hi
anh pt o ra a e en o s c a e r.
, ,
 TH E AGE OF R OMANT I CI SM 411
’

to h ave p oss e s s e d hi m at t im e s an d m ad e him a c h os e n I h

, ,

s t r u m e n t o f m e l ody At s uch ti m e s he i s a t r u e p oe t an d h i s
. ,

w or k i s u n r ival e d At oth e r t i m e s u n fo rt u n at e l y S h e ll e y
. , ,

j oin s with Byr on i n v oici n g a vai n r e b e lli on ag ai n s t s o ci e t y .

P E R C Y B Y S S H E S H ELLE Y

H is poe t ry lik e
, hi s life divid e s it s e l f i n t o t w o di s tin ct m ood s
, .

I n on e h e i s t h e vi ol e n t re form e r s e e ki n g t o o v e r th row ou r
,

p r e se n t i n s t it uti on s an d t o h u rr y t h e m ill e n n i u m ou t of i t s s l ow
walk i n t o a g all op O u t of thi s m ood c om e m o s t o f h i s l on ge r
.

po e m s lik e Qu e e n Ma b R e vol t of I s la m H e ll as an d Tke

, , , ,
4I 2 E NG LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

Wi te k of Atl a s which , h at vi ol e n t di at r ib e s aga i n s t

ar e s om e w

g o v e r n m e nt p r i e s t s m ar
, r i ag e r e li g i on e v,e n G o d a s m en , ,

s u pp o s e d h i m t o b e I n a di ff e r e n t m ood which fi n d s e x
.
,

p r e s s i on i n Al a s tor Ad on a i s an d hi s w on d e rfu l l yr ic s S h e ll e y
, , ,

i s lik e a wan d e re r foll owi n g a v ag u e b e a u ti fu l vi s ion for e v e r , ,

s a d an d f o r e v e r u n s a t i s fi e d I n t h e l att e r m ood h e app e al s .

p r ofou n dly t o all m e n w h o h av e k n ow n wh at it i s t o foll ow

a ft e r an u n att a i n abl e id e al .

S h e ll e y ’
s Li fe . Th e r e ar e thre e c l as s e s of m e n w ho se e vi si on s ,

an d all t hr e e a r e r e p r e s e n te d in ou r li t e ratu r e . The fi rs t i s t h e m e re

d r e am e r , lik e Bl ak e , w ho s t u m bl e s t h rou gh a w or ld o f r e al i ty i
w th o u t
i i
n ot c n g i t, an d i s hap p y i n hi s v i s i on s . The s e c on d i s t he s e e r, t h e
p r o p h e t, like Lan gl an d , o r Wy c lif, w h o se e s a vi si on an d qu i e tly
go e s t o w ork i n w a y s t hat m e n u n d e r s tan d t o m ak e t h e p re s e n t
, ,

w orld a li t tl e m or e li ke t h e i d e al on e w h i c h h e s e e s in h i s vi s ion .

Th e t hi rd w h o ap p e ar s i n m an y fo r m s — as vi si on ary e n thu s iast

, , , ,

rad i c al ,
an arc h i s t r e vol u t i on ar y
, c al l h i m w ha t y ou w ill se e s a
, ,
—

vi si on an d s traightw a y b e gin s t o t e ar d ow n al l hu m an in s ti tu t ion s ,

w hi c h h ave b e e n bu il t u p b y t h e s l ow t o il of c e n tu ri e s s i m ply b e ,

c au s e t h e m t o t n d i n th e w a o f h i s d r e am T o t h e l a t t e
y s e e s a y r .

c l as s b e l on gs S h e ll e a m an e r e tu all a t w ar w it h t h e p r e s e n t
y p p , y
w orld a m ar ty r an d e x il e s i m p ly b e c au s e of hi s i n abili ty t o s y m p a
, ,

t hi ze w i th m e n an d s o c i e ty as th e y ar e an d b e c au se of hi s own m i s ,

t ak e n j u d gm e n t a s t o th e valu e an d p u rp os e of a v i s i on .

S h e ll e y w as b orn i n F i e ld Pl ac e n e ar H o rsh am S u ss e x i n 1 79 2 , , , .

O n b oth hi s fath e r s an d hi s m oth e r s s id e h e w as d e s c e n d e d from

’ ’

n obl e o l d fam ili e s fam ou s i n t h e p o li ti c al an d li t e rar y h i story of

,

En gl an d From c h il d hood h e li v e d lik e Bl ak e i n a w o rld of fan c y

.
, , ,

s o r e al t hat c e rtai n i m agi n ary d ragon s an d h e ad l e s s c re a tu r e s o f t h e

n e ighb or i n g w o o d k e p t hi m an d hi s s i s t e r s i n a s tate of f e arful e x

p e c tan c
y H
. e l e arn e d r a p idly a b so r b e d t h e c l ass i c s as i f by i n tu i
,

t i on an d di ssat i sfi e d w it h ord i n ary p roc e s s e s of l e arn i n g s e e m s t o

, , ,

hav e s ou gh t lik e Fau stu s t h e a c qu ain t an c e of S p i ri ts a s s h ow n i n h i s

, , ,

H ym n t o I n t e ll e c tu al B e au ty

Wh i l e ye t a for gh o s ts , an d s p e d
b oy , I s ou gh t

T h r ou gh m a n y a l i s t e n i n g c h a m b e r , c a v e a n d r u i n ,
An d star l i gh t w ood , w i th fe a r f u l s te p s p u r s u i n g
H op e s of h i gh t a l k w i th th e d e p ar t e d d e ad .
4 14 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

t h e or e s b y e o n g w t h hi s au gh t e r Mary . I t i s a sad story , an d t he

i l pi i d
d il
e ta s w e re p e rhap s b
e tt e r forgo tt e n . W
e S hou ld
r e m e m e r t ha t inb
She ll e y w e ar e d e alin g w i th a t ragic bl e n d of h i gh m in d e d n e ss an d -

“
li ght h e ad e d n e s s
-
By ron w ro te o f hi m
. Th e m ost ge n tl e the m os t , ,

am i abl e an d t h e l e as t w o rl d ly m i n d e d p e rs on I e v e r m e t
,
-

Le d p artly b y t he ge n e ral hos t ili ty a gai n s t h i m an d p artly by h i s ,

ow n d e li c at e h e al t h S h e ll e y w e n t t o I taly i n 1 8 1 8 an d n e ve r r e
, ,

tu rn e d to Engl an d Aft e r w an d e rin g o v e r I taly h e fin ally s e ttl e d in

.

Pi sa b e l ove d of S O m an y En gli s h p oe t s ; — b e au ti fu l s l e e py Pi sa
‘

, , ,

w h e re on e l ooks o u t of hi s w i n d ow on t h e m ai n s t r e e t a t t h e b u s i e s t
hou r of t h e d ay an d t h e on l y li v i n g thi n g i n s i ght i s a d on k e y d o z
, ,

i n g l azily w i t h hi s h e ad i n t h e s had e an d hi s b ody i n th e su n shin e

, .

H e r e h i s b e st p o e try w as w ri t t e n an d h e r e h e fou n d c o m fo rt i n t he ,

fri e n d sh i p of B y ron H u n t an d Tre l aw n e y w ho are for e v e r as s oc i

, , ,

a te d w i th S h e ll e y s I tali an life H e st ill r e m ai n e d h o st il e t o En gli sh

’
.

soc i al i n s t i tu t i on s b u t li fe i s a good t e ac h e r an d t hat S h e ll e y d i m ly ,

re c ogn i ze d th e e rror o f hi s r e b e lli on i s s h ow n i n th e i nc r e as in g sad

n e ss of hi s l at e r p o e m s

0 w or l d , 0 l i fe , 0 ti m e !
O n w h os e l as t s te p s I c lim b ,

T re m b l i n g at th a t w h e r e I h a d s tood b e fo r e
W he n wi ll re tu r n t h e g l or y of y ou r pri m e ?
N o m o re oh , n e ve r m or e

Ou t of th e d a y a n d n i g h t
A j oy h as t a e n fl i gh t ; k
F re s h s p ri n g , a n d s u m m e r , an d w i n te r h o ar ,
M ov e m y fai n t h e a r t w i th g r i e f , b u t w i th d e i gh t l
NO m o r e — o h , n e e r m or e v

In 1 82 2 , w h e n ly t hirty y e ars of age S h e ll e y was d row n e d

on ,

w hil e saili n g i n a s m al l b o at o ff t h e I tali an c oast H i s b od y w a s

w as h e d ash ore s e v e ra l d ay s l at e r an d w a s c r e m ate d n e ar V
.

iare ggio , , ,

b y hi s fri e n d s B y ron H u n t an d T re l aw n e y H i s as he s m i ght w i th

, , ,
. ,

al l r e ve r e n c e hav e b e e n give n to th e w i n d s that h e l o v e d an d t hat

,

w e re a s y m b ol of h i s re s tl e ss s p i ri t ; i n st e ad th e y fou n d a r e s tin g ,

p l a c e n e ar t h e g rav e o f K e at s i n t h e En g li s h c e m e t e ry a t R om e
,
.

On e r are ly vi s i t s the s p ot n ow w i tho u t fi n di n g En gli s h an d Am e r i c an

v i s itor s stan din g i n s il e n c e b e fo re th e s ign ific an t in sc ripti on Cor ,
 TH E AGE OF R O MANTI C I SM 4 1 5

Work s of S h e l l e y . As l y ric p oe t S h e ll e y i s on e of t he
a ,

s up r e m e g e n i u s e s of ou r lit e rat u r e ; an d t h e r e ad e r will d o

w e ll t o b e gi n with t h e p oe m s which S h ow h i m at h i s v e ry
O d e t o t h e We s t
“ ” “ ” “
be st T h e C l ou d T o a S k y l ar k ,

Win d ” “
,
T o N i ght — p o e m s lik e th e s e m u s t s u re l y s e t t h e
,

r e ad e r t o s e a r chi n g am on g S h e ll e y s m i s c e ll an e ou s w or k s t o
’

”
fin d for h i m s e l f t h e thi n g s w or th y t o b e r e m e m b e r e d .

I n r e adi n g S h e ll e y s l on g e r p oe m s on e m u s t r e m e m b e r
’

t ha t th e r e ar e i n thi s p oe t t w o di s ti n ct m e n : o n e t h e w an ,

d e re r s e e ki n g id e al b e au t y an d for e v e r u n sat i s fi e d
,
Al as t or
t h e oth e r t h e u n b al an c e d r e for m e r s e e ki n g t h e
, ,

o v e r th r o w o f p r e s e n t i n s tit u t i on s an d t h e e s t a bli s h m e n t of

u n iv e r s a l h appi n e s s Al a s tor or t/ze Sp i r i t of S ol i tu d e ( 1 8 1 6)

.
,

i s b y far t h e b e s t e xp r e s s i on of S h e ll e y s g r e at e r m ood H e re
’
.

w e s e e h i m w an d e r i n g r e s tl e s s l y th r ou g h t h e va s t s il e n c e s of
n at u r e i n s e ar ch of a l ov e d d r e am m a id e n w h o s h all s ati s fy
,
-

hi s l ov e of b e au t y H e re S h e ll e y i s t he p oe t o f t h e m oo n r i s e
.
,

an d o f t h e t e n d e r e xqui s it e fan ci e s th a t c an n e v e r b e e xp r e s s e d .

Th e ch arm of t h e p oe m li e s i n i t s s u cc e s s i on o f d re am like
pict u re s b u t it giv e s ab s ol u t e l y n o i m p re s s i on s of re alit y I t .

w a s w r itt e n wh e n S h e ll e y aft e r h i s l on g s t r u ggl e had b e g u n

, ,

t o re ali ze th a t t h e w o r ld w a s t oo s t r on g fo r hi m Ala s tor i s .

th e r e fore t h e p oe t s c on fe s s i on n ot s i m pl y of failu re but of

’

, ,
.

u n dy i n g h op e i n s om e b e tt e r thi n g th at i s t o c om e .
'

P r om e t/ze u s Un b ou n d ( 1 8 1 8 a ly r i c al d r am a i s t h e ,

b e s t w or k of S h e ll e y s r e vol u ti on ary e n th u s ias m an d t he

’

m os t ch ara ct e r i s t ic of al l h i s p oe m s S h e ll e y s
’
.

phil os oph y ( if on e m ay dig n i fy a h op e l e s s d r e am

b y s u ch a n am e ) w as a c u r i ou s aft e r gr owth of t h e Fr e n ch
R e v oluti on n am e l y th at it i s on ly t he e xi s ti n g t yr an n y of
, ,

S t at e Ch u r ch a n d so ci e t y which k e e p s m an from gr owth i n t o

, ,

p e rfe ct h appi n e s s Natu r ally S h e ll e y forg ot like m an y o th e r

.
,

e n th u s i as t s th at Chu r ch an d S t at e an d s ocia l l aw s w e r e n ot
,

i m p os e d up on m an fro m with out b u t w e r e c r e at e d b y hi m s e l f

,

t o m i n i s t e r t o h i s n e c e s s iti e s
’
I n S h e ll e y s p oe m th e h e r o
. ,
4 16 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Pr om e e th u s re p
, r e s e n t s m a n ki n d it s e l f — a j u s t an d n ob l e ,

h u m an it y ch ai n e d a n d t o r t u r e d b y J o v e w h o i s h e r e t h e p e r
, ,

1
s on i fic at i on of h u m an i n s tit u ti on s I n d u e ti m e D e m ogor g on .

which i s S h e ll e s n am e fo r N e c e s s it y o v e r th r o w s th e t ran t
)
’

( y y
J ov e a n d r e l e as e s Pr om e th e u s ( Man ki n d ) w h o i s p r e s e n tly ,

u n it e d t o A s i a t h e s pi r it of l ov e a n d g ood n e s s i n n at u r e
, ,

whil e t h e e ar th an d t h e m oon j oi n i n a w e ddi n g s on g an d ,

e v e r thi n g g iv e s p r o m i s e th at th e y S h all liv e t og e th e r h app y

y
e v e r a ft e r w ar d s .

S h e ll e y h e r e l ook s for w ar d n ot b a ck t o t he G old e n A g e , , ,

a n d i s t h e p ro ph e t of s ci e n c e a n d e v ol u ti on I f w e c om p ar e .

h i s T it a n with S i m il ar ch ar a ct e r s i n Fa u s t an d Ca i n w e s h all ,

fin d thi s i n t e r e s ti n g di ffe r e n c e — th a t whil e G o e th e s Tit a n

’

i s c u lt u r e d a n d s e l f r e li an t an d By r on s s t oi c a n d h op e l e s s
’
-
, ,

S h e ll e y s h e r o i s p a ti e n t u n d e r t o rt u r e s e e i n g h e lp an d h o pe
’

b e y o n d h i s s u ffe r i n g An d h e m arr i e s Lov e th at t h e e ar th

.

m ay b e p e opl e d with s u p e r i or b e i n g s w h o s h all s u b s t it u t e

b roth e r ly l ov e for t h e p r e s e n t l aw s an d c on v e n ti on s of s o ci e t y
‘
.

S u ch i s h i s phil o s oph y ; b u t t h e b e g i n n e r w ill r e ad thi s p oe m ,

n ot chi e fl f or i t s th ou g ht b u t for i t s o u th fu l e n th u s i a s m for

y y , ,

i t s m ar v e l ou s i m ag e ry a n d e s p e ci all y for i t s e th e r e al m u s ic
, .

Pe r h a p s w e S h o u ld a d d h e r e th at P r om e t/ze u s i s an d p r o b ab ly ,

al w a s will b e a p o e m for t h e ch o s e n fe w w h o can app r e ci at e

y ,

i t s p e c u li ar S pi r itlik e b e au t y I n i t s p u r e ly p agan c on c e pti on

.

M
’
o f t h e w or ld it s u g g e s t s b c on t ra s t ilt on s Ch r i s ti an phil
, y , ,

o s oph
y i n P a ra d i s e R e a i n e d
g .

S h e ll e y s r e v ol u ti on ar y w o r k s Qu e e n M a b
’
Tk e
,

R e v ol t of I s l a m H e l la s an d Tke Wi te k of
A tl a s ar e t o b e j u d g e d i n m u ch t h e s am e w a
y a s is

P r om e t/i e u s U n b ou n d Th e y ar e l arg e l y i n v e ctiv e s a ga i n s t

.

r e lig i on m arr i ag e
, ki n g c raft a n d p r i e s t c r aft m os t i m p ra ctical
, , ,

wh e n c on s id e r e d as s ch e m e s for r e for m b u t ab ou n di n g i n ,

1 ll l k i l
S he e y u n d ou b t e d y t oo h i s d e a from a os t d ra m a of l E s chy l u s , a s e q u e t o P r o l
i i ki
m e t/ze u s B ou n d , i n w h c h t he gr e a t fr e n d o f m a n n d w as u n c ha n e d from a p r e c p ce , i i i
w he r e h e h a d b e e n p la ce d b y t h e t y ra n t Z e u s .
418 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

m os t lik e W or d s w o rt h b u t i n h i s S e n s itiv e Plan t with it s ,

fin e s y m b oli s m an d i m ag e ry he i s lik e n ob od y i n t h e w or ld
,

b u t hi m s e l f. Co m par i s on i s s om e ti m e s an e xc e ll e n t thi n g ;
“
a n d i f w e c om p ar e S h e ll e L
’
s e xq u i s it e am e n t b e g in n in g
y
“
with Wor d s w orth s I n tim ation s
’
0 w o rld O li fe 0 ti m e
, , ,
”
of I m m or t alit w e s h all p e r h ap s u n d e rs t an d b oth p oe t s
y ,

b e tt e r B oth p oe m s re c all m an y h appy m e m or i e s o f y ou th ;

.

b oth e xp r e s s a v e ry r e al m ood of a m om e n t ; b u t whil e t h e

b e au t y o f on e m e r e l y s add e n s an d di s h e ar t e n s u s t h e b e au t y ,

of t h e oth e r i n s pi r e s u s with s om e thi n g of t h e p oe t s ow

’
n

fai th an d h op e fu l n e s s I n a w ord Word s w orth fou n d an d

. ,

S h e ll e y l os t hi m s e l f i n n atu r e .

J O H N K E AT S ( 1 79 5 —
1 82 1
)
K e at s w as n ot l y t h e l a s t b u t al s o t he m o s t p e rfe ct of
on

t h e R om an tici s t s Whil e S c ott w as m e r e l y t e lli n g s t or i e s an d

.
,

Wor d s worth r e for m i n g p oe t ry or u ph oldi n g t h e m ora l law ,

an d S h e ll e a dv o c a ti n g i m p o s s ibl e r e for m s an d B r on v oi ci n
y y g ,

h i s ow n e g oi s m a n d t h e p olitical di s c on t e n t of t h e ti m e s ,

K e at s l iv e d ap a r t fr om m e n an d fr om al l p olit ic al m e as u r e s ,

w ors hipin g b e au t y lik e a d e v ot e e p e r fe ctl y c on t e n t t o w r it e

,

wh at w as i n h i s ow n h e ar t or t o r e fl e ct s om e s pl e n d or of t he
,

n atu ra l w or ld a s h e s aw o r d re am e d it t o b e H e had m or e o v e r . , ,

t h e n ov e l id e a th a t p oe t ry e xi s t s for i t s ow n s ak e an d s u ffe r s ,

l os s b y b e i n g d e v o t e d t o phil os oph y or p olitic s or in d e e d t o , ,

an
y c au s e
, h ow e v e r gre a t o r s m all A S h e s a
y s i n L am i a
.

D o n o t all c h ar m s fly
At th e m e r e to u c h of c o l d p h i l os op h y ?
T he re w as an aw f u l r a i n b ow O n c e i n h e a v e n

W e k n ow h e r w o o f, h e r te x tu re ; s h e i s g i v e n
I n t he d u l l c a t a l o g u e o f c om m on th i n gs
. .

Phi l os o p h y w i ll c lip an A n ge l ’
s w i n gs ,
Co n q u e r al l m y s te r i e s by l
r u e an d line ,

E m p ty th e h a u n te d ai r , a n d g n o m e d m ine
U n w e av e a r a i n b ow , as it e r e w hi e l m ad e
Th e te n d e r p e rs on d La m i a m e l t i n t o a s h ad e .
’
-
 TH E AGE O F R O MANT I CI S M 4 19

Par tl y b e ca u s e of thi s high id e al of p oe t ry p artl y b e c au s e h e ,

\

s t u di e d an d u n c on s ci ou s l y i m it at e d t h e G re e k cl a s s i c s an d
‘

t h e b e s t w or k s of t h e Elizab e th an s K e a t s s l a s t littl e v ol u m e
’

o f p oe t ry i s u n e q u al e d b y t h e w or k o f an y of hi s c on t e m p o

r ar i e s Wh e n w e r e m e m b e r t h at al l hi s w o r k w a s p u bli s h e d
.

i n th r e e S h or t y e ar s from 1 8 1 7 t o 1 8 2 0 an d th at h e di e d wh e n
, ,

on l tw ent fi ve e ar s ol d w e m u s t j u d g e h i m t o b e t h e m o s t
y y y
-
,

p r om i s i n g fi gu r e of t he e ar l y n i n e t e e n th c e n t u r y an d o n e of ,

t he m os t r e m ark abl e i n t h e hi s t ory o f lit e rat u r e .

Li fe . K e at s
’
s li fe of d e v o tion
b e au ty an d t o p oe try i s al l th e
to
m o r e re m arkabl e i n vi e w of h i s l ow ly o ri gi n H e w a s t h e son of a .

h os tl e r an d s ta bl e k e e p e r an d w a s b orn i n th e s tabl e of t h e S w an
,

a n d H oo p I n n Lon d on i n 1 79 5
, ,
O n e h a s on ly to r e ad t h e r ou gh
.

s tabl e s c e n e s fr o m o u r first n o v e li s ts o r e v e n fro m D i c k e n s t o u n , ,

d e rs tan d how li ttl e th e r e w as i n s u c h an a tm osp h e r e to d e v e l o p

p o e t i c g i ft s B
. e fo r e K e a t s w as fi ft e e n y e ar s old b o th p ar e n t s d i e d ,

an d h e w as p l ac e d w i th h i s b ro th e r s an d s i s t e r s i n c ha r ge o f gu a rdi

an s . Th e i r fi rs t a c t s e e m s to h ave b e e n to tak e K e a t s from s c hool

a t En fie ld ,an d t o bi n d h i m a s a n app r e n ti c e t o a s u rge on a t Ed

m on ton . For fiv e y e ar s h e s e r v e d h i s a pp re n ti c e sh i p an d for t w o ,

a r s m o r e h e w a s s u rge o n s h e l p e r i n t h e hos p i tal s ; b u t t h ou gh

’
e
y
skill fu l e n ou gh t o w i n ap p ro v al he d i slik e d hi s w ork an d h i s
, ,
“ ”
t h ou gh t s w e r e on o th e r t hi n gs Th e o th e r d ay d u r i n g a l e c t u r e
.
, ,

h e said t o a fr i e n d t h e re c am e a s u n b e a m i n t o t h e r oom an d w i th
, ,

i t a w hol e t ro o p o f c r e atu r e s fl oat in g i n t h e ray an d I w as O ff w i th

”
th e m t o Ob e ron an d fa i ryl an d A c o py of S p e n s e r s F a e ry Qu e e n
.
’
,

w hi c h h ad b e e n gi v e n h i m b y Char l e s Cow d e n C l ark w as th e p r i m e ,

c au s e of h i s ab s t ra c ti o n H e aban d on e d h i s p r ofe s s i o n i n 1 8 1 7 an d
.
,

e arl y i n th e s am e y e ar p u bli s h e d hi s fi rs t v ol u m e of P oe m s I t w as .

m od e s t e n ou gh i n S p i rit a s w a s al so hi s s e c on d vol u m e E n dy m i on
, ,

at d i d n o t v t b ru tal a t tac k s u on t h e au th o r
( 1 8 1 8 ) b u t t h p r e e n
p
a n d hi s w o rk b y t h e s e l f c on s t i tu te d c ri ti c s of B l a ckw ood s M ag a zi n e
’
-

a n d th e Q u a r te r ly It i s ofte n all e ge d t hat t he p oe t s s p iri t an d

.
’

a m bi t i on w e r e b rok e n b y t h e s e at tac k s ;
1
b u t K e a t s w as a m a n o f
s t ron g c har ac t e r an d i n s t e ad of qu a rr e li n g w i th hi s re vi e w e rs o r
, ,

b e in g c ru s h e d b y the i r c ri t ic i s m h e w e n t qu i e tly to w o rk w i th th e
,

1 Th i ids ea is s u p p p ort e ll
d b y S h e e y s poe m Ad on a i s ,
’
an d b y B y ron ’
s p a r od y aga n st i
the i
re v e w e r s , beg i i
n n n g, W ho kill
e d J ohn Ke at s ? I , sa y s t he Q ua rt e rl y .
”
4 20 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

id e a of prod u c in g p o e t r y t ha t s h ou ld li v e fo r e ve r . As Mat th e w
Arn ol d s ay s had fl in t xt
”
K e a ts
,
an d i ron i n h i m ; an d i n hi s ne

vo l u m e h e ac c om p li sh e d h is ow n p ur
p os e an d S il e n c e d u n fr i e n d ly

c ri t i c i s m .

Fo r t h e t h r e e y e a rs
d u ri n g w hi c h K e ats w ro t e h i s p o e t ry h e li v e d
ch ei fly i n Lon d on an d i n H am p s t e ad , b u t w an d e r e d a t t i m e s ove r

En gl an d an d S c otl an d , li v in g
b ri e f sp ac e s i n t h e I s l e o f
for Wi ght ,

i n D e von s h i re an d i n th e Lake d i s tri c t s e e kin g to r e c ov e r h i s own

, ,

he al th an d e s p e c i all y t o r e st o re t hat of h i s b roth e r H i s ill n e s s b e

,
.

an w i t h a s e v e r e c old b u t soon d e v e l o e d i n to c on su m p t i on ; an d
p
g ,

a dd e d t o t h i s so rr o w w as an o t h e r — h i s l o v e for Fan n i e Braw n e t o

, ,

w hom h e w as e n gage d b u t w hom h e c ou ld n ot m arry on ac c ou n t of

,

hi s p o v e r ty an d gr ow i n g ill n e s s Wh e n w e r e m e m b e r a l l t h i s p e r
.

son al gr i e f an d t h e h ar sh c r i t i c i s m of li t e ra ry m e n t h e l as t s m all ,

vol u m e La m i a I s a b e ll a Tb e E ve of S t Agn e s a n d Otke r Poe m s

, , , .
,

i s m os t s i gn ific an t as S how i n g n ot on ly K e at s s w on d e rfu l

’
,

p o e t i c g i f t s b,
u t al s o h i s b e au t i fu l an d i n d o m i tabl e s i ri t
p S h e ll e y .
,
”
s tru c k b y th e b e au ty an d p ro m i s e o f H y p e ri on s e n t a ge n e r ou s ,

i n vi tat ion to th e au thor t o c o m e to Pi sa an d li v e w i th hi m ; b u t

K e ats r e fu s e d h a v in g li t tl e s ym p a thy w i th S he ll e y s r e vo lt again st
’
,

s oc i e ty . The i n v i ta t i on h ad t h i s e ff e c t h ow e v e r t hat it t u rn e d , ,

K e a t ss t hou gh ts to I t aly w hi th e r h e so on w e n t i n t h e e ffo rt to s av e

’
,

h i s li fe H e s e ttl e d i n R o m e w i th h i s fr i e n d S e v e rn t h e ar ti s t b u t
.
, ,

die d s oon afte r h i s arr i v al i n Fe b ru ar y 1 82 1 H i s grave i n the

, , . ,

Prot e stan t c e m e t e ry a t R o m e i s s till an ob je c t of p il gri m age t o

,

t h ou san d s of t o u r i s t s ; for a m on g all ou r p o e t s th e r e i s h ard ly

an o th e r w h ose h e r o i c li fe an d t ragi c d e ath h ave so ap p e al e d t o t he

h e art s of p o e t s an d y ou n g e n thu s i as t s .

Th e Wo rk of Ke at s . N on e
but t h e m as t e r s h all p rai s e
”
u s ; an d n on e b u t t h e m a s t e r s h all bl am e m i g ht w e ll b e
w r itt e n o n t h e fl y l e af of e v e ry v ol u m e of K e at s s p oe t r y for ’

n e v e r w a s th e r e a p oe t m or e d e v ot e d t o hi s id e al e n ti re l y ,

i n d e p e n d e n t of s u cc e s s or fail u re I n s t ron g c on t r as t with .

hi s c on t e m p orar y B y r on w h o p r ofe s s e d t o d e s pi s e t h e ar t
, ,

th at m ad e h i m fam ou s K e at s liv e d for p oe t ry al on e an d as

, , ,

Lo w e ll p oi n t e d o u t a vi rt u e w e n t ou t of hi m i n t o e v e ry thi n g h e
,

w r ot e I n a ll h i s w ork w e h av e t h e i m p r e s s i on of thi s i n t e n s e
.

l oy alt y t o 1118 ar t ; w e h av e t h e i m p r e s s i on al s o of a p r ofou n d

4 2 2 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

pas sag e s an d i t s H y m n t o Pan S h ou ld b e r e ad in c on n e cti on

,

wit h Wor d s wor th s fam ou s s on n e t b e gi n n i n g The w orld i s t oo

’
,

”
m u ch with u s Th e p o e m g iv e s s pl e n did p r om i s e b ut a s a wh ol e
. ,

it i s rath e r ch aotic wit h t oo m u ch orn am e n t an d t oo littl e d e

,

s i g n lik e a m od e rn h ou s e
,
Th at K e at s fe lt thi s d e fe ct s t ron gl y
.

i s e vid e n t fro m h i s m od e s t p r e fa c e wh e r e i n h e s p e ak s of E n dy ,

m i on n o t a s a d e e d a cc o m pli s h e d b u t on l y a s an u n s u cc e s s fu l
, ,

att e m pt t o s u gge s t t h e u n d e r l y i n g b e au t y of G r e e k m y th ol og
y .

K e at s s thi r d an d las t v ol u m e L a m i a I s a b e lla Tke E v e of

’

, , ,

S t Ag n e s a n d Otke r P oe m s
.
,
i s t h e on e with which t h e
La m i a an d r e a d e r s h ou ld b e g i n h i s a cq u a i n t an c e with thi s m as
Ot h e r P°e m 3 t e r o f En li s h v e r s e I t h l t w bj ct
g a s o n
y o s u e . s ,
”
G re e k m y th ol ogy an d m e di ae va l r om an c e H y p e r i on is a .

m ag n ific e n t frag m e n t s u g g e s ti n g t h e fi r s t ar ch of a cath e d ra l

,

th at w as n e v e r fi n i s h e d I t s th e m e i s t h e ov e r th r o w of t he
.

Tit an s b y t h e y ou n g s u n g od A p oll o R e ali zi n g h i s ow n i m -

.

m at u r it y an d l a ck of k n owl e d g e K e at s l aid as id e thi s w or k , ,

an d o n l t h e pl e adi n g s of hi s p u bli s h e r i n d u c e d h i m t o p r i n t
y
t h e frag m e n t with h i s c om pl e t e d p oe m s .

Th r ou g h ou t thi s l as t v ol u m e an d e s p e ci ally i n H y p e r i on , ,

t h e i n fl u e n c e o f Milt on i s app a r e n t whil e S p e n s e r i s m or e ,

'

fre q u e n tl y s u g g e s t e d i n r e ad i n g E n dy m i on .

O f t h e l on g e r p oe m s i n t h e v ol u m e Lam i a i s t he m os t ,

s u g ge s tiv e I t i s t h e s t ory of a b e au t ifu l e n ch an t r e s s w h o

.
,

t u rn s from a s e rp e n t i n t o a g l or i ou s w om an an d fill s e v e ry
h u m an s e n s e with d e light u n til as a r e s u lt of t h e fooli s h , ,

phil os oph y of old A p oll on i u s s h e van i s h e s fore v e r fr om h e r ,

“ ”
Th e Ev e of S t A g n e s t h e m os t p e r fe ct of
’
l ov e r s s i ght . . ,

K e a t s s m e diae v al p oe m s i s n ot a s t ory aft e r t he m an n e r of

’

t h e m e t r ic a l r om an c e s b u t r ath e r a vivid p ai n ti n g of a r om an
,

tic m ood s u ch as c om e s t o al l m e n at t i m e s t o gl or ify a

, , , ,

w o r kad ay w or ld Lik e al l t h e w or k of K e at s an d S h e ll e y it
. ,

has an e l e m e n t of u n r e alit y an d wh e n w e r e ad at t h e e n d ,

An d t he y a re
g on e a e , a e s lon
y g g ago

The s e l ov e r s fl e d a w a y i n t o t h e s t or m ,
 TH E AGE O F R O MAN T I C I S M

it i s as if w e w e r e w aki n gd r e am fr o m
which i s t h e on l y a ,

p os s ibl e e n di n g t o all of K e at s s G r e e k an d m e di ae val fan ci e s

’
.

We are t o r e m e m b e r h ow e ve r th at n o b e au ti fu l thi n g th o u gh
, , ,
’
it b e i n t an g ibl e as a d r e am c an e n t e r a m an s li fe a n d l e av e ,

h i m q u it e t h e s am e aft e r w ar d s K e at s s ow n w or d i s h e r e s u g
’

“
g e s t i ve .T h e i m ag i n ati on h e s a id m a
y b e lik e n e d t o
, ,

”
Ad am s d r e am h e aw ok e an d fou n d it t r u e
’
.

I t i s b y h i s s h or t p oe m s th at K e at s i s k n ow n t o t h e m aj or
i t y of p re s e n t d ay r e a d e r s -
A m on g th e s e e xqui s it e s h ort e r
.

”
p oe m s w e m e n ti on on l y t h e fo u r od e s On a G re cian U rn , ,
” ” ”
To A u t u m n
“
To a N i ghti n gal e ,
an d T o Psy ch e Th e s e , .

ar e lik e a n i n vit ati on t o a fe as t ; on e w h o r e ad s th e m wil l

h ar dl y b e s at i s fi e d u n til he k n ow s m or e o f s u ch d e li ght fu l
” “
p oe t ry Th os e w ho s t u d y on l y t h e O d e t o a N ig hti n gal e
.

m y fi d f thi — a l ov e o f s e n s u ou s b e au t a t ch f
a n ou r n
g s , y ou o ,

p e s s i m i s m a p u r e l y pagan c on c e pt i on o f n at u re an d a s t r on g
, ,

i n divid u ali s m — which a r e ch ar act e r i s tic of thi s l as t of t h e

,

r om an tic p oe t s .

A s Word s w orth s w or k i s t oo oft e n m arr e d b y t h e m oral

’

’
i ze r an d B y r on s b y t h e d e m ag og u e an d S h e ll e y s b y t h e
’

, ,

K e at s s p l ac e r e for m e r s o K e at s s w or k s u ff e r s b y t h e Opp os it e
’
’
,

i n Li t e at u e
e xt r e m e o f al oofn e s s fr om e v e r h u m an i n t e r e s t ;
r r
y
s o m u ch s o th at h e i s O ft e n a cc u s e d o f b e i n g i n di ffe r e n t t o
,

h u m an it y H i s w o r k i s al s o c r itici s e d a s b e i n g t oo e ff e m i n at e
.

for or di n ary r e ad e r s T h re e thi n g s s h ou ld b e r e m e m b e r e d i n

.

thi s c on n e cti on F i r s t th at K e at s s o u ght t o e xp r e s s b e au t y

.
,

for i t s o w n s ak e ; t h at b e au t y i s as e s s e n t ial t o n or m al hu
m a n it y a s i s g ov e rn m e n t o r law ; a n d th at t h e hi gh e r m an
cli m b s i n civili zati on t h e m or e i m p e rativ e b e c om e s h i s n e e d
of b e a u t as a r e w ar d fo r h i s l a b or s S e c on d th at K e a t s s l e t
’

y .
,

t e r s ar e as m u ch an i n dic at i on of t h e m an as i s h i s p oe t ry ;
an d i n h i s l e tt e r s with th e i r h u m an s y m p ath y th e i r e ag e r
, ,

i n t e r e s t i n s o ci al p ro bl e m s th e i r h u m or an d th e i r k e e n i n s i ght
, ,

i n t o li fe th e r e i s n o t ra c e o f e ffe m i n a cy b u t r ath e r e v e r y
, ,

i n dicat i on of a s t r on g an d n obl e m an h ood The thi r d thi n g .

4 4
2 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

b e r i s th at al l K e at s s w or k w a s d on e i n th r e e or fou r
’
to re m e m

e ar s with s m all p r e p ara ti on an d th at d y i n g at tw e n t y fiv e -

y , , , ,

h e l e ft u s a b ody of p oe t r y which will alway s b e on e of o u r

m os t ch e r i s h e d p o s s e s s i on s H e i s Oft e n c om p ar e d with t h e
.

m a r v e l ou s b oy Ch att e r t on wh om h e g r e atly ad m i r e d an d
, ,

t o wh os e m e m ory h e d e dic at e d h i s E n dy m i on ; b u t th ou g h
b oth di e d y ou n g Ch att e r t on w as but a child whil e K e at s w as
, ,

i n all r e s p e ct s a m an I t i s idl e t o p r oph e s y wh at h e m i ght

.

h av e d o n e had h e b e e n g ran t e d a Te n n y s on s l on g li fe an d
,
’

s ch ol ar l
y t ra i n i n g A t tw. ent
y fiv e h i s w or k w a s as m at u r e
-

a s w as T e n n y s on s at fi ft y th o u gh t h e m at u r it y s u gge s t s
’

t h e t oo r apid g r owth of a t ropic a l pl an t which u n d e r t h e w ar m

r a i n s a n d t he fl oo d o f s u n li g ht l e ap s i n t o li fe g r w bl m
”

o s o o s , ,

i n a day a n d di e s
, .

A s w e h av e s t at e d K e at s s w or k w a s bitt e rl y an d u n j u s tl y
’

c on d e m n e d b y t h e c r itic s of h i s day H e b e l on g e d t o wh at .

w a s d e r i s iv e l y c all e d t h e c o ck n e y s ch ool of p oe t r y of which ,

Le i g h H u n t w a s chi e f an d Proct or an d B e dd oe s w e r e fe ll ow
,

w or k m e n N ot e v e n fr om Wor d s w orth an d B y ron w ho w e r e

.
,

r e ad e n ou gh t o r e c om m e n d far l e s s g i ft e d w r it e r s did K e a t s
y ,

r e c e iv e t h e s li g ht e s t e n c o u r a g e m e n t Lik e y ou n g Lo chi n v ar
.
,
“ ”
h e r od e all u n ar m e d an d h e r od e all a l on e S h e ll e y with .
,

h i s s i n c e r it y an d g e n e ros it y w a s t h e fi r s t t o r e c og n i ze t h e
,

ou n g g e n i u s an d i n h i s n obl e Ad on a i s w r itt e n al a s lik e —

y , , ,

m os t of ou r t r ib u t e s wh e n t h e s u bj e ct of ou r p ra i s e i s d e a d
,

— he s p ok e t h e fi r s t t r u e w or d of a pp r e ci ati on an d pl a c e d ,

K e at s wh e r e h e u n q u e s ti on abl y b e l on gs am on g ou r g re at e s t
, ,

p oe t s Th e fam e d e n i e d h i m i n hi s sad life w as gr an t e d fr e e l y

.

a ft e r h i s d e ath Mos t fit ly d oe s h e cl os e t h e li s t of p oe t s o f
.

t h e rom an tic r e vival b e c au s e i n m an y r e s p e ct s h e w as t h e

,

b e s t w or k m an of th e m all H e s e e m s t o h av e s tudi e d w ord s

.
.

m or e c ar e fu ll y th an did h i s c on t e m p o rari e s an d s o h i s p oe ti c ,

e xp r e s s i on or t h e h ar m on
, y o f w or d an d th ou g ht i s ge n e r ,

all y m or e p e r fe ct th an th e i r s Mor e th an an y oth e r h e liv e d

.

for p oe t ry a s t h e n obl e s t of t he art s Mor e th an an y oth e r

, .
426 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

which m ark e d J oh n s on an d t h e m agazin e e dit ors an d r e ad ,

s y m p a th e ticall y t h e w or k of a n e w a u th or with t h e s ol e id e a ,

of fi n di n g wh a t h e h ad c on t r ib u t e d or t r i e d t o c on t r ib u t e
, ,

t o t h e m agn ific e n t t ot a l of ou r lit e rat u re Col e r id g e H u n t

.
, ,

H azlitt Lam b an d D e Q u i n c e y w e r e t h e l e ad e r s i n thi s n e w

, ,

an d i m m e n s e l i m p o r t an t d e v e l op m e n t a n d w e m u s t n ot for
y
t t h e i m p o t n c e of t h e n e w p e r i o dic al s lik t h L d
g e r a e e
, o n o n

M ag a zi n e fou n d e d i n 1 82 0 i n which Lam b D e Q u i n c e y an d

, , , ,

Car ly l e fou n d th e i r fi r s t r e a l e n c ou rag e m e n t .

’
O f Col e r id ge s B i og rap k i a L i t e ra r i a a n d h i s L e c tu r e s on
S ka ke sp e a re w e h av e a l re ad y s p ok e n Le ig h H u n t ( 1 784
.

H unt a d n 1 8 5 9) w ro t e c on ti n u ou s l y f or m o re th a n thi rt
y
Ha li “ e a r s a s e dit or an d e s sa i s t ; an d h i s chi e f o bj e ct
"

l
y , y
s e e m s t o h av e b e e n t o m a k e g ood lit e ra t u r e k n ow n an d ap pr e

c i at e d W illi am H azlitt ( 1 778— 1 8

. i n a l on g s e r i e s o f l e c
t u r e s an d e s s ay s t r e at e d all r e adi n g a s a kin d of r om an t ic
,

j ou rn e y i n t o n e w an d pl e a s an t c ou n t r i e s To h i s w or k l arge ly
. ,

with th at of Lam b w as d u e t h e n e w i n t e r e s t i n E lizab e than

,

lit e ratu r e which s o s t r on gly i n fl u e n c e d K e at s s l as t an d b e s t

,
’

v ol u m e of p oe t ry F or th o s e i n t e re s t e d i n t h e ar t of c r itici s m
. ,

an d i n t h e a pp r e ci ati on of lit e rat u r e b oth H u n t an d H azlitt

,

will w e ll re p ay s t u d y ; b u t w e m u s t pas s ov e r th e i r wor k t o

c on s id e r t he l ar ge r lit e r ary i n t e r e s t of Lam b an d D e Qu in c e y ,

w h o w e r e n ot S i m pl y c r itic s of o th e r m e n s l ab or b u t w h o
’

al s o p r od u c e d s om e d e li g ht fu l w or k o f th e i r ow n which t h e ,

“
w or ld h as car e fu lly p u t away am on g t he thi n g s w orthy t o
”
b e re m e m b e re d .

C H AR L E S L AM B ( 1 775 — 1 83 4 )

I n Lam b an d Wor d s wort h wewid e l y diffe r e n t

h av e tw o
vi e w s o f t h e r om an tic m ov e m e n t on e s h ow s t h e i n fl u e n c e of
n at u r e an d s olit u d e t h e o th e r of s o ci e t y
,
L am b w as a l ife l on g
.

fr i e n d of Col e r idg e an d an ad m i r e r an d d e fe n d e r of t h e p oe tic

,

cr e e d of W or d s w or th ; but whil e th e l att e r live d ap ar t from

m e n c on t e n t with n at u r e an d with r e adi n g an occ a s io n al
,
 TH E AGE O F R OM AN T I C I S M 4 7
2

m oral l e s son t o s oci e t y Lam b w as b or n a n d liv e d i n th e m id s t

,

of t h e L on d on s t re e t s T h e cit y c ro wd with i t s pl e a s u r e s an d
.
,

o cc u p a ti o n s i t s e n dl e s s littl e c om e di e s an d t rage di e s al on e i n
, ,

t e re s t e d h i m A cc or di n g t o h i s ow n acc ou n t wh e n h e p au s e d
. ,

i n t h e c r owd e d s t r e e t t e ar s w ou ld s p ri n g t o h i s e y e s t e ar s ,
-

of p u r e pl e a s u r e at t h e a b u n d an c e of s o m uch g oo d li fe ; an d

wh e n h e w rot e h e S i m pl y i n t e r p r e t e d th at c r owd e d hu m an li fe
,

of joy an d s or r ow a s Wo rd s w or th i n
,

t e rp r e t ed t he w ood s an d wa t e r s with ,

ou t a n d e s i r e t o ch an g e or t o r e form
y
th e m H e has g iv e n u s t h e b e s t pic
.

t u re s w e p os s e s s of Col e r id ge H az ,

litt Lan d or H ood Cowd e n Cl ar k e

, , , ,

an d m an m or e of t h e i n t e r e s ti n g m e n
y
an d w om e n of h i s ag e ; an d it i s d u e

t o h i s i n s i g ht an d s y m p ath y th at t h e
li fe of th os e far off d ay s s e e m s al m os t
-

a s r e a l t o u s as if w e ou rs e lv e s r e m e m

b e re d it O f al l our E n gli s h e s say i s t s

.
C H AR LE S LAMB
h e i s t h e m os t l ov abl e p ar tly b e cau s e
of h i s d e lic at e ol d fa s hi on e d s t l e an d h u m or b u t m or e b e
y
-
, ,

c au s e of th a t ch e e ry an d h e r o ic s t ru ggl e agai n s t m i s for tu n e

w hich s hi n e s lik e a s u bd u e d li ght i n a l l hi s w r iti n gs .

Li fe . I n th e v e ry h e art of Lon d on the re is a i

c u r ou s , ol d

fas hi on e d p l ac e kn ow n a s t h e Te m p l e , — an e n or m o u s , ra m blin g ,

ap p ar e n tly fo rgott e n s t ru c tu r e , d u s t y a n d st ill ,

i n t h e m id st of the
en dl e s s r o ar of ity s tre e ts O ri gin ally i t w as a c hap t e r h ou s e
th e c .

of th e Kn i gh ts T e m pl ars an d so s u gge s t s to u s t h e s p i r i t of t h e
,

Cru sad e s an d of th e M iddl e Age s ; b u t n ow t h e bu il d in g i s gi v e n

o v e r a l m o st e n t i r e l t t h ffi n d l od i n gs o f Lon d on l aw y e rs
y o e o c e s a g .

I t i s th i s qu e e r ol d p l ac e w hi c h m o re than all o th e rs i s assoc i a t e d

, ,
”“ “
w i th t h e n am e of Ch a rl e s Lam b I w as b orn h e say s an d
.
, ,

ass e d th e fi rs t s e v e n y e ars of m li f i t h T m l I t d e
p y e n e e p e s gar ns .
,

i t s hall s i t s fou n tai n i t s riv e r

, , t h e s e a r e m y old e s t r e c ol l e c
”
tion s . H e w as th e son of a p oor c l e rk or rat he r s e rvan t of on e of , ,

t he barri s t e r s an d w as the y ou n ge st of s e ve n c hild re n on l y thre e of

, ,
428 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

w hom vi v e d in fan c y Of th e s e thre e J ohn the e ld e r w as ap p ar

su r .
, , ,

e n tly a s e l fis h c r e atu r e w h o t ook n o p art i n th e h e roi c s t ru ggl e of

,

h i s bro t h e r a n d s i s t e r At s e v e n y e ars C harl e s w as s e n t t o t he fam o u s

. ,

B l u e c oa t c har i ty s c ho o l o f Ch ri s t s H o s p i ta l H e r e h e r e m ai n e d
’
.

s e v e n y e ar s an d h e re h e fo rm e d h i s life l on g fri e n d shi p for an o th e r

r n e gl e c t e d b oy w ho m t h e w o rld r e m e m b e r s a s Col e r id ge
1
oo
p , , .

Whe n on ly fou rte e n y e ars old Lam b l e ft t he c hari ty s c hool an d

,

w as s o on a t w o rk a s a c le rk i n t h e S ou th S e a H ou s e Tw o y e a rs .

l at e r h e b e c am e a c l e rk i n th e fam ou s I n d i a H ou se w h e r e h e w ork e d ,

’
CH R I ST S H O S PI T A L , L O N D O N

st e a dily for i i
t h rty- th re e y e ar s , w th t h e e c e p t on x i of s ix we eks in ,

th e w in te r o f 1 79 5 - 1 79 6 , s p e n t w th n t h e w a i i ll s of an a s yl u m .

In 79 6 Lam b s s i s t e r
1
’
Mary , w ho w a s as ta l e n t e d an d r e m arkabl e

as Lam b h i m se l f, w e n t viol e n tly i n s an e an d m oth e r kill e d h e r o w n .

For a l on g t i m e aft e r t h i s a pp allin g t rage d y s h e w as i n an a sylu m at

H o x t on t h e n Lam b i n 1 79 7 b rou ght h e r t o h i s ow n li ttl e h ou se
, , ,

an d for th e r e m ai n d e r o f h i s life c ar e d fo r h e r w i th a t e n d e rn e ss an d

d e v ot ion w h ic h fu rn ishe s o n e of th e m o st b e au t iful p age s i n ou r

l i te rary h i s t ory At t i m e s t h e m al ady w ou ld r e tu rn t o Mar y gi v in g
.
,

1 See i
Chr s t ’
s i l iv
H os p ta F e an d i
Th rt y Y
e a rs Ago, ”
i n E s s ay s o
f El i a .
43 0 ENG LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

T he b ook w as w r itt e n p r i m ar ily for child r e n ; b u t s o th or

o u g hl y h ad b r oth e r an d s i s t e r s t e e p e d th e m s e lv e s i n t h e lit e ra

t u re of t h e E li zab e th an p e r i od th at y ou n g an d Old alik e w e r e

d e li g ht ed with thi s n e w v e rs i on of S h ak e s p e ar e s s t or i e s an d ’

t h e Ta l e s ar e s till r e gar d e d a s t h e b e s t of th e i r ki n d i n o u r
lit e rat u r e I n 1 80 8 app e ar e d hi s Sp e c i m e n s of E ng li s k D r a
.

m a ti c P oe ts Con t e mp or a ry w i t/z S ka ke sp e a r e Thi s c arr i e d .

o u t t h e s pl e n did c r itica l w or k of Col e r id g e an d w as t h e m o s t ,

n ot ic e a bl e i n fl u e n c e i n d e v e l opi n g t h e p oe ti c q u alit ie s of
K e at s as s h ow n i n hi s l as t v ol u m e
,
.

’
Th e thir d p e r i od i n clud e s Lam b s c r itici s m s o f li fe which ,

a r e g ath e r e d t og e th e r i n h i s E s s ay s o f E li i
a
( 1 8 2 an d h s

E l i p i
’

Es sa y s of L a s t s s ay s f
o E a which w e r e l b l
, i s h e d t e n
El ia ar s l a t e r T h e s e fam ou s e s s a s b e gan i n 1 82 0
y e .
y
with t he app e aran c e of t h e n e w L on d on M ag a zi n e an d 1
,

w e r e c on ti n u e d for m an y y e ar s s u ch s u bj e ct s as t h e D i s s e r
,
~

” ” “
t at i on on R oa s t Pi g Ol d Chi n a , Pra i s e of Chi m n e y ,

” “ “ ”
S we e p e r s I m p e r fe ct S y m p athi e s
, A Ch apt e r on Ear s , ,

Mr s B attl e s O pi n i on s o n Whi s t ”
Mac ke r y En d ”
’
. , G r ac e ,

B e for e M e at
” “
D r e am C hild r e n
,
an d m an
y o th e r s b e i n g
,

ch o s e n app ar e n tl y at r an d om b u t al l l e adi n g t o a d e light fu l

,

i n t e r p r e t ati on of t h e li fe of L on d on a s it app e are d t o a q u i e t ,

littl e m an w h o walk e d u n n otic e d th r ou g h i t s c rowd e d s t r e e t s .

I n t h e fi r s t an d l a s t e s s ay s wh ich w e h av e m e n ti on e d D is ,
” ”
s e rt at i on on R oa s t Pi g an d D r e am Child r e n w e h av e t h e ,
’
e xt r e m e s of Lam b s hu m or an d p a th o s .

Th e s t y l e of all th e s e e s s ay s i s g e n tl e old fa s hi on e d i rr e ,
-
,

s i s t i b ly att r a ctiv e L am b w a s e s p e ci all y fon d of Old w r it e r s

. ,

an d b o r ro w e d u n c o n s ci o u s l
y fr om t h e s t l e of B u r
y
Lam b s S ty l
’
e
t on s An a tomy of M e l a n ckoly an d from B row n e s
’ ’

R e l i gi o M e d i c i an d fr om t h e e ar ly En g li s h d ram ati s t s B u t .

thi s s t y l e had b e c om e a p ar t of Lam b b y l on g re a di n g an d ,

1 I n the fi t rs e s sa y ,
”
The S ou th S e a H ou s e , La m b a ss u m e d a s a o e t he n a m e of a j k
f or m e r l k E li
c er ,
a. ll i
O the r e s s ay s fo ow e d , a n d th e n a m e w a s r e ta n e d w he n se e ra s u c v l
ce s s fu l e s s ay s w e re p uli
b s h e d i n b o o f or k
m ,
i n 1 82
3 . I n t he se e s sa s E a
”
i s L am b y li
i
h m se lf, an d Cou s i B i dge t i
n r
”
s hi s i
s ste r Mary .
 TH E AGE O F R OMANTI CI SM 43 1

h e w as ppar e n tl y u n abl e t o e xp r e s s hi s n e w th ought with ou t

a
“

u s i n g th e i r ol d q u ai n t e xp r e s s i on s Th ou g h th e s e e s s ay s are
.

a l l c r itici s m s o r app r e ci ati on s of t h e li fe o f hi s ag e th e y ar e ,

all i n t e n s e l y p e r s on al I n oth e r w or d s th e y ar e an e xc e ll e n t
. ,

pict u r e of La m b an d of h u m an it y W ith o u t a t r ac e of van it y

.

or s e l f a s s e r ti on
-
Lam b b e gi n s with hi m se l f with s om e pu r e ly
, ,

p e r s on al m ood or e xp e r i e n c e an d from t hi s he l e ad s t h e re ad e r
,

t o s e e li fe a n d lit e rat u r e as h e s aw it I t i s thi s w on d e r ful

.

c om bin ati on of p e r s on al an d u n iv e r s al i n t e r e s t s t og e th e r with ,

Lam b s r ar e ol d s t y l e an d q u ai n t h u m or which m a k e t h e
’

e s say s r e m ar k abl e T h e y c on ti n u e t h e b e s t t raditi on of A ddi

.

s on a n d S t e e l e ou r fi r s t g r e a t e s s ayi s t s
,
b u t th e i r s y m p athi e s
ar e b r oad e r an d d e e p e r an d t h e ir hu m or m or e d e lici ou s th a n
, ,

an
y which p r e c e d e d th e m .

T H O M AS Q DE Y 8
( 7 5
1 — 1 8
U I N CE 5 9)
I n D e Q ui n c e y t h e r om an tic e l e m e n t i s e v e n m o r e s t ron gl y
d e v e l op e d th an i n Lam b n ot on ly i n hi s c r itica l w or k b u t
, ,

al s o i n h i s e r ra ti c an d i m a gi n ativ e li fe H e w as p r ofo u n dl y.

e d u c at e d e v e n m o r e s o th an Col e r id g e
, an d w as on e of t h e ,

k e e n e s t i n t e ll e ct s of t h e ag e ; y e t h i s w on d e r fu l i n t e ll e ct
s e e m s a lw a s s u b or di n at e t o hi s p as s i on for d r e am i n g L ik
y e .

La m b h e w as a fr i e n d an d a s s o ciat e of t h e Lak e p oe t s m ak
, ,

i n g h i s h e adq u ar t e r s i n Wor d s w o r th s Old c ott ag e at G ra s

’

m e r e for n e ar l y tw e n t y y e ar s H e r e t h e r e s e m bl an c e c e as e s
.
,

an d a m ar k e d c o n t r as t b e g i n s A s a m an Lam b i s t h e m o s t
.
,

h u m an an d l ov abl e o f al l ou r e s s ay i s t s whil e D e Q u in c e y i s
t h e m os t u n c an n y an d i n c om p r e h e n s ibl e L am b s m od e s t
’
.

w or k s b r e ath e t he t w o e s s e n ti al q u aliti e s of s y m p ath y an d

hu m or ; th e gr e at e r n u m b e r of D e Q u in c e y s e s s ay s whil e ’

p os se s s i n g m or e or l e s s of b oth th e s e qu aliti e s ar e ch ara ct e r ,

i ze d chi e fl y b y t h e i r b r illi an t s ty l e Li fe as s e e n th r ou gh
.
,

D e Q u i n c e y s e y e s i s n e b u l ou s an d chaotic an d th e r e i s a
’

, ,

s u s pici on of t h e fab u l ou s i n al l th at h e w r o t e E v e n i n Tb e .

R e vol t of tko Ta r ta r s t h e r om an tic e l e m e n t i s u pp e r m os t an d ,

43 2 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

’
i n m uch Q ofui D
n ce
y s p ros e t h e e l e m e n t o f u n r e alit i
e
y s

m or e n otic e abl e th an i n S h e ll e y s p o e t ry O f h i s s u bj e ct
’
.

m att e r h i s fac t s id e as an d c r itici s m s w e ar e g e n e r all y s u s

, , , ,

i i b u t of h i s s t l e s om e ti m e s s t a t e l a n d s om e ti m e s
p c ou s y y ,

h e adl on g n ow g or ge ou s a s an Or i e n t al d r e a m n ow m u s ical
, ,

a s K e at s s E n dy m i on an d a lwa s e n i n t h e m o s t vi ol e n t
’

y e v , ,

c on t ras t s s h owi n g a h ar m on y b e tw e e n t h e ide a an d t h e e x

,

p re s s i on s u ch a s n o oth e r En g li s h w r it e r with t h e p os s ibl e ,

e xc e pti on o f N e w m an h a s e v e r r iv al e d ,sa
y wh at
y ou will ,
-

’
o f t h e m ar v e l o u s b r illi an c of D e Q u i n c e s st l e o u h av e
y y y y ,

s till on l y h a l f e xp r e s s e d t h e t ru th I t i s t h e st y l e al on e which .

m ak e s th e s e e s s ay s i m m o r t a l .

Life . D e Qu in c e y w as b o rn in Man c h e s te r in 1 785 . In ne i th e r

h i s fath e r , w h o w as a p r o s p e r o u s m e rc han t , n or hi s m oth e r , w h o w as
a qu i e t ,
y m p ath e ti c w om an d o w e s e e an y s u gge s ti on of th e s on s
un s ,
’

al m o s t u n c an n y ge n i u s As a c hil d h e w as gi v e n to d r e am s m ore
. ,

vi v id an d i n t e n s e b u t l e s s b e au tifu l t han thos e of th e you n g Bl ake ,

t o w hom h e b e a rs a s t ron g r e se m bl an c e I n t h e gram m ar s c h ool at .

Bath h e d i sp l ay e d as t on i s h in g abili ty an d ac qu i r e d G r e e k an d La ti n ,

w i th a rap id i t y t h at fri gh t e n e d h i s sl ow tu t ors At fi ft e e n h e n o t .

on ly r e ad G r e e k b u t sp ok e i t fl u e n tly ; an d on e of h i s a stou n d e d
,

t e ac h e r s r e m ark e d Tha t b oy c ou l d h aran gu e an At h e n i an m ob

,
”
b e tt e r than y ou or I c ou l d add re ss an En gli sh on e Fr om th e gram .

m a r sc h oo l a t M an c h e s t e r w h i th e r h e w as s e n t i n 1 80 0 h e so on ran
, ,

aw a y , fi n d in g t he i n st ru c t i on far b e l ow h i s abili ti e s an d th e rou gh ,

life ab solu t e ly in tol e rabl e t o hi s s e n si ti v e n atu re An u n c l e j u s t .

,

h om e from I n d i a i n t e rc e d e d for t h e b oy l e s t h e b e s e n t ba c k t o the

,

s c h oo l w h i c h h e hat e d ; an d w i t h an all ow an c e of a gu i n e a a w e e k
,

h e s tart e d a c a r e e r of v agran c y m u c h like tha t of G ol d s m i th li v in g

, ,

o n t h e o p e n h ill s i n t h e h u ts of s h e h e rd s an d c h arc oal b u rn e r s i n

, p ,

t h e t e n t s o f gy p s i e s w h e r e v e r fan c y l e d h i m
, H i s fe ar of t h e Man .

c h e s t e r sc hoo l fi n al l l d h i m t o w t L d o w h e e w i th
y e r u n a ay o o n n r , ,

ou t m on e y o r fri e n d s h i s life w as e v e n m or e e x t rao rd i n ary t han hi s

,

y
g p s y w a n d e ri n gs T he d e tai l s of t hi s vagran c y are b e s t l e arn e d i n
.

h i s Conf e ss i on s of an E ng l i s k Op i u m E M ” -
,
w he re we meet n ot

sim ply t he fac ts of hi s life , b ut l

a so the c on fu s on i of d r e am s an d

fan c i e s i n t he m id st of w h i c h h e w an d e r e d like a m an l o s t on the

m o u n t a i n s , w i th s to r m l
c ou d s un de r hi s fe e t h id in g the fam iliar
4 34 ENG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

fam ily to Edin bu rgh, w h e r e h i s tic ge n iu s an d hi s s in gu larly

e rra

c h ild lik e w ay s p rod u c e d e n o u gh am u s i n g an e c d o t e s t o fil l a vo l u m e .

H e w ou ld t ak e a room i n som e p lac e u n kn ow n to hi s fr i e n d s an d

fam il y ; w ou ld liv e i n i t for a fe w y e ars u n til h e had fill e d it e ve n
, ,

to t h e b at h t u b w ith b ooks an d w ith hi s ow n c h aot i c m an u sc ri p ts

, ,

all ow i n g n o on e to e n t e r o r di s tu rb hi s d e n ; an d t h e n w h e n th e ,

p l ac e b e c a m e t oo c r o w d e d h e w ou ld l o c k t h e d oor an d
, g o aw a y an d
take an ot h e r l od gi n g w h e re h e r e p e at e d t h e sam e e x t ra ord in ary
,

p e r fo r m a n c e H. e d i e d i n Ed in bu rgh i n 1 85 9 Lik e L am b h e w as
.
,

a s m all ,
b oy i sh fi gu re ge n tl e an d e lab orat e ly c ou rte ou s Thou gh
, , . .

e x c e ss ive ly s hy an d e sc ap i n g a s O ft e n a s p oss ibl e t o s oli tu d e h e w as

, ,

n e v e rt h e l e s s fo n d Of soc i e t y an d h i s w i d e kn ow l e d ge an d vi v i d
,

i m agi n ati on m ad e h i s c on v e r sati on s al m ost as p ri ze d as t hose of h i s

fri e n d Col e rid ge .

Work s . DQ e i c e
y s w o
u nr k s m a
’

y b e divid e d i n t o t w o g e n

e ral cl a s s e s T he fi r s t i n cl u d e s h i s n u m e r ou s c r itic al ar ticl e s

.
,

an d t h e s e c on d h i s a u t o bi og r aphic al s k e tch e s A l l h i s w o rk s .
,

i t m u s t b e r e m e m b e r e d w e re c on t r ib u t e d t o v ar i ou s m aga
,

z i n e s an d w e r e h as til c oll e ct e d j u s t b e for e hi s d e ath H e n ce

, y .

t h e g e n e r al i m p r e s s i on of ch aos which w e g e t fr om r e adi n g

th e m .

F rom a lit e rary vi e w p oi n t t h e m os t illu m i n ati n g of D e

’
r itic al w o rk s i s h i s L i te ra ry R e i n i n i s e e n e e s T
Q ui n c e
y s c hi s .

Cr i ti cal c on t ai n s br illi an t app r e ci ati on s of Wor d s w or th Col e ,

E s say s
r id g e Lam b S h e ll e y K e at s H azlitt an d Lan d or
, , , , , ,

as w e ll as s om e i n t e r e s ti n g s t u di e s of t h e lit e r ar fi u r e s Of
y g
t h e ag e p r e c e di n g Am on g t h e b e s t of h i s b r illian t c r itic a l
.

e s s a s ar e On tne K n oc k i ng a t t/ze Ga t e i n M a c b e th 1 82
y
which i s ad m ir abl y s u it e d t o s h ow t he m an s c r itical g e n i u s ’

an d M u r d e r Con s i d e re d a s On e o f tk e F i n e A r ts which
r e v e al s h i s g r ot e s q u e h u m or Oth e r s u gg e s t iv e c r itic al w or k s
. ,

i f on e m u s t ch oos e am on g s u ch a m u ltit u d e ar e h i s L e t te rs to ,

a You n
g M an j oa n f
o A rt Tn e R e v o l t of t n e

Ta r ta r s an d Tne E ng l i s h M a i l Coacft - I n t he
l as t n am e d e s s ay t he D r e am F u gu e i s on e of t h e m os t
-

im agin ative Of all hi s cu r i ou s w or ks .

 TH E AGE O F R OMANT I C I SM 43 5

Of D Q
’
e ui n c e
y s au o t bi ographic al s k e t ch e s
b e s t k n ow n t he
i s hi s Conf e s s i on s of a n E ng l i s /t Op i u m E a te r ( 1 82 I ) T hi s i s -
.

on l p ar tl a r e c or d o f o pi u m d r e am s a n d i t s chi e f
Conf e s s i on s y y ,

of an Op i u m in t e r e s t li e s i n g li m p s e s it g iv e s u s of D e Q u i n c e y s ’

Eat e r e t c
o w n li fe an d w an d e r i n g s Thi s s h ould b e fo ll owe d
'
’
.

b y S n sp i r i a d e P rof i t n d i s which i s chi e fl y a r e c or d of

l m d t ibl d r e am s p r oduc e d b pi t T h m t
g o o
y a n e r r e
y o a e s e os .

i n t e r e s ti n g p ar t s Of hi s S n sp i r i a s h owi n g D e Q u i n c e y s m ar ,
’

v e l ou s i n s i g ht i n t o d r e am s ar e th os e i n which w e ar e b r ou g ht,
" ”
fac e t o fa c e with t h e s t r an g e f e m i n i n e c re ati on s L e van a ,

Mad on n a ” ”
, Ou r Lad y of S i g h s an d O u r Lad y of D ar k,

n e ss . A s e r i e s of n e ar l y thi r t y ar ticl e s which h e c oll e ct e d i n

1 8 5 3 c all e d A n tooi og r ap ni c S ke tc/t e s c om pl e t e s t h e r e v e l ati on
, ,

of t h e au th or s ow n li fe Am on g h i s m i s c e ll an e o u s w or k s m ay
’
.

b e m e n ti on e d i n or d e r t o s h ow hi s wid e r an ge of s u bj e ct s
, ,

K l os te rne i i n a n ov e l L og i c of P ol i t i ca l E con omy t h e E s s ay s

, , ,

on S ty l e a n d R ne tor i c P k i l os op n H e r od otu s d h i t i
y fo ,
an s a r ,

cl e s o n G oe th e Pop e S chill e r an d S h ak e s p e ar e which he

, , ,

c on t r ib u t e d t o t h e E n cy c l op e d i a B r i ta n n i ca .

’
D e Q u i n c e y s s ty l e i s a r e v e l ati on o f t h e b e au t y o f t h e
E n gli s h l an g u a ge an d it p r ofou n dl y i n fl u e n c e d R u s ki n an d
V
,

Th e S t y le of oth e r p r o s e w r it e r s o f t h e ict or i an Ag e I t has t w o .

D e Qumce y chi e f fault s — di ffu s e n e s s which c on ti n ually l e ad s

, ,

D e Q u i n c e y aw ay fr om h i s Obj e ct an d t r ivi alit y which Oft e n , ,

m a k e s h i m h a lt i n t h e m id s t Of a m ar v e l ou s p aragra ph t o
m ak e s om e li ght j e s t or wittici s m th a t h a s s om e h u m or but
n o m i r th i n it N otwith s t an di n g th e s e fa u lt s D e Q ui n c e y s
’
. ,

p r os e i s s till am o n g t h e fe w s u p r e m e e x am pl e s of s t y l e i n o u r
l an g u age Th ou g h h e w as p rofou n dly i n fl u e n c e d b y t h e s e v e n
.

t e e n t h c e n t u r y w r it e rs h e att e m pt e d d e fi n it e l
-
t o c r e at e a
, y
n e w s t l e which s h ou ld c om bi n e t h e b e s t e l e m e n t s of p ro s e
y
an d p oe t r I n c on s e qu e n c e hi s p r o s e w or k s a r e o ft e n lik
y .
, e ,

th o s e of Milt on m or e i m ag i n ativ e an d m e l odi ou s th an m u ch

,

of ou r p o e t r H e h as b e e n w e ll c all e d t h p s ch ol og i s t of
y . e y
”
s t le
y , a n d as s uch h i s wo r k s will n e v e r b e p o pu l ar ; but t o
43 6 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

t h e fe w w h o c an pp r e ci at e him h e will alway s b e an i n s p i

a

r ati on t o b e tt e r w r iti n O n e h as a d e e p e r r e s p e ct fo r o u r
g .

E n g li s h l an g u ag e an d lit e ra t u r e aft e r r e adi n g h i m .

S e con dar y Wr it e r s of R o m an t i ci s m O n e h as on l y t o g l an c e .

b ack ov e r th e auth or s w e h av e b e e n s t u d y i n g — Wor d s w or th ,

Col e r id g e S ou th e y B y r on S h e ll e y K e at s S c ott Lam b D e

, , , , , , ,

Q u i n ce
y t o —
r e a li ze t h e g r e a t ch an g e which s w e pt o v e r

t h e li fe an d lit e r at u r e Of E n gl an d i n a s i n g l e h al f c e n t u ry ,

u n d e r t w o i n fl u e n c e s which w e n ow k n ow as t h e Fr e n ch
R e v ol u ti on i n hi s t or y an d t h e R om an ti c Mov e m e n t i n lit e ra
t u re I n life m e n had r e b e ll e d agai n s t t h e t oo s t r ict a u th or it y
.

Of s t at e an d s o ci e t ; i lit t th b e ll e d e v e n m r e
y n e r a u r e e
y r e o

vi gor ou s l y ag ai n s t t h e b on d s of cl as s ici s m which h ad s t e rn l y ,

r e p r e s s e d a w r it e r s am biti on t o foll ow h i s ow n id e al s an d t o
’

e xp r e s s th e m i n h i s o w n w a
y N at u rall y s u ch an age of r e v o
.

l u t i on w as e s s e n ti ally p oe tic on l t h e E li za b e th an Ag e s u r
y ,

p as s e s i t i n thi s r e s p e ct an d it p r od u c e d a l ar g e n u m b e r of
,
—

m i n or w r it e rs w h o foll ow e d m or e or l e s s cl os e l y t h e e x am pl e
,

o f i t s gr e at l e ad e r s A m o n g n ov e li s t s w e h av e J an e A u s t e n
.
,

F ran c e s B u r n e y Mar i a Ed g e w or th J an e Por t e r an d S u s an

, , ,

F e r ri e r ,al l w om e n b e it n o t e d , a m on g t h e p o e t s C am pb e ll , ,

Moo r e H ogg t h e Ett rick

, Mr s H e m an s H e b e r .
, ,

K e bl e H ood an d I n g old s by ( R ich ar d B ar h am ) ; an d am on g

, ,

m i s c e ll a n e o u s w r it e r s S i d n e y S m ith , C h ri s t oph e r N or th ,

( J oh n W il s on
) C h al m e r s
,
L o ckh ar t L e ig h H u n t
,
H azlitt , , ,

H all am an d , Lan d or H e r e i s an a s t on i s hi n g v ar i e t y of
.

w r it e r s an d t o c on s id e r al l th e i r cl ai m s t o r e m e m b ran c e
,

w o u ld of it s e l f r e q u i r e a v ol u m e Th ou gh th e s e ar e g e n e rall y .

cl as s e d a s s e c on d ary w r it e r s m uch Of th e i r w or k ha s cl ai m s ,

Moor e s I r i s /t ’
t o p op u l ar it y a n d s om e of it t o p e rm an e n c e
,
.

M e l od i e s Cam pb e ll s l y r ic s K e b l e s C/t r i s ti a n Ye a r an d J an e
,
’

,
’

Por t e r s Tna dd e n s of Wa r s a w an d S cotti s n Cni ef s h av e s till

’

a m u ltit u d e of r e ad e r s wh e r e K e a t s L am b an d D e Q u i n c e y
, , ,
’
a re p r i ze d on l b t h e c u ltu re d fe w ; a n d H all am s hi s t or ic al
y y
a n d c r iti c al w or k s ar e p e r h ap s b e tt e r k n ow n th an th os e of
438 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

he r i n fl u e n c e th at a m u ltit u d e of r e a d e r s w e r e re ady t o ap p r e
ciat e Mr s Gask e ll s Cra nf or d
.
’

, an d t h e p ow e rfu l an d e n d u r i n g
w or k of G e or ge E liot .

Li fe . J an e Au st e n life give s littl e

’
s op p ortun i ty for the biograp he r ,

l
u n e ss , p e rc h an c e , h e has s om e thin g of he r o wn p o w e r to S how the
b e au ty an d c harm of c o m m on p l ac e
in gs S he w as t h e s e ve n th th .

c h ild of R e v G e o rge . Au st e n r e c tor of S te ve n ton an d w as b orn i n

, ,

t he p ars on age of t h e v i ll age i n 1 775 With h e r si ste rs sh e w as e d u .

c at e d a t ho m e an d p ass e d h e r li fe v e ry qu i e tly c h e e rfu lly

, ,
i n the , ,

d o i n g of sm all d om e s t i c d u ti e s t o w h i c h l ov e l e n t th e m agi c l am p
,

t h at m ake s al l t h i n gs b e au t i fu l S h e b e gan t o w ri t e a t an e arly age

.
,

an d s e e m s t o ha v e d on e h e r w ork on a li ttl e t abl e i n t h e fam ily s i t

t i n g r oom i n th e m id s t Of th e fam ily li fe

,
Whe n a vi sitor e n t e re d . ,

s h e w ou l d t h row a p ap e r o r a p i e c e of s e w i n g ov e r h er w o rk an d ,

s he m o d e s tl y r e fu s e d t o b e kn ow n a s th e au tho r o f n ov e l s w h i c h w e

n ow c o u n t am on g ou r t r e asu r e d p os s e ss i on s Wi th th e p u bli sh e r s .

s h e had li ttl e su c c e s s P r i de a n d P r ej u di ce w e n t b e ggin g as w e

. ,

hav e s aid for s i x t e e n y e ars ; an d N or tna ng e r Al l ey ( 1 79 8) w as

,

sol d fo r a t r iv i al su m t o a p u bli s h e r w h o l ai d i t a s i d e an d forgot i t , ,

u n t il t h e a p p e aran c e an d m o d e ra t e s u c c e ss o f S e n s e a n d S e n s i b i l i ty

in 1 8 1 I Th e n aft e r k e e p i n g t h e m an u sc r i p t s om e fift e e n y e ar s h e
.
, ,

s ol d i t b ac k to t h e fam ily w h o fou n d an o t h e r p u bli sh e r

, .

An an on y m ou s a r ti c l e i n t h e Qu a r te r ly R e vi e w foll ow i n g th e ,

ap p e aran c e o f E m m a i n 1 8 1 5 fu ll o f ge n e rou s ap p r e c i ati on o f t h e

,

c harm o f t h e n e w w r i t e r w as t h e b e gi n n i n g O f J an e Au s te n s fam e ;
’
,

an d i t i s on l y w it hi n a fe w y e ar s t h at w e hav e l e arn e d t ha t t he

fri e n d ly an d di sc e rn i n g c r i ti c w as Wal te r S c o tt H e c on t i n u e d t o b e .

h e r ad m i r e r u n t i l h e r e arly d e at h b u t t he s e t w o t h e gr e a t e st w r i t e rs ,

of fi c t i on i n t h e i r age w e re n e v e r b r ou gh t t oge t he r
,
B ot h w e r e .

h om e l o v i n g p e op l e an d Mi s s Au s t e n e sp e c i ally w a s av e rse t o p u b
-
,

l i c i ty an d p op u l ari t y S h e d i e d q u i e tly as s h e h ad live d at Wi n

. , ,
~

c h e s t e r i n 1 8 1 7 an d w a s b u r i e d i n t h e c a t h e d ral
, , S h e w as a b ri gh t . ,

a ttrac ti v e li ttl e w om an w hos e su n n y qu ali ti e s are u n c on sc i ou sly r e

,

fl e c t e d i n all h e r b ooks .

Work s . Vy er fe w En g li s h
w r it e r s e v e r had s o n arrow a
fi e ld of w or k as J an e A u s t e n Lik e t h e F r e n ch n ov e li s t s . ,

wh o s e s u cc e s s se e m s t o l i e i n ch oos i n g t h e ti n y fi e ld th at
th e y kn ow b e s t he r w or k s h av e an e xq u i s it e p e r fe cti on th at
,
 TH E AGE O F R OMANTI C I SM 4 39

is la cki n g i n m os t of o u r w r it e r s of fi cti on With t he e xce p .

ti on of an o ccas ion al vi s it t o t h e wat e r i n g pl a c e of B ath h e r ,

wh ol e li fe w a s s p e n t i n s m all c ou n t ry p ar i s h e s w hos e s i m pl e ,

c ou n t ry p e opl e b e cam e t h e ch ara ct e r s of h e r n ov e l s H e r .

b roth e r s w e re i n t h e n avy an d s o n aval offic e r s fu rn i s h t he

,

on l y e xcit i n g e l e m e n t s i n h e r s t or i e s ; b u t e v e n th e s e all e ge d

h e r oe s lay as id e th e i r i m p os i n g m ar tial way s an d ac t lik e th e m

s e lv e s an d oth e r p e opl e S uch w as h e r lit e r ary fi e ld i n which
. ,

t h e chi e f d u ti e s w e r e of t h e h ou s e h old t h e chi e f pl e as u re s i n

,

c ou n t ry g ath e ri n g s an d t he chi e f i n t e r e s t s i n m at r i m on y
, .

Li fe with i t s m i g ht y i n t e r e s t s i t s p as s i on s am biti on s an d
, , , ,

t rag ic s t r u g g l e s s w e pt b y lik e a g r e at r ive r ; whil e t h e s e

,

cl u d e d i n t e r e s t s o f a c ou n t ry p ar i s h w e n t r o u n d an d r ou n d
q u i e tly lik e an e dd y b e hi n d a s h e lt e r i n g r o ck We c an e as il y
, .

u n d e r s t an d th e re for e t he li m it at i on s of J an e A u s t e n ; b u t
, ,

withi n h e r ow n fi e ld s h e i s u n e q u al e d H e r ch ar a ct e r s ar e
.

a b s ol u t e l t r u e t o li fe an d al l h e r w or k h as t h e p e r fe cti on of
y ,

a d e lic at e m i n i at u r e p ai n t i n g T h e m os t wid e l y r e a d of h e r
.

n ov e l s i s P r i d e a n d P r e u d i ce ; b u t th r e e o th e r s S e n s e a n d
j ,

S e ns i bi l i ty E m m a an d M a n sfie l d P a r k h av e s l owly w on
, , ,

th e i r w ay t o t h e fr on t r an k of fi cti on F r om a lit e rar y vi e w

.

p o in t N or tb a ng e r A b bey i s p e r h ap s t h e b e s t fo r i n it w e fin d
th at t ou ch of h u m or an d d e licat e s atir e with which thi s g e n tl e
littl e w om an c om b at e d t he gr ot e s q u e p op u l ar n ov e l s of t h e
U d olp b o t y p e .R e adi n g a n y o f t h e s e w or k s on e i s i n cli n e d t o
,

a c c e pt t h e h e ar t i n d or s e m e n t of S i r Walt e r S c ott : T h t
y a

y ou n
g l ad y h as a t a l e n t f or d e s c r ibi n g t h e i n v o lv e m e n t s a n d
fe e li n g s an d ch ara ct e r s of or di n ar y li fe which i s t o m e t h e
m os t w on d e r fu l I e v e r m e t with Th e b i g b oww ow s t ra i n I
.

c an d o m s e l f lik e an n ow g o i n g ; but t h e e xqui s it e t ou ch

y , y
which r e n d e r s or di n ary c om m on pl ac e thi n g s an d ch ara ct e r s
i n t e re s ti n g fr om t he t r uth of t he d e s cr ipti on an d t h e s e n ti
m e n t i s d e n ie d t o m e
, What a pit y s uch a gif t e d cr e a t u r e
.

”
die d so e ar ly !
44 0 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

WA L T E R S AV
AGE L AN D O R ( 1 775 — 1 86 4 )

Whil e Q
H azlitt , Lam b , D e
i c e
y a n d o th e r ro m an tic
u nc r it ,

i c s w e n t b ack t o e ar ly E n g li s h lit e rat u r e for th e i r i n s pi ra ti on ,

Lan d or s h ow s a r e acti on fr om t h e p re vaili n g R om an tici s m b y

h i s i m it ati on Of t h e an ci e n t cl as si c w r it e r s H i s li fe w as an .

e xt r aor di n ar on e an d lik e h i s w ork a b o u n d e d I n s h ar p c on

y , ,

t ra s t s On t h e o n e h an d th e r e ar e h i s e g oi s m h i s u n c on t r o l
.
, ,

l abl e an ge r h i s p e r p e t u al l aw s u it s an d t he l as t s ad t rag e dy
, ,

with hi s child r e n which s u g ge s t s K i ng L e a r an d h i s dau g h

,

t e r s ; on t h e oth e r h an d th e r e i s h i s s t e ad y d e v oti on t o t h e
cl as s ic s an d t o t h e c u lt ivati on of t h e d e e p wi s d om of th e
a n ci e n t s which s u g g e s t s Pi n d a r a n d C ic e r o
, I n h i s w or k s w e .

fin d t h e wild e xt r av agan c e of Ge b i r foll ow e d b y t h e s u p e r b ,

cl as s ic s t yl e an d ch ar m of P e r i c l e s a n d Asp a s i a S u ch w as .

Lan d o r a m an of hi g h id e al s p e r p e t u all y at w a r with hi m s e l f

, ,

a n d t h e w o r ld .

Li fe . Lan d or y li fe c ove rs th e w hol e p e ri od from Wo rd s

’
s s tor m

w o r t h s c h il d h ood t o t h e m idd l e of t h e V i c torian Era H e w as t h e

’
.

s on O f a p h y s i c i an an d w as b o rn at Wa rw i c k
, i n 1 775 F ro m h i s , .

m oth e r h e i n h e r i t e d a for tu n e ; b u t i t w as s oon s c a t t e r e d b y l arge

e x p e n di t u r e s an d l aw q u arr e l s ; an d i n h i s O l d a ge r e fu s e d h e l p by ,

h i s own c h ild re n on ly B ro w n i n g s ge n e ros i ty k e p t Lan d or from

’
,

ac tu al w an t At R u gby an d at O x ford hi s e x t re m e R e p u bli c an

.
, ,

i sm b rou ght hi m in t o c on s tan t t rou bl e ; an d hi s fi tt i n g ou t a b an d

o f v o l un te e r s t o a ss i s t t h e S p an i ard s again s t Na p ol e on i n 1 80 8 , ,

al li e s hi m w i th B y ro n an d hi s Q u i x o t i c fo ll ow e rs The r e s e m bl an c e .

to B y ron i s e v e n m or e s t r iki n gl y S h ow n i n t h e p o e m Ge b i r p u b ,

l i sh e d i n 1 79 8 a y e ar m ad e fam ou s b y t h e Ly r i ca l B a l l a ds of
'

Word sw or th an d Col e rid ge .

A re m arkabl e c han ge i n Lan d or s life i s n oti c e abl e i n 1 82 I w h e n

’
, ,

a t fort y s i x y e ars of age

-
afte r hav i n g l o s t h i s m agn ifi c e n t e s t at e o f
,

Ll an th on y Abb e y i n G l am organ sh i r e an d aft e r a s to rm y e x p e r i e n c e

, ,

i n Co m o h e s e ttl e d d ow n fo r a t i m e a t Fi e s ol e n e ar Fl or e n c e To
,
.

th i s p e ri od Of c al m aft e r s torm w e ow e t h e c l as si c al p ros e w orks for

w hi c h h e i s fam ou s Th e c al m like t hat at t h e c e n t e r of a w hi rl
. ,

w in d l ast e d b u t a s hort t i m e an d Lan d or l e avin g hi s fam ily in

, .
, ,.
.
 44 2 EN G LI S H L I T E R ATU R E

!E s op with a y ou n g s l av e g i r l i n Egy pt H e n ry I I I with , V

An n e B ol e y n i n p r i s on D an t e with B e at r ic e Le ofric with , ,

Lad y G odiva a l l th e s e a n d m an o th e r s f r om E pict t

y
, e u s ,

to Crom w e ll ar e b r ou g ht t oge th e r a n d s p e a k of li fe an d l ov e
,

a n d d e ath e a ch f ro m hi s o w n vi e w p o i n t
, O cc as i on ally a s i n .
,

t h e m e e tin g o f H e n r y an d A n n e B ol e y n t h e s it u ati on i s t e n s e ,

an d d ram a tic ; b u t as a r u l e t h e ch aract e r s s i m pl m e e t an d

y
c on v e r s e i n t h e s am e q u ie t s t ra i n which b e c om e s aft e r m uch , ,

re adi n g s om e wh at m on o t on o u s
, O n t h e oth e r h an d on e w ho .
,

r e a d s t h e I m ag i n a ry Con v e r s a ti on s i s li ft e d at on c e i n t o a
cal m an d n obl e at m o s ph e r e which b rac e s an d i n s pi re s hi m ,

m aki n g h im forg e t p e tt y thi n g s lik e a vi e w fr om a hillt op , .

B y i t s c om bi n ati on of l oft y th ou g ht an d s e v e r e ly c la s s i c s t y l e
'

t h e b ook has w on an d d e s e r v e s a v e ry hi gh pl a c e a m on g ou r
, ,

lit e rary r e c o rd s .

Th e s am e c r itici s m a ppli e s t o P e r i c l e s a n d Aspa s i a which ,

i s a s e r i e s of i m ag i n ary l e tt e r s t e lli n g t h e e xp e ri e n c e s of ,

A s pas i a a y ou n g l ad y fro m A s i a Mi n or w h o vi s it s A th e n s
, ,

a t t h e s u m m it o f i t s fam e a n d g l ory in t h e g r e a t ag e of Pe r i ,

c le s T hi s i s i n ou r j u d gm e n t t h e b e s t w ort h r e a di n g of all
. , ,
’
L an d or s w or k s O n e g e t s fr om it n ot on l y La n d or s cl as s ic
’
.

s t le
y b ut — wh
,
a t i s w e ll w o rth whil e — a b e tt e r pict u r e o f

Gr e e c e i n t h e d ay s of i t s g r e at n e s s th an c an b e obt ai n e d
.

f r om m an y hi s t oric al v ol u m e s .

S u m m ary of t h e Age of R om an t i ci s m . Th is i x
p e r o d e t e n d s f ro m t h e w a r
i
w th t h e l i f o ll w i g t h D c l a at i
c o on e s , o n e e r on o f I n d e p e n d e n c e , i n 1 776, t o t h e

a c c e s s io n f V i c t o i a i n 1 83 7 b t h li m i ts b i g v e ry i n d fi i t e as w ill b s e
o r , o e n e n , e e n

b y a g l c a t t h e C h r o l o gy f o ll o w i g D i n g t h e fi s t p art o f t h e p e i o d
an e on n . ur r r

e s p e c i a ll y En g la d w s i
, a c o ti
n l t m o il p ro d c e d b y p li t i c a l a d
a n n n ua ur , u o n

e c on o m i c a gi t a t i o n a t h o m e a d b t h e lo g w s t h at c o v e re d tw o c o t i n e n t s
y , n n ar n

a d th
n w i d e s e a b tw e e n t h e m
e Th m igh t y c h a g
e e s l t i g f om th e s e
. e n es r u n r

t w o c a s e s h v e g iv e
: u t h i s p e ri o d t h e n a m e o f t h Ag e
a n f R v o l ti Th e e o e u on .

s t o rm c e n t e r f al l t h t rm o il t h m e
O e d b o d w as t h e F e n c h R e v o l u
u a o an a r a r

ti on w h i ch h ad a p
, fo d i fl ce ro t h e li f a d li t e a t
un n e f al l E
ue n pe
on e n r ur o u ro .

O n t h e C on t i n e n t t h e o v e t h w f N p l e n a t W a t e l o ( 1 8 1 5 ) app a e t l y
'

r ro O a o o r o r n

c h e c k e d t h e p o gr es s o f li b e r t y w h i c h h a d s t art e d w i t h t h e F e n c h R e v o l t i on l
r , r u ,

i i
1 S e e h st or e s for t h e C on re s s
g of V
i enna ( 1 81 4 ) an d th e H o y l Allian ce
 T H E AGE O F R O MANT I C I S M 44 3

b u t i n En g la v e s e d Th e ag i t t i fo p p u l ar lib e rty w h i c h
n d th e c as e w as re r . a on r o ,

a t ti m
on e t hre at d a e v l ti
e w e t s t e a d il y f o rw a d t ill i t r e s l t d i n
ene r o u on , n r u e

t h e fi a l t ri m p h n f d e m o c ac y i t h R f o m B ill f 1 83 2
u o d in a mber
r , n e e r o , an nu

o f e x c e e d i g l y i m p rt t e f rm
n s c h as th e e xt si
o o f m a h oo d s ff
an r
g eo s, u e n on n u ra ,

t h e re m o v a l f t h e l t j t s t i c t i o s agai t C th o lic s t h e s tab lis h m n t

o as un us re r n ns a ,
e e

of a ti a l s ys t e m
na f s c h o l f ll w d b y a
on p i d i c e as e i n p op l a r e d c
o o s, o o e ra n r u u a!

t i on a d t h e ab o li t i o
, n o f s l av y i all E gli h c o l o i e s n T th i s w e er n n s n o .

m s t dd t h e c h a g e s p r d c d b y t h d i s c o v e ry f s t e m
u a n d th e i v e t i o
o u e e o a an n n n

o f m c hi y w h i c h p i d l y h g d E n gl d f ro m a ag i c l t a l t o a m a
a ne r , ra c an e an n r u ur nu e

fac t i g ur nti o i t o d e d t h e f c to y s ys t e m a d c a s e d t h i s p e i d t b e
na n, n r uc a r , n u r o o

k o w a t h e A g f I d t ri a l R e v o l t i o n
n n s e O n us u .

T h e li t a t re o f t h e a g i s l a g e l y p e t i c a l i
er u f rm a d a l m t e t i lye r o n o ,
n os n re

ro m ti c i
an sp i it F as w e h a v e
n t d th
r . t i m p h of d e m c r c y i
o r,
g v no e ,
e r u o a n o

e rnm e t i s g e e a ll y ac c m p
n i d b y t h t ri m p h f r m t i i s m i n li t t ;
n r o an e e u o o an c e r a u re

A t fi s t t h e li t e at e as s h o w e p e c i ll y i t h e e a l y w k f W o d s w th
r r ur , n s a n r or o r or ,

By o r a d S h e ll e y
n , e fl e c t e d th e t
n m il o f t h e ag e , d t h e w il d h p e s f a
r ur o an o o n

i d e l d m c ac y o c c as i e d b y t h F c h R e v o l t i
a e o r L a t e t h e x t a v ga t
on e re n u on . r e r a n

e th s i a m s b s i d e d
n u s d E g li h w i t u
p d d s m c h x c e ll e t li t a
, an n s r e rs ro uce o u e n er

tu re th t t h a
g i s ft e
a c ll d t h
e S d C e t iv e p e ri d t h fi t b i g
e o n a e e e c on r a o , e rs e n

t h e Ag O f E li z b e t h e The s i x c hi e f c h a a t e i s ti c o f t h e age a e
. t h e p e va rac r s r r

l e e f m a t i c p o e t y ; th c e at i
nc o ro n f t h h i s t i l n o v e l b y S c o tt ; t h e
r e r on o e or ca

fi t pp e
rs a c e of w m e aran o v e li t s s c h M s A e R a d c li ff J
o n n Po t e s ,
u as r . nn e , an e r r,

M i E d g e w o th a d J
ar a A st ; t h e d e v e l o p m n t O f li t e a y c i t i c i m i n
r , n an e u en e r r r s ,

th e w k o f Lam b D e Q i c y C o l i d ge a d H azli t t ; th e p rac t i c a l d

or , u n e ,
e r , n an

e c n m i c b e n t o f p h il s o p h y a s s h o w
o o i th e w o k f M l t h s J a m e s Mill
o , n n r o a u , ,

an d Ad am S m i t h ; a d t h e e t ab li s h m e t o f g e a t li t e a y m g zi e s lik e
n s n r r r a a n ,

t h e E di n bu rg b R e v i e w , t h e Q a ck w ood s , a n d t h e A tb e n a u m .
ly
’
, B l u a r te r ’

I n ou r s tu d y v
w e h a e n o t e d ( I ) th e Po e t s O f R o m an t c s m : t h e
. m por i i i
t an c e o f th e Ly r i ca l B a lla d s O f 1 798 ; t h e f e an d w o r o f W o rd s w o rth ; li k
Co le i r d ge , S c o t t , B ro n , S h e e , a n d K e a t s ; ( 2 ) t h e Pr o s e Wr t e rs : t h e
y ll y i
no v l e s of S c o tt ; th e d e ve l op m e n t of li t e ra r y cr itic i sm ; th e li f e an d w or k of

t h e e s sa yi s t s , La m b , D e Q u in c e y ,
La n d o r, an d o f th e n o v e li s t J an e Au s t e n .

S e l e ct i on s for R e a d i n g . Man l y ’
s En g li sh Po e t r y an d Man l y ’
s En g li h s

P ro s e ( e ac h on e v ol . ) c on ta i n
go o d l
s e e c t on s i fro m all a u t h o rs s tu di d e .

W a rd s ’
En g li s h Po e t s (4 C ra ik ’
s En g li sh Pr o s e S e l e ti c on s
(5
i
B ra t h w a t e i ’
s T h e B oo k of G e o rg i a n V e rs e Pa g e
’
s Br t i is h Po e t s of th e N i ne

Vi
,

te e n th C e n tu r y ,
an d C a rn e tt
’
s En g li s h Pro s e f ro m E li z ab e th t o c to r a , i m ay
l
a so be use d to ad v
l d b e re ad n t i e
an tag e . I m p o rt a n t w o r s , h o w e k v e r, s h o u e r

i o e of the i
n n x p s iv e l ii ivne
( F ll t i t
en l es a d p b s c h oo e d t on s g en be l w
o . u n u

li h s m y b e f o
s er d i t h G e e l B i b li g ap h y a t t h e e d f t h i s b
a un n k) e n ra o r n o oo .

Wor d w tb I t i m a t i on s o f I m m ta li ty T i t e
s or . Ab b e y b e s t l y i c s a d
n or , n rn ,
r n

son n e ts i S e l e c ti s
, d i t e d b y D w d e ( At h e
n m P s S on i ) ; le c ti s
, e o n n ae u re s er es se on

a d h
n t p em
s e d it d b
or M o A l d i n G ld T s, ry S i eS l t i s rn o o en r e as u er es e ec on
y . , ,

al s o i Ev e ry m an s Li b ra y R iv e rs i d e L i t e rat e S e i e s C a s s e ll s N at i al
’ ’
n r , ur r , on

Lib ary e tcr , .

444 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Col e r i dg e . An c i e n t Mari n e r
d t e d b y L R . G b b s , i n S tan d a rd En g sh , e i . i li
l i
C as s c s ; s am e p o e m , i n P oc e t C as s cs , E c e c t c E n gl s h C as s c s , e tc . ; k l i l i i l i
i
Po e m s , e d t e d b y . M . H ar t , i n At h e n m u m Pre s s ( an n o u n c e d , J Se ec l
t io ns, Go l d e n B o l e ri dge i n E v e ry m an s Lib ra ry ; S e l e c t i s f o m
ok of Co ,
’
on r

C o l ri d ge a d C a m p b e ll i R iv e s i d e Li t e a t
e n ; Pro s e S e l e c t i o s ( Gi , a dn r r u re n nn n

C m p a y a l s o H l t ) ; Le c t r e s o S h k e s p e are i n E v y m a s Lib ry
’
o n , o u n a , er n ra ,

B o h s S t a d d Li b a y e tc
’
u n ar r r , .

S tt L a d y f t h e L k e Marm i on I v a h o e Th e T lis m a
co . o G y Ma e , , n , a n , u an n r

i g Q e n t i D rwa rd N m e r o s i xp e iv e e d i t i o s of S c tt s b e s t p o e m s ’
n , u n u . u u ne ns n o

a d n ve l i S t a d a d E n g li s h C l as s i c s P c k e t C l s s i c s C a s e ll s N a t i n l
’
n o s n n r , o a , s o a

Lib ry E c l e c t i c E g li s h C l a s i s E v ry m n s Lib y e t c ; t h s La d y o f ’
ra ,
n s c , e a ra r , . u ,

t h e Lak e e d i t d b y Ed w i n Gi , a d I va h e
e d i te d b y W D L w i b th nn, n n o , e . . e s, o

i
n S t a d d E gli s h C l s s i c s ; Ma m i
n ar ne dit d b
y G B A ct a d Th e
a r on , e . . on , n

Ta li s m e d it e d b y F T
an , d l y i Po c k t C l a s i c s tc . re u , n e s ,
e .

By M ze p p a a d Th e Pr i s o e r o f C h ill o e d i t e d b y S M T k e r i n
r on . a n n n, . . uc ,

S ta d d E gli h C l as i cs ; s h t p
n ar n m s S e l c ti
s s f m C h il d H a o l d e t c
s or oe , e on ro e r , .,

t e b ry Po e ts R iv e s i d e Li t e at re H o l t s En g li s h R ad in gs Po c k e t
’
in C an r u , r r u , e ,

C l as s i c s e t c , .

S k ll y T O a C l o d T o a S k y l a k W e s t W i d S e n s i t iv e Pl n t Ad on a i s
e e . u , r , n , a , ,

e tc l l i S e l e c t i o s f o m S h ll y
.
, a n d i t e d b y A l e x an d e r i n At h e ae m P e s s
n r e e , e , n u r

S e ri e s ; S e l t i s e d ite d b
y W eco d b r y i n B e ll e s L e t t e s S e ri e s ; S e l e c t i o s
on ,
o e r , r n ,

a l s o i n Po c k t C l as s i cs H e a t h s E g li s h C l s i c s Go l d e T as ry S e i e s e t c
’
e , n as , n re u r , .

K t Od e o n a G c i
ea s. U rn E v e o f S t Ag es H y p e i re L am i a T o a an , . n , r on , ,

N i gh t i ga l e e t c i n S e l e c t i on s fro m K e a ts i n A t h e n aa m P e s s ; S e l e c t i on s
n , .
, ,
u r

a l s o i n M s s L i b ra ry R iv e s i d e L i te ra t e Golde n T s ry S e r i e
’
u e , e tc r ur , re a u s, .

L m b E s s ay s D e am C h il d e n O l d Ch i a D i s s e t a t i
a . : r on R o as t Pi
g r , n , r on ,

e tc e d i t e d b y W a c h op e i
., S t d a d E g li s h C l as i c s ; v a i o
u s ay s a l s o
, n an r n s r us e s

C a m e l t S e i e s T e m p l e C l as s i c s E v e ry m an s Li b ra ry e t c T a l e s fro m
’
in o r , , , .

S h ak e p e a re i n H om e a d S c h o o l Lib ary ( Gi
s , d C o m p an y ) ; a l s in
n r nn an o

R iv e rs i d e L i t e a t e Po c k t C l as s i c s Go l d e n T e as ry e t c
r ur , e , r u , .

D c Q i y T h e E gli s h Ma il c
u n ce c h a n d J o an
. f Arc i S t a d a d E gli s h
n ~
oa o , n n r n

C l as s i c s e t c ; C o fe i n s of a
, E n g li s h O p i m E t e
. n i n Te m p l C l s ic s
ss o n u -
a r, e a s ,

M l e y s U n iv e rs a l Lib ary E v e ry m a s L ib ra ry P oc k e t C l s i cs e t c ; S l e c
or
’
r , n
’
, a s , . e

ti on s e d it e d b
, y M H T u rk i n At h e n a e m P re s s ; . S e l e c t i on su e d i te d b
y , u ,

B Pe rry ( H o l t)
. .

L d an S e l e c t i o n s e d i te d b y W C l y m e r i n At h e n ae m P s s ; P e ri c l e s
or . , . , u re
—
a d As p as i a i n C m l t S ri s ; I m ag i a y C
n , av e rs at i o s s e l e c t e d ( Gi n a d
e o e e n r on n , n n

C mpo y) t h e am 2 v o l s i n D t t o s U iv s l Lib ary ; s e l e c t e d p o e m s

an s e , .
, u n
’
n e r a r ,

i n C a t e b u ry Po e t s ; s e l e c t i o s p r os a d v e s e i Go l d
n r T e as ry S e ri e s n ,
e n r , n en r u .

j m A t Pri d e an d Pre j u d i c e i n Ev e ry m an s Li b rary P c k e t Cl as s i cs e tc

’
a us en . , ,
o , .

l
B i b i ograp h y .1 H is tory . Te x t b ook , -
M o n tgo m e ry p p 3 2 3 — 3 5 7 ; C h e y n e y , . ,

5 76—6 2 .
3 Ge n e r al W or ks . Gre e n , X , 2 4 -
T r a ill Ga rd in e r Mac a u l a y e t c
, , , ,
.

Sp e ci a l Wor ks . Ch e y y ne
’
s I n d u s tr a i la nd S oc i l Hi
a s tor y o f E gl a n nd ; W arn e r s ’

1 F or ll t it l
fu e s an d pub li s he r s of ge n e ra l re fe re n ce b oo ks ,
se e Ge n e ra B b l i li ogra p hy

at e n d o f t hi b k s oo .
44 6 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

by Wo o db e rry , in M a k e rs of i
L t e ra t u r e ; b y . F o rs t e r , i n Gre at T e ac h e rs ; J
by D ow d e n , in N e w S tu d ie s i
b y S w n b u rn e , i n E s s a s an d S t u d e s b y B ro o e , y i k
i n Th e o l o gy
i n t h e E n g s h P o e t s ; b y S a n t s b u r , i n E s s a s i n E n g s h L t e ra li i y y li i
t u re ; b y Lo w e ll
i n D e m o c ra c a n d O t h e r Es s a s ; b y H az t t , an d b y Pa t e r y y li
( se e W o rd s w o rth , ab o e ) . S e e a s o B e e rs s E n g s h R o m an t c s m ; C a r e s
’
v
’
l li i i ly l
c hap t e r o n l e ri dge i Lif e f J o h n S t li g
Co , n o er n .

S t/z y
ou T x t s Po e m s
e . d i t e d b y D ow d e
e :
( M c m ill
) ; P o e t i c a l, W e k s n a an or

r w ll ) ; S e l e c t i o n s i C a te b ry P t s ; L if e o f N l i n E v ry m a s
( C
’
o e nn n r u oe e so , e n

L ib ary T e m p l e C l as s i c s M l e y s U n iv e s a l L i b a y e t c L if
’
r , , b y D ow d n or r r r , . e e

( g
E n li h M s o f L e tt e s
) E
en s s a y s b y L S t e p h e i S t d i er s o f a
. B i o g ap h e r ; , . n, n u r

b y H zli t t an d S a i t s b ry ( s e e a b o v e )
a n u .

S tt Te x ts
co . N m e o u s g o o d e d i t i o s o f n o v e l s an d p o e m s F o r s i g l e
: u r n . n

w o rk s s e e S e l e c t i
, s f r R e a d i g ab o v e Li f
on b y Lock h a t 5 v l s ; ( e v a l
o n , . e : r , o s er

e ditio ; b e t b y Po ll a d
ns . s b y H tt o ( E g li s h M e r f L e tt s ) ; b y
, u n n n o er

A La g i n L i t e ra y Liv e s ; b y C D Y on g e ( G a t W i t e s ) ; b y H d s o ;
. n , r . . re r r u n

b y S a i t s b ry ( F m n s S c o t s S e ri e s )
u C i tic is m : E s y b y S t e v
a ou s Gos s i p . r sa s, en on ,

o n R m an c e i n M m ri e s a d Po t
o , i ts ; b y S h ai p i As p e ét s of Po e t ry ; b y
e o n r ra r , n

S wi b n e i n S t d ie s i
u rn , P os e a d Poe t ry ; b y C a l y l
u i Mi s c e ll a e o s
n r n r e , n n u

E s s y s ; b y H a zli t t B g e h o t L S t p h e
a B o k e a d S i t s b ry ( s e e C l e
, a , . e n, ro , n a n u o

ri d g e n d W o d s w o t h ab v e )
a r r , o .

By Te x ts
r on C m p l e t e W k s G l o b e C a m b i d ge P o e t s a d O x f d
. : o or , ,
r , n or

e dit i on s ; S e l e c t i o s e d it e d b y M A l d i G l d e T e as u ry ( e e a l s o S e l e c
n , . rn o , n o n r s

t i on s f R e d i g ab v e ) ; L e t t e s a d J o
or a n , al s o f B y o o e d it e d b
y M e r n u rn r n, o or

n e li ab l e ) i oe l re at W ri t e s ) ; b i l
( u r L f e b y N .
( G :
y N c h o
( gli h Me
E f r n s n o

L t t e s) ; T h e R
e r l Lo d B y o b y J C J ff e s ; T l aw n y s R e c ll e c ti s
ea r r n, . . ea r on re
’
o on

o f S h e ll e y a d B y o C i tic is m H n t s Lo d B y on a n d H i s C
’
n r n . r te m po : u r r on

ra ri e s ; E s s y s b y Mo l e y Mac a l ay H a zli t t S w i b
a ,
e ra d M A , ld u , , n u rn , n . rn o .
0

S k ll y T e x t s C e t a ry E d i t i o n e d i t e d b y W o o d b e ry 4 v o l s ; Gl b e
e e . : n en , r , . o

a d C am b ri d g
n P e ts e d i ti s ; E s ay s a d Le t t e s
e o in C m e l t S i s (s e on s n r , a o er e e

S e l e c t i o n s fo r R e ad i g ab o v e ) Li fe b y S y m o ds ( E n gli s h M e o f Le t t e ) b y
n ; . : n n rs

D ow d e 2 vo ls ; b y S h
n, p ( G re a t W ri t e ) ; b y T J H ogg 2 v o l s ; b y W M
. ar rs . . , . . .

R os s tti C i tic is m S l t s A S h e ll e y Pri m e ; E s s ay s b y D ow d e

’
e . r : a i n Tra r ,
n, n

s c i p ts a d S t d ie s ; b y M A
r n o l d W o db e ry B ag e h o t F o s t e r L S t e p h e n
u . rn , o r , , r , .
,

B ro o k D e Q in c e y a d H t t on ( s e e C o l e i d g an d W d s w o t h ab o v e )
e , u , n u r e or r , .

A t T x t s : C m p l e t e W k e d i t d b y F o rm a 4 v ols ( L d 1 883 )
’
ea s. e o or s, e n, . on on ,

C am b i dg e P e t s E d i t i o
r w i th L e t t e s e d i t e d b y H E S c d d e r ( H
o n , gh t on r , . . u ou ,

Mi fll i ) ; Al d i e E d i t i o w i t h Li fe e d i t e d b y L d H o gh t o ( Ma c m ill ) ;
n n n , ,
or u n an

S e l e c t e d P o m s w i th i t ro d c t i on an de , t e s b y A l o B t e s ( Gi n a d C m
n u no r a n n o

p an y ) ; P e m s al i
o E v ry m a s
, L i b ry M s e s
so L inb ra ry Go l d e e T e as ry n
’
ra , u
’
, n r u ,

e t c ; L e tt e e dit d b S C lvi i E v e s l e y Ed itio L if e b F o rm a i n n,

.
y rs , e
y . o n, n r n . :

C o m p l t e W o k s ; b y C o lvi
e E
( g
r li s h M e n o f L e tt e rs ) ; b
y W M R os s e t t i
n n . .

( G e r t W a i t s ) ; b y Ar E H a
er c c k C r i t i c i m H C S h e ll e y s K e a t s a d
. . n o . s : . .
’
n

H i s C i c l e ; Mas s on s W o rd w o t h S h ll e y K t s a d O t h e r E s y s ; Es s ay s
’
r s r , e , ea , n s a ,

b y M Arn o l d i E s s y s i n C ri t i c i m a l s i W a d E n gli s h P e t s
.
, n a l 4 ; by s , o n r
’
s o , vo .

H ds o u i S t die s i
n , I t e rp e t a t i on ; b y L w e ll i n A m
n u n g Mn y B o k s or r o ,
on o ,

Li t e ra ry E s y s v o l 2 ; b y B oo k e D e Q i n c e y an d S w i n b u rn e ( ab ov e )
s a , . r , u ,
.
 TH E AGE O F R O MANTI C I S M 44 7

La m b . T e t s l e t e W o k s a d Le tt e s e d i t e d b y E VL cas 7 v o l s
x : Com p r n r , . . u , “

a m ; th e s a m e d i t e d b y A i ge 6 v l ( L o do 1 883 E s s ay s
( P tu n ) ,
s e n r, o . n n ,

o f E li a i S t a d d E g li s h C l as s i c s e t c ( s
, n n ar S e l e c t i o s f o R e d i g)
n D ra ,
. ee n r a n

m t i c E s s a y s e d i t e d b y B Ma t t h w ( D od d M e d) ; S p e c i m f E gli s h e s a e ns o n

b y E VL c as 2 v l s ; b y A i ge r
a , . ,

D a m at i c Poe t s i B h s Li b ry Lif e
’
r , n o n ra . : . . u , o . n

li M b a ry C o rn w ll ; T a lf o d s Me m i rs o f Ch a l s
)
’
E
( g n s h e f L e tte ; n o y B rs r a ur o r e

La m b C iti c i s m
. Esr y b y D Q i c e y i B i o g ap h i c a l E y s ; b y F H a
: sa s, e u n ,
n r ssa . r

i
r s on i Te n ys o
, n R ki M ill a d O th r L i t e y E s t i m t ; b y Pa t e r
n n , us n, , n e ra r a es ,

a d W o d b e r ry ( s e e W d w o t h a d Co l e i d ge ab o v e ) S e e a l o F i t zg e a l d s
’
n o or s r n r , . s r

C h l e s La m b h i s F i
ar d s h i s H a ts a d h i B
, r en ks , un , n s oo .

D Q ie y T e x t
u n ces C o ll e c t e.d W i t i n g s e d i t e d :b y M sso 1 4 v o l s ( Lo n r , a n , .

d on , 1 889 C f s s io of a Op i m E a t e on e tc e
( S l c ti
ns s for n u -
r, . se e e e on

R e ad i g ) L i fe by M li s h Me f L e t t e s ; L if a d W ri t i s b
n .
( E g : )
as s o n gn
y n o r e n n ,

H A Pa g 2 vol D Q i c y a d hi s F i d Fi d l y s P al
’
; H gg
’
. . e ,
s. o s e u n e n r en s n a e rs o n

R c o ll e c t i f D e Q i ey ; s e l D Q i c e y s A t o b i o g ap h i c a l
’
e s on o u nc e a so e u n u r

S k e tc h e s d Co f , i
an C itic i m En y b y S ai t s b y i E s s y s i n
e s s on s . r s : ssa s, n ur , n a

E gli h L i t e r t e ; b y Ma
n s a ur i n W d w th S h e ll e y K a t a d O the r
s s on , or s or , , e s, n

E s s ay s ; b y L S t e p h e s i L i b ry S e e a l s o Mi t o s Ma l of ’
i H . n , n our n a ra . n nua

E gli s h Pr
n Li t at e os e er ur .

L d an T xt or W k s w i t h Li f b y F o s t e 8 v o l s ( L o d
. e s : or , 1 876
) e r r, . n on ,

W o k s e d i t e d b y C m p ( Lo d
r ,
L tte
ru e tc dit d b y Wh e le r n on , e rs , .
, e e e

1 89 7 an d i ary C v s a ti on s e l c ti
( L o d n on ,
I m g e tc
( s S a f n r on er , . ee e on s o

R ea d i g) Li f n b y C lvi ( E gli s h M
. e : f Le t t o
) ; b y F n t C int i c i sm en o e rs o rs e r. r

E s y by D e Q i
s a s, ey W db e y L S t p h
u nc S ai t b y S w i b e D ow
oo rr e en n s ur n u rn

s o S t e d m an s V
, , . , , ,
v

e ab v e ) l i i ’
d en
( se S ee o . ct P a e ts o r an o .

j e A
an t T xt us en W o k s e d i t d b y R B J oh s
. e s :
( D t ) ;r v ari o s
, e . . n on en u

o t h e r e d i ti s of v l ; L t t e s e d i t d b y W l s y ( R b t ) Li f A s t e n
on no e s e r , e oo e o er s . e : u

L igh
e Me m i r f J
’
s A t e ; H ill s J e A s t e n h e r H m
o o an e us a d he r n
’
an u , o e n

F i r en d s ; Mi t t o J e A s t a d h e r T i m s L i f b y Go l d w i S m i t h ; b y
n s
’
an u en n e . e , n

M l d e ( Fam o s W m
a n S i e s ) ; b y O F A d m s C i t i c i m : P ll c k s
u o en er . . a . r s o o
’

J e A t e n ; Pe ll e w J a e A s t e s N v e l ; A A J k s E s ay o t h e
an us
’
s n u n
’
o s . . ac
’
s n

N v e l a I ll s t a t e d b y S c t t a d M i s s A t
o s u r ; H H B o n e ll s Ch o l tte
n us en . . n
’
ar o

B ro n t e Ge g,e E li t or d J e A s te ; Eso y b y H w e ll s i n H e o i e s
,
an an u n sa , o , r n

of F i c t i on .

M i E dg w tk T e x t
ar a T l e s a d N v l s N e w L g fo d Ed i t i o
e or . s : a 10 n o e , an r n,

v l ( L don
o s. on va i , d i ti s f v e ls ( D e t Th e Ab s e t e e
r ous e on o no n , n ,

d C as t l e R ac k re t i M l y s U n iv e s a l L ib a ry L i fe b y H e l e Z i m m e r
’
an n , n or e r r . : n

m a ; Me m o i r b y H a e
n ,
r .

M A R d l ff e R o m a c e s w i th i t d c t i o b y S c o tt i n B ll a ty n e s ’
r s. n ne a c i . n , n ro u n ,
a n

N v li t s L ib ry ( L d
o e s ra v a ri s e d i t i s o f U d l p h e t c ; S i t
on on , ou on o o, . a n s

b y s Ta l e s o f My s t e ry v o l I E g li h R o m t ic i m
’
S e Be e s
’
ur , . . e r s n s an s .

M P o e t i c a l W k s i n C a t e b ry P e t s C h n d s C l a i c s e t c ;
oor e . or , n r u o , a o ss , .

S l te d p o e m s i n G l de T e as ry ; G i g Th m as M e Po t a d ’
e ec , o n r u un n n s o oo r ,
e n

Pa t i t ; S y m i gt o s L i fe a d W k s f M
r o n n
’
E s s a y b y S i t b ry n or o o o re . ,
a n s u .

C m p b ll Po e m s Al d i n e e d i t i on ; S e l e c t i o n s i n G o l d e
a e . , T ry L ife , n re a s u .
,

b y H ad d e n .
448 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

H a zl i tt. Te t s x W o rk s , i
d te d b y H e n e
e l y 1 2 v o l s ( Lon d o
, S e l e c te d
. n ,

Ess a y s, i n Te m p le C l as s i c s , C am e o t S e r l i e s e tc L if b y B i rr e ll ( E glis h
, . e : n

Me n of Le t t e rs ) ; Me m o i rs , by W . C. H a zli t t E s s ays b y S ai n ts b ry ; b y
. , u

L . S te ph e n .
L e zgk H u n t. Te ts x : Se le c te d e ssa ys i , n C am e l ot
i e s a l s o i n C av e d i s h Ser , n

i
L b ra r y (W am e ) ; S to r i es f ro m t h e I t li a
a P ts ( P t
n m) L if e
oe by M k u na .
‘

: on

h ou s e ( G re at W ri t e rs ) . Es s a ys , by M c a l ay ; b y S ai n t s b ry ; b y H azli t t
a u u .

S ee a sol Mrs . F ie ld s ’
A S h e lf of Ol d B o ok s .

S u gge s t i v e Q u e s t i on s . ( N OT E. I n a p e r o d i lik e th e Age o f R o m t i c i s m an ,

t h e p o e m s an d e ss a y s chos e n fo r sp e c a i l s tu d y v ry s w i d e l y t h at
a ly a f w
o on e

g e n e ra q l i
u e s t o n s o n t h e s e e c t o n s f o r r e ad n g a r e a t t e m p t e d .
) l i i
1 . W h y i s t h s p e r o d o f R o m an t c s m ( 1 789— 1 83 7) c a e d t h e Ag e
i i i i ll of Re vo
iv
l u t i o n ? G e s om e r e as o n s f or t h e n fl u e n c e o f t h e F r e n c h R e o i v l ti n u on o

En g li h li t e t e a d ill t
s ra u r , n u s ra t e f o m p e m s o r e s s ay s w h i c h y
r o h v e ad ou a e r .

E xp l i t h e d iff e e c e b e t w e
a n r n en C l as s i c i s m a d R om a t i c i s m W h i ch f t h e s e
n n . o

t w o typ e s f li t e ra t e d o y o p fe ?
o ur u re r

2 .W hat a e t h e g e e ra l c h c t e i s t i c s f t h e li t at e f t h i p e ri d ?
r n a ra r o er ur o s o

W ha t t w o Opp o s i g t d c i s a e ill s t a t e d i t h e ov e l s f S c o t t a nd J an e
n en en e r u r n n o

A s te ? i t h e p o e t y o f B y
u n n a d W d s w th ? r ron n or or

3 . W d w or t / z Tse ll b i fl y t h e s t o ry
or . f W d s w o rt h s l if e
r e a d n am e o or
’
, n

s m
o e f h i s b e s t p o e m s W h y d o t h e Ly i l B l l d ( 1 798) m a k a i m p o
o . r ca a a s r n r

t an t li t e a y p o c h ? R
r r e d c a e f ll y d m k e n a a ly s i s o f t h e
ea I t im ti n s
r u , an a a n n a o

t a li t y Ti t e Ab b e y C a yo e xp l ai w h t p o li t i c l c
” ”
of I m m or ; f o n rn . n u n a a on

d i ti s a e r fe ed t i W d w rt h s S Mil t o i n hi s F re n c h
’
on r e rr to n or s o on n e on n

R e v l t i on ? D o s h e a t t m p t t p i t p i c t re i n h i s s n We s t
”
o u e nete o a n a u on o

m i t e r B i d ge
ns r r h s he s m e , th r o b j c t i vi e w ? W h a t i s t h e c e t l
a o o e o e n n ra

te c hi g f the Od t D ty C m p e Wo d s w t h tw S k y l k p e m s
’
a n o e o u o ar r or s o ar o

w i t h S h e ll e y s !Mak e a b ri e f c m p ari n b tw n W d s w rt h s s o t a d
’ ’
. o so e ee or o nne s n

th os e f S h k s p e e a d f M il t o
o a e h avi g i m i d t h e t h o gh t t h e m e l o d y
ar n o n , n n n u , ,

t h e vi e w f at e a d t h e i m ag e ry f t h t h e p o e t s Q
O n ur , n te f om W ds o e re . uo r or

w o th s p o e m s t o s h ow h i s b e li e f t h a t n a t i co sc i s ; t o S h w th e i n fl
’
r u re s n ou o u

e n c e f n at e o m
o ur ; t o S h w hi s i t e e s t i
n c h il d
an n ; h i s s e s i t iv o e ss to n r n re n en

so un d s ; t o ill s t ra t t h e h as t e i g i fl e c e of s o o w Mak e a b i e f c o m
u e c n n n u n rr . r

ari s on b e t w e e e c h a ac t e s o f W o d s w o t h s M i c h ae l
’ ”
h a d o f B rn s s
’

p t n r r r r n u

T h e C o t t e s S a t d y N i gh t C m p e Wo d w i o f vi e w a n d
” ’
th
’
r ur a p t . o ar r s or s o n

T a D ai s y w i th B s s vi w as e xp e s s e d i n
” ’
m e th o d i t h e t h r e e p o e m s
, n o , u rn e , r

h i f m o s li e s o t h e s a m e s b j e c t
s a u n n u .

4 C l i dg e W h a t a e t h e g e n e ra l c h c t e ri s t i cs o f C l i dge s li fe ? ’
. o er . r ara o er

W h at e xp l ai s t h e p rofo d s y m p t h y fo r h m a i ty t h a t i s re fl e c te d i h i s
n un a u n n

e m s ? Fo w h a t b e s i d e h i s p o e m s i s h e r e m a rk b l ? C an
y o q t an a e u uo e
p o r , y ,

as s s f m h i s p e t ry w h i c h s h o w t h e i fl e c e o f W o d s w o rt h ? W h a t
ro o n u n r
p a
g e

T h e A c i e n t Ma ri e w h at r e s p e c t i s t h i s p o e m
”
a re t h e c h ara c t e s i r n? I n n r n

r o m a t i c ? G iv e y o s f r i t s p op l ari t y
-

n o w n re as ur D o e s t h e t h o gh t o r t h e
on o u . u

s ty l e f t h i s p e m i m p e s s y o ? I f y o h av e
o o ad a r
y o f th e L tu r e s on
u u re n ec

S /za ke p e r e e xp l a i n w h y C o l i d g e s w o k i s c all e d ro m an t i c c ri t i c is m
’
s a ,
er r .
4 5 0 E N G LI SH LI TE R ATU R E

C o m p a re K e a t s
’
s c h a ra c t e rs i
w th t h os e of W o r d s w o r th of B y ro n . D oe s Ke ats
e v e r re m i
d yo u o f S p e n s e r ? I
n n w h at re s p e c t s ? I s y ou r l
p e r s o n a p re f e r e n c e
fo r W o rd s w o r t h , B ro n , S h e e y ll y , or K e a ts ? . Why ?
9 La m b . T e
. br efl th e s t or o f La m b s ll fe i y y ’
li an d n am e his p r i ip l
nc a

w o r s . W hy i s h e c a e d t h e m o s t h u m a n o f e s s a
k ll yi s ts ? H is i
fr e n d s c a ll d e

hi m th e l as t o f th e E li z ab e t h an s .
”
W h y ? Wh at i s t h e g e n e r a c h ara c t e r o f l
the f E l i a ? H o w i s th e p e rs o n a t
E s s ay s o li y o f La m b s h o w n i n a ll t h e s e

y
e s s a s ? C t e an
y p i
a s s ag e s s h o w n
g La m b s s
’
i kill i p t y i g p p l e Mak e n o r ra n eo .

a br i f e c o m p ar s o n i b e tw e e n La m b an d Ad d i s h avi g i m i d t h e
on , b j c ts n n n su e

t re a t e d , th e s ty l e ,
the h u m o r, an d t he i t n t o f b t h e s s ay i s t s
e re s W h ic h d o
o .

y ou
p re f e r, an d w hy ?
1 0. D e Qu i n cey . W h at a re th e g e n e ra l c h arac t e r s t c s i i of D e Q u in c e y
’
s

e ssa ys ? E p x l i a n w hy h e is ca ll d the ps
e yc h l gi s t o o of s t yl e . Wh at ac c o u n ts

fo r a c e rt a in u n re a l l e e m en t in al l h i s w o r k R d p
. ea a as s a
g e f ro m Tb c E n g li s k
M ail -
Coa ck , or fro m j oa n o
f A r c, or f ro m L e v a n a , Ou r L a dy of S or r ow s , an d
c om m ent f re e ly upon i t, w i th g ard t o s t re y l i d e as i
e , ,
n te r e s t, an d the im p re s

i
s on o f re a li ty o r un re a li ty i
w h ch i t e a e s . l v
1 1 . L a n d or . I n w h at re s p e c t d o e s La n d o r S h ow a r e ac t o n i f r o m R o m an t i
c is m W h a t q u a li t i e s m a k e
? L an d o r ’
s p o e m s s ta n d ou t so l
c e ar ly i n th e
m e m o r y ? W h y f o r i n s t an c e , , d o yo u t h i k
n La m b w a s so h au n t e d b y R o s e
Ay l m e r Q u ote f r o m La n d o r ill t e n d e rn e s s , h i s s e n s i
’
s p o e m s to u s t r at e hi s
tive n e s s t o b e au t y , hi s p ow e r o f a w a e n n g e m o t o n , hi s d e c a c o f k i i li y c h ara c

t e ri za t i o n . D O
y ou fin d t h e s am e q u a t e s i n hi s p ro s e ? C a n y o u li i e xp l a i n
w hy m u ch h i s p ro s e s e e m s
of e a ra n s o n f ro m t h e Gre e lik
? C o m p a re a t l at i k
p as s a ge f ro m t h e I m ag i n a ry Con ve r s a ti on s w t h a p as s ag e f ro m G b b o n o r i i
J o h n s on , t o s ho w the i
d ffe r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e l
c as s c i an d the p s e u d o -c as s cl i
st yl e . C o m p are on e of L an d o r
’
s c h a rac t e r s , i n I m ag i n a ry Con v e r s a ti on s , w th i
the s am e c h a rac t e r in h i s to r y .

1 2. j an e A u s te n . H ow d o e s J an e Au s te n s h o w a re a c t on i f ro m R o m an t i
c ism ? W h a t i m p o r t an t wor k
ki d of fic did she d o fo r the no ve l ? T o w h at n

ti won h w k p p d ? I w h t d s t h c h m f h e r ov e ls c s is t ?
as er or o os e n a oe e ar o n on

M ak e a b i e f c o m p i s o b t w e e n J a e A s t n a d S c o tt ( as ill s t t d i n
r ar n e n u e n u ra e

P id r d P ej d i e a d I
e an b ) h avi g i m i d t h
r u c n b j e c t th c ha c t e s
va n oe , n n n e su ,
e ra r ,

the m n r of t a atm e t
ne d t h e i t e s t o f b o th n a a t iv s
re n , D Ja e
an n er rr e . o n

A st u h ac t s h v t o b e
en s
’
c ar xp l i d b y th e a t h or o r d th y x p l ai n
er a e e a ne u ,
o e e

t h e m s e lv e ? W h i c h m e t h d c ll
s f th t e r li t ary s kill ? W h t d e s
o a s or e re a er a o
g
J e A t s y ab t M R d li ff i j Vt/ g A bb y 9 D o e s s h e m k e
an us e n a ou rs . a c e , n or tan er e . a

a
y
n o th e o b e rv t i sr e i gh t s
e e n t h c e t
a y n o v e li s t s ?
on on - n ur
 TH E AGE O F R O MANT I CI S M

C H R O N O LO G Y
End o
f t/ze E z
g /zte e n t/z a n d B eg i n n i ng f
o t b e N i n e te e n t k Ce n tu ry

H I ST O R Y L I T E R AT U R E

6 — 1 82 0 . G e o r e I I I
I 7 0 g
1 77 1 8 0 .
0 -
5 W o rd s w o r t h
1 771 18 2 S c o tt
3
-
.

1 8
7 9
—1
799 . F r e n c h R e v l ti
o u on

1 79 6— 1 81 6. J an e Au s te n ’
s no v lse

1 79 8. Ly i c a l
r Ba ll ads of W o r d s w o rt h
an d Co l i d ge
er

1 800 . U n i on of Gre a t B r ta i i n an d
I re a n dl
1 80 2 . C o l i za t i
on o n of A u s t ra li a . 1 80 2 . S co tt
’
s Mi n s t r e l s y of the S co t
t i sh B o rd e r
1 80 5 . B a t t le of T raf a ga r l 1 80
5
—1 81 7 S c o ttp oe m s
.
’
s

1 80 7. W o r d s w o r t h s i i
’
I n t m at o n s of

I m m o rt a t . La m b s T a ’
li y l es

f ro m S h ak e s p e a re

1 80 7. Ab o li t i o n of s a l ve t ra d e

1 808— 1 8 1 4 . P e n i nsu a l rW ar

1 809— 1 8 1 8. B y ro n s
’
il
C h d e H a ro d l
1 81 2 . S e c on d w ar w t h U n t e d S t a t e s i i 1 81 0— 1 81 .
3 Co l e idg r
’
e s Le c t u re s on

S ha k
Vi
e s p e a re

1 81 4 . C o n gr e s s of enna 1 8 1 4— 1 8
3 1. W av e r l e y N o v e ls
1 81 5 ,
B at t le of Wat e rl o o
1 81 6 . S he ll y s A l as tor
e
’

1 8 1 7. Co l i d g e s Bi o g p h i a Li t
er
’
ra e ra ri a

1 81 7 — 1 82 0. K e ats ’
s poe m s
1 8 1 8— 1 82 0 . S he ll e y ’
s Pro m e t h e u s

1 81
9 F i rs t At lan tic s te a m s h ip
V( d
.

1 82 0. G e o rge I 18 0
) 82 0 W o rd s w o rt h s D u d d o n
'
’
.
3 1 . S on n e ts
1 82 0— 1 83 3 . La m b
’
s Es s a y s of E li a

82 1 . D Q u in ce y C o n fe s s i
’
1 e s ons

1 82 4— 1 84 6 . La n d o r
’
s I m ag i n ar
y C on

v e rs a ti o n s .

1 82 6 . F i rs t Te m p e r a n c e S oc i ty e

1 82 9 . C ath o li c Em an c ip t i a B il lon

1 83 0. W illi a m I V(d . 1 83 7) 1 83 0 . Te n n y s on s
’
fi rs t
poe m s
F i rs t ra il w y a

1 83 1 . S c o tt
’
s l as t n o v l e

183 2 . R e fo rm B ill
18 Em a n c i p a ti of s a l v 1 83 3 . C a rl yl S a r t o r R e sa r t u s
’
33 . on es e s

B ro w n i ng s
’
Pa u li ne

18
3 4. S ys t m f n ti al d u c at i
V
e o a on e on

1 8 7.
3 i c t i ( d 1 90 1 )
or a .

1 85 3 1 86 1 D Q u in c e y Co ll e c t e d
’
— . e s

Es s a y s
 C H A PT E R XI

THE V I CTOR I AN AGE ( 1 85 0— 1 9 00)

T H E M O D E R N PE R I O D OF P R O G R E S S AN D U N R ES T

Wh e n V
ict i
or a b e c am e q u e e n i n 1 83 7 En gli s h lit e rat u re
, ,

s e e m e d t o h av e e n t e r e d u p o n a p e r i o d o f l e a n y e a r s i n m ar k e d ,

c
on t r as t with t h e p o e tic fru it fu l n e s s of t h e r o m an tic age which

w e h a v e j u s t s t u di e d Co l e r id g e S h e ll e y K e a t s B y ron an d
.
, , , ,

S c o tt h ad p as s e d aw ay an d it s e e m e d a s if th e r e w e re n o
‘

, _

w r it e r s i n En gl an d t o fill th e i r pl ac e s Word s w or th had .

w r itt e n i n 1 83 5
, ,

Li k e c l ou d s th a t r a k e th e m ou n tai n s u m m i ts ,

O r w a v e s th at o w n n o c u rb i n g h a n d ,

H ow fa s t h as b roth e r fo ll ow e d b ro th e r ,

F r om s u n s hi n e t o th e s u n l es s l an d !

In th e s e li n e s i s re fl e ct e d t he s or row fu l s p i r it o f a lit e rary

m an of t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n th c e n t u ry w h o r e m e m b e r e d t h e
l th a t h a d p as s e d a w a f r om t h e e a r th B u t t h e l e an n e s s
g or
y y .

of th e s e fi r s t e ars i s m ore app are n t th an re al K e at s an d

“

y .

S h e ll e y w e re d e ad it i s t r u e b u t al re a d y th e r e had app e are d

, ,

th r e e di s cipl e s of th e s e p oe t s w ho w e re d e s ti n e d t o b e far
m or e wid e l y r e a d th a n w e re th e i r m a s t e r s Te n n y s on h ad .

b e e n p u bli s hi n g p oe t r y S i n c e 1 82 7 hi s fi r s t p oe m s app e ar i n g
,

al m o s t s i m u lt an e ou s l y with t h e l as t w o r k O f B ro n S h e ll e
y y , ,

an d K e at s ; b u t i t w as n o t u n til 1 84 2 with t he p u blic a ti on

,

O f h i s c o ll e ct e d p o e m s i n t w o v o l u m e s
,
th at En gl an d re c og
,

n i ze d i n h i m on e of h e r g r e a t lit e r ary l e ad e r s S o al s o .

Eli zab e th B arr e tt had b e e n w r iti n g s i n c e 1 82 0 b u t n o t till ,

tw e n t y y e ar s l a t e r did he r p oe m s b e c o m e d e s e r v e dl y p op u l ar ;
an d B r o w n i n g h ad p u bli s h e d h i s P a u l i n e i n 1 83 3 but it ,

w as n ot u n til 1 84 6 wh e n h e p u bli s h e d t h e l as t of t he s e r i e s
,

45 2
454 E NG LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

c on t e n d n g at i b e l on gs to the w hol e rac e of m e n that brothe r

h om e
hood i s u n i v e rsal n o t i n su l ar ; t hat a qu e s ti on o f j u s t i c e i s n e v e r
,

s e t tl e d by fi gh ti n g ; an d th at w a r i s ge n e rally u n m i ti gat e d h o r ro r

an d barb ar i sm Te n n y son w h o c am e of a ge w h e n t h e gr e at R e for m

. ,

B ill o c c u p i e d a tt e n t i on e x p r e ss e s t h e i d e al s of th e Lib e ral s of hi s

,

d ay w h o p rop os e d t o sp re a d th e gosp e l of p e ac e ,

T i ll th e w a r d ru m th rob b d l on ge r an d b a tt l e -fl ag s w e re fu rl e d
’
~
no , th e
I n l
the Pa r i a m e n t o f M an , th e F e d e r a t i o n of th e w o r d . l
Fou r th , th e V
i
c to r ani Age i s lly
kab l e b e c au se of i ts
e sp e c i a r e m ar

ra p i d o g r e s s i n a l l t h e ar t s a n d s c i e n c e s an d i n m e c han i c al i n v e n
p r

Art s a d n t ion s A gl an c e a t an y r e c ord of th e i n d u str i al ac hi e v e

.

S ci en ce s m e n t s of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu ry Wil l S h ow h o w vas t t h e y
are an d it i s u n n e c e s s ary t o r e p e at h e r e t h e li s t o f t h e i n v e n ti on s
, ,

from sp i n n i n g l oo m s t o s t e am b oat s an d fro m m atc h e s t o e l e c t ri c ,

l ights Al l the s e m at e rial thi n gs as w e l l as th e grow th of e d u c a

.
,

t i on h a v e t h e i r i n fl u e n c e u p on t h e life of a p e op l e an d i t i s i n e v
, ,

i tab l e that t h e y S h ou l d r e ac t u p on i ts p ros e an d p o e t ry ; th ou gh a s

‘

e t w e a r e t oo m u c h ab s orb e d i n ou r s c i e n c e s an d m e c h an i c s t o
y
d e t e rm i n e ac c u rat e ly th e i r i n fl u e n c e u p on li t e ra tu r e Wh e n th e s e .

n e w t h in gs s hall by l o n g u se hav e b e c am e fam ili a r as c o u n t r y r oad s ,

o r h a v e b e e n r e p l ac e d by n e w e r an d b e t te r t h i n gs t h e n t h e y al s o ,

w ill h a v e t h e i r a s s oc i a t i on s an d m e m or i e s an d a p oe m on t h e rai l ,

r o ad s m ay b e a s s u gge s t i v e a s Word s w o r t h s s on n e t o n We s t m i n s t e r
’

B rid ge a n d t h e b u s y p rac t i c al w o rki n gm e n w h o t o d ay t h ro n g ou r

,
-

s tr e e t s an d fac to r i e s m ay s e e m to a fu tu r e an d gr e a t e r age as qu a i n t
, ,

an d p o e t i éal as t o u s s e e m t h e sl ow t o il e r s of t h e M i dd l e Age s .

Li t e r ar y Ch ar act e r i s t i cs . Wh e n on e is i n t e re s t e d e n ou g h
to t r ac e t h e g e n e a l o gy of V
fi n d s t o hi s s u r p ri s e
ict i
or a he , ,

An Age of th a t i n h e r v e i n s t h e bl oo d b o th o f W fl ow e d
illi a m
Pm “ t h e C on q u e r or a n d o f Ce r dic t h e fi rs t S ax on ki n g ,

o f E n g l an d ; a n d thi s s e e m s t o b e s m b olic o f t h e lit e r a t u r e

y
of h e r a g e which e m b r ac e s t he wh ol e r e al m of S a x on an d
,

N or m a n li fe t h e s t r e n g th a n d id e al s o f t h e on e an d t he
,
—
,

c u lt u r e an d r e fi n e m e n t of th e o th e r The ro m an tic r e viv al .

h ad d on e i t s w o r k an d E n gl an d e n t e re d u p on a n e w fr e e
,

p e r i od i n w hich e v e ry for m o f lit e rat u re f ro m p u r e r o m an c e

, ,

t o g ro s s r e ali s m s t ru ggl e d for e xp r e s s i on

,
A t thi s d ay it i s .
 TH E VI CTOR I AN AGE 455

Obvi ou s ly i m p os s ibl e to j u d ge t h e ag e a s a
wh ol e ; but w e are
tti far e n o u h a w a f m t h arl h al f o f it t o n o tic e c e r
g e n g g y r o e e
y
t ai n d e fi n it e ch aract e r i s tic s F i rs t th ou gh t he age p r od u c e d
.
,

m a n y p oe t s a n d t w o w h o d e s e r v e t o r an k a m o n g t he g r e a t e s t
, ,

n e v e r th e l e s s thi s i s e m ph atic all y an ag e o f p ros e An d s i n c e .

t h e n u m b e r o f r e a d e r s ha s i n c r e a s e d a th ou s a n d fold with t h e
s p re ad o f p op u l ar e d u c ati on it i s t h e ag e o f t h e n e w s p ap e r t h e
, ,

m ag az n e i a n
,
d h
t e m o d er n n o v e l — t he fi rs t t w o b e i n g t h e s t ory
,

o f t h e w o r ld s d ail y li fe an d t h e l as t o u r pl e as an t e s t fo r m o f
’

lit e rary e n t e r t ai n m e n t as w e ll as o u r m o s t s u cc e s s ful m e th od

,

o f p r e s e n ti n g m o d e rn p ro bl e m s an d m o d e rn id e a l s The n o ve l .

i n thi s age fill s a pl ac e which t h e d ram a h e ld i n t h e d ay s of

E li zab e th ; an d n e v e r b e fo re i n a n y ag e o r l a n g u ag e h as t he
, ,

n o v e l a pp e a re d i n s uch n u m b e r s a n d i n s u ch p e rfe cti o n .

The s e c on d m ar k e d ch ar ac t e r i s tic of t h e ag e i s th a t lit

e r at u r e,
b oth i n p ros e an d i n p oe t ry s e e m s t o d e p ar t f r om ,

h re l f a r t fo r a r t s s a k e
’

Mor al t e p u
y ar ti s tic s t an d a r d o , ,

Pm ” a n d t o b e a ct u at e d b a d e fi n it e m o ral p u r p o s e
y .

Te n n y s on B ro w n i n g Car l y l e R u s ki n — w ho a n d wh a t w e re
, , , ,

th e s e m e n i f n o t t he t e ach e r s of En gl an d n o t v agu e l y but ,

d e fi n it e ly with s u p e r b faith i n th e i r m e s sage an d with t he

, ,

c on s ci ou s m oral p u r p o s e t o u pli ft an d t o i n s t r u c t ? Ev e n t he
n ov e l b r e a k s a w a f ro m S c o tt s ro m an tic i n fl u e n c e n d fi rs t
’

y a ,

s t u di e s li fe as i t i s an d th e n p o i n t s ou t wh at li fe m a an d
, y
ou ght t o b e Wh e th e r w e re ad t he fu n an d s e n ti m e n t of
.

D ick e n s t h e s oci al m i n i a tu r e s o f Th ack e ray o r t he p s y ch o

, ,

l og ic al s t u di e s O f G e orge Eli o t w e fin d i n al m o s t e v e ry c as e,

a d e fi n it e p u r p os e t o s w e e p a w a e rro r a n d t o r e v e a l t h e
y
u n d e rl i n
y g t ru th o f hu m a n li f e S o t h e n o v e l s o.u g ht t o d o

fo r s o ci e ty i n thi s ag e p re ci s e ly wh at Ly e ll an d D arwi n s ou g ht
t o d o for s ci e n c e th a t i s t o fin d t h e t ru th an d t o S h o w h ow
, , ,

it m i ght b e u s e d t o u pli ft h u m an it y Pe r h ap s fo r thi s re as o n

V
.

t he ict o ri an Ag e i s e m ph atic all y an age o f re ali s m r a th e r

th an of r o m an c e n o t t h e r e ali s m o f Z ol a a n d I b s e n
, b ut a ,

d e e p e r r e ali s m which s t riv e s t o t e ll the whol e t r uth s h owi n g ,

4 5 6 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

m or al an d phy s ic al di s e as e s as th e y ar e b u t h oldi n g u p he alt h

,

an d h o p e as t h e n o r m al c on di ti o n s o f h u m an it
y .

I t i s s o m e wh at c u s t o m ary t o s p e ak of thi s age as an age

o f d ou bt an d p e s s i m i s m foll owi n g t h e n e w c on c e pti on of
,

m an a n d of t he u n iv e r s e which w a s for m u l a t e d b y
I de l i s m
a
s ci e n c e u n d e r t h e n am e o f Ev ol u ti on I t i s s p ok e n
.

o f al s o a s a p r os aic a e l cki i a t id e al s B th th e
g a ,
n g n g re o e s .

c r itici s m s s e e m t o b e t h e re s u lt o f j u d g i n g a l arge thi n g wh e n

w e a r e t o o cl os e t o it t o g e t i t s t ru e p r op o r ti on s j u s t as ,

Col og n e C a th e d ral o n e of t h e w o r ld s m os t p e rfe ct s t ru ct u r e s

’

, ,

s e e m s t o b e a S h ap e l e s s pil e o f s t o n e wh e n w e s t an d t o o cl os e

b e n e a th i t s m i g ht y w all s an d b u tt r e s s e s Te n n y s on s i m m a.
’

t u r e w or k lik e th at of th e m i n o r p oe t s i s s om e ti m e s i n a
, ,

d ou bt fu l o r d e s p ai ri n g s t rai n ; b u t hi s I n M e m or i a m i s like
t h e r a i n b o w aft e r s t orm ; a n d B r ow n i n g s e e m s b e tt e r t o e x
p r e s s t he s pi r it o f hi s age i n t h e s t r o n g m an ly faith of R abbi
,
”
B e n Ezra a n d i n t h e c o u r a e o u s O pti m i s m o f al l h i s p oe t r
g y
V
.
,

S t e d m an s i c tor i a n An t/col ogy i s on t h e wh ol e a m os t i n

’

, ,

s pi ri n g b oo k of p oe t r I t w o u ld b e h ar d t o c oll e ct m or e
y .

v ar i e d ch e e r fr om an y age A n d t he g r e at e s s ay i s t s lik e
.
,

Mac au l ay Carl y l e R u s ki n an d t h e g r e at n ov e li s t s like

, , , ,

D ick e n s Th ack e ray G e o r ge Eli o t g e n e r al l y l e av e u s with a

, , ,

l arge r ch ar ity an d with a d e e p e r faith i n ou r h u m an it y .

S O a l s o t h e j u d gm e n t th at thi s age i s t oo p ractic al fo r g re a t

,

id e al s m ay b e o n ly a d e s c r ipti on o f t h e h u s k th a t hid e s a v e ry
fu ll e a r o f c o rn I t i s w e ll t o re m e m b e r th at S p e n s e r an d
.

S id n e y j u d g e d th e i r ow n ag e (which w e n ow c on s id e r t o b e
t h e g r e a t e s t i n o u r lit e r a ry hi s t ory ) t o b e alt og e th e r gi v e n
ov e r t o m a t e r i ali s m an d t o b e i n c a p abl e o f lit e r ary g r e a t n e s s
,
.

J u s t as ti m e has m ad e u s s m il e at th e i r bli n d n e s s S O t h e n e xt ,

c e n t u ry m ay c o r r e c t ou r j u d gm e n t of thi s as a m at e r i al age ,

a n d l oo ki n g u p on t h e e n or m ou s g rowth o f ch ar it y a n d b r oth e r

h ood am on g u s a n d at t he lit e r at u r e which e xp re s s e s o u r

V
,

faith i n m e n m ay j u d g e t he
,
ict or i an A ge t o b e o n t he wh ol e , ,

t he n obl e s t an d m os t i n s pi r i n g i n t h e hi s t o ry of t he w or ld .
45 8 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

m aj e s t y Milt on t he n a t u ral S i m plicit y of W ord s wo r th t he

of , ,

fan t as y o f B l ak e an d Col e r id ge t h e m e l od y o f K e a t s a n d ,

S he ll e y t he n a r ra tiv e vi g or of S c o tt an d By r on — al l th e s e
, ,
.

s t r iki n g q u aliti e s a r e e vid e n t o n s u cc e s s iv e p age s o f Te n n y

s on s p oe t r T h e on l thi n g l a cki n g i s t h e d r am a tic p ow e r

’

y y .

of t h e E li zab e th an s I n re fl e cti n g t h e re s tl e s s s pi r it o f thi s

.

p rog re s s i v e ag e Te n n y s on i s as re m a rkabl e as Po p e w as i n
v oici n g t h e ar ti fic i al i t y o f t h e e arl y e i ght e e n th c e n t u ry A S a .

p oe t th e re fo r e w h o e xp re s s e s n ot s o m u ch a p e rs on al as a
, ,

n a ti o n a l s pi r it h e i s p r o b abl y t h e m o s t r e p re s e n t ativ e lit e r

V
,

ar m an o f t h e ict o r i an e r a
y .

T e n n y s on life
bl e o n e i n th i s re s p e c t that
is r e m arka
’
Li fe . s a ,

from b e gi n n in g t o e n d h e s e e m s t o hav e b e e n d o m i n ated b y a s i n gl e

i m p u l s e t h e i m p u l s e of p o e t ry H e had n o l arge o r r e m arkabl e e x
,
.

ri e n c e s n o w ild o at s to s ow n o gr e at s u c c e ss e s or re v e rs e s no
p e , , ,

bu s in e ss c are s or pu blic o ffic e s For s i x ty s i x y e ars from t he ap p e ar .

-
,

an c e o f t h e P oe m s by Tw o B r othe r s i n 1 82 7 u n til h i s d e ath i n , ,

1 89 2 he s tu d i e d an d p rac t i c e d h i s a rt c on ti n u ally an d e x c l u si v e ly
,
.

On ly Brow n i n g h is fe ll ow w ork e r r e s e m bl e s hi m i n th i s ; b u t t he
,
-
,

diff e r e n c e s i n the tw o m e n ar e w o rl d w id e Te n n y s on w as n atu rally -

.

shy ,
r e t i ri n g in d iffe r e n t t o m e n hatin g n oi s e an d p u blic i ty l o v in g
, , ,

t o b e al on e w i th n atu r e like Wo rd sw or th B rown i n g w a s s oc i abl e

’

. ,
,

d e ligh tin g i n ap p lau s e i n s o c i e ty i n tra v e l i n the n oi s e an d bu s tl e

, , ,

o f t h e b i g w orld .

T e n n y son w a s born i n th e r e c t ory of S om e r s by Li n c oln shi re i n , ,

1 80 9 Th e sw e e t i n fl u e n c e s o f h i s e arly n atu ral s u rrou n d in gs c an

.

b e b e tt e r u n d e rs tood from hi s e arly p o e m s t han fro m an y bi ograp hy .

H e w as on e of t he t w e l v e c hi ld r e n of t h e R e v G e o rge Cl ay t on .

Te n n y son a s c holar ly c l e rgy m an an d hi s w i fe Elizab e t h Fy t c he a

, , ,

ge n tl e l o v abl e w om an
, n o t l e a rn e d s a v e i n grac i ou s h ou s e h ol d
, ,
”
w ay s t o w h o m t he p o e t p ay s a s on s l oy al t r i bu t e n e a r th e c l os e of
’
,

Tb e P r i n ce s s It i s in te re s t in g to n ot e tha t m ost o f th e s e c hild re n

.

w e r e p oe t i c ally in c lin e d an d t hat tw o of t h e b r ot h e rs Charl e s an d

, ,
.

Fre d e ri c k gav e far gre a te r p rom i s e t han did Al fr e d

, .

Wh e n s e v e n y e ars old the b oy w e n t t o hi s gran d m othe r s hou s e ’

at Lou th i n o rd e r t o atte n d a fam ou s m m s c hoo l a t t ha t p l ac e

, gra a r .

N ot e v e n a m an s m e m ory w h ic h ge n e rally mak e s l i gh t of hard s hip

’
,
'

an d gl o rifie s _ early e x p e ri e n c e s c ou ld e ver s ofte n Te n n yson s hatr e d

,
,
’
4 6 0 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

i
w th t h e new r e c t or , d the r e c tory at S om ersby
th e fam il y r e ta n e i ,

an d h e re for n e arly s i x y e ars Te n n y s on li v e d i n a r e ti r e m e n t w h i c h

, ,

s tron gly s u gge s t s M il t on at H or t on H e re ad an d s tu d i e d w i d e ly .

,

c u l t i v a t e d an in t i m a te ac qu ai n tan c e w i th n atu re t h ou gh t d e e p ly on ,

t h e p robl e m s s u gge s t e d b y t h e R e form B ill w hi c h w as th e n a gi tat in g

En gl an d an d d u ri n g hi s l e i s u r e h ou rs w r o t e p o e try
,
Th e fi rs t fru i t s .

o f t h i s r e t i r e m e n t a pp e ar e d l ate i n 1 83 2 i n a w on d e rfu l l i ttl e vo l

, ,

u m e b e arin g t h e s i m p l e n a m e P oe m s AS th e w o rk of a y ou th .

o n ly t w e n ty t h r e e t h i s b o o k i s r e m arkabl e fo r t he var i e ty an d m e l ody

-
,
“
o f i t s ve r s e Am on g i t s t re asu re s w e s till r e a d w i t h d e l ight Th e
.

A D r e am o f Fai r Wom e n
” " ”
Lotos Ea t e r s Pal ac e o f Art
, T he ,
"
Mill e r s D au gh te r
’
CEn on e ,
”
an d Th e Lad y o f S hal o t t , b ut
t h e c r i t i c s Of t h e Qu a r te r ly w h o h ad b ru t ally c on d e m n e d h i s e a rli e r
,

w ork w e r e again u n m e rc i fu l ly s e v e r e
,
Th e e ffe c t O f t hi s h ars h e r i t i .

c i s m u o n a s e n s i t i v e n at u r e w a s m os t u n fo r tu n at e ; a n d w h e n hi s
p
fr i e n d H all am d i e d i n 1 83 3 Te n n y son w a s p lu n ge d i n to a p e r i od
, ,

of gl o o m an d so rrow Th e sorrow m ay b e r e ad i n t h e e x qu i si t e li ttl e

.

p o e m b e g i n n in
g B r e a k, b r e ak b r e a k O n t h , y c old
g , ra y s t ones O , ,
”
S e a ! w h i c h w as h i s fi rs t p u bl i s h e d e l e gy for h i s fr i e n d an d t h e d e
r e ss i n i n fl u e n c e o f t h e h a rsh an d u n j u st c ri t i c i s m i s s u
p g gge s t e d i n
M e rlin an d Th e Gl e am w h i c h t h e r e ad e r w i l l u n d e rs tan d on ly
,

a ft e r h e h a s r e a d T e n n y s o n s bi o ra p h y
’

g .

For n e arly t e n y e a rs aft e r H all am s d e a th Te n n y son p u b l i sh e d

’

n oth i n g a n d h i s m o v e m e n t s ar e h a rd t o t rac e as t h e fa m ily w e n t

,

h e r e an d t h e r e s e e ki n g p e ac e a n d a h om e i n var i ou s p ar t s of En g
,

l an d Bu t t hou gh s il e n t h e c on t i n u e d t o w r i t e p o e t ry a n d i t w as i n
. , ,

t h e s e s ad w an d e r i n g d ay s t hat h e b e gan hi s i m m o rt al I n M e m or i a m
an d hi s I dy l l s o f t i l e K i ng I n 1 8 4 2 h i s f r i.e n d s p e r s u a d e d hi m to
g i v e hi s w o r k t o t h e w o r l d an d w i th s o m e ,
h e s i t a t i on h e p u bli sh e d

h i s P oe m s Th e s u c c e ss o f t hi s w ork w a s al m ost i n s tan tan e ou s an d

.
,

w e c an ap p r e c i at e t h e favor w i th w h i c h i t w a s r e c e i v e d w h e n w e

Mort e d Arthu r ” “
r e ad t h e n obl e bl an k v e r s e of U ly s se s an d
’
,

t h e p e rfe c t l i t tl e son g of gri e f for H all am w hi c h w e h a v e a l r e ady

”
m e n t i on e d an d t h e e x qu i s i t e i d yl s like
, D or a an d T h e G a rd e n
e r s D au gh t e r w h i c h ar ou s e d e v e n Word sw orth s e n t h u s i asm an d
’ ’
,

b rou ght from hi m a l e tt e r sayin g that h e had b e e n t ryi n g all h is life

”
t o w r i t e s u c h an En gli s h p as t oral a s D ora an d h ad fail e d Fro m .

t h i s t i m e for w ard T e n n y s on w i th i n c r e as i n g c on fi d e n c e i n h i m se lf
,

a n d h i s m e ssa e
g s t e a d ily , m a i n t a i n e d h i s pl ac e a s t h e b e s t kn ow n

a n d b e s t l ov e d p o e t i n En l an d
g .
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE

The y e ar 1 85 0 w as a ha p p y on e fo r T e n n y son . H e w as ppo in te d a

p o e t l au re ate , to su c c e e d Word sworth ; an d he m arr i e d Em ily S e llw ood ,

H e r w h os e g e n tl e w i ll ha s c h an g e d m y fa te
An d m a d e m y l i fe a p e r fu m e d a l tar fl a m e ,

w hom h e h ad l ove d
fo r t hi rte e n y e ars , b u t w h om hi s p ov e rty had p r e
v e n te d hi m from m a r ryi n g. Th e y e ar i s m ad e fu rth e r r e m arkabl e by
t h e p u bli c a ti on of I n M e m or i a m p robably t h e m os t e n d u rin g of h i s
,

p oe m s u p
, o n w h i c h h e h ad w o rk e d a t i n t e r v al s fo r s i x t e e n y e a rs T h r e e .

e a r s l a t e r w it h t h e m o n e y t ha t h i s w o rk n o w b ro u gh t hi m h e l e a se d
y , ,

t h e hou s e Fa rr i n gford i n t h e I s l e o f Wi gh t an d s e ttl e d i n t h e fi rs t

, ,

p e rm an e n t hom e h e had kn ow n s in c e he l e ft the re c tory at Som e r sby .

Fo r t h e r e m ain i n g fo rty y e ars of h i s li fe h e li v e d like Wo rd s ,

”
w o rt h , i n the s t ill n e ss of a gr e at p e ac e w ri ti n g s t e ad ily an d e m
, ,

j oy in g the fri e n d ship of a l arge n u m b e r of p e op l e s o m e d i s tin gu i s h e d

som e Ob sc u r e fro m t h e k i n d ly an d s y m p a th e t i c V
, ,

,
i c t o ri a to th e s e r v
an t s o n h i s o w n fa rm All o f the s e h e c all e d w i th e qu al s in c e ri ty h i s
.

fri e n d s an d to e ac h on e h e w a s t h e sa m e m an s i m p l e s t ron g
, , , ,
"
kin d ly an d n obl e
, Carlyl e d e sc r i b e s h i m as a fin e l arge fe at u r e d
. ,
-
,

d i m e y e d b ron ze c ol o re d shaggy h e ad e d m an
-
,
-
,
-
m o s t r e s tfu l , ,
”
b rot h e rly s olid h e art e d
, Lo v i n g s oli tu d e an d hati n g p u bli c i ty as
-
.

h e did t he n u m e rou s t ou ri s ts from bo th s i d e s o f th e o c e an w ho

, ,

sou gh t h i m ou t i n h i s r e tr e at an d i n s i s t e d u on s e e i n h i m m ad e
p g ,

hi s li fe at t i m e s i n t ol e rabl e I n fl u e n c e d p a r t ly b y t h e d e s i r e t o e s
.

c a p e su c h o
p p u l ar ity h e b o u
g h t l,a n d a n d b u il t f o r h i m s e l f a n e w
hou s e Ald w or th i n Su rr e y t hou gh h e m ad e h i s h om e i n Fa rri n g
, , ,

ford fo r t h e gre at e r p a r t of t h e y e ar .

H i s l ab o r d u rin g th e s e y e a rs an d h i s m ar v e l ou s fre s hn e s s an d
y ou thfu ln e ss of fe e lin g are b e s t u n d e rs tood b y a gl an c e at the c on
t e n ts Of hi s c om p l e t e w ork s I n fe ri or p oe m s lik e Tb c P r i n ce ss
. , ,

w h i c h w as w r i tt e n i n t h e fi r s t fl u s h of h i s s u c c e s s an d h i s d ram as , ,

w hic h w e r e w r i tt e n a gai n s t t h e advi c e o f hi s b e s t fri e n d s m ay e a s ily ,

b e c ritic i s e d ; b u t the b u lk of hi s v e r s e s how s an a s ton i s hin g o r i gi

n al i ty an d v i go r t o th e v e r y e n d H e di e d v e ry qu i e tly at Ald w o r th
. ,

w i th h i s fam ily abou t h i m i n t h e m oon l i gh t an d b e s id e hi m a vol u m e ,

of S hak e s p e are O p e n at t h e di rge i n Cy m be l i n e

,

F e ar m ore th e h e a t th e
’
no 0 su n ,

N o r th e fu ri ou s w i n te r
’
s r ag e s ;
T h ou th y w o r l d l y t a s k h as t d o n e ,
H om e a r t g on e , an d t a e n th y w ag e s .
’
4 6 2 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Th e s t ro n g an d n o bl e spi rit of his life i s r e fl e c te d i n on e of hi s be st

kn ow n p oe m s , Cross in g th e B ar w h i c h w as w r i t t e n i n
, hi s e ighty

fi rs t y e ar , an d w h i c h h e d e s i re d s hou ld b e plac e d at the e n d of h is

c oll e c t e d k
w or s :

S u n se t an d e v e n i n g s tar ,

An d on e c l e ar c a ll fo r me !
A n d m a y the re b e no m oan i n g of th e b ar,
W he n I pu t ou t to se a,

B ut su ch a t i de as , v
m o i ng, se e ms l
as e e p,
T o o fu ll fo r s o u n d an d fo a m ,
Whe n th a t w hi c h d re w f rom o u t th e b ou n d e s s d e e p l
Tu rns ag a i n h om e .

Tw i l i gh t an d e ve ning b e ll ,
An d a fte r th a t th e d ar k !
An d m ay th e re b e n o s ad n e s s of fa re w e ll ,
W he n I e m b ar k ;
F or th o from ’
b ou r n e o f T i m e
ou t ou r an d Pl a c e
T h e fl oo d m ay b e ar m e far ,
I h op e t o s e e m y Pi l o t fa c e t o f ac e
W he n I h a v e c ros t th e b ar .

Work s . At t t of ou r s t u dy of Te n n y s on s w ork s
t he ou s e
’

it m ay b e w e ll t o r e c o r d t w o thi n g s b y w ay of s u gge s ti on ,
.

F i rs t T e n n y s on s p oe t ry i s n ot s o m u ch t o b e s t u di e d a s t o
’

b e r e ad an d a pp re ci at e d ; h e i s a p oe t t o h av e op e n on o n e s
’

t abl e an d t o e n j oy as o n e e n j oy s hi s d ail y e x e r ci s e A n d
,
.

s e c on d w e s h ou ld b al l m e an s b e g i n t o g e t a cq u ai n t e d with
, y
T e n n y s on i n t h e d ay s of ou r y o uth U n lik e B r ow n i n g w ho .
,

i s g e n e ra ll y app r e ci at e d b y m o r e m at u re m i n d s Te n n y s on ,

i s fo r e n j oy m e n t fo r i n s pi r a ti o n ra th e r th an fo r i n s t ru cti on
, ,
.

O n ly y ou th c an f u ll y app r e ci a t e h i m ; an d y ou th u n for t u ,

n at e l e xc e pt i n a fe w r a r e b u ti fu l c a s e s i s s o m e thi n g
y , e a , ,

which d oe s n o t dw e ll with u s l o n g aft e r ou r s ch o ol d ay s The .

s e c r e t of p oe t r i s to b e
’
e s p e ci all o f Te n n s on s p oe t r
y ,y y y ,

e t e rn all
y y ou n g a n d lik
,
e A d a m i n Par adi s e
,
t o fin d e v e ry ,

m o rn i n g a n e w w orl d , fr e s h w on d e rfu l i n s pi r i n g as i f j u s t
, , ,

from t h e h an d s of God .
 6
4 4 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

h e ar Te n n y s on re a d it
h ou ld app re ci at e i t b e tt e r ; b u t
,
we s ,

o n t h e wh o l e it s e e m s ov e rw ro u ght an d m e l od ram atic Ev e n

, .

Co m e i n t o t h e G ar d e n M au d
”
i t s l y ri c s lik e
,
which m ake , ,

thi s w or k a fav or i t e with y o u n g l ov e rs are ch aract e r i ze d b y ,

p re tti n e s s rath e r th an b y b e au t y o r s t r e n g th .

Pe r h ap s t he m os t l o v e d of all T e n n y s on s w o r k s i s I n M e
’

m or i a m which on a cc ou n t of b o th i t s th e m e a n d i t s e xq u i s it e
, ,

w ork m an s hip i s o n e of t h e fe w i m m o rt al n am e s
,
I n M m ori am
e
th a t w e r e n o t b o r n t o d i e T h e i m m e di at e o cc a .

s i on o f thi s r e m a r k abl e p oe m w a s T e n n s o n s p rofou n d p e r

’

y
s on al g r i e f a t t h e d e a th of hi s fr i e n d H all am A s h e w ro t e .

l y ric aft e r ly r ic i n s pi re d b y thi s s ad s ubj e ct th e p oe t s g ri e f

, ,
’

b e c am e l e s s p e r s on al an d th e g re at e r g ri e f of h u m an ity
—

m ou r n i n g for i t s d e ad an d q u e s ti on i n g i t s i m m o r t alit y t oo k
p os s e s s i on o f hi m G rad u ally t h e p oe m b e c am e an e xp re s
.

s i on fi r s t of u n iv e rs al d o u bt an d th e n of u n iv e rs al faith
, , , ,

a fa ith which r e s t s u lti m a t e l y n o t o n re as o n or phil os oph

y ,

but o n t h e s o u l s i n s ti n c t f or i m m or t ality Th e i m m or t alit y

’
.

of h u m an l o v e i s t h e th e m e o f t h e p oe m which i s m ad e u p ,

o f o v e r o n e h u n d re d di ffe r e n t l y r ic s T he m o v e m e n t t ak e s .

u s th rou g h th r e e
y e a rs r i s i n g S l owl
y f ro m p oi g n a n t s o r r ow
,

an d d o u bt t o a c al m p e ac e an d h o p e a n d e n di n g with a ,

n o bl e h m n of c o u r a e a n d fa ith
y g a m o d e s t c o u r a g e,
an d
—

a h u m bl e faith l ov e i n s pi re d — which will b e a fav o r it e as

,
-
,

l on g as s add e n e d m e n t u r n t o lit e rat u re for c o n s ol ation .

Th o u gh D ar wi n s g re at e s t b ook s h ad n o t y e t b e e n w r itt e n
’

s ci e n c e h ad al re ad o v e r t u rn e d m an ol d c o n c e pti on s o f li fe ;
y y
a n d T e n n s o n w h o liv e d ap ar t an d th ou ght d e e pl on al l t h e
y , y
p r obl e m s of hi s d ay gav e thi s p oe m t o t he w or ld as hi s ow n
,

an s w e r t o t h e d o u bt s a n d q u e s ti on i n g s of m e n Thi s u n iv e r .

s al h u m an i n t e r e s t t o e th e r with i t s e xq u i s it e for m an d m e l
g ,

od m ak e s t h e p oe m i p p u l ar fav o r a t l e as t t h e s u p r e m e
y, n o , ,

th re n od y o r e l e g i ac p oe m of ou r lit e rat u re ; th ou gh Milt on s

, ,
’

Ly c i d a s i s fr om t he c ritic al vi e w p oi n t u n d ou bt e dly a m ore

, ,

ar ti s tic w ork .
4 6 6 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

Tke I dy l l s f o k stke
a m o n g t K i ng
h e g r e a t e s t of Te n n
ran
y
I t s g e n e ral s u bj e ct i s t he C e ltic l e g e n d s
’
s on s l at e r w o rk s .

I dy ll s of th e o f K i n g A r th u r a n d h i s k n i ht s of t h e
g R o u n d
Kin g T abl e an d t he chi e f s ou r c e of i t s m at e r i al i s
,

Mal o ry s M or te d Ar tlt u r H e re i n thi s m as s o f b e a uti fu l

’ ’
.
,

l e ge n d s i s c e r tai n ly the s ubj e c t of a g re a t n ati o n al e pic ; y e t

,

aft e r f ou r h u n d re d y e ar s du r i n g which m an y p oe t s h av e u s e d ,

t he m a t e r i al t h e g r e a t e pic i s s till u n w r itt e n

,
Milt on a n d .

S p e n s e r a s w e h av e al r e ad y n o t e d c on s id e re d thi s m at e ri al
, ,

c are fu ll y ; an d Milt on al on e of al l En gli s h w rit e rs had p e r , ,

h ap s t he p ow e r t o u s e it i n a g re a t e pic Te n n y s on b e gan t o .

u s e th e s e l e g e n d s i n h i s M or te d A r tk u r ( 1 84 2 ) b u t t he e pic
’

id e a p rob abl y o cc u r r e d t o h i m l a t e r i n 1 8 5 6 wh e n he b e gan

V
, ,
“ ” ”
G e rai n t a n d En id an d he add e d t h e s t o ri e s of ,
ivi e n ,
” ”
El ai n e G u i ne v e re an d o th e r h e r oe s an d h e r oi n e s at i n
, ,

t he l as t of t h e I dy l ls app e are d i n 1 885

”
t e rv al s u n til,
B ali n , ,
.

L at e r th e s e w or k s w e r e ga th e r e d t oge th e r an d arran ge d with

a n att e m pt at u n i t y T he r e s u l t i s i n n o s e n s e a n e pic p o e m
‘ ’

.
,

b u t r ath e r a s e ri e s o f s i n gl e p oe m s l oos e ly c on n e ct e d b y a
t h r e a d o f i n t e re s t i n A r th u r t he c e n t r al p e r s on ag e an d i n h i s , ,

u n s u cc e s s fu l att e m pt t o fou n d an id e al ki n g d om .

E n t i r e l y di ffe r e n t i n s pi r it i s an o th e r c oll e c ti on of p oe m s
1
c all e d E ng l i s k I dy ls which b e gan i n t h e P oe m s o f 1 84 2 , ,

E gl i s h
n
a n d which T e n n
y s o n i n t e n d e d s h ou ld re fl e c t t h e

I d Y‘t‘
id e al s o f wid e l y di ffe re n t t y p e s o f En gli s h li fe Of .

” ”
th e s e v ari e d p oe m s D or a The G ar d e n e r s D au ght e r
’

, , ,
“ ” ”
U lys se s Lo ck s l e y H all
,
an d S i r G al ah a d ar e t he

b e s t ; b u t all are w or thy of s t u d y On e of t he m o s t fam ou s .

'

E n och A rd e n
”
of thi s s e r i e s i s i n w hi c h T e n n y f

s o n t u r n s fro m m e di ae v al k n i ht s f m l or d s h e s a n d
g ro e ro , , ,

fa i r l adi e s t o fin d t h e m at e r i al fo r t ru e p oe t ry a m on g t he
,

l owl y p e o pl e th at m ak e u p t he b u lk of En gli s h li fe I t s rare .

m e l od y i t s s y m p a th y fo r c o m m on li fe an d i t s r e v e l a ti o n of
, ,

1 Te n n y son m ad e a d i ti
s n c t on i in S pe lli n
g b e t w e e n t he I dy ll s o f ti re K i ng , an d t he
En g l i s k I dy l s , lik e D ora .
”
468 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

h e re th re e wid e ly di ffe r e n t p o e m s y e t th e th e m e of e ach

ar e ,

s o far as p o e t ry i s a ki n d o f s pi r it u al phil os oph y an d w e i g h s

i t s w or d s b e f ore it u tt e r s th e m i s t h e or d e rl y d e v e l op m e n t ,

of l aw i n t h e n at u r al a n d i n t h e s pi r it u al w orld .

T hi s c e r t ai n l y i s a n e w d o ct ri n e i n p oe t ry b u t t h e m e s s ag e ,

d o e s n o t e n d h e re Law i m pli e s a s o u r c e a m e th od an O b
.
, ,

Te nn s o s n j e
» c t T e n n
.
y s on a f t e r fa ci n g h i s d o u bt s h o n e s tl y
y ,

Me s s ag e
a n d m an fu ll fi n d s l aw e v e n i n t h e s o rr o w s an d
y ,

l os s e s o f h u m a n it y H e g iv e s thi s law an i n fi n it e an d p e rs o n al
.

s ou r c e a n d fi n d s t h e s u p r e m e p u r po s e o f al l l aw t o b e a r e v e
,

l ati o n of divi n e l ov e Al l e ar thl y l ov e th e re fo re b e c o m e s an

.
, ,

i m age of t he h e av e n l y Wh a t fi r s t p e r h ap s att r act e d re ad e r s t o

.
,

T e n n y s on a s t o S h ak e s p e a r e w as t h e c h a r ac t e r O f hi s w o m e n
, , ,

—
p u re g e n tl e r e fi n e d b e i n gs wh o m w e m u s t r e v e r e as ou r
, , ,

A n gl o S ax o n for e fa th e rs r e v e r e d t h e w o m e n th e y l ov e d Like
-
.

B r ow n i n g t h e p oe t h ad l o v e d o n e g ood w o m an s u p r e m e l y
, ,

a n d h e r l ov e m ad e cl e ar t h e m e a n i n g of al l li fe T he m e s s age .
.

g o e s on e s t e p f ar th e r B e c a u s e
. l a w a n d l o v e a r e i n t h e w or ld ,

faith i s t h e o n ly r e a s o n abl e attit u d e t ow ar d li fe an d d e ath ,

e v e n th ou g h w e u n d e r s t an d th e m n o t S u ch i n a fe w w or d s.
, ,

s e e m s t o b e T e n n s on s wh ol e m e s s ag e an d phil os o ph
’

y y .

I f w e a tt e m pt n ow t o fix T e n n y s o n s p e r m an e n t pl ac e i n
’

lit e r at u r e as t h e r e s u lt of h i s li fe an d w ork w e m u s t appl y

, ,

t o hi m t h e s am e t e s t th at w e a ppli e d t o Milt on an d Wo rd s
w orth an d i n d e e d t o all o u r g r e at p oe t s an d as k with t h e
, , , ,

G e r m a n c ri tic s W h at n e w thi n g has h e s aid t o t h e w orld

,

o r e v e n t o hi s o w n c ou n t r ? T h an s we r i s f r a n kl th at
y e y , ,

w e d o n o t y e t k n o w s u r e l y ; th a t w e ar e s till t oo n e ar Te n n y

s on t o j u d g e hi m i m p e rs o n all T hi s m u ch h ow e v e r i s C l e ar
y .
, ,
.

I n a m a r v e l ou s l y c o m pl e x ag e a n d am id a h u n d re d g r e a t m e n
, ,

h e w a s r e gar d e d a s a l e ad e r F o r a fu ll h al f c e n t u ry h e w as
.

t h e v oic e o f En gl an d l ov e d an d h on or e d a s a m an a n d a p oe t
, ,

n o t S i m pl b a fe w di s c e r n i n g c r itic s b u t b a wh ol e p e opl e
y y y ,

th at d o n ot e as il y g iv e th e i r all e g i an c e t o an y on e m an An d .

th at for th e p re s e n t i s Te n n y s on s s u ffici e n t e u l ogy

, ,
’
.
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 4 69

R OB E R T B R OW NI NG ( I 81 2— 1 889)

H ow g ood i s m an s l i fe , th e m e r e l i v i n g ! h ow fit to e m p l o y
’

Al l th e h e ar t a n d th e s o u l a n d th e s e n s e s fo r e v e r i n joy !

In th i s n e w s o n g of D avid fro m B ro w n i n g s S a u l w e h av e
,
’

a s u g ge s ti on o f t h e a s t o n i s hi n g vi g o r a n d h o p e th a t Ch ara c

t e r i ze all t h e w o r k s of B ro w n i n g t h e o n e p oe t of t h e age ,

w ho aft e r thi rt y y e a r s of c o n ti n u ou s w or k w as fi n all y r e c og

, ,

n i ze d a n d pl ac e d b e s id e T e n n y s o n an d wh om fu t u re age s ,
'

m ay j u d g e t o b e a g r e a t e r p o e t p e r h ap s e v e n t h e g r e a t
,
—
, ,

e s t i n o u r lit e r a t u re s i n c e S h a k e s p e a r e .

T he chi e f di ffi c u lty i n re a di n g B r ow n i n g i s t he o b s c u ri ty
of h i s s t y l e which t h e c r itic s of h al f a c e n t u ry ag o h e ld u p
,

Th e i r attit u d e t ow ar d s t h e p oe t s e a r l y w o rk m ay
’
t o r idic u l e .

b e i n fe rre d fro m T e n n y s on s h u m o r ou s c ri t I CI s m o f S or d e l l o
’
.

I t m ay b e re m e m b e r e d th at t h e fi r s t li n e of thi s o b s c u r e p oe m
is,
Who will m ay h e ar S or d e llo s s t ory t old ’
an d th a t t h e
”

l as t li n e i s Who wou ld has h e ard S ord e ll o 5 s t ory t old

,
”
.

Te n n y s o n r e m ar k e d th a t th e s e w e r e t he o nl y li n e s i n t he
wh ol e p oe m th at he u n d e r s t ood an d th at th e y w e r e e vid e n tl y
,

b o th li e s I f w e att e m pt t o e xpl ai n thi s o b s c u r it y whi ch

.
,

p u zzl e d Te n n y s on an d m an y l e s s fr i e n dly c r itic s w e fin d th a t ,

it h as m an y s ou r c e s Fi rs t t h e p oe t s th ou ght i s Oft e n oh
.
,
’

s c u re or e l s e s o e xt r e m e l s u btl e th at l an gu ag e e xp re s s e s it
, y
i m p e rf e ctl y ,

Th o u g h ts h a rd l y t o b e p a c k e d
I n to a n a r r o w a c t,

F a n c i e s t h a t b ro k e th r o u g h l a n g u ag e an d e s c a p e d .

S e c o n d , B r o wn i n g i s l e d fro m thi n g t o an o th e r b y hi s
on e

o w n m e n t al a s s o ci a ti on s a n d fo r e t s th a t t h e re ad e r s a s s o ci a
’

g ,

B m wni n g s ti on s m ay b e Of an e n ti re l y di ffe r e n t ki n d Thi rd

, .
,

Ob s cu ri t y B row n i n g i s c ar e l e s s i n hi s En gli s h an d fr e q u e n tl y ,

clip s h i s s p e e ch g ivi n g u s a s e r i e s o f e j ac u l ati on s As w e

, .

d o n o t q u it e u n d e rs t an d hi s p r o c e s s e s of th ou g ht w e m u s t ,

s t op b e tw e e n t h e e j ac u l a ti o n s t o t rac e o u t t h e c on n e cti o n s .
4 70 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

’
F ou r th , B row n i n g s ll u s i on s are oft e n far fe tch e d re fe r
a -
,

r i n g t o s o m e odd s c r a p of i n for m ati o n which h e h as pick e d

u p i n hi s wid e r e adi n g a n d t he o r di n ar r e ad e r fi n d s it
, y
di ffi c u lt t o t r ac e an d u n d e r s t an d th e m F i n ally B row n i n g
.
,

w ro t e t oo m u ch an d re vi s e d t oo littl e Th e ti m e which he
.

s h ou ld h av e g iv e n t o m aki n g o n e th o u ght cl e ar w a s u s e d i n

e xp re s s i n g o th e r th ou ght s th a t fl i t t e d th r o u g h hi s h e a d lik e

a fl o ck o f s w all ow s H i s fi e ld w as t h e i n divid u al s ou l n e v e r
.
,

e x actl a lik e i n an t w o men a n d he s ou g ht t o e xp re s s

y y ,

t h e hidd e n m o ti v e s
an d p r i n cipl e s which

g o v e r n i n divid u a l a o

ti on I n thi s fi e ld h e
“

i s lik e a m i n e r d e lvi n g
u n d e rg r ou n d s e n di n g ,

u p m as s e s o f m i n g l e d

e a r th an d ore a n d t he

r e ad e r m u s t s i ft all

thi s m at e r i al t o s e p a
‘

r at e t h e g o ld fr om t h e

d ro s s .

H e r e c e r t ai n ly a re
, ,

s u ffi ci e n t r e a s o n s fo r
’
B rown i n g s o b s c u r it y ;
an d w e m u s t a d d t h e
R O B ER T B R O WN I N G
w or d th a t t he fau lt
s e e m s u n p ar d on a bl e fo r t h e S I m p l e re as on th a t B r ow n i n g
,

s h o w s hi m s e l f c ap abl e a t ti m e s
,
of w r iti n g di r e ctl
, y m e l o di ,

ou s l an d with n o bl e S i m plicit
y, y .

S O m u ch for t he fau lt s which m u s t b e fa c e d a n d ov e r l ook e d

,
’
b e fore on e fi n d s t he t re a s u r e th at i s hidd e n i n B row n i n g s
B row ni n g a s p oe t ry . Of al l t he p o e t s i n ou r lit e ra tu r e n o o th e r ,

a Te a Ch e f
i s s o c o m pl e t e l y s o c on s ci ou s ly s o m agn ific e n tl y
, ,

a t e a ch e r of m e n . H e fe e l s h i s m i s s i o n o f faith an d c ou rag e
i n a w o r ld o f d o ubt an d ti m idit y F o r thi r t y y e ar s he fac e d
.
472 E N G LI S H LI TER AT U R E

Lon d on ; an d the c ity li ght s by n i gh t a n d t he s m oky c hi m n e y s b y

d ay had t h e sam e p ow e rfu l fasc in at ion for t he c h ild t hat th e w o od s
an d fi e l d s an d t h e b e au t i fu l c o u n t ry had for h i s fr i e n d T e n n y son .

H is sc ho o lin g w as sho rt an d d e s u l tory hi s e d u c ation b e in g att e n d e d,

t o b y p ri v a t e t u tors an d b y hi s fathe r w ho l e ft t h e b oy l arge ly t o ,

foll ow h i s ow n i n c li n at i on Li ke t he y ou n g Mil ton B row n i n g w a s

Ab t V
.
,
"
fon d of m u si c an d i n m an y o f hi s p o e m s e sp e c i ally i n
, , og
“ ”
l e r an d A Toc c ata of G al u pp i s h e i n t e rp r e ts th e m u s i c al t e m
’
,

e ra m e n t b e tt e r p e rh ap s t h an an y o th e r w r i t e r i n o u r li te r a tu r e
p , ,
.

B u t u n like M i l t on t hr ou gh w h o s e p oe t ry t h e r e ru n s a gre at m e l od y
, ,

m u s i c se e m s t o have had n o c on s i s te n t e ffe c t u p on h i s ve r s e w h i c h ,

i s ofte n s o j arri n g t hat on e m u st w on d e r how a m u s i c al e ar c ou ld

hav e e n d u r e d it .

Like Te n n y son thi s b oy fou n d h i s w ork v e ry e arly an d for fi fty

, ,

y e ar s hard ly a w e e k p ass e d that he d id n o t w ri te p o e try H e be gan .

at s i x t o p ro d u c e v e r s e s i n i m i tat i on o f B y ron
, b u t fortu n at e ly t h is
e arly w o rk has b e e n l o st Th e n h e fe ll u n d e r t h e in fl u e n c e o f
.

S he ll e y an d h i s fi rst kn ow n w ork P a u l i n e
, , m u s t b e c on s id
e r e d as a t r ibu t e t o S h e ll e y an d h i s p o e tr y Te n n ys on s e arli e s t
’
.

w ork P oe m s by Tw o B r otlze r s had b e e n p u bli s h e d an d w e ll p aid

, ,

for fiv e y e ars b e fore ; b u t B rown i n g c o u ld fin d n o p u bli sh e r w ho

,

w ou l d e ve n c on s i d e r P a u l i n e an d t h e w ork w as p u bli s h e d b y m e an s
,

of m o n e y fu rn i s h e d b y an i n d u l ge n t r e l a t ive Thi s p o e m r e c e i v e d
.

s c an t n o t i c e fr o m t h e r e v i e w e r s w h o h ad p ou n c e d lik e hawks on a
,

d ov e c ot e u p on T e n n y s on s fi rst tw o m od e st vol u m e s Tw o y e ar s
’
.

l at e r ap p e ar e d Pa r a ce ls u s an d t h e n h i s t rage dy S tr afior d w as p u t
,

u p on t h e s t age b u t n ot til l S or de l l o w as p u bli sh e d i n 1 84 0 d i d h e , ,

att rac t a t t e n t i on e n o u gh t o b e d e n o u n c e d fo r th e o b s c u rity an d va

g a r i e s o f h i s s t yl e . S i x
y e ar s l at e r i n 1 846 h e ,
s u dd e n l
y,
b e c am e

fam ou s n o t b e c au s e h e fi n i sh e d i n t hat y e a r hi s B e l ls a n d Pom e

,

g r a n a te s
( w h i c h i s B r o w n i n g s s y m b ’
o li c n am e f o r p oe t ry and

t hou gh t or s i n gi n g an d se rm on i zi n g b u t b e c au s e h e e l op e d w i t h
t h e b e s t kn own l i t e rary w om an in En gl an d Elizab e t h Barre tt w h ose , ,

fam e w as fo r m an y y e ars b oth b e for e an d aft e r h e r m arri age m u c h

, ,

g r e a t e r t h an B ro w n i n g
’
s a
,
n d w h o w a s a t fi rs t c o n s id e r e d s u p e r i or t o

T e n n ys on . Th e r e aft e r u n til hi s ow n w ork c o m p e ll e d a t t e n t i on h e

, ,

w as kn ow n c h i e fl y a s t h e m an w h o m arri e d Eli zab e th Bar r e tt For .

a rs t h i s l a d h d b l m t h l l i v lid n d i t se e m e d a
y e y a e e n a n a o s e p e ss n a a ,

qu i x otic t hin g w h e n B rown in g havin g fail e d t o gain he r fam i ly s c on

,
’

se n t t o th e m arri age , c arr i e d h e r Off rom an t i c ally Love an d Italy .

 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE

pro v e d b e tt e r t han he r h y i i an d for fi ft e e n y e ars B row n in g

“

p s c an s ,
\

an d h i s w i fe li v e d i d e ally happ y l ife i n

an Pi sa an d i n Fl or e n c e .
T h e e x qu i s i t e ro m an c e of t h e i r l ov e i s p r e s e r v e d i n Mr s B row n i n g s
’
.

S on n e ts f r om t/ze Por tug u e s e an d i n t h e v o l u m e of Le tte r s re c e n tl y

,

u b li sh e d w o n d e r fu l l e t t e rs b t s o t e n d e r an d i n ti m at e th at i t
p u
-
, ,

s e e m s al m os t a s ac ri l e ge fo r i n qu i s i t iv e e e s t o re ad t h e m
y .

Mrs B ro wn in g d i e d i n Fl or e n c e i n 1 86 1 Th e lo ss s e e m e d at
. .

fi rs t too m u c h to b e ar an d B rown in g fl e d w ith h i s s on t o En gl an d

,
.

Fo r t h e r e m ai n d e r o f h i s li fe h e li v e d a l t e rn a t e ly i n Lon d on an d i n
vari ou s p arts of I taly e s p e c i ally at the Palazzo R e zzon i c o i n V
, e n ic e , ,

w h i c h i s n o w an obj e c t of p il gr i m age t o al m o s t e v e ry to u r i s t w h o
vi si ts t h e b e au tifu l C i ty Wh e re v e r h e w e n t h e m in gl e d w i th m e n
.

an d w om e n s o c i abl e
, w e l l d r e s s e d c ou rt e ou s l o v i n g c r ow d s an d
, , ,

o
p p u l a r a pp l au s e t h e , v e r y r e v e r s e o f h i s f r i e n d T e n n y s on H i s .

e a rli e r w o rk h ad b e e n m u c h b e tt e r a p p r e c i a t e d i n Am e r i c a t h an i n

En gl an d ; b u t w i th t h e p u bli c a t i on o f Tb e R i ng a n d tb c B ook i n ,

1 86 8 h e w as a t l as t r e c o n i ze d by h i s c ou n t r y m e n a s o n e of t h e
g
H e d ie d in V
,

gre at e st Of En gli s h p oe ts . e n ic e on D e c e m b e r 1 2 , ,

1 88
9 , t h e s a m e d a
y th a t sa w t h e p u bli c a t i o n o f h i s l a s t w o r k ,

As ol a n d o . Tho u gh I tal y offe r e d h i m an h on or e d r e s t i n g p l ac e ,

En gl an d c l a i m e d h i m fo r h e r ow n an d h e li e s bu r i e d b e s id e T e n n y ,

s o n i n We s t m i n s t e r Abb e y Th e s p i r i t o f hi s w h ol e li fe i s m agn i fi
.

c e n tl
y e x p r e s s e d i n h i s o w n li n e s i n t h e E p il o g u e o f
,
h i s l a s t b o ok
On e w h o ne ve r t u rn e d h i s b a c k , b u t m ar c h e d b r e as t fo rw a r d ,
N e v e r d o u b te d l
c ou d s w o u d b re a l k ,

N e v e r d re a m e d , t h o ’
r i gh t w e r e w o r s te d , w r o n g w o u ld tri u m p h ,
H e l d w e fall t o ri se , a re b affl e d t o fi ght b e t te r ,

S l e e p to w ak e .

Wo r k s . A g l an c e at e ve n the ti tl e s whic h B r ow n i n g
g a ve to hi s b e s t k n o wn v ol u m e s — D r a m a t i c Ly r i cs
.

D ra m a t i c R om a n c e s a nd Ly r i cs Me n a n d Wom e n
D ra m a ti s
( P e r s on w
will s u gg e s t h o w s t r o n g 86 4 )
'

1 -

t he d r a m a ti c e l e m e n t i s i n a l l h i s w o r k I n d e e d all hi s .
,

p oe m s m ay b e divid e d i n t o th r e e cl a s s e s — p u re d r am as , ,

lik e S trafior d an d A B l ot i n tke S c u tcb e on ; d r am a tic n ar r a ’

t i v e s lik e P ipp a P a s s e s
,
which ar e d ram atic i n fo rm b u t , ,

w e r e n ot m e an t t o b e act e d ; an d d ram a tic l y r ic s lik e Tb e ,

L a s t R i d e Tog e t/t e r which a r e s h o r t p oe m s e xp r e s s i n g s o m e

,
4 74 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

t
s r on g p e rs on al e m o ti o n or d e s c r ibi n g s om e d r am atic e pi s od e
,

i n h u m an li fe an d i n which t h e h e ro hi m s e l f g e n e rall y t e ll s
,

t h e s t o ry .

T h o u g h B r ow n i n g i s o ft e n c o m p are d with S h ak e s p e ar e ,

t h e r e a d e r will u n d e r s t an d th a t h e h as v e r y littl e of S h ak e
’

B ow n i g a d
r n
s p e a
n
r e s d r a m a tic t al e n t H e c a n n o t b r i n g .a g r o u p
S ha k s p are o f p e opl e t o e th e r a n d l e t t h e a cti on s an d w o r d s
e e
g
of h i s ch ar a ct e r s S h o w u s t h e c o m e d a n d t r ag e d of h u m an
y y
li fe N e ith e r c an t h e au th or b e di s i n t e re s t e d s ati s fi e d as
.
, ,

S h ak e s p e ar e w as with li fe it s e l f with ou t d rawi n g a n y m or al

, ,

c o n cl u s i on s B row n i n g h as alw ay s a m or al r e ad y an d i n s i s t s
.
,

u p o n g ivi n g u s hi s o w n vi e w s of li fe which S h ak e s p e ar e ,

n e v e r d oe s H i s d ram atic p ow e r li e s i n d e pi cti n g wh a t h e

.

hi m s e l f c all s t he hi s t ory of a s ou l S om e ti m e s as i n P a r a ce l .
,

s us ,
h e e n d e av o r s t o t r a c e t h e p ro g r e s s of t h e h u m an s pi rit .

Mo r e Oft e n h e t ak e s s o m e d r am atic m o m e n t i n li fe s om e ,

c r i s i s i n t h e c e as e l e s s s t ru ggl e b e tw e e n go od an d e vil an d ,

d e s c r ib e s with w o n d e rfu l i n s i ght t h e h e ro s ow n th ou ght s ’

a n d fe e li n g s ; b u t h e al m os t i n v ar i abl t e ll s u s h ow a t s u ch
y ,

a n d s u ch a p o i n t t h e g o o d or t h e e vil i n h i s h e r o m u s t i n e vi
,

t ably h av e t r i u m ph e d A n d g e n e rally a s i n My Las t D u ch

.
,

e ss ,
t h e s p e ak e r a dd s a w or d h e re an d th e re a s id e fr om t h e ,

s t or which u n c o n s ci o u s l S h ow s t h e ki n d o f m an h e i s I t
y , y .

i s thi s p ow e r o f re v e ali n g t h e s ou l f ro m withi n th a t c a u s e s

B r ow n i n g t o fas ci n at e th os e w h o s t u d y hi m l on g e n o u g h .

H i s r an ge i s e n o r m ou s a n d b ri n g s al l s or t s an d c on diti on s
V
,
” “
o f m e n u n d e r a n al s i s
y T h e m u s ici an i n
. A b t o gl e r t h e ,
” “
ar ti s t i n A n d r e a d e l S ar t o t h e e ar ly Ch r i s ti an i n A D e ath
,

i n t he D e s e r t
”
t h e A ra b h or s e m an i n
,
Mu l éy ke h t he s ail or
”
,
“ ”
in H e rv e R i e l t h e m e di ae v al k n i g ht i n
,
Child e R ol an d ,
”
B al au s t i on s A d v e n
’
t he H e b r e w i n S au l t h e G re e k i n,
”
t u re t h e m on s t e r i n Calib an th e i m m or t al d e ad i n K ar s h
, ,
”
i s h — al l th e s e an d a h u n d re d m or e hi s t o r i e s of t h e s ou l
,

S h o w B r o w n i n g s m ar v e l ou s v e rs atilit I t i s thi s g r e a t r an ge
’

y .

of s y m p ath y with m a n y di ffe r e n t t y p e s of li fe th a t c on s tit u t e s

476 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

I n t he thi rd p e ri od b e g i n n i n g wh e n B row n i n g w as n e arl y

,

S ixt e ars o ld h e w r o t e e v e n m o r e i n d u s t r i ou s l th an b e fo re
y y , y ,

an d p u bli s h e d o n a n a v e r ag e n e ar l a v o l u m e of
Th i d Pe ri od
r
y
p oe t ry a y e ar S uch v ol u m e s as F i/i n e a t tb c Fa i r
.
‘
,

R e d Cotton N zgkt- Cap Cou n try , Tb e I nn Alb u m j , ocos e r i a , a n d

m an y th e r s s h o w how B row n i n g g ai n s s t e adil y i n t he p ow e r

o ,

of re v e ali n g t h e hidd e n s p r i n g s of hu m an a cti o n ; b u t he

o ft e n r a m bl e s m os t ti r e s o m e l an d i n g e n e ral hi s w or k l os e s i n
y ,

s u s t ai n e d i n t e r e s t I t i s p e r h ap s s i gn ific an t th a t m os t of hi s
.

b e s t w o r k w as d on e u n d e r Mr s B rown i n g s i n fl u e n c e .
’
.

Wh at t o R e ad Of t he S h or t m i s c e ll an e ou s p oe m s th e r e i s
.

s u ch a n u n u s u al v ar i e t y th a t o n e m u s t h e s it a t e a littl e i n s u g

g e s t i n g t h i s o r th a t t o t h e b e
g i n n e r s a tt e n ti on M y S
’
t a r .
,

Ev e l y n H op e
” “
Wan ti n g i s — What
,
H o m e T h ou ght s
Me e ti n g a t N i ght On e W or d Mor e
” ” “
fr o m A b road , , ( an
”
e x q u i s it e t rib u t e t o h i s d e ad wi fe ) Pros pic e ( L oo k F or
,

w ard ) ; s on g s f ro m P ipp a P a s s e s ; v ar i ou s l ov e p oe m s lik e

“ ” “ ”
B y t h e F i re s id e an d The Las t R id e T og e th e r ; th e i n
“ ” “ ”
i m it abl e Pi e d Pip e r an d t h e b all ad s lik e H e r v e R i e l
,

H ow Th e y B r ou g ht t h e G o od N e w s
“
an d th e s e a r e a ,
-

m e re s u gg e s ti o n e xp r e s s i n g o n l y t h e w r it e r s p e r s on al p re fe r
’

e n c e ; b u t a g l an c e a t t h e c o n t e n t s o f B r o w n i n g s v o l u m e s
’

will r e v e al s c o r e s o f o th e r p oe m s which a n o th e r w rit e r m i ght ,

r e c o m m e n d as b e i n g b e tt e r i n th e m s e lv e s o r m o r e C h ar a ct e r
1
i s t i c o f B ro w n i n g .

A m o n g B r ow n i n g s d ram atic s ou l s t u di e s th e re i s al s o a
’

”
v e ry wid e ch oic e A n d re a d e l S ar t o i s on e of t h e b e s t
. ,

S u S t ud
o l r e v e a li n
g a s i t d o e s t h e s t r e n g th a n d t h e w e a k n e s s
i es “ ”
of t h e p e r f e c t p ai n t e r wh os e l ov e for a s ou ll e s s
,

w o m an with a p re tt y fac e s add e n s hi s li fe an d h am p e rs hi s

“
b e s t w o rk N e xt i n i m p or t an c e t o An d r e a s t an d s An
.
“

”
Epi s t l e re citi n g t h e e xp e r i e n c e s o f K a r s h i s h an A rab p hy
, ,
’
s i c i an ,which i s o n e of t he b e s t e x am pl e s of B r ow n i n g s
1 An x ll
e ce e nt lit t l e boo k i
for t h e b e g n n e r i s L o e t t v ’
s S e l e cti on s f r om B r ow n i n g .
( S ee Se l ti
ec on s for i i
R ea d n g, a t t h e e n d of t h s c hap t e r .)
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 4 77

pe c u li ar m e th o d of p re se n ti n g t h e t ru th The h al f s c o ffin g
‘
-
.
,

h al f e a rn e s t an d wh oll y b e wild e re d s t at e o f thi s O r i e n t al

-
,
-

s ci e n ti s t s m i n d i s cl e ar l i n dic a t e d b e tw e e n t h e li n e s o f h i s
’

y
l e tt e r t o h i s old m as t e r H i s d e s c r ipti on O f Lazar u s wh om
.
,

h e m e e t s b y ch an c e an d of t h e s t at e o f m i n d of on e w h o
, ,

h avi n g s e e n t h e gl or i e s of i m m or t alit y m u s t liv e aga i n i n t h e

,

m id s t of t he j u m bl e o f t r ivi al a n d s tup e n d ou s thi n g s which

c on s titut e ou r li fe fo r m s on e of t he m os t o ri g i n al an d s u g
,

g e s t i v e p oe m s i n ou r lit e r a tu r e
“
M y L as t D u ch e s s
. i s a

s hor t b u t v e r k e e n an al s i s o f t h e s ou l of a s e lfi s h m an
y y ,

w h o re v e al s h i s ch ar a c t e r u n c o n s ci ou s l y b y h i s w o r d s of

p rai s e c on c e rn i n g h i s d e ad wi fe s pict u r e I n Th e B i s h op
’
.

O r d e rs h i s T om b w e h av e a n o th e r e xt r ao r di n a r il y i n te r e s t

i n g r e v e l ati o n o f t he m i n d o f a v ai n an d w o r ldly m an thi s ,

ti m e a chu r ch m an wh os e w or d s t e ll y ou far m o r e th an he
V
,
”
d re am s ab ou t hi s o w n ch ara c t e r A b t og l e r u n d ou bt e dl y
.
,
’
on e o f B r o w n i n g s fi n e s t p o e m s i s t h e s t u d o f a m u s ici an s
’

y
,

s ou l .
“
Mu l éyk e h g iv e s u s th e s ou l of an A ra b v ai n a n d
”
,

p ro ud of h i s fas t h o r s e which w as n e v e r b e at e n i n a r ac e A
,
.

r iv al s t e al s t h e h o r s e a n d r id e s aw a u p o n h e r b a ck ; b u t
y ,

u s e d as s h e i s t o h e r m as t e r s t ou ch
’
s h e will n o t S h o w h e r
,

b e s t p ac e t o t he s t ran ge r Mu l éy ke h r id e s u p fu r i ou s l y ; b u t
.

i n s t e ad of s t r iki n g th e thi e f from h i s s addl e h e b oas t s ab ou t ,

‘

hi s p e e rl e s s m ar e s ay i n g t h a t if a c e r t ai n s p o t o n h e r n e ck
,

w e r e t ou ch e d with t h e re i n s h e c ou ld n e v e r b e o v e r t ak e n
,
.

I n s t an tl y t h e r obb e r t ou ch e s t h e s p o t an d t h e m are an s w e r s
,

with a b u r s t of s p e e d th at m ak e s p u r s u it h o p e l e s s Mu l éy k e h .

h as l os t h i s m a r e ; b u t h e h as k e pt hi s p rid e i n t h e u n b e at e n
o n e an d i s s a ti s fi e d
,
R abbi B e n Ezr a which re fu s e s an aly
.
,

s i s an d which m u s t b e r e ad e n ti r e t o b e app r e ci a t e d i s p e r
, ,

h ap s t he m o s t q u o t e d of al l B row n i n g s w or k s an d c on t ai n s ’

th e b e s t e xp re s s I on of h i s o w n f a ith i n li fe b oth h e r e an d ,

h e re aft e r A l l th e s e w on d e r fu l p oe m s ar e agai n m e r e l y a
.
, ,

s u g ge s ti on T h e y i n dic at e s i m pl y t h e w o r k s t o which o n e
.

re ad e r t u rn s wh e n h e f e e l s m e n t all vi u g h t o pick
y g o r o u s e n o
4 78 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

up B ro w n i n g . An oth e r li s t of s ou l s t u di e s citi n g A To cc at a ,
” “ ”
A G r am m ar i an s F u n e ral
’ ”
of G al u ppi s F r a L ippo Lippi
’

, , ,
” “ ” “
A D e ath i n t h e D e s e r t
“ ”
S au l ,
Cl e on ,
an d S olil oq u y ,
”
o f t h e S p an i s h Cl o i s t e r m i g ht i n an o th e r s j ud g m e n t b e
’

, , ,

m o re i n t e r e s ti n g an d s u gg e s tiv e .

A m on g B r ow n i n g s l on g e r p oe m s th e re ar e t w o at l e as t
’

, ,

th at w e ll d e s e rv e ou r s tudy P ipp a P a s s e s as id e fro m i t s

.
,

r ar e p o e tic al q u aliti e s i s a s t u d y of u n c on s ci ou s
,
P i ppa Pas s e s
i n fl u e n c e Th e id e a o f th e p oe m w as s u gg e s t e d t o
.

B r ow n i n g whil e li s t e n i n g t o a gy p s y g i r l S i n g i n g i n t h e w ood s
n e ar h i s h om e ; b u t h e t r an s fe r s t h e s c e n e of t h e a cti on t o

t h e littl e m ou n t ai n t ow n of A s ol o i n I t al y Pipp a i s a littl e

,
.

s ilk w e av e r w h o g oe s ou t i n t h e m or n i n g t o e n j oy h e r on e
,

h olid ay of t he wh ol e y e ar A S s he thi n k s of h e r ow n h appi

.

n e s s s h e i s v a gu e l wi s hi n g th a t S he m i ght S h a r e it an d d o
y ,

s o m e g oo d .Th e n with h e r childi s h i m agi n ati o n s he b e g i n s

, ,

t o w e a v e a littl e r o m an c e i n which s h e s h ar e s i n t h e h appi

n e s s o f t h e fou r g r e at e s t a n d h appi e s t p e o pl e i n A s o l o It .

n e v e r o cc u r s t o h e r th a t p e r h ap s th e r e i s m or e o f m i s e r
y
th an of h appi n e s s i n t h e fo u r g re at o n e s of wh om s h e d re am s
a n d s o s h e g oe s o n h e r w a s i n gi n g
y ,

T h e y e ar S a t th e s p r i n g
’

An d d a y ’
s at th e m o m ;
M or n i n g ’
s at se ve n ;
T h e h i ll s i d e d e w p e ar l e d
’
s -

T he l ark ’
s on the w i n g ;
The s n ai l ’
S on t h e th o r n
God s i n h i s he av e n
’

All S r i gh t w i th th e w or l d !
’

F at e will s it th a t t h e w or d s an d m u s ic of he r littl e son gs

s h o u ld c o m e t o t h e e a r s of fou r di ffe r e n t g roup s of p e opl e a t

t h e m o m e n t wh e n th e y ar e faci n g t h e g r e at e s t c r i s e s of th e i r
liv e s an d t u rn t he s c al e from e vil t o good B u t Pipp a k n ow s
,
.

n o thi n g o f thi s S h e e n j oy s h e r h olid ay an d goe s t o b e d s till

.
,

s i n gi n g e n ti re l i n t of t h e d h h d i n th e
, y g n o r a g oo s e as on e

w o rld With on e e xc e pti on it i s t he m os t p e rfe ct of all

.
,
4 80 E N G LI S H LI TERATU R E

in all p e ct s t o r an k w ith S h ak e s p e are s g r e a t h e r oi n e s ;

re s
’

a n d th e Po p e a s pl e n did fi g u r e
,
t h e s t ron g e s t o f a l l B r o w n
,

i n g s m as c u li n e ch ar act e r s Wh e n We h av e re ad t he s t o ry as
’
.
,

t old b y th e s e fou r di ffe re n t act ors w e h av e t he b e s t o f t he ,

p oe t s w o r k an d of t he m os t o r i g i n al p oe m i n o u r l an gu age
’

, .

B row n i n g s Pl ace an d M e s sage

’
’
B r o w n i n g s pl a c e i n o u r
.

lit e r a t u r e will b e b e tt e r app re ci at e d b y c o m p ar i s on with hi s

B row i g a d
n n f r ine n d T e n n
y s o n wh o m w e h a v e j,
u s t s t u di e d I n .

T e nn m
YS ‘ o n e re s p e c t a t l e as t th e s e p oe t s are i n p e rfe c t
, ,

a cc o r d Each fi n d s i n l o v e t he s u p r e m e p u r p os e a n d m e an
.

i n g of li fe I n o th e r r e s p e c t s e s p e ci all y i n th e i r m e th o d s of
.
,

a pp r oachi n g t h e t r u th t h e t w o m e n ar e t h e e x a c t o pp o s it e s
, .

Te n n y s on i s fi rs t t h e a r ti s t an d th e n t h e t e ach e r ; b u t with
B ro w n i n g t he m e s s age i s alw ay s t h e i m p or t an t thi n g an d h e ,

i s c a r e l e s s t o o c ar e l e s s of t h e for m i n which it i s e xp r e s s e d
, ,
.

Ag ai n T e n n y s on i s u n d e r t h e i n fl u e n c e of t h e r om an tic r e
,
“
v i v al an d ch o os e s h i s s u bj e ct s d ai n til b th at
’
ut all s fis h
, y ;
c o m e s t o B ro w n i n g s n e t H e t a k e s c o m e l y a n d u g l y s u b
’
.

with q u al pl e as u r e an d a i m s t o s h ow th a t t ru th li e s
j e c t s e ,

hidd e n i n b o th t he e vil an d t h e g ood Thi s c on t ras t i s al l .

t h e m o r e s t r iki n g wh e n w e r e m e m b e r th a t B ro w n i n g s e s s e n
’

t i al ly s ci e n ti fic a ttit u d e w a s t ak e n b y a m an w h o r e fu s e d t o

stud
y s ci e n c e T e n n s on
y . wh os e w o rk i s alw a s
, y a r ti s tic ,

n e v e r s t u di e d a r t b u t w a s d e v o t e d t o t he s ci e n c e s ; whil e
,

B ro w n i n g wh os e w or k i s s e ld o m ar ti s tic i n fo r m th ou ght
, ,

th at a r t w as t h e m os t s u it abl e s u bj e ct for a m an s s t u dy ’
.

T h e t w o p oe t s di ffe r e v e n m o r e wid e l y i n th e i r r e s p e ctiv e

T e n n y s o n s m e s s ag e r e fl e ct s t h e g rowi n g or d e r of
’
m e s s age s .

“ ”
B ow i g s
r n n t h’ e a g e a n d i s,
s u m m e d u p i n t h e w o r d l a w .

M e s s a ge I n h i s vi e w t h e i n divid u al will m u s t b e s u pp r e s s e d
,

t he s e l f m u s t al w ay s b e s u b or di n a t e H i s re s ig n ati o n i s at .

ti m e s al m os t O ri e n t al i n i t s fat ali s m an d occ a s i o n ally it s u g ,

g e s t s S ch o p e n h a u e r i n i t s m ixt u r e o f f a t e a n d pe s s i m i s m .

B row n i n g s m e s s age o n t h e o th e r h an d i s t he t r i u m ph o f t he
’

, ,

i n dividu al will o v e r all ob s t acl e s ; th e s e l f i s n ot s ub ordi n at e

 TH E V
I CTOR I AN AGE 4 81

b ut sup re m e Th e re i s n o thi n g O ri e n t al n o thi n g d ou bt fu l

. , ,

n o thi n g p e s s i m i s tic i n t h e wh ol e r an g e o f hi s p oe t ry H is is .

t h e v o ic e o f t h e A n g l o S ax on s t an di n g u p i n t h e fa c e of al l
-
,
“
o b s t acl e s an d s ay i n g I c an an d I will
,
H e i s th e r e fo r e far
.
, ,

m o re r adic a ll y En gli s h th a n i s T e n n y s on ; an d it m ay b e for

thi s r e as on th at he i s t he m ore s t u di e d an d th at whil e y ou th , ,

d e li ght s i n Te n n y s on m an h ood i s b e tt e r s a ti s fi e d with B ro w n

,

i n g B e c au s e of hi s i n vi n cibl e will an d Opti m i s m B r o w n i n g

.
,

i s a t p r e s e n t re gar d e d a s t h e p oe t w ho h as s p ok e n t h e s t ro n g
e s t w o r d o f fa ith t o an ag e O f d o ubt H i s e n e r gy hi s ch e e r
.
,

fu l c o u ra g e h i s faith i n li fe an d i n t he d e v e l o p m e n t th a t
,

aw ait s u s b e o n d t h e p or t al s of d e a th a r e lik e a bu g l e c all t o

y
-
,

d livi T hi m s h i s p r e s e n t i n fl ue n ce up o n t h e
g oo n g
. s s u u p
m i n d s of th os e w h o h av e l e a r n e d t o a pp re ci a t e hi m O f t he .

fu t u r e w e c a n o n l y s ay th at b o th a t h om e a n d ab r o ad h e s e e m s
, ,

t o b e g ai n i n g s t e adil y i n a pp re ci ati on a s t h e y e a rs g o b y .

MI N O R POE T S OF TH E V I CT O R I A N A GE
El i zab e t h B arr e tt . Am on g t h e m i n or p oe t s of t h e p as t
c e n t u ry E li zab e th B arr e tt ( Mr s B r ow n i n g) occ u pi e s p e r hap s
.

t h e hi g h e s t pl a c e i n p op u l ar fav or S h e w a s b orn at C oxh oe

.

H all n e ar D u r h am i n 1 806 ; b u t h e r Childh o od an d e ar l y

, ,

ou th w e r e s p e n t i n H e r e for d s hi re m on g t h e Malv e r n H ill s

y a ,

m ad e fam ou s b y P i e rs P l ow m a n I n 1 83 5 t h e B a rr e tt fam il y
.

m ov e d t o L on d on wh e re E li zab e th gai n e d a lit e r ary r e p u t a

,

ti on b y t h e p u blica ti on of I ke S e rap k i m a n d Otke r P oe m s

Th e n ill n e s s an d t h e s h o ck c au s e d b y t h e t rag ic d e ath
o f h e r b r o th e r , i n 1 84 0 pl ac e d h e r fr ail li fe i n d a n g e r an d
, ,

fo r s i x y e ar s s h e w a s c on fi n e d t o h e r ow n r oom Th e i n n at e .

s t r e n gt h a n d b e aut of h e r s pi r it h e r e S h ow e d it s e l f s t ron g l
y y
i n he r d ail y s t u d y he r p o e t ry an d e s p e ci all y i n h e r i n t e r e s t
, ,

i n t h e s o ci al p r obl e m s which s oon e r or l at e r occ u pi e d a l l t h e

V ict o r i an wr it e r s . My m in d t o m e a ki n g d om i s m ig h t w e ll
hav e b e e n w r itt e n ov e r t h e d oor of t he r oom wh e r e thi s d e lic at e
i n v alid w or k e d an d s u ffe re d i n l on e li n e s s an d i n s il e n c e .
4 82 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

In 1 84 4 Mi ss Bar r e tt publi she d h e r P oe m s which th ou gh , ,

s om e wh a t i m p u l s iv e an d ov e r w r ou g ht m e t with r e m ar k abl e ,
“ ”
p u blic fav or S u ch p o e m s as Th e Cry of t h e Child r e n
.
,

which v oic e s t h e p r ot e s t of h u m an it y aga i n s t child l ab or ,

a pp e al e d t r e m e n d ou s l t o t h e r e ad e r s o f t h e age d thi
y an s ,

o u n g w om an s fam e
’
as a p oe t t e m p or a r il ov e r s h ad ow e d
y y
th at of Te n n y s on an d B r ow n i n g I n d e e d a s l at e as 1 85 0 .
, ,

wh e n Wor d s w ort h di e d s h e w as s e r i ou s l y c on s id e r e d fo r t h e
,

p os iti on of p oe t l au re at e which w a s fi n ally g iv e n t o Te n n y s on

, .

A r e fe r e n c e t o B row n i n g i n
”
L ady G e raldi n e s Cou r t s hip
’

, ,

i s s u pp o s e d t o h av e fi r s t l e d t h e p oe t t o w r it e t o Mi s s B arr e tt ,

i n 1 84 5 S oon aft e r war d s h e vi s it e d t h e i n valid th e y fe ll i n

.

l ov e al m os t at fi rs t s ight an d t h e foll owi n g y e ar agai n s t t h e

, ,

wi s h e s of h e r fath e r w h o w as e vid e n tl y a s e lfi s h Ol d t y ran t

, ,

— B r ow n i n g c arr i e d h e r Off an d m arr i e d h e r The e xq u i s it e .

r om an c e of th e i r l ov e i s r e fl e ct e d i n Mr s B row n i n g s S on n e ts
’
.

f rom tk e P or tu u e s e
g ( 1 8 T hi s i s a n obl e an d i n s pi r i n g

b ook of l ov e p oe m s ; an d S t e d m an r e ga rd s t h e op e n i n g s on
”
net , I t h ou ght on c e h ow T h e oc r itu s h ad s u n g as e q u al t o ,

an
y i n ou r l an g u ag e .

F or fi ft e e n y e ar s t h e B row n i n g s l ive d an id e all y h appy li fe

at Pi s a an d a t Ca s a G u idi F l or e n c e s h a r i n g t h e s a m e p o e tica l
, , ,

am biti on s .A n d l ov e w a s t h e g r e at e s t thi n g i n t he w orld ,

H ow d o I l ov e th e e ? Le t m e c ou n t th e w a ys .

I l ov e t h e e t o t h e d e p th an d b re a d th an d h e i gh t
My s ou l c an r e a c h , l
w h e n fe e i n g o u t o f s i g h t
F or th e e n d s of Be ing an d i d e al Gr a c e .
I l ov e t h e e t o th e v e ry d ay s
le ve l of e
’

M os t q u i e t n e e d b y s u n an d c an d l e l i gh t
, .

I l ov e th e e fre e l y as m e n s tr i v e for R i gh t ;
,

I l ov e th e e p u re l y as th e y t u r n from Pr ai s e ;
,

I l o v e th e e w i th th e p as s i on p u t to u s e
I n m y ol d gr i e fs an d w i th m y Ch i l d h ood s fai th ;
’
,

I l ov e th e e w i th a l ov e I s e e m e d to l os e
W i th m y l os t s ai n ts I l ov e th e e w i th th e b r e a th
,
—
,

S m i l e s te ars o f al l m y l ife
, ,
an d i f God c h oo s e —
, ,

I s h all b u t l ov e th e e b e tte r afte r d e ath .

4 84 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Tb e Ge r m h i s H an d an d S oul ,
d e licat e p ro s e
a
”
h i s fam ou s The B l e s s e d D am oze l b e gi n n in g, ,

T h e b l e s s e d d a m oze l l e an e d ou t

F r om th e g ol d b ar of H e a v e n ;
y
H e r e e s w e r e d e e p e r th an th e d e p th
O f w a te r s s ti ll e d at e v e n ;
S h e h a d th r e e l i l i e s i n h e r h an d ,

An d t h e s tar s i n h e r h ai r w e r e se ve n .

Th e s e t w o l y w or k s e s p e ci all y The B l e s s e d D am oze l

e ar , ,

with i t s S i m plicit y an d e xq u i s it e s pi r itual q u alit y ar e ch ar a c ,

t e r i s t i c of t h e id e al s o f t h e Pr e R aph ae lit e s -
.

I n 1 86 0 a ft e r a l on g e n ga ge m e n t R os s e tti m a r r i e d Eli za
, ,

b e th S id dal a d e lic at e b e au ti fu l En gli s h g i r l wh om h e has

, , ,

i m m ort ali ze d b oth i n hi s pict u r e s an d i n hi s p o e t ry S h e di e d .

t w o y e ars l at e r an d R os s e tt i n e v e r e n ti r e l y r e c ov e re d from
,

t h e s h ock .A t h e r b u r i al h e pl a c e d i n h e r c offi n t h e m an u
s c r ipt s of all h i s u n p u bli s h e d p o e m s an d o n l t t h p e rs i s t
y a e ,

e n t d e m an d s of hi s fr i e n d s did h e a ll ow th e m t o b e e xhu m e d

an d p r i n t e d i n 1 870 Th e p u blicati on o f thi s v ol u m e of l ov e

.

p oe m s c r e at e d a s e n s ati on i n lit e r ary ci r cl e s an d R o s s e tti w a s ,

h ail e d as on e of t h e g re at e s t of livi n g p oe t s I n 1 88 1 h e p u b .

l i s h e d h i s B a ll a d s a n d S on n e ts a r e m ark abl e v ol u m e c on t ai n
,

“ ”
i n g a m on g o th e r p oe m s
, Th e Con fe s s i on
,
m od e l e d aft e r ,

”
B r ow n i n g ; Th e B all ad of S i s t e r H e l e n fou n d e d on a m e di ae ,
“ ”
v al s up e r s titi on ; Th e K i n g s T r ag e d y a m as t e rpi e c e of
’

,
“
d ram atic n arr ativ e ; an d T he H ou s e of L i fe a c o ll e cti on of ,

on e h u n d r e d an d o n e s on n e t s r e fl e cti n g t h e p oe t s l ov e an d
’

l os s Thi s l as t c oll e ct i on d e s e rv e s t o r an k with Mr s Brown

. .

’
i n g s S on n e ts f r om tb c P or tug u e s e an d with S h ak e s p e ar e s
’

S on n e ts as on e of t h e th re e g r e at c y cl e s o f l ov e p oe m s i n ou r
,

l an gu age I t has b e e n w e ll said th at b oth R o s s e tti an d Mor r i s

.

p ai n t pict u re s as w e ll i n th e ir p oe m s as on th e i r can vas e s an d ,

thi s pict or i al q u alit y of th e i r v e r s e i s i t s chi e f ch ara ct e r i s tic .

Mor r i s Willi am M or r i s ( 1 83 4 1 89 6 ) i s a m os t i n t e r e s ti n g
. —

c om bi n ati on of lit e rary m an an d art i s t I n t h e l att e r c apacit y . ,

 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 4 85

a s ar chit e ct d e s ig n e r an d m an u fa ctu r e r of fu r n it u re carp e t s

, , , ,

an d w all p a p e r a n d as fou n d e r of t h e K e l m s c ot t Pr e s s for

,

a r ti s tic p r i n ti n g an d b ookbi n di n g h e h as l a id u s al l u n d e r an ,

i m m e n s e d e bt of g ratit ud e F r om b oy h ood h e had s t e e p e d

‘
.

hi m s e l f i n t he l e g e n d s an d id e al s o f t h e Middl e A g e s an d hi s ,

b e s t lit e ra ry w or k i s wh oll y m e di ae val i n s pi r it Tb e E a r t/zly .

P a ra d i s e ( 1 86 8 1 870) i s g e n e rall y r e gar d e d a s hi s m as t e r

—

pi e c e Thi s d e li g ht fu l c oll e cti on of s t or i e s i n v e r s e t e ll s of a

V
.

r ovi n g b an d o f iki n gs w h o ar e w r e ck e d on th e fabl e d i s l an d

,

o f A tl an t i s a n d w h o di s c ov e r th e r e a s u p e r i or r a c e of m e n

V
,

h avi n g t h e ch ar act e r i s tic s of id e al G r e e k s The iki n g s r e .

m a i n for a y e ar t e lli n g s t or i e s of th e i r o w n N or thl an d an d

, ,

li s t e n in g t o t h e cl as s ic an d Or i e n t al t al e s of th e ir h o s t s .

Morr i s s i n t e r e s t i n I c e l an dic lit e rat u r e i s fu r th e r s h ow n b y

’

h i s S ig u rd t/ze ol s u n
g V
an e pic fo u n d e d up on o n e o f t h e ol d
,

s aga s an d b, y h i s p r o s e rom an c e s Tb e H ou s e o
f t/ze Wo
lfi g
n ,s ,

Tb e S tory f
o tb c Gl i tt e r i ng P l a i n , an d Tb e R oots f o t/ze
M ou n ta i n s Lat e r i n li fe h e b e c am e d e e ply
. in i n t e re s t e d
s oci ali s m an d t w o o th e r r om an c e s
, Tb e D r e a m of j okn B a l l ,

an d N e w s f r om N ow /ze r e ar e i n t e r e s ti n g as m od e rn att e m pt s
,

at d e pict i n g an id e a l s oci e t
, y g o v e r n e d b y t h e p r i n cipl e s o f
Mor e s U top i a
’
.

S w i n b u rn e A l ge rn on Ch ar l e s S wi n b u r n e ( 1 83 7— 1 9 09 ) i s
V
.
,

ch r on ol og ic ally t h e l as t of t h e ict or i an p oe t s A s a n ar ti s t
, .

i n t e ch n iqu e — h avi n g p e r fe ct c om m an d of all old E n g li s h

v e rs e for m s an d a re m ar k abl e fac u lt y for i n v e n ti n g n e w he
s e e m s at t h e p r e s e n t ti m e t o ran k a m on g t h e b e s t i n o u r lit e r
“
at u r e I n d e e d as S t e d m an s ay s b e for e h i s adv e n t w e did
'

. , ,

”
n ot r e a li ze t h e fu ll s c op e of E n g li s h v e r s e Thi s r e fe rs t o .

t h e m e l o di ou s an d c on s t an tl y ch an g i n g for m r ath e r th an t o

At t h e d e ath of Te n n y
’
t h e c on t e n t o f S wi n b u rn e s p oe t ry .

s on i n 1 89 2 h e w a s u n d ou bt e dl y t h e g r e at e s t livi n g p oe t an d
, , ,

on l
y h i s lib e r al Opi n i o n s h i s s c orn o f r o a lt
y y ,a n d O f con v e n

ti on s an d t h e p r e j u dic e ar ou s e d b y t h e pagan s pi r it of hi s
,

e ar ly w or k p r e v e n t e d h i s app oi n t m e n t a s p oe t l au r e at e He
4 86 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

h as w r itt e n a v e ry l ar ge n u m b e r of p oe m s d ram as an d e s say s , ,

i n lit e rary c r itici s m ; b u t w e ar e s till t oo n e ar t o j udg e of t h e

p e rm an e n c e of h i s w ork or of h i s pl ac e i n lit e ratu r e T h os e .

w h o w ould r e ad an d e s ti m at e h i s w or k f or th e m s e lv e s will d o

w e ll t o b e gi n with a v ol u m e of s e l e ct e d p oe m s e s p e ci ally ,

th os e which s h ow h i s l ov e of t h e s e a an d h i s e xq u i s it e ap pr e
c i at i on of child li fe H i s Ata l a n ta i n Ca ly d on
. a b e au t i

f u l l y r ic d ram a m od e l e d o n t h e G r e e k t r ag e d y i s g e n e ra ll y ,

r e g ar d e d a s h i s m a s t e r pi e c e I n all hi s w ork S wi n b u rn e c ar r i e s
.

Te n n y s on s l ov e of m e l ody t o an e xt r e m e an d oft e n s a c rifi c e s

’

s e n s e t o s ou n d H i s p o e t ry i s a lway s m u s ic al an d lik e m u s ic
.
, , ,

a pp e al s al m o s t e xcl u s iv e l
y t o t h e e m o ti on s .

We h av e ch os e n wh at ar bit rar ily th e s e fou r w r it e r s

, s om e ,

Mr s B row n i n g D G R os se tti Mor r i s an d S wi n b u r n e

.
, . . as, ,

r e p r e s e n t ativ e of t h e m i n or p o e t s of t h e ag e ; b u t th e r e ar e

m an y oth e r s w h o ar e w or th y o f s tudy Ar thu r H ugh Cl ou gh ,

an d Matth e w A r n old
1
w h o ar e oft e n c all e d t h e p o e t s of s k e p
,

t i c i s m but w h o i n r e alit y r e p re s e n t a r e v e r e n t s e e ki n g fo r t r u th
,

t h r ou gh r e as on an d h u m an e xp e r i e n c e ; Fr e d e r ick W illi am
Fab e r t h e Cath olic m y s tic au th or of s om e e xq u i s it e hy m n s ;
, ,

an d t h e s ch ol ar l J oh n K e bl e au th or of Tb e Cnr i s ti a n Ye a r
y , ,

o u r b e s t k n ow n b oo k of d e v oti on al v e r s e ; an d am on g t h e

w om e n p oe t s A d e l aid e Pr oct e r J e an I n g e l ow an d Ch r i s ti n a
, , ,

R os s e tt i e a ch of wh om h ad a l ar g e a d m i r i n g ci r cl e of r e ad e r s
, , .

It w ou ld b e a h op e l e s s t a s k at t h e p r e s e n t tim e t o i n q u i r e i n t o
t h e r e l ativ e m e r it s o f a ll th e s e m i n or p oe t s W e n ot e o n l y .

th e i r c ar e fu l w or k m an s hip an d e xq u i s it e m e l ody th e i r wid e ,

r an g e of th ou ht an d fe e li n th i r e ag e r s e ar ch f or t r u th
g g e , ,

e ach i n h i s o w n w a an d e s p e ci all y t h e n ot e o f f r e s h n e s s an d
y ,

vit alit y which th e y h av e g ive n t o En gli s h p oe t r y .

1 Ar n ol d w as o n e of t h e b e st k n ow n poe t s of t he a ge , b u t b e cau se he h as e x
e rt e d a

dee pe r i n fl u e n ce o n ou r lit e ra t u re as a c r it i c, w e ha e v v
re se r e d h i m for s pe c i l
a s t u d y a m on g

t he e ss a yi st s . (See p.
4 88 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

Th e d e b ts st ill p u rs ue d hi m , an d afte r tw o y e ars of gran d iloqu e n t

m i sfor tun e h e w a s t h rown i n to the po o r d e b t ors i H i s w ife
’
-
p r son . ,

the or i gi n a l of M r s M i c aw b e r t h e n s e t u p th e fam o u s
. , Board i n g
Establi shm e n t for Y ou n g Lad i e s ; b u t in D ic ke n s s w o rd s n o y o u n g
’
, ,

l adi e s e v e r c am e T h e o n ly vi sitors w e re c re d i tors an d t he y w e re

.
,

qu i t e fe roc iou s I n the p i c tu re of th e Mi c aw b e r fam ily w i th i t s te ars

.
,

an d s m il e s an d ge n e ra l s h iftl e ssn e s s w e h av e a s u gge s ti on of D i c ke n s s

’
,

o wn fam ily life .

At e l e ve n y e ar s of age t h e b oy was t ake n ou t of s c hool an d w e n t

t o w ork i n th e c e ll ar of a bl ac ki n g fac tory At thi s ti m e h e w as i n . ,
“ ”
hi s ow n w o rd s a qu e e r sm all b oy w ho su ffe r e d as h e w o rke d ;
, ,

an d w e c an app r e c i at e th e b oy an d th e su ff e ri n g m o r e w h e n w e fin d

bot h re fl e c t e d i n th e c harac te r of D av i d Copp e rfi e l d It i s a h e art .

r e n di n g p i c tu r e thi s s e n si t ive c h ild w o rkin g from d aw n t ill d ark for

,

a fe w p e n n i e s an d ass oc i at i n g w i th tou h s an d w ai fs i n hi s b ri e f i n
, g
t e rval s of l abo r ; b u t w e c an s e e i n i t t h e sou r c e s of t h at i n t i m ate
kn ow l e d ge of th e h e art s of t h e p oor an d ou t c as t w h i c h w as soo n
t o b e re fl e c te d i n li te ra t u r e an d t o s tar tl e al l En gl an d b y i t s ap p e al
for sym p at hy A sm all l e gac y e n d e d t hi s w r e tc h e d n e ss b ri n gi n g th e
.
,

fath e r fro m th e p ri son an d s e n di n g t h e b oy to We lli n gt on H ou s e

A c a d e m y
,
— a w o rt hl e s s an d b ru ta l sc h ool e v id e n tl
y w h o s e h e ad , ,

m ast e r w as i n D i c ke n s s w ord s a m os t i gn oran t fe ll ow an d a ty ran t

’
.
, ,

H e l e arn e d li ttl e at thi s p l ac e b e i n g i n t e r e s te d c h i e fly i n s t ori e s an d

, ,

i n ac t in g ou t t h e h e roi c p art s w h i c h app e al e d t o hi s i m agi n at i on ; b u t

agai n h i s p e rs on al e x p e r i e n c e w a s of i m m e n s e val u e an d r e su l t e d i n

h i s fam ou s p i c tu re of D o th e b oy s H all i n I V V
,

i c/zol a s Z zckl e by w hi c h
'

, ,

h e l p e d l arge l y t o m i ti gat e th e e v il s o f p ri v a t e s c hool s i n En gl an d .

Wh e re v e r he w e n t D ic k e n s w as a m arv e lou sly k e e n obs e rv e r w i th

, ,

an ac t i v e i m agi n at i on w h i c h m ad e s t or i e s o u t of i n c id e n t s an d c har

ac t ors t hat o r d i n ary m e n w ou ld h av e h ard ly n ot i c e d M or e o v e r h e .

w as a b o rn ac t or an d w as at on e t i m e t h e l e ad in g s p i r i t of a b an d
,

of am at e u r s w h o ga v e e n t e r tai n m e n t s fo r c har i ty al l ov e r En gl an d .

The s e th r e e t h i n gs hi s ke e n o bs e rvat i on h i s ac t i v e i m agin at i on

, , ,

an d t h e a c t o r s s pi r it w h i c h an i m at e d hi m fu rn i sh a ke y t o h is life
’
,

an d w ri t i n gs .

Whe n on ly fi ft e e n y e ars old h e l e ft the s c hool an d agai n w e n t to

,

w o rk t h i s t i m e as C l e rk i n a l aw y e r s offi c e By n i ght h e s tu d i e d
’
.
,

s horthan d i n o rd e r t o fit h i m s e lf t o b e a r e p or t e r
, thi s i n i m i tat i on ,

of h i s fath e r w h o w as n ow e n a ge d by a n e w s p ap e r t o r e p o rt t h e
, g
sp e e c h e s i n Parliam e n t Ev e ryt hin g t hat D i c ke n s a t te m p te d s e e m s
.
 C H AR LES D I CK E NS

i
Aft e r t h e p ort ra t b y D i lM
an e ac li s e
4 99 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

h e tu rn e d from hi s l e c tu ri n g to his n o e v l s an d the n for

, , re a a l x
tion , gave h i m s e lf up to w h at h e c all e d th e m agi c l an t e rn of th e
Lon d on t
s re e t s .

In 1 84 2 , w hil e st ill a
ic ke n s w as in vit e d to visit t h e
y o un g m an , D
U n i te d S tat e s an d Can ad a w h e re h i s w ork s w e re e v e n b e t t e r kn ow n
,

t h an i n En glan d an d w h e re h e w a s r e c e i v e d a s t h e gu e s t of t h e
,

n at i on an d t r e a t e d w i th e ve ry m ark of hon or an d app r e c i ati on At .

t h i s ti m e Am e r i c a w a s t o m os t Eu ro p e an s a k i n d of hu ge fa i ryl an d
, , ,

w h e re m on e y s p ran g o u t of t h e e a r t h an d l ife w as h app y a s a l on g ,

ho lid ay D i c ke n s e vi d e n tly s hare d t h i s rosy vi e w an d hi s ro m an t i c

.
,

e x p e c tat i on s w e re n a tu ral l y d i s ap p o i n t e d Th e c ru d e u n fin i sh e d. ,

l ook of th e b i g c ou n try s e e m s to hav e r o u se d a s tron g p re j u d ic e i n

h i s m in d w h i c h w as n ot o v e rc om e at th e t i m e o f h i s s e c o n d vi si t
, ,

tw e n t y fiv e y e a r s l at e r an d w h i c h b rou gh t fo r th t h e har sh c ri ti c i s m
-
,

of h i s A m e ri ca n N ote s
( 1 84 2
) an d o f M a r ti n C h u zzl e w i t
( 1 84 3

Th e s e tw o u n ki n d b ooks s tru c k a fal s e n o te an d D i c k e n s ,

b e gan to lo se so m e thin g of hi s gr e at p opu l ari ty I n ad d i t ion h e had .

s p e n t m o n e y b e y on d h i s i n c o m e H i s d o m e st i c life w h i c h had b e e n
. ,

at fi rs t v e ry h a p p y b e c am e m o r e an d m or e i rr i ta t i n g u n t il h e se p a
, ,

rat e d fro m h i s w i fe i n 1 85 8 T o ge t i n s p i rat i on w h i c h s e e m e d fo r a

.
,

t i m e t o hav e fail e d h e j ou rn e y e d t o I taly b u t w as d i sapp oi n t e d

, , .

Th e n h e t u rn e d b ac k t o t h e Lon d on s t r e e t s an d i n th e five y e ars ,

fro m 1 84 8 t o 1 85 3 app e ar e d D om b ey a n d S on D a vi d Copp e rfie l d , ,

an d B l e a k H ou s e t h r e e re m a rkabl e n o v e l s w h i c h i n d i c at e t h a t
,
—
,

h e had r e d i s c ov e re d h i s ow n p ow e r a n d ge n i u s Lat e r h e r e s u m e d .

t h e p u bl i c r e ad i n gs w i th th e i r p u bli c t ri u m p h an d app l au s e w h i c h
, ,

s o o n c am e t o b e a n e c e ss i ty t o on e w ho c ra v ed p op u l ari ty a s a

hu n gr y m an c rav e s b r e a d Th e se e x c i t e m e n t s e x hau s t e d D i c ke n s
. ,

p h y s i c all
y an d s i r i tu al ly
p an d d e at h w a s t h e i n e v i t abl e r e su l t
,
H e .

d i e d i n 1 8 70 o v e r h i s u n fin i sh e d E dw i n D r ood a n d w as b u ri e d i n
, ,

We s tm in s t e r Abb e y .

D i ck e n s ’
s Work in V
th rou gh e v e n
i w e of hi s Li f e . A g l an c e
t hi s u n s at i s fa ct ory bi ograph y g ive s u s c e r t ai n ill u m i n ati n g
s u g g e s t i on s i n r e gar d t o al l of D ick e n s s w or k F irs t as a
’
.
,

child p oor an d l on e l y l on gi n g for l ov e an d for s oci e t y h e

, , ,

l aid t h e fou n d ati on for th o se h e art r e n din g pict u r e s of chil

d r e n which h av e m ove d s o m an y r e ad e r s t o u n a cc u s t ome d
,

t e ar s S e c on d as cl e r k i n a l awy e r s offic e an d i n t h e c ou r t s
. ,
’
,
 TH E V
I CTOR I AN AGE 49 1

he gai n e d h i s k n owl e d g e of an e n ti r e l y di ffe r e n t s id e of hu m an

li fe H e r e h e l e ar n e d t o u n d e r s t an d b oth t h e e n e m ie s an d
.

t h e victi m s of s o ci e t y b e tw e e n wh om t h e h ars h l aw s of th at
,

d ay fr e q u e n tl y m ad e n o di s ti n ct i on T hi rd as a r e p or t e r an d
.
, ,

aft e r war d s as m an ag e r o f v ar i o u s n e w s p ap e r s h e l e arn e d th e ,

t rick of racy wr iti ng an d of k n owin g t o a n ic e t y wh at w ou ld

,

s u it t h e p o p u l ar t a s t e .F ou r th a s an a ct or a lway s an act or
, ,

i n s pi r it h e s e i ze d u p on e v e r y d r am atic p os s ibilit y e v e ry
, ,

t e n s e s it u ati on e v e ry p e culiar it y of v oic e an d g e s t u re i n t h e

,

p e opl e w h o m he m e t an d r e p r od u c e d th e s e thi n g s i n h i s
,

n ov e l s e x agg e r ati n g th e m i n t h e w a th at m os t pl e as e d hi s
, y
audi e n c e .

Wh e n w e tu rn fr om h i s outw ar d t rai n i n g t o h i s i n n e r d i s
p os iti on w e fin d t w o s t r on gl y m ar k e d e l e m e n t s The fi r s t i s .

hi s e xc e s s iv e i m ag i n a ti on which m ad e g ood s t or i e s ou t of i n
,

ci d e n t s th at or di n ar il y p as s u n n ot ic e d an d which d e s c r ib e d
,

th e c om m on e s t thi n g s a s t r e e t a s h o p a fog a l am p p o s t
—
, , ,
-
,

a s t age c oach — with a w e alth of d e t ail an d of r om an tic s u g

g e s ti on th a t m a k e s m an
y o f h i s d e s c r ipt i on s lik e l y r ic p oe m s .

The s e c on d e l e m e n t i s h i s e xt r e m e s e n s ibilit y which fi n d s ,

r e li e f o n l
y i n l au ght e r an d t e a r s L ik e s h ad ow an d s u n s hi n e
.

th e s e foll ow o n e an oth e r cl os e l y th r ou gh ou t all h i s b ook s .

R e m e m b e r i n g th e se t w o th i n g s hi s t ra i n i n g an d di s p os iti on
, ,

w e can e as il y for e s e e t h e ki n d o f n ov e l h e m u s t p r od u c e He .

D i c k ens a d
n will b e s e n t i m e n t al e s p e ci ally ov e r child r e n an d
,

hi s
ou t c a s t s ; h e will e xcu s e t h e i n divid u a l i n vi e w o f

t h e fau lt s of s oci e t ; h e Wi l l b e d ra m at ic or m e l o d ra m atic ;

y
an d h i s s e n s ibilit will k e e p h i m a lwa s Cl os e t o t h e p u blic
y y ,

s t u d i n g i t s t as t e s a n d pl a i n g with i t s s m il e s a n d t e ars I f
y y .

pl e as i n g t h e p u blic b e i n it s e l f an ar t t h e n D ick e n s i s on e o f
,

o u r g r e a t e s t ar ti s t s
. A n d it i s w e ll t o r e m e m be r th at i n
pl e a s i n g h is p u blic th e re w as n othi n g of th e h y p o c r it e or
d e m agog u e i n h i s m ak e u p H e w as es se n tially a p ar t of t h e
-
.

gr e at dr i fti n g p an oram ic c r owd th at h e l ov e d H i s s y m pa .

th e tic s oul m ad e all th e ir j oy s an d gr i e fs hi s ow n H e fought .

49 2 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

i
aga n s t i n j u s tic e h e ch am pion e d t h e w e ak agai n s t t he s t ron g ;
h e g ave c ou rag e t o t he fai n t an d h op e t o t h e w e ary i n h e ar t
,

an d i n t h e l ov e which t h e p u blic gav e h i m i n r e t u rn h e fou n d

’
hi s b e s t r e war d H e r e i s t h e s e c re t of D ick e n s s u n p r e c e d e n t e d
.

p op u l ar s u c c e s s an d w e m ay n ot e h e r e a v e ry S i gn ific an t
,

parall e l with S h ak e s p e ar e Th e g r e at di ffe r e n c e i n t h e g e n i u s

.

an d w or k o f t h e t w o m e n d o e s n ot ch an g e t h e fact th at e a ch

w on s u cc e s s l arg e l y b e c au s e h e s t u di e d an d pl e as e d hi s public .

Ge n e r al Pl an of D i ck e n s s Nov e l s An i n t e r e s ti n g s u g g e s
’
.

ti on c om e s t o u s from a s t u dy of the c on di t ion s which l e d t o

D ick e n s s fi r s t th r e e n ov e l s P i c k w i ck w as w r itt e n at t h e s u g
’
.
,

ge s ti on o f an e dit or for s e ri al p u blicati on Each ch apt e r w as

, .

t o b e a cc om p an i e d b y a c ar t oon b y S e y m ou r (a c om ic ar ti s t
o f t h e da ) a n d t h e o bj e ct w as t o am u s e t h e p u blic an d i n ci
y , , ,

d e n t all y t o s e ll t h e p ap e r Th e r e s u lt w a s a s e r i e s of ch ar ac
, .

t e r s an d s c e n e s an d i n cid e n t s which for vi g or an d b ou n dl e s s

fu n h av e n e v e r b e e n e q u al e d i n ou r l an g u age Th e r e af t e r n o .
,

m att e r wh a t h e w r ot e D ick e n s w a s l ab e l e d a h u m or i s t
, L ik e .

a c e r t a i n A m e r ic an w r it e r o f o u r ow n g e n e r ati o n e ve r t hi n g
y ,

h e s a id wh e th e r fo r a fe as t or a fu n e r al w as s upp o s e d t o c on
, ,

t ai n a l au g h I n a w or d h e w as t he victi m of h i s own b ook

.
, .

D ick e n s w as k e e n e n ou g h t o u n d e r s t an d h i s d an ge r a n d h i s ,

n e xt n ov e l Ol i v e r Tw i s t h ad t h e s e r i ou s p u r p os e of m i t i gat
, ,

in g t h e e vil s u n d e r which t h e p oor w e r e s u ffe r i n g I t s h e r o .

w a s a p oor child t h e u n for t unat e victi m of s oci e t an d i

, y n ,

or d e r t o d ra w att e n ti on t o t h e r e a l n e e d D ick e n s e x ag ge r at e d
,

t h e w oe fu l c on diti on of t h e p oor an d fill e d hi s p ag e s with s e n

,

t i m e n t which e as il y S lipp e d o v e r i n t o s e n ti m e n t alit y T hi s .

a l s o w as a p op u l ar s u cc e s s an d i n h i s thi r d n ov e l
, N i ch ol a s ,

N i ckl e by an d i n d e e d i n m o s t of h i s r e m ai n i n g w or k s D ick e n s
, ,

c om bi n e d t h e p r i n cipl e s of hi s fi r s t t w o b ook s g ivi n g u s m i rth ,

o n t h e on e h an d i n j u s tic e an d s u ffe r i n g on t h e oth e r ; m i n

,

g li n g h u m o r a n d p a th o s t e a r s an d l,a u g ht e r as w e fin d th e m ,

i n li fe it s e l f A n d i n or d e r t o i n cr e as e t h e li ght s an d S h ad ow s
.

in h i s s ce n e s an d t o g ive gr e a t e r d r am atic e ffe ct t o hi s n arr a

,
4 94 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

so cia l p r obl e m s an d t o cr itici s e ou r ch e e r y co m p an ion s e e m s

a s di s c o u r t e o u s a s t o s p e a k u n ki n dl y of a g u e s t w h o h as j u s t

l e ft ou r h om e B u t w e m u s t c on s id e r D ick e n s n ot m e r e l y as
.

a fr i e n d ,b u t as a n ov e li s t an d apply t o h i s w or k t h e s am e
,

s t an d ar d s of ar t which w e appl y t o oth e r w r it e r s ; an d wh e n

w e d o thi s w e ar e s o m e ti m e s a littl e di s app oi n t e d We m u s t .

c on fe s s th at h i s n ov e l s whil e th e y c on t ai n m an y r e ali s tic d e

,

t ail s s e ld om g iv e t h e i m p re s s i on of re ality H i s ch aract e r s

, .
,

th ou g h w e l au g h o r w e e p or s h u dd e r at th e m ar e s om e ti m e s ,

on l c ar i ca t u r e s e a ch on e a n e x ag g e ra ti on o f s o m e p e c u li ar it
y , y ,

which s u gg e s t B e n J on s on s E v e ry M a n i n H i s H u m ou r I t
’
.

i s D ick e n s s ar t t o g iv e h i s h e r oe s s u ffi ci e n t r e alit y t o m a k e
’

th e m s u gg e s t c e r t ai n t y p e s o f m e n an d w om e n wh om w e k n ow ;
b u t i n r e a di n g h i m w e fin d ou r s e lv e s oft e n i n t h e m e n t al s t at e
o f a m an w h o i s w at chi n g th r o u g h a m ic r o s c o p e t h e s war m i n g

li fe o f a w at e r d r op H e r e ar e liv e l y b u s tli n g e xt raordi n ary

.
, ,

c r e at u r e s s om e b e au ti fu l s om e gr ot e s q u e b u t al l far apar t
, , ,

fro m t h e li fe th at w e k n ow i n d aily e xp e r i e n c e I t i s c e rt ai n l y .

n ot t h e r e al it of th e s e ch ar a ct e r s b u t r ath e r t h e g e n i u s of
y ,

t h e a u th or i n m an ag i n g th e m which i n t e r e s t s u s an d h old s
,

o u r att e n ti on N otwith s t an di n g thi s c ritici s m which w e w ou ld

.
,

g l a dl y h a v e o m itt e d D ick e n s i
, s e xc e ll e n t r e a di n g a n d h i s ,

n ov e l s will c on t i n u e t o b e p op u l ar j u s t s o l on m j
g as e n e n o
y
a wh o l e s om e a n d a b s or bi n g s t or
y .

Wh at t o R e ad A s id e fr om t he re form s i n s ch ool s an d
,
.

p r i s on s an d w or kh ou s e s which D ick e n s a cc om pli s h e d he has ,

l aid u s all r ich an d p oor alik e u n d e r a d e bt of gr atit u d e

, , .

Aft e r t h e y e ar 1 84 3 t h e on e lit e rary w or k which he n e v e r

n e g l e ct e d w a s t o f u rn i s h a C h r i s t m as s t or f or h i s r e ad e r s ;
y
an d it i s d u e i n s om e m e a s u r e t o t h e h e lp of th e s e s t or i e s ,

b r i m m i n g ov e r with g ood ch e e r th at Ch r i s t m a s h as b e c om e
,

i n al l E n g li s h s p e aki n g c ou n t r i e s a s e as on of g ladn e s s _
-
of g i ft ,

g ivi n g a t h o m e a n d o,f re m e m b e r i n g th os e l e s s f o r t u na t e th a n

ou r s e lv e s w h o ar e s t il l m e m b e r s o f a c om m on b r oth e rh ood
,
.

I f w e r e ad n othi n g e l s e of D ick e n s on c e a y e ar at C h r i s t m as
, ,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 49 5

tim e , w e s h ould r e m e m b e r h i m an d r e n e w ou r
y o uth by
. r ea d
ing on e of hi s
h olid ay s t o r i e s The Cr i cke t on the H e a r th
, ,

The Ch i m e s an d ab ov e all t h e u n r iv al e d Chr i s tm a s Ca r ol

, .

T he l att e r e s p e ci all y will b e r e ad a n d l ov e d a s l on g as m e n

ar e m ov e d b t h e s pi r it o f Ch r i s t m as
y .

O f t h e n ov e l s D a v i d Copp e rfi e l d i s r e gar d e d b y m an y as

’

D ick e n s s m as t e r pi e c e I t i s w e ll t o b e gi n with t hi s n ov e l n ot
’
. ,

s i m pl
y f or t h e u n u s u al i n t e r e s t of t h e s t or
y b u t a l s o f or t h e ,

g li m p s e it g iv e s u s o f t h e a u th o r s o w n b o
y h oo d a n d f am il y .

F or p u r e fu n an d hil ar it y P i ck w i ck will a lw ay s b e a fav or it e

b u t for arti s tic fi n i s h an d fo r t h e p or t r ay al o f on e g r e a t
,

ch ar a ct e r S y d n e y Car t on n othi n g e l s e th at D ick e n s w rot e i s

, ,

c om p ara bl e t o A Ta l e of Tw o Ci ti e s H e r e i s an ab s orbi n g .

Tal e of Tw o s t or with a c ar e fu ll c on s t ru ct e d pl ot an d t h e
y , y ,

Ci t i e s a ct i on m o v e s s wi ftl t o i t s th r illi n g i n e vit abl e c on

y ,

c l u s i on . U s u all y D ick e n s i n t r od u c e s s e v e ral p ath e t ic or gr o

t e s q u e or l a u gh a bl e ch ara ct e r s b e s id e s t h e m a i n a ct or s an d ,

re c or d s v ar i ou s u n n e c e s s ar d r am atic e pi s od e s for th e i r o w n
y
s ak e ; b u t i n A Ta l e o T o Ci t i e s e v e r thi n h i pl c
f w y g a s t s a e

i n t h e d e v e l op m e n t of t h e m a i n s t ory T h e r e ar e a s u s u al .
, ,

m an y ch ara ct e r s — S y d n e y Car t on t h e out c a s t w h o l ay s d ow n

, , ,

h i s li fe for t h e h appi n e s s o f on e wh om h e l ov e s ; Ch ar l e s
D ar n ay an e xil e d y o u n g F r e n ch n obl e
, D r Man e tt e w h o , . ,

“
ha s b e e n re c all e d t o li fe fr om a fr i g ht fu l i m p r i s on m e n t ,

an d hi s g e n tl e d au ght e r Lu ci e t h e h e r oi n e ; J a r vi s L or ry a
, ,

l ov abl e old fas hi on e d cl e r k i n t he b ig b an ki n g h o u s e ; t he

,
-

t e rr ibl e Mad am e D e far ge k n itt i n g c al m l y at t h e d oor of h e r

,

wi n e s h op an d r e c or di n g with t h e f e ro cit y o f a t ig e r licki n g

,

i t s ch op s t h e n am e s of a ll th ose w h o ar e m ar k e d for v e n
,
.

g e a n ce an d a d o ze n o th e r s e a ch w e ll ,
d ra w n w h o pl a
y m i n or ,

p ar t s i n t h e t rage d y Th e s c e n e i s l aid i n L on d on an d Par i s

. ,

at t h e t i m e o f t h e F r e n ch R e v ol u ti on ; an d th o u h c ar e l e s s of
g ,

hi s t o r ical d e t ail s D ick e n s r e p rod u c e s t h e S pi r it of t h e R e ign

,

o f T e rr or s o w e ll th a t A Ta l e o T o Ci t i e s i s a n e xc e ll e n t
f w
s u ppl e m e n t t o t h e hi s t or of t h e p e ri od I t i s w r itt e n i n
y .
4 96 E NG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

D ick e n s u s ual pict u r e s q u e s t y l e an d re v e al s h i s u s u al i m ag i

’
s ,

n at iv e ou tl ook o n li fe an d h i s f on d n e s s for fin e s e n ti m e n t s

an d d ram at ic e pi s od e s I n d e e d all hi s q u alit i e s ar e h e r e s h ow n

.
, ,

n ot b r illi an tl o r g ar i s hl y a s i n oth e r n ov e l s b u t s ubd u e d

y , ,

a n d s oft e n e d lik e a s h ad e d li g ht f or ar ti s tic e ffe ct

, , .

Th o se w ho ar e i n t e r e s t e d i n D ick e n s s g r owth a n d m e th od s
c an h ardl y d o b e tt e r th an t o r e a d i n s u cc e s s i on hi s fi r s t th r e e

n ov e l s P i ck w i ck Oli v e r Tw i s t a n d N i c hola s N i ck l e by w hich

, , , , ,

a s w e h av e i n dic at e d S h ow cl e ar l h o w h e p as s e d fr om fu n t o
y ,

s e r i ou s p u r p o s e a n d which f u r n i s h i n c om bi n ati on t h e g e n e ral

,

pl an of a ll h i s l at e r w or k s F or t he r e s t w e c an on l y i n dic at e
. ,

th os e which i n ou r p e r s on al j u d gm e n t s e e m b e s t w or th r e ad
, ,

i n g — B l e a k H ou s e D om b ey a n d S on Ou r M utu a l F r i e n d
, , , ,

an d Ol d Cu r i os i ty S hop — b u t w e ar e n ot y e t far e n ou gh
,

a w ay fr om t h e fi r s t p op u l ar s u c c e s s of th e s e w or k s t o d e t e r

m i n e th e i r p e r m an e n t v al u e a n d i n fl u e n c e .

W I L L I A M MAK E P E A C E ( ) T H AC K E R AY 1 8 1 1 — 1 86 3

As t h e t w o m o s t s u cc e s s fu l n ov e li s t s of th e i r day it i s n at ,

u r al f or u s as it w a s for th e i r p e r s on a l f r i e n d s an d a d m i r e rs
, ,

t o c o m p ar e D ick e n s an d T h a ck e r ay with r e s p e ct t o th e i r li fe
an d w or k an d th e i r a ttitud e t ow ar d t h e w or ld i n which th e
, y
liv e d D ick e n s aft e r a d e s p e rat e l y h ar d s t r ug gl e i n h i s b oy
.
,

h ood with o u t fri e n d s or hig h e r e d u cat i on c om e s i n t o m an

, ,

h ood ch e e ry s e l f c on fid e n t e n e rg e tic fill e d with t he joy o f

,
-
, ,

h i s w or k an d i n t h e w o r ld which h ad at fi r s t t r e a t e d hi m s o ,

h ars hly h e fi n d s g ood e v e ry wh e re e v e n i n t h e j ail s an d i n

, ,

t h e s l u m s s i m pl y b e c au s e h e i s l ooki n g fo r it
,
Th ack e ray . ,

aft e r a b o h oo d s p e n t i n t h e b e s t of En li s h s ch ool s with

y g ,

m on e y fr i e n d s an d c om for t s of e v e r y ki n d fa c e s li fe t i m idly
, , , ,

di s t r u s t fu ll y an d di s like s t h e lit e r ary w or k which m ak e s h im

,

fam ou s H e h as a g ra ci ou s an d l ovabl e p e r s on alit y i s ki n d of

.
,

h e ar t an d r e v e r e s all th at i s p u r e an d g o od i n li fe ; y e t h e
,

i s al m os t c y n ic al t owar d t h e w orld which u s e s h im s o w e ll ,

an d fi n d s s h am s d e c e pti on s van iti e s e ve rywh e r e b e c au s e

, , ,
4 98 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

i
a r t st . Whe n h e b e c am e of age i n 1 83 2 he c am e in to p osse ssion of
, ,

a c o m for tabl e fo r tu n e r e t u rn e d t o En gl an d an d s e ttl e d d ow n i n t h e

, ,

Te m p l e t o stu d y l aw S oon h e b e gan t o d i slike t he p rofe ss i on i n

.

t e n se l y an d w e have i n Pe n d e n n i s a r e fl e c ti on of h i s m e n tal at t i tu d e
,

t ow ar d t h e law an d t h e y ou n g m e n w ho s tu d i e d i t H e soon l ost h i s .

fortu n e p artly b y gam bli n g an d s p e c u l at i on p ar tl y b y u n su c c e ssfu l

, ,

att e m p t s a t ru n n i n g a n e w s p ap e r an d at tw e n ty tw o b e gan fo r t h e
,
-

fi rs t ti m e t o e arn h i s ow n li v in g as an artist an d i ll u strator An i n

, .

t e r e s t i n g m e e ti n g b e tw e e n Th ac k e ray an d D i c k e n s a t thi s t im e
1 83 6 s u gge s ts t h e r e l at i v e i m p ortan c e of t h e tw o w r i t e r s y
( ) S e m ou r .
,

w ho w as ill u s trat i n g th e P i ckw i ck P ap e r s had j u st d i e d an d Thac k , ,

e r ay c all e d u p o n D i c k e n s w i th a fe w

d raw in gs an d aske d to b e all ow e d to

c on ti n u e t h e ill u st rati on s D ic k e n s .

w as at t hi s t i m e a t t he b e gi n n i n g
of h i s gr e at p op u l ar i ty Th e b e tte r .

lite rary arti st w hose d raw in gs w e r e ,

r e fu se d w as al m ost u n kn ow n an d
, ,

had to w ork hard for m or e t han t e n

e ars b e for e h e r e c e i v e d r e c ogn i
y
t i on D i sap p oi n t e d b y hi s failu r e as
.

an ill u s t rat or h e b e gan hi s li t e rar y ,

c are e r b y w r i t i n g s at i re s on s o c i e t y

f or F r a s e r
’
s M ag a zi n e . Thi s w as th e
b e gin n in g of hi s su c c e ss b u t t hou gh
th e Ye l lowp l u s h P ap e r s , Th e Gr e a t
W I LL I AM M A K E PE ACE
H agg a r ty D i a m on d , Ca the r i n e , The
T H ACK E R A Y
Fi tz B ood l e r s , The B ook f
o S n ob s ,
B a r ry Ly n don , an d variou s o th e r i m m atu r e k
w o r s m ad e hi m kn ow n
t o a fe w r e ad e r s of P u n ch an d o f F r a se r
’
s M ag a zi n e i t w as n ot il
t l th e
Vi y F
,

pub lic ation of an t air

( 1 84 7 — 184 8) t hat h e b e gan t o b e r e c og
n ize d a s o n e o f th e gre a t no v e li st s o f h i s d ay . Al l h i s e arli e r w ork s

ar e i i
sat re s , s o m e u p on so c e ty , o t h e r s u p on v e li sts t h e p op u lar no ,

B u l w e r D i sra e li an d e s p e c i ally D i c ke n s — w i th w hos e s e n t i m e n t al

, , ,

h e ro e s an d h e roin e s h e had n o p ati e n c e w h at e v e r H e had m arr i e d . ,

m e an w h il e i n 1 83 6 an d for a fe w y e ars w as v e ry h app y i n h i s hom e

, ,
.

Th e n d i s e as e an d i n san i t y fas t e n e d u p on h i s y ou n g w i fe a n d s he w as ,

p l ac e d i n an a s yl u m T h.e w h o l e aft e r life of ou r n o v e li st w as d ark

e n e d b y t h i s l o s s w o rs e t han d e at h H e b e c a m e a m an of t he c l u b s
. ,

rath e r t h an o f h i s o wn h om e an d t h ou gh h i s w i t an d ki n d n e s s m ad e
,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 4 99

hi m t he m ost w e lc om e o f c l u bm e n , th e re w as an u n d e rc u rre n t of
sad n e s s i n al l t hat h e w ro te . Lon g af t e rw ard s h e s a id t ha t, t hou gh
“
h i s m ar ri age e n d e d i n s hip w r e c k , h e w ou ld d o i t ove r again ; for
”
be hold Lo v e i s th e c row n an d c om p l e t i on of all e ar t h ly good .
Aft e r the m od e rat e su c c e ss of V i ty an F a i r , Thac k e ray w ro te t he
t hr e e nove l s of his _
m iddl e l ife u pon wh ic h h i s fam e ch e fl
yir e s t s ,

P en den n i s i n 1 85 0 , Ll cn ry E s m on d i n 1 85 2 , an d The N ew com e s in

1 85 5 . D ic ke n s s ’
gr e a t o
p p l l e c tu re r an d d ram atic
u ar su c c e ss as a

r e ad e r h ad l e d to a g n e ral d e s i r e
on th e p art o f t h e p u bli c t o s e e
e

an d t o h e a r li t e rary m e n an d T hac k e r ay , t o i n c r e as e h i s i n c o m e , ,

g a v e t w o r e m arkabl e c o u rs e s of l e c tu r e s t h e fi rs t b e i n g E ng l i s h ,

H u m or i s ts f
o the E ig h te en th Ce n tu ry , an d t he s e c on d Th e F ou r
Ge org es , - b ot h c o u rs e s b e in g d e live r e d w i th grati fyi n g s u c c e ss i n
En glan d i lly i n
an d e s p e c a Am e ri c a D ic k e n s , a s w e hav e s e e n , w as
.

di sapp oin te d i n Am e ric a an d v e n te d hi s d i sp l e a su re i n ou trage ou s

c ri t i c i s m ; b u t Thac k e ray w i th h i s u su al good b r e e di n g saw o n ly
, ,

t h e b e s t s id e of h i s ge n e r ou s e n t e r ta i n e r s an d i n b ot h h i s p u bli c an d
,

p r i v at e u t t e ran c e s e m p has i ze d t h e vi rtu e s o f t he n e w l an d w h ose ,

r e s tl e ss e n e rgy s e e m e d to fas c i n a t e h i m U n like D i c k e n s h e had .

,

n o c on fid e n c e i n h i m s e l f w h e n h e fac e d an au d i e n c e an d li k e m os t ,

lit e rary m e n h e di slike d l e c tu rin g an d soon gav e i t u p I n 1 860 , .

h e b e c am e e di tor of th e Cor n /t i l l M ag a zi n e w hi c h p r os p e r e d i n h i s ,

han d s an d w i th a c om fortabl e i n c om e h e s e e m e d j u s t r e a dy t o d o
,

hi s b e s t w ork fo r t h e w orld ( w h ic h has al w ay s b e li e v e d th at h e w as

c ap abl e of e v e n b e t t e r t h i n gs t han h e e v e r wr o t e ) w h e n h e di e d s u d

d e n l y i n 1 86 3 H i s b od y li e s b u ri e d i n K e n sal G r e e n an d on ly a
.
,

bu st d o e s hon or to hi s m e m o ry in We stm in s t e r Abb e y .

Work s of Th ack e r ay . Th e b e g i n n e r will d o w e ll t o om it

t h e e ar li e r s ati r e s of T h a ck e r ay w r itt e n wh il e h e w as s t r u g
,

H ry Es
en _ gli n
g t o e ar n a livi n g f r o m t h e m ag az i n e s a n d o p e n ,

m on d H e n ry E s m on d hi s m os t p e rfe ct n ov e l ,

th ou gh n ot t h e m os t wid e l y k n own an d r e ad T he fin e h i s .

t o ri c al an d lit e rar y fl av or of thi s s t ory i s on e of i t s m o s t

‘

m a rk e d ch ar a ct e r i s tic s an d on l y on e w ho k n ow s s om e thi n g o f
,

t h e hi s t or y an d lit e ra t u r e of t h e e i ght e e n th c e n t u r y can ap

p r e c i at e i t s v a l u e T h e h
. e r o C o l o n e l E s m o,
n d re l a t e s h i s ,

ow n s t o r c ar r i n g t h e r e ad e r th r ou g h t he c o u rt s an d c am p s
y , y
of Qu e e n An n e s r e i gn an d g ivi n g t h e m os t c om pl e t e an d
’

,
5 00 EN G LI S H LI TE RATU R E

a cc u rat e pictu r e of a p as t ag e th at has e v e r app e ar e d i n a

n ov e l . T h ack e r ay i s as w e h av e s aid a r e ali s t an d h e b e g i n s
, , ,

hi s s t ory b y ad o pti n g t h e s t y l e an d m an n e r of a s ch ol ar l y
g e n tl e m an o f t h e p e r i o d h e i s d e s c r ibi n
g H e h a s an e x .

t raor d i n a r v k n owl e d g e of e i g ht e e n th c e n t ury lit e ra t u r e -

an d ,

h e r e p r od u c e s i t s s t y l e i n d e t ail go i n g s o far a s t o i n s e r t i n
,

h i s n arra tiv e an all e g e d e s s ay from t h e Ta t l e r An d s o p e r .

fe c t ly i s it d on e th at it i s i m p os s ibl e t o s ay wh e r e i n it di ff e r s
fr om th e s t y l e o f Addi son an d S t e e l e .

I n hi s m att e r al s o T h ack e ray i s r e al i s t ic re fl e cti n g n ot t he ,

p r id e an d p om p of w ar which ar e l arg e l y d e l u s i on s b u t i t s
, ,

R e ali s m of b ru t a lit y a n d b ar b a r i s m which a r e ,a l l t o o r e al ;

Es m d n
pa in ti n g g e n e ral s an d l e ad e r s n ot a s t h e n e w s pap e r ,

h e r oe s t o wh om w e ar e a ccu s t om e d but as m ov e d b y i n t r ig u e s , ,

p e tt y j e al ou s i e s an d s e lfi s h am biti on s ; s h owi n g u s t h e g r e at
,

D u k e of Mar lb or o u g h n ot a s t h e m ilit ary h e ro t h e id ol of ,

w ar c raze d m ultit u d e s b u t a s with o u t p e r s on al h on or an d

-
, ,

v d b d e s pic abl e av ar ic e I n a w or d T h a ck e r a iv
g o e rn e
y .
y g e s ,

“ ”
u s th e b ack s t a i r s vi e w of w ar which i s a s a r u l e t ot all y
, , ,

n e g l e ct e d i n ou r h i s t o r i e s Wh e n h e d e al s with t h e lit e rary

.

m e n of t h e p e r i o d h e u s e s t h e s am e fr an k r e ali s m s h owi n g
, ,

u s S t e e l e an d A ddi s on a n d oth e r l e a d e r s n ot with h al o s a b o u t ,

th e i r h e ad s as p op u l ar au th o rs b u t i n s lipp e r s an d d re s s i n g
, ,

w s s m oki n g a pip e i n th e i r ow n r oom s or e l s e gr owi n g

g o n , ,

tip s y an d hil ar i o u s i n t h e t av e r n s — j u s t a s th e y app e ar e d ,

i n d ail y li fe B oth i n s t y l e an d i n m att e r th e r e for e E s m on d

. , ,

d e s e r v e s t o ran k as p robabl y t h e b e s t hi s t or ic al n ov e l i n
o u r l an g u a g e .

’
Th e pl o t of t h e s t ory i s lik e m os t of T h a ck e r ay s pl ot s
, ,
’
v e ry s li ght b u t p e rfe ctly s u it e d t o t he n ov e li s t s p u r p os e
, .

Th e p l ot of T h e pl a n s o f h i s ch ara ct e r s fa il ; th e i r id e a l s g ow
r

E s m m‘d
d i m ; t h e r e i s a g e n e ral di s app e aran c e of y ou th ful
am biti on s . Th e r e i s a l ov e s t ory at t h e c e n t e r ; b u t t h e e l e
m e n t of r om an c e which fu rn i s h e s t h e li ght an d m u s ic a n d
,

fragr an c e of lov e i s i n co n s picu ou s Th e h e ro aft e r t e n y e ar s

, . ,
5 9 2 EN G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

d e s i r e t o ge t t he m os t ou t of t h e fool s who l arg e ly con s titut e

s oci e t y . On t h e wh ol e it i s t h e m os t p owe r fu l b u t n ot t he
,

m o s t wh o l e s om e of Th a ck e r ay s w or k s
’
.

I n h i s s e c on d i m p o r t an t n ov e l P e n d e n n i s ( 1 84 9 we

V
,

h av e a c on t i n u ati on of th e s ati r e on s o ci e t y b e g u n i n a n i ty .
Fa i r T hi s n ov e l which t h e b e gi n n e r s h ou ld r e ad
. ,
Pe n de nni s
a ft e r E s m on a i s i n t e r e s ti n g t o u s for t w o r e ason s
’
, ,

— b e c a u se it r e fl e ct s m or e of t h e d e t ail s of Th ack e ra
’
s li fe
y
th an all h i s o th e r w r it i n g s an d b e c a u s e it c o n t a i n s on e
,

p ow e r fu ll y d raw n ch aract e r w h o i s a p e rp e t u al r e m i n d e r of
“
t h e d an g e r of s e lfi s h n e s s The h e ro i s
. n e ith e r an ge l n or

im p i n Th a ck e ray s w or d s b u t t h e t y pic al y ou n g m an of
’

, ,

s o ci e t wh om h e k n ow s th or ou ghl a n d wh om h e p ai n t s e x
y, y ,

a ct l as h e i s —
a c are l e s s g ood n at u r e d b u t e s s e n tiall s e lfi s h
y y
-
, ,

p e r s on w h o g oe s thr ou gh life i n t e n t on h i s ow n i n t e r e s t s
, .

P e n d e n n i s i s a p rofou n d m oral s t u d y an d t h e m o s t p ow e r fu l ,

ar r ai g n m e n t of w e ll m e an i n g s e lfi s h n e s s i n ou r lit e rat u r e n ot
-
,

e v e n e xc e pti n g G e o rg e E li ot s R om ol a which it s u g g e s t s
’

V
.
,

Tw o oth e r n ov e l s The N e w com e s ( 1 8 5 5 ) an d The

, i rg i n
i an s c om pl e t e t h e li s t of T h ack e ray s gr e at w or k s of ’

ficti on T h e for m e r i s a s e q u e l t o P e n d e n n i s an d
. ,

t he l att e r t o H e n ry E s m on d ; a n d b oth s h ar e t h e
g e n e ral fat e of s e qu e l s i n n ot b e i n g q u it e e q u al i n p ow e r or i n
t e r e s t t o th e i r p r e d e c e s s or s The N e w com e s h ow e v e r d e
. , ,

se rv e s a v e r
y hi g h pl a c e s o m ,e c r it ic s i n d e e d pl a ci n g it
,
a t ,

t h e h e a d of t h e a u th or s w or k s
’
Lik e all Th a ck e ray s n ov e l s
’
. ,

it i s a s t ory of h u m an frailt y ; b u t h e r e t h e au th or s i n n at e ’

e n tl e n e s s an d ki n d n e s s a r e s e e n at th e i r b e s t an d t h e h e r o i s
g ,

p e r h ap s t h e m os t g e n u i n e an d l ov abl e of all hi s ch aract e rs .

Th a ck e ray i s k n ow n i n E n g li s h lit e rat u r e as an e s s ay i s t

a s w e ll a s a n ov e li s t H i s E ng l i s h H u m or i s ts an d The Fou r
.

Th a ck eray s ’G e o r
g e s ar e a m o n g t h e fi n e s t e s sa
y s o f t h e n i n e
Es sa y s
t e e n t h c e n t u r y I n t h e form e r e s p e cia ll y Th a ck e r ay
. ,

S h ow s n ot on l a wid e k n owl e d g e b u t an e xt raor di n ar y u n d e r

y
s t an di n g of h i s s ubj e ct App ar e n tly thi s n i n e t e e n th c e n t u ry
.
-
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 59 3

w rit e r kn ow s Addi s on F ie ldi n g S wi ft S m oll e tt an d oth e r , , , ,

gr e a t w r it e r s of t he p as t c e n tu ry al m os t as i n ti m at e l y as on e
k n ow s h i s n e are s t fr i e n d ; an d h e giv e s u s t he fin e fl avor of
th e i r h u m or i n a w ay which n o o th e r w r it e r s av e p e r h ap s ,

La m b h a s e v e r r iv al e d
,
1
The F ou r Ge org e s i s i n a v e i n of .

d e lic at e s ati r e an d p re s e n t s a rath e r u n fl att e ri n g p i ct u r e of

,

fou r of E n g l an d s r u l e rs an d o f t h e c ou r t s i n which th e y
’

m ov e d B oth th e s e w or k s ar e r e m ar k abl e for th e i r e xq u i s it e

.

st le th i r g e n tl e h u m or th e i r k e e n lit e rar c r itici s m s an d

y e , y , ,

for t h e i n ti m at e k n ow l e d g e an d s y m p ath y which m a k e s t h e

p e opl e of a pas t age liv e on c e m or e i n t h e w r itt e n p ag e s .

Ge n e r al Ch ar act e r i st i cs I n t r e ati n g of Th a ck e ray s V i e w of ’

.

li fe as r e fl e ct e d i n h i s n ov e l s c r it ic s vary g re a tl y an d t h e
, , ,

foll owi n g s u m m ary m u s t b e t ak e n n ot a s a p os itiv e j u d g m e n t

b u t on l y as an a tt e m pt t o e xp r e s s t h e g e n e ral i m p r e s s i on of
h i s w or k s on an u n c r itic a l r e ad e r H e i s fi r s t of al l a re ali s t . ,

w h o p a i n t s li fe a s h e s e e s it A s h e s ay s hi m s e l f I h av e n o . ,

”
b rai n s ab ov e m y e y e s ; I d e s c r ib e wh at I s e e H i s pict u r e s .

of c e r t ai n t y p e s n ot abl y t h e w e ak an d vici ou s e l e m e n t s of
,

s o ci e t ar e a cc u rat e an d t ru e t o li fe b u t th e s e e m t o pl a
y , y y ,

t oo l ar g e a p ar t i n hi s b ook s a n d h a v e p e r h ap s t oo gr e atl y i n ,

fl u e n c e d h i s g e n e r al j u d gm e n t of h u m an it y A n e xc e s s iv e .

s e n s ibilit y or t h e c ap a cit f or fin e fe e li n g s an d e m oti on s i

, y s ,

a m ar k e d ch ara ct e r i s tic of T h a ck e r a as it i s of D ick e n s

y ,

an d Car l y l e H e i s e as il y off e n d e d a s th e y are b y t h e

.
, ,

S h am s of s o ci e t y ; b u t h e c an n ot fin d an o u tl e t a s D ick e n s ,

d oe s i n l au g ht e r an d t e ar s an d h e i s t oo g e n tl e t o foll ow
, ,

Car l y l e i n vi ol e n t d e n u n ciati on s an d p r oph e ci e s H e t u r n s t o .

s ati r e — i n fl u e n c e d d ou btl e s s b y e i ght e e n th c e n t u ry lit e ra

, , ,
-

t u r e which he k n e w s o w e ll an d i n which s ati re pl ay e d t oo ,

2
H i s sati r e i s n e v e r p e r s on al lik e Po p e s or
’
l arg e a p ar t .
, ,
’
b r u t al lik e S wi ft s an d i s t e m p e r e d b y ki n d n e s s an d h u m or ;
, ,

1 It s h ou ld b e po i n t e d ou t t hat the E n g l i s h H u m or i s ts i s s om e w h at i l
t oo h gh y col
o re d to be t i t ly
s r c a cc u ra t e . i l
I n ce rta n ca s e s a so, n ot ab y t hat l of S te e l e, t he r ea d e r m a y
we ll o b e ct
j t o Tha c e ra k y ’
s pa t r on i zi n g at t it u de t ow ar d h i s j
s u b e ct .
2 S e e pp —
. 2 60 2 6 1 .
5 4
0 E N G LI SH LI TER ATU R E

b ut it is u se d t oo fr e e l y, an d g e n e rally l ay s t oo m uch e m ph a s i s
on fau lt s an d fo ibl e s t o b e c on s id e r e d a t r u e pictu re of an y
l arg e cl as s of En g li s h s o ci e t y .

B e s id e s b e i n g a r e ali s t an d s ati r i s t T h a ck e r ay i s e s s e n tially ,

a m or ali s t lik e Addi s on ai m i n g d e fi n it e ly i n al l h i s w ork at

, ,

Th a ck era y p rod u ci n g a m oral i m p r e s s i on S o m u ch d oe s he .

a s a mm l i s t
r e v e r e g oo d n e s s a n d s o d e t e r m i n e d i s h e th at h i s
,

Pe n d e n n i s or h i s B e cky S h arp s h all b e j u d g e d at th e i r t r u e

val u e th at he i s n ot c on t e n t lik e S h ak e s p e a re t o b e s i m pl y an
, , ,

ar ti s t t o t e ll a n ar ti s t ic t al e an d l e t it s p e ak i t s o w n m e s sag e
,

h e m u s t e xpl ai n an d e m ph a s i ze t h e m or a l s i gn ific an c e of hi s
w ork Th e re i s n o n e e d t o con s u lt ou r ow n c on s ci e n c e ov e r
.

’
t h e a ct i on s of T h a ck e r ay s ch ara ct e r s ; t h e be au t y of vi r tu e
an d t h e u g li n e s s of vic e ar e e vid e n t o n e v e r p a ge
y .

Wh at e v e r w e m ay thi n k of Th ack e ray s m att e r th e re i s on e ’

p oi n t i n which c r itic s ar e agr e e d — th at h e i s m as t e r of a ,

p u r e an d s i m pl e En gli s h s t y l e W h e th e r hi s th ou ght .

Hi s S t y l e
b e s ad or hu m or ou s c om m on pl ac e or p r ofou n d h e, ,

e xp r e s s e s it p e r fe ctl with ou t e ff or t or affe ct ati on I n al l h i s

y , .

w or k th e r e i s a s ubtl e ch ar m i m p o s s ibl e t o d e s cr ib e which

, ,

g iv e s t h e i m p r e s s i o n th a t w e a r e li s t e n i n g t o a g e n tl e m an .

A n d it i s t h e e as e t h e r e fi n e m e n t t h e e xqu i s it e n a t u ra l n e s s
, ,

of Th ack e ra s s t l e th at fu rn i s h e s a l arg e p ar t of ou r pl e as
’

y y
u r e i n r e adi n g h i m .

MAR Y A N N EV
AN S , G E OR G E E L I OT ( 1 8 1 9- 1 880)

In n e ar ly w r it e r s of t h e ict or i an A g e w e n ot e on
al l the V ,

t h e on e h an d a s t r on g i n t e ll e ct u al t e n d e n c y t o an al y ze t he
,

p r obl e m s of li fe an d on t he othe r a t e n d e n cy t o t e a ch th at
, ,

i s t o e xpl ai n t o m e n t h e m e th od b y which th e s e p r obl e m s

,

m ay b e s olv e d The n o ve l s e s p e ci all y s e e m t o l os e s ig ht of

.

t h e pu r e l y ar ti s tic id e a l of w r iti n g an d t o a i m d e fi n it e l y at ,

m or al i n s t r ucti on I n G e or ge Eli ot b o th th e s e t e n d e n ci e s
.

r e a ch a cli m a x S he i s m or e obvi ou s l y m or e c on s ci ou s ly a
.
,

p r e a ch e r an d m orali ze r th an an y of he r gr e at c on t e m p orar i e s .
 5 06 ENG LI SH LI T ER ATU R E

b y m i sc e ll an e ou s We hav e a su gge stion of h e r m e thod in

i
r e ad n g .

o n e o f h e r e arly l e t t e r s i n w h i c h s h e s ay s :
, My m in d p r e s e n ts an
as s e m bl age of d i sj o in t e d s p e c i m e n s of h i s tor y an c i e n t an d m od e rn,

sc rap s of p o e try p i c k e d u p fro m S hak e s p e a r e Cow p e r Wo rd sw orth , , ,

an d M il to n n e w sp ap e r t o p i c s m o r se l s o f Add i son an d B ac o n Lat i n

, ,

ve rb s ge om e t ry e n tom ol ogy an d c h e m i s try ; re v i e ws an d m e tap hy s

, , ,

i c s al l arre st e d an d p e tri fie d an d sm o th e r e d b y t h e fas t t h i c k e n i n g

,
-

e v e ryd ay ac c e ss i on of a c tu al e v e n t s r e l at i v e an x i e t i e s an d h o u s e
, ,
”
hold c ar e s an d v e x ati on s .

Whe n Mary w as tw e n ty on e y e ars old the fam il y again m ove d thi s

-
,

ti m e to Fol e shill R oad n e ar Cove n try H e re S he b e c am e ac qu ain te d

, .

w i t h t h e fa m ily O f Ch a rl e s B ray ,

a p r o sp e r ou s r ibb on m an u fac tu r e r ,

w h o se hou s e w a s a ga t h e ri n g p l ac e
J

for t h e fre e t h i n k erS O f t h e n e i gh

b or h ood The e ffe c t of t h i s l ib.

e ral at m os p h e r e u p on M i s s Evan s ,

b rou gh t u p i n a n arrow w ay w i th ,

n o kn ow l e d ge o f t h e w o rl d w as to ,

u n s e ttl e m an y of h e r y ou t hfu l c on

v i c ti on s . Fro m a n ar r o w , in t e n s e
d ogm at i s m , sh e w e n t t o th e o th e r

e i li s m ; t h e n ( ab ou t
x tr e m e o f rad c a

1 86 0 sh e l os t al l s y m p a th y w i t h
)
t h e fre e th i n ke rs an d b e in g ih
MAR Y AN N EV
, ,
AN S
s t i n c t i v e l y r e li gi ou s s e e m e d to b e
,
,
G E OR GE E L I OT
r
g p o i n g aft e r a d e fin i t e fa i t h w h il e

foll ow i n g t h e id e al of d u ty Thi s s p i r i tu al s t ru ggl e w h i c h s u gge st s

. ,

t hat of Carlyl e i s u n d ou b t e d l y t h e c au s e of t hat gl oom a n d d e p r e s

,

s i o n w h i c h h an g li k e an En gli sh fog o v e r m u c h of h e r w ork ; t h ou gh

, ,

h e r bi ograp h e r Cros s t e l l s u s t hat S h e w as n o t b y an y m e an s a sad

, ,

o r gl o om y w o m an .

I n 1 84 9 Mi ss Ev an s s fat h e r di e d an d t h e B ray s t ook h e r ab road

’
,

fo r a t ou r of t h e c on ti n e n t O n h e r r e tu rn to En gl an d s h e w r ot e
.

s e v e ral lib e r al art i c l e s fo r t h e We s tm i n s te r R e vi e w an d p r e s e n tly w as ,

m ad e a s s i s tan t e d i t o r of t ha t m agazin e H e r r e s i d e n c e i n Lon d o n at

.

th i s t i m e m ark s a tu rn i n g p oint i n h e r c ar e e r an d t h e r e a l b e gin n i n g

o f h e r l i t e rary l ife .Sh e m ad e s t ron g fri e n d shi p s w i t h S p e n c e r Mill , ,

an d o th e r s c i e n t i s t s of t h e d ay an d t h rou gh S p e n c e r m e t G e o rge
,

H e n ry Le w e s a m i sc e ll an e ou s w ri t e r w hom sh e afte rw ard s m arri e d

, ,
.
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 59 7

Un d e r hi s y m p athe ti c i n fl u e n c e she b e gan to wr ite fiction for th e

s
“ ”
m agazin e s h e r fi rs t s to ry b e in g Am o s Barton
, w hi c h w a s
lat e r in c l u d e d i n the S ce n e s of Cle ri ca l Lif e H e r fi rs t
l on g n ov e l A da m B e de ap p e a r e d e arly i n 1 85 9 an d m e t w i th su c h
, ,

p opu lar fa v or t hat to the e n d of h e r life she d e sp ai re d of e ve r again

r e p e a t i n g h e r t ri u m p h Bu t th e u n e x p e c t e d su c c e ss p rove d to b e an
.

in s p i ra tion an d s h e c om pl e t e d The M i ll o n the F l os s an d b e gan

,

S i l a s M a r n e r d u ri n g th e foll ow i n g y e ar No t u n t il th e gre a t s u c c e ss
.

of t h e se w o rks l e d t o an i n s i s t e n t d e m an d t o kn ow t h e au t h or did

t h e En gli sh p u bli c l e arn t hat it w as a w o m an an d n ot an En gli sh ,

c l e rgym an as th e y su pp o s e d w ho had s u d d e n l y j u m p e d t o t h e fron t

, ,

ran k o f li v i n g w r i t e r s .

U p t o t hi s p o i n t G e o rge Eli o t had c on fin e d h e rs e l f to En gli sh

c ou n t ry li fe b u t n ow sh e su d d e n l y ab an d on e d t h e s c e n e s an d th e
,

p pe o l e w i t h w h om s h e w a s m os t fam ili ar i n o rd e r t o w r i t e an h i s t o r

i c a l n ov e l . I t w as i n 1 860 w hil e t rave li n g i n I taly t h at s h e fo rm e d

, ,
“ ”
t h e gr e at p roj e c t of R om ol a — , a m i n gli n g o f fi c t i on an d m oral

p h il osop hy again s t t he bac kgrou n d of t he m i ghty R e n ais san c e m ov e

,

m e n t I n t hi s s h e w as w ri t in g of th i n gs of w hi c h s h e had n o p e rson al
.

kn o w l e d ge an d th e b ook c os t h e r m an y m on t hs o f hard an d d e p re ss
,

i n g l ab or S h e said h e rs e l f that s h e w a s a y ou n g w om an w h e n she

.

b e gan t h e w o rk an d an ol d w om an w h e n s h e fi n i sh e d i t R om ol a
, .

a s n o t su c c e ss fu l w i th t h e bli
( 1 86 2 — 1 86 3
) w p u c a
,
n d t h e s am e m a
y
b e sa id o f F e l i x H ol t the R a d i ca l ( 1 866 ) an d The Sp a n i s h Gyp sy
Th e l as t n am e d w ork w a s t h e r e su lt of t h e au thor s a m biti on
’
-

t o w r i te a d ram at i c p o e m w hi c h s hou ld d u pli c a t e t h e l e ss on of R om

ol a ; an d for t h e
p u r p o s e o f g a t h e r i n g m a t e r i a l s h e v i s i t e d S p a i n ,

w h i c h sh e had d e c i d e d u p on as t h e sc e n e of h e r p o e t i c al e ffo r t . Wi th
t h e p u bli c at i on o f M i dd l e m a r ch ( 1 871 1 872 ) G e o rge Eli ot c am e
—

bac k agai n i n to p op u lar favo r t hou gh thi s w ork i s l e ss s pon tan e ou s

, ,

an d m or e l ab o r e d an d e d t i t h n h e e a li e n ov e l s T h e fa ult
p an c , a r r r .

o f t o o m u c h an aly s i s an d m orali zi n w s e v e n m o r e c on s p i c uou s

g a

i n D a n i e l D e r on d a w h i c h s h e r e gard e d a s h e r gr e at e s t
b ook H e r life d u ri n g al l th i s t im e w as sin gu larly u n e v e n tfu l an d
.
,

t h e c hi e f m il e s ton e s al on g t he road m ark t h e p u bli c at i on of h e r

s u c c e s s ive n ov e l s .

D u r i n g all th e y e ars of h e r li t e rary su c c e ss he r hu sban d Le w e s

had b e e n a m ost s y m p at h e ti c fri e n d an d c r i t i c an d w h e n he di e d in
, ,

1 8 78 t h e l o s s s e e m e d t o b e m or e than s h e c ou ld b e ar
, . H e r l e t t e rs
o f th i s p e ri o d are t ou c h i n i t h i r l on e l i n e ss an d t h e i r c ravi n g fo r
g n e
5 9 8 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

s y m pathy . Lat e r she d e v e rybod y b y m arry in g J ohn Walt e r

as ton sh e i
Cross m u c h y ou n ge r t han h e r se l f w ho i s kn own a s h e r bi ograp he r
, , .

D e e p d own b e l ow t h e r e i s a r ive r of sad n e s s b u t I am abl e

,

w r i t e s t hi s w o m an of s i x ty w ho
”
t o e n joy m y n e w l y r e o p e n e d life -
, , ,

e ve r s in c e s h e w as t h e gi rl w hom w e kn ow as Maggi e Tu l l i ve r m u s t ,

al w ay s hav e s o m e o n e t o l o v e an d t o d e p e n d u po n H e r n e w i n t e re s t
.

i n li fe l as t e d b u t a fe w m on t h s fo r s h e di e d i n D e c e m b e r of th e same
,

y e ar O n e o f t h e b e s t i n d i c at i on s o f h e r s t re n t h an d h e r
g
lim itati on s i s h e r p ortrait w ith i ts s tron g m asc u lin e fe atu re s su g
, ,

ge st i n g b oth b y r e s e m bl an c e an d b y c on tra st t hat w on d e rfu l p or

t rai t of Savon arol a w h i c h han gs ove r h i s old d e sk i n the m on ast e ry
a t F l or e n c e .

Work s of Ge or ge El i ot . Th e s e
c on v e n i e n tly divid e d i n t o
ar e

th r e e g rou p s c orr e s p on di n g t o t h e th r e e p e r iod s o f h e r li fe

, .

Th e fi r s t g rou p i n cl u d e s al l h e r e ar l y e s s ay s an d m i s c e ll an e
fr om h e r t r an s l ati on of S tr a u s s s L e b e n j e s u i n
’
o u s w or k , ,

1 84 6 t o h e r u n i on with Le w e s i n 1 8 5 4
,
T he s e c on d g r ou p.

in cl u d e s S ce n e s of Cl e r i ca l L if e Ad a m B e d e M i l l on the , ,

Fl os s an d S i las M a r n e r all p u bli s h e d b e tw e e n 1 8 5 8 an d 1 86 1

, ,

Th e s e fou r n ov e l s o f t h e m iddl e p e r i o d ar e fo u n d e d on t h e
au th or s ow n li fe an d e xp e r i e n c e
’
the i r s c e n e s are l aid i n t h e
c ou n t r y an d th e ir ch ar act e r s ar e t ak e n fr om t h e s t olid p e opl e
,

of t h e Midl an d s with wh om G e or ge Eliot had b e e n fam ili ar

,

T h e y ar e p r o ba bl y t h e a u th or s m os t e n d u r
’
s i n c e childh o od .

i n g w or k s Th e y h av e a n atu ral n e s s a s p on t an e it y at ti m e s
.
, ,

a fl a s h o f r e al h u m or which ar e l a cki n g i n h e r l at e r n ov e l s ;
,

an d th e S h ow a r apid d e v e l o p m e n t of lit e rar y p o w e r which

y
re a ch e s a cli m ax i n S i l a s M a rn e r .

Th e n ov e l of It ali an life R om ol a ( 1 86 2 ,
m ar k s a
t ran s iti on t o t he thi r d gr oup which i n cl u d e s th r e e m or e,

n ov e l s — Fe l i x H ol t 1
, ( M i ddl e m a r ch ( 1 871 1 D an ie l

D e r on d a ( 1 8 t h e am biti ou s d r am at ic p oe m The Spa n i s h

Gyp sy a n d a c oll e cti on of m i s c e ll an e o u s e s s ay s c all e d

The I mp r e s s i on s of Th e op hra s tu s S u ch T h e g e n e ra l
i m p r e s s i on of th e s e w ork s i s n ot s o fav orabl e as th at p r od u c e d
b y t he n ov e l s of t h e m iddl e p e r i od T h e y ar e m ore l ab or e d .
5 19 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

In th e s e tw o chara ct e r s T it o an d R om ol a w e h av e an
, ,

e pit om e o f ou r au th or s m oral t e a chi n g

’
The p r i n cipl e of l aw
V
.

Mo r al w a s i n t h e a i r d u r i n
g t h e ict o r i a n e ra a n d w e
,

Te ami n g
h av e al r e ad y n ot e d how d e e pl y Te n n y s on w as in fl u
e n c e d b y it . W ith G e orge E li ot l aw i s like fat e ; it ove r
wh e l m s p e r s on al fre e dom an d i n cli n ati on Moral law w as t o .

’
h e r a s i n e vit abl e a s au t om atic a s gr avit ati on Tit o s d e g e n
, , .

e rat i on an d t h e s ad fa il u r e o f D o r oth e a an d L d at e i n
, y g
M i dd l e m a rch m ay b e e xplai n e d a s s i m pl y as t h e fall of an
,

a ppl e ,
or as a b r u i s e d k n e e wh e n a m an l os e s h i s b al an c e A .

c e r t a i n ac t p rod u c e s a d e fi n it e m or al e ffe ct on t h e i n divid u al

an d ch ar act e r i s t h e a dd e d s u m of al l t h e a ct s of a m an s
’

life , j u s t as t he w e ight of a b od y i s th e s u m Of t he w e ight s

o f m an di ff e r e n t at om s which c o n s tit u t e it T h e m att e r of
y .

r e w ar d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s th e r e for e n e e d s n o fi n al j u d ge or
, ,

j u d g m e n t s i n c e th e s e thi n g s t ak e c are of th e m s e lve s aut o

,

m at i c ally i n a w or ld of i n vi o l abl e m ora l l aw .

Pe rh ap s o n e thi n g m ore s h o uld b e add e d t o t h e g e n e ral

ch aract e r i s tic s of G e orge E li ot s n ov e l s — th e y ar e al l r ath e r
’

d e p re s s i n g Th e g l ad s om e n e s s of li fe t h e s u n s hi n e of s m il e s
. ,

an d l a u g ht e r i s d e n i e d he r
,
I t i s s aid th at on c e wh e n h e r
. ,

h u s b an d r e m ark e d th a t h e r n ove l s w e r e all e s s e n tiall y s ad ,

s h e w e pt , an d an s w e re d th at S h e m u s t d e s c r ib e li fe as s h e

had fou n d it .

Wh at t o R e ad Ge or ge Eli ot s fi r s t s t or i e s ar e i n Som e r e
.
’

s p e c t s he r b e s t ,th ou gh he r lit e rar y p owe r i n c r e as e s d u r in g

h e r s e c on d p e r i od c u l m i n ati n g i n S i l a s M a r n e r an d h e r p sy
, ,

c h ol og i c al an al s i s i s m or e e vid e n t i n D a n i e l D e r on d a
y O n .

t h e wh ol e it i s an e xc e ll e n t w ay t o b e g i n with t h e fre s h n e s s
,

an d i n s pi rati on o f t h e S ce n e s o f C l e r i ca l L if e an d r e a d h e r

boo k s i n th e or d e r i n which th e y w e r e w r itt e n I n t h e fi r s t .

g r o u p o f n o v e l s A d a m B e d e i s t h e m os t n a t u ra l a n d p r oba bl
, y
i n t e r e s t s m or e r e ad e r s th an all t h e oth e r s c om bi n e d The M i l l .

on the Fl os s h a s a l ar g e r p e r s on al i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e it r e fl e ct s
,

m uch of G e org e E li ot s hi s t ory an d t h e s c e n e s an d t h e fr i e n d s

’
 TH E ,
V
I CTO R 1AN AGE 511

of he r ly li fe The l a ck of p r op ort i on i n thi s s t ory which

e ar . ,

iv th m ch p c t t h i l —an d b o xp i c
e s ra er t oo u s a e o e g r
y e e r e
-
n e s
g ,

i s n atu rall y e xpl ai n e d b y t h e t e n d e n c y i n e v e ry m an an d

w om an t o li n ge r ov e r e arl y m e m or i e s .

S i l a s M a r n e r i s ar ti s tic all y t h e m os t p e rfe ct of G e or ge

E li ot s n ov e l s an d w e v e n t u re t o an al y ze it as t y pic al of h e r
’

id e al s an d m e th od s W e n o t e fi r s t t h e s t y l e which
. ,
S l as Mam e t
an d a l i ttl e s e l f c o n s c i ou s l ac kI n g t h e V
i
I s h e av i g or
y
-
,

a n d pict u re s qu e n e s s of D ick e n s an d t h e g ra c e a n d n at u r al
,

n e s s of Th a ck e r a T h e ch ar a ct e r s ar e t h e c o m m on p e opl e of
y .

t h e M idl an d s t h e h e r o b e i n g a li n e n w e av e r a l on e l y ou t ca s t
, ,

w h o b oar d s an d g l oa t s o v e r h i s h ar d e ar n e d m o n e y i s r obb e d-
, ,

t h r ow n i n t o u tt e r d e s pa i r an d b r ou ght b a ck t o li fe an d h appi
,

n e ss b t h e c o m i n g of a n ab a n d on e d child t o h i s fir e I n the
y .

d e v e l op m e n t of h e r s t ory t h e au th or S h ow s h e rs e l f fi rs t a , ,

r e ali s t ,b y t h e n at u r al n e s s of h e r ch ar a ct e r s a n d t h e m i n u t e
acc u r ac with which s h e r e p ro d u c e s th e i r w ay s an d e v e n t h e
y
a cc e n t s of th e i r s p e e ch ; s e c on d a p s ch o l og i s t b t h e c on
y , y ,

t i n u al an al y s i s an d e xpl an at i on of m otiv e s ; thi r d a m or ali s t , ,

b y s h owi n g i n e ach i n divid ual t h e acti on an d r e act i on of u n i

v e r s al m or al for c e s an d e s p e ci all y b y m aki n g e v e ry e vil a c t
,

b r i n g i n e vit abl e pu n i s h m e n t t o t he m an w h o d oe s it T rag e d y . ,

th e r e for e pl ay s a l ar g e p ar t i n t h e s t ory ; for a cc or di n g t o

, ,

Ge or g e Eli ot t rage dy an d s u ffe r i n g w a lk cl o s e b e hi n d u s o r

, ,

l u r k at e ve r y t u r n i n t h e r oad of li fe Lik e all h e r n ov e l s . ,

S i l a s M a r n e r i s d e p r e s s i n g We t u r n a way fr om e v e n t h e
.

w e ddi n g of Eppi e which i s j u s t as it s h o u ld b e — with a

—

s e n s e of s ad n e s s a n d i n c om pl e t e n e s s F i n all y a s w e cl o s e t h e
.
,

b ook w e ar e c on s ci o u s o f a p ow e rfu l an d e n d u r i n g i m p r e s s i on
,

of re alit S il t h p w v G d f C t h w ll
y as
. e oo
, r e a e r ; o r e y as s e e ,

m e an i n g s e lfi s h m an ; Mr Ma c e y t h e g arru l ou s a n d ob se rv
, .
,

an t p ar i s h cl e r k ; D oll
y W i n th r op t h e ki n d h e ar t e d c o u n t r
,
-
y
wo m an w h o c an n ot u n d e r s t an d t h e m y s t e r i e s of r e li g ion an d
s o i n t e r p r e t s God i n t e r m s of h u m an l ov e th e s e ar e r e al
,
—

pe opl e wh om h avi n g on c e m e t w e c an n e ve r f orge t

, .
5 I 2 E N G LI S H L I TER ATU R E

R om ola h as t h e s am e l m oral th e m e as t he En gli s h

g e n e r a

n ov e l s ; but t h e s c e n e s ar e e n ti re l y di ffe re n t an d Opin i on i s ,

divid e d a s t o t h e c om p arativ e m e rit of t h e w or k I t .

R om ol a
i s a s tudy a v e r y p r ofou n d s t u d y of m oral d e v e l op
,

m e n t i n o n e ch aract e r an d of m oral d e g e n e ra c y i n an oth e r .

I t s ch ara ct e r s an d i t s s c e n e s ar e b oth I t ali an a n d t h e a cti on ,

t ak e s pl a c e d u r i n g a c r itic al p e r i od of th e R e n ai s san c e m ov e
m e n t wh e n S av on arol a w as at t h e h e i g ht of h i s p ow e r i n
,

F l or e n c e . H e r e i s a m ag n ifi c e n t th e m e a n d a s u p e r b ba ck
g ro u n d f or a g r e a t n o v e l a n d G e o r
, g e E li ot r e a d a n d s t u di e d
till s h e fe lt s u r e th at s h e u n d e r s t ood t h e pl a c e t he ti m e an d , ,

t h e p e opl e of h e r s t or y R om ol a i s th e r e for e i n t e r e s ti n g r e ad
.

i n g i n m an y r e s p e ct s t h e m os t i n t e r e s ti n g o t h e r w ork s It
, .

h as b e e n c all e d on e of ou r g r e at e s t hi s t or ic al n ov e l s ; b u t as
s uch it has on e g r i e v ou s fau lt It i s n ot q u it e t r u e t o t h e
.

p e opl e or e v e n t o t h e l o calit y which it e n d e av or s t o r e p r e s e n t .

On e w h o r e ad s it h e r e i n a n e w an d di ff e re n t l an d thin k s
, ,

o n l y of t h e s t ory an d of t h e n ove li s t s p ow e r ; b u t on e w ho ’

r e ad s it on t h e S p ot which it d e s c r ib e s an d am id s t t h e li fe
,

which it pict u re s i s c on ti n u all y h au n t e d b y th e s u gg e s ti on

,

th at G e org e Eli ot u n d e r s t ood n e ith e r I t al y n or t h e It alian s .

I t i s thi s l ack of h ar m on y with I t ali an li fe it s e l f which c au s e d

Mor r i s an d R o s s e tt i a n d e v e n B r ow n i n g with all h i s ad m i ra ,

ti on for t h e au th or t o l ay a s id e t h e b ook u n abl e to r e ad it

, ,

with pl e as u re or p ro fit I n a w or d R om ol a i s a g re at m or al
.
,

st u d an d a v e r i n t e r e s ti n b k b t t h ch a a ct e r s ar e
y y g o o u e r

n ot I t alian an d t h e n ov e l a s a wh ol e l ack s th e s t ron g r e alit y

,

which m ar k s G e or g e E li ot s En g li s h s t u di e s ’
.

MI N O R N O V
E LI S T S OF TH E V I CT O R I A N A GE
I n t he th r e e g r e a t
v e li s t s j u s t c on s id e r e d w e h av e an
no

e pit om e o f t h e fi ct i on of t h e a g e D ick e n s u s i n g t h e n ov e l t o
,

s olv e s o cia l p ro bl e m s Th ack e ray t o p ai n t t h e li fe of s oci e t y

,

as h e s aw it an d G e or g e Eli ot t o t e ach t h e fu n d am e n t al p ri n
,

c ip l e s of m ora lit Th e i n fl u e n c e of th e s e th re e wr it e r s i s
y .
 5 14 EN G LI S H LI TERATU R E

B a rche s te r Tow e rs Thi s i s

t udy of l ife i n a cath ea s

d ral t own an d i s r e m ar kabl e for i t s m i n ut e pictu r e s of bi s h op s

,

an d cl e r gy m e n with th e i r fam ili e s a n d d e p e n d e n t s I t w ou ld

, .

b e w e ll t o r e ad thi s n ov e l i n c on n e cti on with The Wa r d e n

The La s t Ch r on i cl e of B a rs e t an d oth e r n ov e l s

o f t h e s am e s e ri e s S i n c e t h e s c e n e s an d ch ar a ct e r s ar e t h e
,

s am e i n al l th e s e b ook s an d th e ar e u n d ou bt e dl t h e be st
y , y
’
e xp r e s s i on of t h e au th or s g e n i u s H awt h orn e s ay s of h i s
‘

“
n ov e l s : Th e y p r e ci s e l y s u it m y t a s t e — s olid an d s u b s t an ,

tial an d , j u s t a s r e al a s i f s o m e gi an t h ad h e w n a g re at
l u m p ou t of t h e e ar th an d p u t it u n d e r a gl as s ca s e with all ,

th e i n h abit an t s g oi n g a b ou t th e i r d a il y b u s i n e s s an d n ot s u s

p e c t i n g th a t th e
y w e re b e i n g m a d e a s h o w o f .

Ch arl ott e B ron t e We h ave an oth e r s u gg e s ti on of Th ack

.

e ra i n t h e w or k o f Ch ar l ott e B r on t e S h
y e

a i m e d t o m ak e h e r n ov e l s a r e ali s tic pict u r e o f s oci e t b ut

y ,

s h e add e d t o Th a ck e ra s r e a li s m t h e e l e m e n t o f p a s s i on a t e
’

y
an d s om e wh a t u n b al a n c e d rom an tici s m Th e l att e r e l e m e n t .

w as p ar tl y t h e e xp r e s s i on of Mi s s B r on t e s ow n n atu r e an d
’

p ar tl y t he r e s u lt of h e r l on e l y an d gr i e f s t r ick e n li fe which -
,

w as d ar k e n e d b y a s u cc e s s i on o f fam il y t rage di e s I t will h e lp .

u s t o u n d e r s t an d h e r w or k if w e r e m e m b e r th at b oth Ch ar
1
l ott e B ron t e an d he r s i s t e r Em il y t u r n e d t o lit e r atu r e b e c au s e
th e y fou n d th e i r w or k as gov e rn e s s an d t e ach e r u n e n d u rabl e ,

an d s ou ght t o r e li e v e t h e l on e li n e s s a n d s a d n e s s of th e i r o w n

l ot b y c r e atin g a n e w w or l d of t h e i m ag i n a ti on I n thi s n e w .

w or ld h ow e v e r t h e s ad n e s s o f t h e ol d r e m ai n s an d all t h e
, , ,

B r on t e n ov e l s h av e b e hi n d th e m an achi n g h e ar t C h ar l ott e .

B r on t e s b e s t k n ow n w or k i s j a n e Ey re
’
which with ,

a l l i t s fau lt s i s a p ow e rfu l an d fas ci n at i n g s tud of e l e m e n t a l

, y
l ov e an d h at e re m i n di n g u s vag u e l y of on e of Mar l ow e s
,
’

1 il
E m y B r on t e ( 1 81 8— 1 848) w as on a ly li l l i
tt e e ss g ft e d t han he r fa m ou s s s te r . H e r i
b e s t n ow n w or i s Wu th e r i n g H e ig hts
k k a s t r on g b u t m orb d n o e of o e a n d i vl lv
i l
s u ffe r n g . Matt he w Arn o d s a d of h e r t hat , i
for t h e p ort ra a of pa ss on , e he m e n ce ,y l i v
an d gr e f, i
”
il l v
E m y B ron t e h ad n o e q u a sa e B yr on . An e q u s te p ct u re of E m y i s x ii i il
giv e n i n ha l
C r otte B r ou t é s n o e S h i r ley .
’
vl
 TH E V
I CTOR I AN AGE 515

t rage di e s . w ork w on i n s t an t favor with t h e public an d

Thi s ,

t h e auth or w as pl ac e d i n t h e fron t ran k of livi n g n ov e li s t s .

A s id e fr om i t s v al u e as a n ov e l it i s i n t e r e s ti n g i n m an y of
, ,

i t s e ar l y p as s age s as t h e r e fl e cti on of t h e a uth or s ow n li fe

’

V
,

a n d e xp e r i e n c e S h i r l ey
. an d i ll e t te ( 1 85 3 ) m ak e u p
t h e t r i o of n ov e l s b y which thi s g i ft e d w om an i s g e n e r all y
r e m e m be re d .

B u l w e r Ly t t on Edwar d B ulw e r Ly tt on ( 1 80 3 1 873 ) w as

. —

an e xt r e m e l v e r s atil e w r it e r w h o t r i e d a l m o s t e v e r ki d f
y , y n o

n ov e l k n ow n t o t h e n i n e t e e n th c e n t u r I n h i s e ar l li f h
y .
y e e

w r ot e p oe m s an d d ram as u n d e r t h e i n fl u e n c e of B y ron ; but

,

hi s fi r s t n ot abl e w or k P e l ha m , o n e of t h e b e s t of hi s

n ov e l s w as a ki n d of bu r l e s q u e o n t he B r o n ic t p e of tl
, y y g e n e

m an . A s a s t u d y of c on t e m p orar y m an n e r s i n hi g h s oci e t y ,

P e lha m ha s a s u g ge s t i on o f Th ack e ray an d t h e r e s e m bl an c e ,

i s m or e n ot ic e abl e i n oth e r n ov e l s of t h e s am e t y p e s u ch ,

a s E r n e s t M a l t r a v e rs The Car ton s ( 1 84 8 My

N ove l ( 1 85 an d K e n e l m Ch i l l i ng ly We h av e a
s u gg e s ti on o f D ick e n s i n at l e as t t w o o f L t t on s n ov e l s
’

y ,

P a u l Cl if or d an d E ug e n e Ar a m t h e h e ro e s o f which ar e
f
,

c r i m i n al s pictu r e d as t h e victi m s rath e r th an as t h e o pp r e s s or s

,

o f s o ci e t L tt on e s s a e d al s o with c id bl p p l
y y
.
y on, s e r a e o u ar

s uc c e s s t h e r om an t ic n ov e l i n Th e P i l r i m s o h h i
, g f t e R n e a n d
Z a n on i an d t r i e d t h e g h os t s t ory i n The H a u n te d a n d the
,

H a u n te r s H i s fam e at t h e p r e s e n t d ay re s t s l arg e ly u p on
.

h i s hi s t or ical n ov e l s i n i m it ati on o f Wa lt e r S c ott The L a s t

, ,

D ay s of P omp e i i R i e n zi an d H a rol d
t h e l as t b e i n g h i s m o s t am bit i ou s
tt e m pt t o m ak e t h e n ov e l
a

t h e s u ppl e m e n t of hi s t or y I n al l h i s n ov e l s Ly tt on i s i n cli n e d
.

t o s e n ti m e n t ali s m an d s e n s ati on ali s m an d h i s w o r k s th ou g h

, ,

g e n e r a ll y i n t e r e s ti n g s e e
, m h ar dl y w o r th y o f a hi g h pl ac e i n

t h e hi s t o r y o f ficti on .

Ki n gs l e y E n ti r e l y di ffe r e n t I n s p i r it a r e t h e n ov e l s of t h e
.

s ch ol ar l
y cl e rg m an
y C
, h ar l e s K i n g s l e y ( 1 8 1 9 1 8 7 H i
—
s

wor k s n atu rall y divid e th e m s e lve s i n t o th re e cl as s e s I n t he .

5 16 E N G LI S H L I TE RATU RE

fir s t ar e ci al s t u di e s an d p r obl e m n ov e l s s uch as Al ton

his so ,

L ocke ( 1 8 h avi n g for i t s h e ro a Lon d on t ail or an d p oe t

.
,
’

an d Ye a s t w hich d e al s with t he p r obl e m o f t h e a r i

g s

cultu ra l l ab or e r I n t h e s e con d cl ass are hi s hi s t or ical n ov e l s

.
,

H e r e w a r d the Wa ke ,
Hy p a t i a , an d We s tw a rd H o/ H yp a t i a
is a d ram at ic s t or y of Ch ri s tian it y i n c on t act with p agan i s m ,

h avi n g i t s s c e n e l aid i n A l e x an d r ia at t he b e gi n n i n g of
t h e fi fth c e n t u ry We s tw a rd H o !
. h i s b e s t k n ow n
w ork i s a s ti r r in g t al e of E n gli s h c on qu e s t b y l an d a n d s e a i n
,

t h e d ay s of Eli za b e th I n t h e t hi r d cl as s are h i s var i ou s m i s

.

ce l lan e ou s w o r k s n ot t h e l e as t of which i s
, Wa te r B a b i e s a -
,

fas ci n ati n g s t ory of a chi m n e y s w e e p which m oth e r s r e ad t o ,

th e ir child re n at be dti m e — t o t h e gr e at d e lig ht of t h e r ou n d

,

e y e d littl e li s t e n e r s u n d e r t h e c ou n t e r p an e .

Mrs Gas k e l l Mr s Elizab e t h G a s k e ll ( 1 8 1 0— 1 86 5 ) b e gan

. . .
,

lik e K in g s l e y with t he id e a o f m aki n g t h e n ov e l t h e i n s t ru

,

m e n t of s o ci a l r e for m A s t h e wi fe o f a cl e r gy m an i n Man
.

ch e s t e r s h e h ad c om e i n cl o s e c on t act w ith t h e s t r u gg l e s an d
,

i d e al s of t h e i n d u s t r i a l p oor o f a gr e at cit y an d s he re fl e ct e d ,

h e r s y m p ath y as w e ll a s he r ob s e r vat i on i n M a ry B a rton

1 84 8) a n d i n N or th a n d S ou th B e tw e e n th e s e t w o
( ( 1 8
p r obl e m n ov e l s s h e publi s h e d h e r m as t e r pi e c e Cra nf or d in , ,

1 85 3 . Th e o r i g i n a l of thi s c ou n t r y vill age which i s g ive n ,

ov e r t o s pi n s t e r s i s u n d ou bt e dly K n ut s ford i n Ch e s hir e

, , ,

wh e re Mr s G a s k e ll had s p e n t h e r childh ood Th e s y m path y

. . ,

t h e k e e n o b s e r vat i on a n d t h e g e n tl e hu m or with which t h e

,

s m all a ffa i r s of a c ou n t r vill ag e a re d e s c r ib e d m ak e Cra nf or d

y
on e of t h e m os t d e li ht fu l s t o r i e s i n t he E n gli s h l an g u ag e
'

g .

We ar e i n d e bt e d t o Mr s G as k e ll a l s o for t he L ife of Cha r l otte

.

B r on te which i s on e of ou r b e s t bi ographi e s
"

.
,

B ack m or e
l R ich ar d D o dd r id ge B l a ck m or e ( 1 8 5 1 9 00)
. 2 —

w as a p rolific w r it e r but h e ow e s hi s fam e al m o s t e n ti r e l y

,

t o on e S pl e n did n ov e l L o r na D oon e which w a s p u bli s h e d i n

, ,

1 86 9 . Th e s c e n e o f thi s fas ci n at i n g r om an c e i s l aid i n E x m oor

i n t he s e ve n t e e n th c e n tu ry The s t ory ab o un d s i n rom an tic
.
5 1 8 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

i l
a s ng e se n e n t c e o r an e x cl am at i on On a cc ou n t of hi s e n ig
.

m a tic s t y l e an d h i s p s y ch o l og y Me r e dith will n e v e r b e p Op u

,

l ar ; b u t b y th ou g ht fu l m e n an d w om e n h e will p r ob ably b e
r an k e d am on g o u r g r e at e s t w r it e r s of ficti o n Th e s i m pl e s t .

a n d e a s i e s t o f hi s n ov e l s fo r a b e g in n e r i s Th e Ad ve n tu r e s o f
H e n ry R i chm on d Am on g t he b e s t of h i s w or k s b e ,

s id e s t h e t w o m e n ti on e d a b ov e are B e a u cha mp s Ca r e e r ( I 876 )

’

an d The Eg oi s t The l att e r i s i n o u r p e rs on al j u d g

,

m e n t on e of t h e s t ron g e s t an d m os t c on vi n ci n g n ov e l s of t h e
V
,

ict ori an Age .

H ar dy .T h om as H a r d y ( 1 84 0 s e e m s lik e M e r e dith , ,

t o b e l on g t o t h e p r e s e n t rath e r th an t o a p as t ag e an d a n i n ,

t e r e s t i n g c om p ar i son m ay b e d raw n b e tw e e n th e s e t w o n ov e l
i st s I n s t y l e Me r e dith i s ob s c u r e an d di ffic u lt whil e H ar d y
. , ,

i s di re ct a n d s i m pl e a i m i n g at r e ali s m i n al l thi n g s Me re dith

.
, .

m ak e s m an t h e m o s t i m p or t an t ph e n om e n on i n t h e u n iv e r s e ;
“

a n d t h e s t r u gg l e s of m e n ar e b r i g ht e n e d b y t h e h op e of vi c

t ory H ard y m ak e s m an an i n s ig n ific an t p ar t of t h e w or ld

. ,

s t r u ggli n g agai n s t p o w e r s gr e at e r th an hi m s e l f s o m e ti m e s ,
—

ag ai n s t s y s t e m s which h e c an n ot r e ach o r i n fl u e n c e s om e ,

ti m e s aga i n s t a ki n d of gr i m w or ld s pi r it w ho d e light s i n m ak
-

i n g h u m an affa i r s g o w ron g H e i s th e r e for e h ar dl y a r e a l

. , ,

i s t b u t r ath e r a m an bli n d e d b y p e s s i m i s m ; an d h i s n ov e l s
, ,

t h ou g h g e n e rall y p ow e r fu l a n d s om e ti m e s fas ci n ati n g ar e n ot ,

l t wh ol e s om e r e adi n g F r om t h e r e a d e r s vi e w p o in t
’

p e a san o r .

s om e of h i s e ar li e r w or k s lik e t h e id llic l ov e s t o r U n d e r the

, y y
G re e n w ood Tre e ( 1 872
) an d A P a i r of B l u e Ey e s ar e

t h e m o s t i n t e r e s ti n g H ar dy b e cam e n ot e d h ow e v e r wh e n
.
, ,

h e p u bli s h e d Fa r f r om th e M a dd i ng Cr ow d a b ook which , ,

w h e n it a pp e ar e d an on y m o u s l y i n t h e Cor n h i l l M ag azi n e

w as g e n e r ally att r ib u t e d t o G e or ge E li ot f or t h e S i m ,

p l e r e a s on th a t n o o th e r n o v e li s t w as s u pp o s e d t o b e capa
b l e o f w r it i n g it The R e t u rn of the N a t i v e ( 1 878) ari d The
.

Wood l a n d e rs ar e ge n e rally r e gard e d as H ardy s m as t e r pi e c e s ’

b u t t w o n ov e l s of ou r ow n d ay Te s s of the D U be r vi l l e s ( 1 89 1 )
’

,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 19

Obs cu r e f H
’
an d j u de the b e tt e ar e
r e xp r e s s i o n s o ar d y s

lit e rary ar t an d of h i s g l oom y phil os oph y .

S t e v e n s on I n pl e as i n g c on t r as t with H ar d y i s R ob e r t Lo ui s
.

S t e v e n s on ( 1 85 0 a b r av e ch e e ry wh ol e s om e s pi r it
, , ,

w h o ha s m ad e u s al l b rav e r an d ch e e r i e r b y wh a t h e has

w ritt e n A s id e fr om th e i r i n t r i n s ic val u e S t e v e n s on s n ov e l s
‘ ’
. ,

are i n t e r e s ti n g i n thi s r e s p e ct th at th e y m ar k a r e t u rn t o
,
—

t he p u r e r om an t ici s m of Walt e r S c ott Th e n ov e l of t h e n i n e.

t e e n t h c e n t u ry had a s w e h av e S h ow n a v e ry d e fi n it e p u r
, ,

p os e I t a i m e d n ot on l y t o r e p r e s e n t l ife b u t to c o rr e ct it
. ,

a n d t o o ffe r a s oluti on t o p r e s s i n g m or a l a n d s oci a l p r obl e m s .

A t t h e e n d Of t he c e n tu ry H ar dy s g l oom i n t h e fac e of m od
’

e r n s o ci a l c on diti o n s b e c am e Opp r e s s iv e an d S t e v e n s on b rok e

,

a wa f ro m it i n t o th at l an d o f d e li g ht ful r om an c e i n which
y
o uth fi n d s an an s w e r t o a l l i t s q u e s ti on s P ro bl e m s di ffe r
y . ,

but y ou th i s e v e r t h e s am e an d th e re for e S t e v e n s on will

,

pr ob abl y b e r e g ard e d b y fu t u r e g e n e r ati on s as on e of ou r

“
m os t e n du r i n g w r it e rs T o h i s li fe
. with it s h e r oi c ally
,

h appy s t r u gg l e fi r s t agai n s t p ov e r ty th e n agai n s t ph y s ic al

, ,

ill n e s s it i s i m p os s ibl e t o d o j u s t ic e i n a s h or t a rt icl e Ev e n

, .

’
a l on g e r bi og r aph
y i s i n ad e q u at e f or S t e v e n s on s s pi r it
, n ot ,

t h e i n cid e n t s of hi s li fe i s t he i m p or t an t thi n g ; a n d t h e
,

S pi r it has n o bi o g r aph e r T h ou g h h e h ad w r itt e n m u ch b e tt e r

.

w or k e ar li e r h e fi r s t g ai n e d fam e b y h i s Tr e a s u r e I s la n d
,

1 88 an ab s or bi n g s t or of pi ra t e s an d of a h u n t for b u r i e d
( y
g o ld . D r j y
e
. k l l a n d M r H y d e
( 1
. 88 6 ) i s a p r o f o u n d e thic al
p arabl e i n which h ow e v e r S t e v e n s on l e av e s t h e p s y ch ol ogy
, , ,

an d t h e m i n u t e an al s i s o f ch ara ct e r t o h i s r e ad e r s an d m a k e s
y ,

t h e s t ory t h e chi e f thi n g i n h i s n ov e l K i d n app e d .

The M a s te r of B a l l a n tra e an d D a v i d B a lfou r

( 1 89 3
)
ar e n ov e l s of adv e n t u r e g ivi n g
, u s v ivid pictu r e s o f S c o tch
li fe Tw o r om an c e s l e ft u n fi n i s h e d b y hi s e ar ly d e ath in
.

S am oa a re The We i r of H e r m i s ton an d S t I v e s Th e l att e r . .

w as fi n i s h e d b y Q u ill e r C o u ch i n 1 89 7 t h e for m e r i s h a ppil y

-

j u s t as S t e v e n s on l e ft it an d th ou gh u n fi n i s h e d i s g e n e rally
,
5 20 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

re ga r de d as h i s m as t e r pi e c e . In a dditi on to th e s e n ov e l s ,

S t e v e n s on w r ot e l ar g e num ber of e s s a t he b e s t of which

a
y s,

ar e c oll e ct e d i n V
i gir n i bu s P u e r i s gu e , Fa m i l i a r S tu d i e s f o

M e n a n d B ooks an d Me m or i e s a n d
'

P or t r a i ts D e li ght fu l
Vy g
. .
,

s k e tch e s of h i s t r av e l s are fo u n d i n A n I n la n d o a e 1 8
Tr a v e l s w i th a D on key Ac ros s the P l a i ns an d

The Am a te u r E m igra n t U n d e r wood s ( 1 887) i s an e x

q u i s i t littl e v ol u m e of p oe t r y an d A Chi l d s Ga rd e n of e r s e s
e ,
’
V
i s o n e of t h e b ook s th at m oth e r s will alway s k e e p t o r e ad t o
t h e i r child r e n .

I n all h i s b ook s S t e v e n s on g iv e s t h e i m p r e s s i on of a m an
a t pl a r a th e r th an a t w or k an d th e r e ad e r s oon s h ar e s i n t h e
y ,

happ y s pi r it o f t h e au th or B e cau s e o f h i s b e au t ifu l p e r s on al

.

i ty an d b e c au s e o f t h e l ov e an d a d m i rati on h e aw ak e n e d for
,

hi m s e l f i n m u ltit u d e s of r e ad e r s w e ar e n at u rall y i n cli n e d t o

,

e x agg e rat e hi s i m p or t an c e a s a w r it e r H ow e v e r th at m ay b e .
,

a stu d o f h i s w o r k s s h ow s h i m t o b e a c on s u m m at e lit e r ar
y y
ar ti s t .H i s s t y l e i s alway s s i m pl e O ft e n p e r fe ct an d b o th i n
, ,

h i s m an n e r an d i n h i s m att e r h e e x e r ci s e s a p rofou n d i n fl u e n c e
on t h e w r it e r s of t h e p r e s e n t g e n e r ati on
‘

I II . E S S AY I S T S O F T H E VI C T O R I AN A GE

TH O M A S B AB I N GT O N MA CA U L AY ( 1 800 -
1 85 9 )
Ma cau l ay i s on e o f t h e m o s t t y pical fi g u re s of t h e n i n e
t e e n t h c e n t u ry Th ou gh n ot a g r e at w r it e r i f w e c om p ar e
. ,

h i m with B r ow n i n g or Th a ck e ray h e w as m or e cl os e l y a s s o ,

c i at e d th an an of hi s lit e rar c on t e m p or ar i e s with t h e s o ci al

y y
an d p olitic al s t r u gg l e s o f t h e ag e Wh il e Car ly l e w as p r o .

cl ai m i n g t h e g os p e l of l ab or an d D ick e n s w r iti n g n ov e l s t o
,

b e tt e r t h e c on diti on o f t h e p oor Macau l ay w e n t vig orou s l y t o

,

w or k on w hat h e th ou ght t o b e t h e m os t i m p or t an t t as k of
t h e h ou r a n d b y h i s b r illi an t s p e e ch e s did p e r ha p s m o r e th an
,

an y oth e r S i n gl e m an t o for c e t h e p a s s ag e o f t h e fam ou s R e

for m B ill Lik e m an y of t h e E li zab e th an s h e w as a p ra ctica l

. ,
5 22 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

Aft e r hi s c oll e ge c ou rs e Mac au l ay s tu d i e d law , w as ad m itte d to

t h e b ar , d e vot e d h i m s e l f l arge ly t o p oli t i c s , e n te re d Parli am e n t i n
1 83 0 , an d al m os t i m m e d i a t e ly w on a r e p u tat i on as b e st d e bat e r
t he
a n d t h e m os t e l o qu e n t s p e ak e r o f th e Lib e ral o r Whi g p arty Glad .

s t on e sa ys of him Wh e n e v e r h e a rose
: t o s p e ak i t w as a s u m m on s
”
like a tru m p e t c al l to fill th e b e n c he s . At t h e t i m e of hi s e l e c ti on
h e w a s p oor an d t h e l oss of h i s fath e r s p r o p e rty t hr e w u p on hi m
’
,

t h e su pp o rt of hi s b ro t h e r s an d s i s t e r s ; b u t h e t ook u p t h e bu rd e n
w i th c h e e rfu l c ou rage a n d by h i s ow n e ffor t s s oon p l ac e d h i m s e l f an d
,

h i s fam ily i n c o m fort H i s p oli ti c al p rogre s s w a s ra p id an d w as d u e

.
,

n o t t o fa v o r i t i s m or i n t ri gu e b u t t o h i s abili ty h i s h ar d w ork an d hi s
, , ,

s t e rli n
g c ha ra c t e r H e w as s e v e ral t i m e s e l e c t e d t o Parli am e n t w as
.
,

l e gal a d v i se r t o t he Su p r e m e Cou n
C i ! of I n d i a w a s a m e m b e r of th e
,

c abi n e t , an d d e c li n e d m an y o ffi c e s

fo r w h i c h o th e r m e n l ab or a li fe t i m e .

I n 1 85 7 h i s gre a t abili t y an d s e r v i c e s
t o hi s c ou n t ry w e r e r e c ogn ize d by hi s
b e in g rai se d to th e p e e rage w i th th e
t i tl e of B aron Mac au l ay o f R o thl e y .

Mac au l ay s li te rary w ork b e gan i n

’

c oll e ge w i th t h e c on t r ib u t i on o f v ar i

o u s b all ad s an d e ssay s t o t h e m aga

zi n e s . I n h i s l at e r li fe p rac ti c al a ffai rs
c l ai m e d t h e gr e a t e r p art of h i s t i m e ,

an d h i s b rilli an t e s say s w e r e w r i tt e n
T H O M A S B AB I N GT O N M A C A U L AY
i n t h e e arly m orn i n g or l at e a t n i gh t .

H i s fam ou s E s s ay on M i l ton ap p e ar e d i n t h e E d i n b u rg h R e v i e w i n
’

1 82 5 . I t c re at e d a s e n sa ti on an d Mac au l ay hav i n g gai n e d t h e e ar of

, ,

t h e p u bli c n e v e r o n c e l os t i t d u r i n g th e tw e n t y y e ar s i n w h i c h h e w as
,

a c on t rib u t o r t o t h e m agazi n e s H i s L ay s of An ci e n t R om e ap p e ar e d
.

i n 1 84 2 an d i n th e foll o w i n g y e ar t h re e v ol u m e s o f h i s c oll e c t e d
,

E s s ay s I n 1 84 7 h e l o s t hi s s e at i n Parli am e n t t e m p orari ly th rou gh

. , ,

h i s ze al ou s e ffo r t s i n b e h al f o f r e li gi ou s t ol e ra t i on an d t h e l oss w a s

m o st for tu n at e s i n c e i t ga v e h i m o p p or tu n i ty t o b e gi n h i s Hi s tory
,
.

l k h i h h h ad b e e n p l an n i n g fo r
of E n g l a n d , a m o n u m e n t a w o r w c e

m an y y e ars Th e firs t t w o vol u m e s ap p e ar e d i n 1 84 8 an d th e ir

. ,

s u c c e s s c an b e c o m ar e d o n l t o t h a t o f t h e m o s t p o p u l ar n o v e l s
p y .

Th e t hi rd an d fou r th vol u m e s of t h e H is tory ( 1 85 5 ) w e r e e v e n

m o r e s u c c e ss fu l an d Mac au l ay w as hard a t w ork on the re m ai n in g
,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 23

l
vo u m e s w he n h e di e d qu it e
dd e n ly i n 1 85 9 H e w as bu rie d n e ar
,
su , .
,

Ad d i son i n t h e Po e ts Co rn e r of We s tm in st e r Abb e y A p aragrap h

’
.
,

from on e of hi s l e t t e rs w ri tt e n at th e h e i ght of h i s fam e an d i n fl u

,

e n c e m ay giv e u s an i n s i gh t i n t o h i s li fe an d w o rk
,

I c an t ru ly s ay th a t I h av e n o t, for m a n y y e ar s , been so h app y as I

am a t p re s e n t . I am f re e . I am i n de p e n d e n t. I am i n Pa rl i a m e n t ,
as h on o r ab l y s e ate d b e . M y fa m i l y i s c o m fortab l y off . I
as m an c an

h a v e l e i s u r e fo r l i te r a t u re , y e t I am n o t r e d u c e d t o th e n e c e s s i t y o f w r i t
i n g for m on e y . I f I h ad to c h oos e a l o t fr om al l th at th e r e are i n h u m a n
l ife , I am n o t s u r e th a t I s h ou l d p re fe r a n y to that w h i c h h as fa ll e n to
me. I a m s i n c e re ly an d th or o u gh ly c o n te n t e d.

Work s of Mac au l ay i s fam ou s i n lit e rat u r e for

Macau l ay .

h i s e s s ay s for h i s m ar ti al b all ad s an d for h i s H i s tory of E ng

, ,

Es s ay on l a n d H i s fi r s t i m.p o r t an t w or k t h e E s s ay on Mi l ,

Mfl mn ton i s w or th y of s tud y n ot on l y for it s e l f ,

a s a c r itic a l e s ti m at e o f t h e Pur it an p oe t b u t a s a k e y t o al l ,

Maca ul ay s w r iti n g s H e r e fi r s t of a ll i s an i n t e r e s ti n g w or k
’
.
, , ,
’
which h owe v e r m u ch w e diffe r f rom t h e au th or s o pi n i on
, ,

h old s ou r att e n t i on a n d g e n e r all y m ak e s u s r e g re t th at t he

e n d c om e s s o s oon Th e s e c on d thi n g t o n ot e i s t h e h i s
.

t or i c al fl av or of t h e e s s ay We s t u dy n ot on l y Milt on b u t . ,

a l s o t h e ti m e s i n which h e liv e d a n d t h e g r e a t m o v e m e n t s of ,

which h e w a s a p ar t H i s t ory an d lit e rat u r e p rop e r ly b e l on g

.

t og e th e r an d Ma cau l ay w as on e of t h e fi r s t w r it e r s t o e xpl ai n
,

t h e hi s t or ic al c on diti o n s which p ar tl y a cc ou n t f or a w r it e r s
’

w or k an d i n fl u e n c e The thi r d thi n g t o n ot e i s Ma c au l ay s

.
’

e n th u s i a s m for h i s s u bj e ct — an e n th u s ia s m which i s o ft e n
,

p ar ti san b u t which w e g l adl y s h ar e for t h e m om e n t as w e

,

foll ow t h e b re athl e s s n arrativ e Mac au l ay g e n e r all y m ak e s a .

h e ro o f h i s m an s h ow s h i m b a ttli n g ag ain s t odd s a n d th e

, ,

h e roic s id e of ou r ow n n at u r e awa k e n s an d r e s p on d s t o t h e
Th e fou rth an d p e r h a p s m os t ch ar act e ri s tic
’
au th or s pl e a .
,

thi n g i n t h e e s say i s t h e s t y l e which i s r e m ark abl y cl e ar , ,

for c e ful an d c on vi n ci n g J e ffr e y t h e e dit or of t h e E d i n b u rg h

, .
,

R e v i e w wr ot e e n thu s ia s tic all y wh e n h e r e c e iv e d t h e m an u

,
"
s c r ipt ,The m ore I thi n k t he l e s s I can c on c e iv e wh e r e y ou ,
5 24 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

p ick e d up th at s t y l e We s till s h ar e i n t h e e dit or s w on d e r ;

.
'

b u t t h e m o re w e thi n k t h e l e s s w e c on c e ive th at s u ch a s t y l e
,

c ou ld b e pick e d u p I t w as p ar tly t h e r e s u lt of a w e ll s t or e d
.
-

m i n d p ar tl y of u n c on s ci ou s i m it a t i on o f oth e r w r it e r s an d
, ,

p ar tl y o f th a t n at u r al t al e n t fo r cl e ar s p e a ki n
g a n d w r iti n g
which i s m an i fe s t i n a ll Mac au l ay s w ork ’
.

I n t h e r e m ai n i n g e s s ay s w e fin d t h e s am e ge n e r al q u aliti e s
which ch aract e r i ze Ma c au l ay s fi r s t att e m pt T h e y c ov e r a ’
.

wid e ran ge of s u bj e ct s but t h e y m ay b e divid e d ,

Oth e r Es s ay s
I n t o t w o g e n e ra l cl as s e s t h e l i t e r ar or c r i t I cal an d
y , ,

t h e hi s t or ic al O f t h e lit e rary e s say s t he b e s t are th os e on

.

Milt on A d d i s on G old s m ith B y ron D ry d e n Le i g h H u n t

, , , , , ,

B u n y an B a c on an d J oh n s on Am on g t h e b e s t know n o f t h e
, , .

hi s t or ical e s say s ar e th o s e on Lor d Cliv e Ch ath am Warr e n

V
, ,

’
H a s ti n gs H all am s Con s tit u ti on a l H i s t ory on R an k e s H i s
’

, ,

t or y of t h e Pap ac y F r e d e r ick t h e G r e at H ora c e Walp ol e

, , ,

Willi am Pitt S i r Willi am Te m pl e Machi av e lli an d Mi rab e au

, , , .

Mos t of th e s e w e re p ro d u ce d i n t h e V i gor of y ou n g m an h ood ,

b e tw e e n 1 82 5 an d 1 84 5 whil e t he w r it e r w as b u s y with p rac t i

,

c al a ffai r s o f s t a t e T h e y ar e oft e n on e s id e d an d i n a cc u rat e b u t

.
-
,

a l w ay s i n t e r e s ti n g an d fr om th e m a l a rg e n u m b e r o f b u s e o
, yp
p l e h av e d e r iv e d th e i r fi r s t k n owl e d g e of h i s t or
y a n d lit e r at u r e .

Th e b e s t o f Ma c a u l ay s p oe tic al w or k i s fou n d i n t h e L ay s
’

of A n c i e n t R om e a c oll e ct i on o f b all ad s i n t h e s t l e of
y
La y s of An S c o tt which , s i n
g o f t h e o l d h e r o ic d a s of t he
y
Ci e t R om e
n
R om an r e p u blic Th e b all ad d oe s n ot r e q u i r e m u ch
.

th ou ght or e m oti on I t d e m and s Cl e arn e s s vigor e n th u s ia s m

. , , ,

act i o n ; an d it s u it e d Ma c a u l ay s g e n i u s p e r fe ctl y H e w as
’
.
,

h ow e v e r m u ch m or e c ar e fu l th an oth e r b all ad w r it e r s i n m ak
,

i n g h i s n ar r ative t r u e t o t r aditi on Th e s ti rr i n g m ar tia l s pir it

.

o f t h e s e b all a d s t h e i r fin e w or k m an s hip an d th e i r a pp e al t o
, ,

c ou rag e an d p at ri oti s m m ad e th e m i n s t an tly p op u l ar Ev e n .

t o day aft e r m o r e th an fi ft y y e ar s s u ch b all ad s a s th os e on

V
-
, ,

ir g i n i u s an d H orat i u s at th e B r id g e ar e fav orite pi e ce s i n

m an y s ch ool r e ad e r s .
 26 ENG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E
'

w or k an d m ad e h i s tiv e
b s or bin g as a n ov e l T o al l
n ar r a as a .

h is Ch aract e rs h e g ive s t h e r e alit y of fl e s h an d bl ood an d i n ,

“
h i s ow n w or d s h e s h ow s u s ov e r th e i r h ou s e s an d s e at s u s

at th e i r t abl e s Al l th at i s e xc e ll e n t b u t it has i t s d i sad

.
,

van t age s I n hi s ad m i rati on for h e roi s m Mac au l ay m ak e s

. ,

s om e of hi s ch ara ct e r s t oo g ood an d o th e r s t o o b ad I n his .

ze a l for d e t ail s h e m i s s e s t h e i m p or t an c e of g r e at m ov e m e n t s ,

an d o f g r e at l e ad e r s w h o a r e a cc u s t om e d t o i gn o r e d e t a il s ;

a n d i n h i s jo o f d e s c r ibi n g e v e n t s h e oft e n l os e s S i ht of
y g
u n d e r l y i n g c au s e s I n a w or d h e i s with ou t hi s t orica l i n s ig ht
. , ,

an d hi s w or k th ou g h fa s ci n at i n g i s s e ld om pl a c e d am o n g t h e
, , ,

r e li a bl e h i s t or i e s o f En g l an d .

Ge n e r al Ch ar act e r i s t i cs T o t h e r e ad e r w h o s t u di e s Ma ca u
.

l ay s b r illian t e s s ay s an d a fe w Ch os e n ch apt e rs o f h i s H i s
’

tory th re e thi n g s s oon b e c om e m an i fe s t F i r s t Ma c a u l ay s

’
. ,
,

ar t i s th at o f a public s p e ak e r r ath e r th an th at o f a lit e r ar

y
m an H e h as a w on d e rf ul c om m an d o f l an g u age an d h e m ak e s
.
,

hi s m e an i n g cl e ar b y s t r iki n g ph ra s e s vi g orou s an t ith e se s , ,

“
an e cd ot e s an d ill u s t rati on s
, H i s s t y l e i s s o cl e ar th at
. he
”
w h o r u n s m ay r e ad an d f r o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d h e n e v e r
,

l os e s t h e att e n ti on o f h i s r e ad e r s S e c on d Macau l ay s g ood .

,
’

s pi r it s an d e n th u s ia s m a r e c on t agi ou s A s he s aid hi m s e l f
. ,
“ ”
h e w r ot e o u t of a fu ll h e ad chi e fl y for hi s ow n pl e as u r e or
,

r e c r e ati on ; an d on e w h o w r it e s j o ou s l e n e rall w k e
y y g y a a ns

T hi r d Mac a u lay h as t h e
“
a s e n s e of pl e a s u r e i n hi s r e a d e r s . ,

d e fe ct of hi s q ualiti e s H e r e a d s a n d r e m e m b e r s s o m u ch
.

th at h e ha s n o t i m e t o thi n k or t o fo rm s e ttl e d Opi n i on s A s .

G l ad s t on e s aid Ma cau l ay i s alway s c on v e r s i n g o r re c oll e ct

,

”
i n g or r e ad i n g or c om p o s i n g b u t r e fl e ct i n g n e v e r, S o he .

w rot e h i s b r illi an t E s s ay on M i l ton which t ook all E n g l an d ,

b y s t orm an d s a id of it aft e r war d th at it c on t ai n e d s c ar c e ly

,

a p ar ag r aph which h i s m at u r e j u d g m e n t a pp r ov e d
”
Wh e th e r .

h e s p e ak s or w r it e s h e has alway s b e for e h i m a n e age r a u di

,

e n c e an d h e fe e l s withi n hi m t h e b or n ora t or s p ow e r t o h old

’

an d fas ci n at e S o h e g iv e s l oos e r e i n t o hi s e n thu s i as m q u ot e s

. ,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE

fr om h u n d r e d b ook s an d i n hi s d e li g ht at e n t e r t ai n i n g u s
a ,

forge t s th at t h e fi r s t q u a lit y of a c r itica l or hi s t or ic al wo r k i s

\

t o b e a cc u rat e an d t h e s e c on d t o b e i n t e r e s ti n g
,
.

T H O M AS CA R L YL E ( 1 79 5 —
1 88 1 )

I n m ar k e d co fit r as t with Mac a u l ay
b r illian t a n d ch e e r ,
t he

f u l e s s ay i s t i s Th om as Car l y l e t h e p r oph e t a n d c e n s or o f t h e
, ,

n i n e t e e n th c e n t u ry Ma cau l ay i s t h e p r actic al m an Of a ffa i r s

. ,

h e lpi n g an d r e j oici n g i n t h e p rog r e s s Of h i s b e l ov e d E n gl an d .

Car l y l e liv e s ap ar t f rom al l p r a ctic al i n t e r e s t s l ook s with d i s ,

t r u s t on t h e p r ogr e s s of hi s ag e an d t e ll s m e n th at t r u th , ,

j u s tic e an d i m m or t alit y ar e t h e on l y w or th y Obj e ct s of h u m an

,

e n d e a v or Ma c au l ay i s d e li ght e d with m at e ri al c om fo r t s ; h e
.

i s m os t at h o m e i n b r illi an t an d fa s h i on abl e c om p an y ; an d
h e w r it e s e v e n wh e n ill an d s u ffe r i n g with u n faili n g h op e fu l
, ,

n e s s a n d g o o d n at u r e Car l y l e i s lik e a H e b r e w p r oph e t j u s t

.

i n fro m t h e d e s e r t an d t h e b u r d e n o f h i s m e s s ag e i s
,
W oe ,
“

”
t o th e m th a t ar e at e a s e i n Z i on ! B oth m e n a r e i n di ffe r ,

e n t w ay s t y pic a l O f t h e c e n t u ry an d s om e wh e r e b e tw e e n t h e
, ,

t w o e xt r e m e s — t h e p r a ctic a l h e lp fu l a ct ivit y o f Ma c a u l ay
,

an d t e sh pi r it u a l a o
g yn a n d c o n fl ict o f C ar l y l e — w e s h all fin d

t h e m e as u r e of a n ag e which h a s l e ft t h e d e e p e s t i m p r e s s
u p on o u r o w n .

Li fe of Car l y l e . Carlyl e w a s b o rn at E c c l e fe c han , D u m fri e s shi r e ,

79 5 , a fe w m on t hs b e for e Bu rn s s d e a t h , a n d b e fo r e S c o t t had
’
in 1

u bli s h e d hi s fi r s t w ork . Lik e B u rn s , h e c am e o f s an t s t o c k ,

p p e a

s tro n g, s i m p l e , Go d fe a r i n g folk , w h os e i n fl u e n c e i n Car lyl e s l a t e r

’
-

life b e y on d c al c u l ation Of h i s m o th e r h e s ay s S h e w as t oo m il d
is .
,

an d p e a c e fu l for th e p l an e t s h e li v e d i n an d o f hi s fat h e r a s t on e ,

m as on h e w r i t e s
, C ou ld I w r i t e m y b o ok s as h e b u ilt h i s h ou se s
, ,

w alk m y w ay S O m an fu lly t hrou gh t h i s s had ow w orl d an d l e a v e i t

w i th s o li ttl e bl am e i t w e r e m or e t han al l m y h o p e s
, .

O f Carlyl e s e arly s c hool li fe w e hav e s om e i n t e re st in g gl i m p s e s

’

in S a r tor R e s a r tu s At n i n e y e ar s h e e n te re d t he An n an gram m ar
.

s c hool w h e r e h e w as b u lli e d b t h e old e b o s w h o n i c kn am e d hi m

, y r y ,
 5 28 ENG LI S H LI TERATU R E

Tom t h e T e arfu l . Fo r th e t e ac h e rs of t ho s e d ay s h e h as on ly r idi

“
cu e l ,
c al lin g the m hi d e -
b ou n d p e d an t s ,
”
an d he call s th e sc h oo l
by the s u gge s t i v e G e rm an n am e of H i n te r s chl ag Gy m n a s i u m . At
t he w ish of hi s p a re n t s , w ho i n t e n d e d Carlyl e fo r t h e m i n i st ry , h e e n
d u r e d th i s ha t e fu l s c hool l i fe t ill 1 80 9 , w h e n h e e n t e re d Ed in b u rgh
U n i v e r s i ty . The r e h e sp e n t fiv e m i s e rabl e y e ars , of w hi c h h i s o wn

r e c o rd i s : I i
w as w th ou t fr ie n d s , e x p e ri e n c e ,
o r c on n e c t on i i n t he
s
p h e re of h u m an bu s i n e s s , w as of s ly hu m o r , p rou d e n o u gh an d to
”
S p ar e , an d had b e gu n m y l on g i l
c u rr c u u m of d y s p e p s ia . T hi s n ag

gi n g ill n e s s w as t h e c au s e

of m uc h of th a t i rri tabili ty
of te m p e r w h ic h fr e qu e n tly
l e d h i m to sc ol d th e p u b
l i c an d for w h i c h h e ha s
,

b e e n har s hly han dl e d b y

u n fr i e n d ly c r i t i c s .

Th e p e r i o d foll ow i n g hi s
u n i v e r s i t y c o u r s e w as o n e

o f s t o rm an d s tr e s s fo r Ca r
lyl e . Mu c h t o th e gr i e f of

th e fath e r w h om h e l o ve d ,

h e had gi v e n u p th e i d e a
of e n t e ri n g t h e m i n i s t ry .
Wh e re v e r h e tu rn e d d ou b ts ,

like a thic k fog s u rrou n d e d

him ,
d ou b t s o f God of
—
,

h i s fe ll ow m e n o f h u m an
-
,

r ogr e s s of h i m s e l f H e
p ,
.

w a s p o or , an d to e a rn an
U NI VE R S I T Y OF E D I NB U R GH
h on e s t li v in g w as hi s firs t
bl e m H e tri e dive ly t e ac h in g s c h oo l t u t o r i n g t h e s t u d y
p o
r . su c c e ss , ,

o f l aw a n d w r i t i n g m i sc e ll an e o u s ar t i c l e s for t he E d i n b u rg h E n cy cl o
,

e di a Al l h h il h fi h i h i d ou b t s li v i n g as h e sa y s
p . t e w e e w as g t n g s , , ,

i n a c on t i n u al i n d e fin i te p in i n g fe ar
,
Aft e r S i x o r s e ve n y e ars of
,
.
”

m e n t al a gon y w h i c h h as a t t i m e s a su gge s ti on o f B u n y an s s p i r i tu al
’

s t r u ggl e t he c ri s i s c a m e i n I 82 1 w h e n Carlyl e s u d d e n ly s h o ok o ff h i s
, ,
”
d ou bts an d fou n d hi m s e lf All a t on c e . h e s ay s i n S a r tor t h e re
, ,

aro s e a t ho u ght i n m e an d I a sk e d m y s e l f
,
What A r t thou afrai d Of
Wh e r e fore like a c o w ard d o s t th ou fore ve r p i p an d w him p e r an d go ,

c ow e ri n g an d t re m blin g ? D e spi c abl e bi p e d What i s t he s u m total

 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 29

of the w ors t that li e s b e fo re t h e e D e ath ? We ll D e ath an d say the ,

an gs of Top h e t to o an d all t h at th e D e v il an d Ma n m ay w ill o r c an

p , , ,

d o agai n st t h e e H as t t hou n o t a h e ar t c an st t hou n o t su ff e r w hat

s oe v e r i t b e ; an d a s a Child of Fr e e d om
,
t h ou gh ou tc as t t ram p l e , ,

To p h e t i ts e l f u n d e r t hy fe e t ; w h il e i t c on s u m e s t h e e ? L e t i t c o m e
t he n I w ill m e e t it an d d e fy it An d as I s o thou gh t th e r e ru sh e d ,

lik e a s tre am of fire ove r my w hol e sou l ; an d I shook base F e ar

”
a w ay fro m m e fo re v e r Th i s s tru ggl e b e tw e e n fe ar an d fa i th an d t h e
. ,

t ri u m p h of t h e l att e r i s r e c o rd e d i n t w o r e m arkabl e c hap t e r s

,
The ,
” ”
E v e rl a s t i n g N O an d T he Ev e rl a s ti n g Ye a of S a r tor R e s a r tu s , .

Carlyl e n o w d e fin i t e ly r e sol v e d on a li t e rary life a n d b e gan w i th ,

a n y w ork t ha t o ffe re d a b ar e li v e li hood H e t ran sl at e d Le ge n d r e s

’
.

Ge om e try fro m t h e Fre n c h w rot e n u m e rou s e ssay s for t h e m agazi n e s

, ,

a n d c on t i n u e d h i s s tu d y o f G e rm an w h il e m aki n g t ran sl a t i on s fr o m

t hat l an gu age H i s tran sl at i on of G oe th e s Wi l he l m M e i s te r an

’
.

an d
p e are d in 1 82 4 , hi s L if e f
o S ch i l l e r i n 1 82 5 h i s Sp e ci m e n s o f
Ge r m a n R om a n ce i n b e gan at t hi s ti m e a c orr e s p on d e n c e
1 82 7. H e
w i th G o e th e h i s li t e rary h e ro w hi c h l a s t e d t i ll t h e G e rm an p o e t s
’
, ,

d e a th i n 1 83 2 Whil e s till b u sy w i th hac k w o rk Carlyl e i n 1 82 6

.
, , ,

m arri e d J an e We l s h a b rilli an t an d b e au ti fu l w om an w hos e l i te rary

, ,

e n i u s al m o s t e qu al e d t h at o f h e r h u sb an d S oo n aft e rw ard s i n fl u
g .
,

e n c e d c h i e fly b y p ove r ty t h e Carl y l e s r e t i r e d t o a far m

,
a t C rai e n
g ,

p u t t oc h
( H a w k s H ill ) a d
’
r e ary a n d l on,e l s
y p o t fa r f r o m fr i e n d s ,

a n d e ve n n e i ghbo rs The y r e m ai n e d h e r e s i x y e ar s d u r i n g w h i c h
.
,

t i m e Carlyle w ro t e m an y of hi s b e s t e ssay s an d S a r tor R e s a r tu s hi s , ,

m o s t o ri gin al w o rk The l att e r w e n t b e ggi n g am on g p u bli sh e rs for

.

t w o y e ars an d w as fi n ally p u bli s h e d s e ri ally i n F r a s e r s M ag a zi n e

’
, ,

i n 1 83 3 1 83 4 By th i s t i m e Carlyl e h ad b e gu n to a t t rac t at te n ti on
-
.

a s a w r i t e r an d t hi n ki n g that o n e w h o m ad e h i s li v i n g by t h e m a a
, , g
zi n e s s ho u l d b e i n c l os e t ou c h w i th t h e e d i to rs t ook hi s w ife s ad vi c e
’
,
“ ”
a n d m o v e d to Lon d on to s e e k w o rk an d b r e ad H e s e t tl e d i n .

C he y n e R ow Ch e l s e a — a p l ac e m ad e fam ou s by Mo re Eras m u s
, , , ,

B oli n gb rok e S m oll e tt Le i gh H u n t an d m an y l e ss e r li ghts of li t e ra

, , ,

t u r e — an d b e gan t o e n j oy th e fi rst r e al p e ac e h e had kn own s in c e

,

c h ild ho od . I n 1 83 7 ap p e are d The F r en ch R e vol u ti on w h i c h fi rs t ,

m ad e Carl yl e fam ou s an d i n t h e sam e y e ar l e d b y t h e n e c e s si ty o f ,

e arn i n g m on e y h e b e gan t h e se ri e s o f l e c t u r e s
, Ger m a n L i ter a tu r e
( 1 8 P e r i od s o f E u r op e a n C u l tu r e R e v o l u ti on s of M oder n
E u r op e [fi r m s a n d H e r o Wor s h ip ( 1 84 1 ) — w hi c h c r e at e d
” “ “
a s e n sati on in Lon d on It w as s ays Le igh H u n t as if s o m e
. , ,
5 3 9 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

Pu r i tan had c om e i i
lib e ral i ze d by G e rm an phil osophy
t o l fe aga n ,

a n d h i s o w n i n t e n s e r e fl e c ti on an d e x p e r i e n c e .

Thou gh Carlyl e se t h i m s e l f agai n s t t h e s p i r it o f h i s age c allin g ,

t h e fam ou s R e form B ill a p ro gre ss i n t o d ar kn e ss an d d e m o c r a c

y ,
“ ”
th e ru l e o f t h e w or s t r athe r than t h e b e s t hi s rou gh s m c e ri t y w as ,

u n qu e s t i on e d an d h i s r e m a rk s w e re m o re q u o t e d t han t h o s e of an y
,

o th e r livi n g m a n H e w as s u pp ort e d m o re o v e r b y a rar e c i rc l e of

. , ,

fri e n d s — Ed w ard I r v i n g S ou th e y S t e rlin g Lan d or Le i gh H u n t

, , , , , ,

D i c ke n s Mi ll T e n n y so n B row n i n g an d m ost h e l p fu l of all Em e r s on

, , , , , , ,

w h o had vi s i t e d Ca rlyl e a t C ra i ge n p u ttoc h i n 1 83 3 It w as d u e l arge ly .

t o Em e rson s i n fl u e n c e th at Carlyl e s w orks w e r e b e t t e r ap p r e c i a te d

’ ’
,

an d b rou gh t b e t t e r fi n an c i al r e w a rd s i n Am e r i c a t han i n En gl an d , .

Ca rlyl e s fam e r e ac h e d i t s c li m ax i n th e m on u m e n tal Hi s tory of

’
.

F r e der i ck the Gr e a t ( 1 85 8 p u bli s h e d a ft e r t h i r t e e n y e a r s o f

s oli tary t o i l w h i c h i n h i s o w n w o rd s
, ,
m ad e e n ti r e d e v a s ta ti on of ,

hom e life an d hap p in e s s Th e p rou d e st m om e n t of hi s life w as

.

w h e n h e w as e l e c t e d t o s u c c e e d G l ad s ton e a s l ord r e c t or o f Ed i n
bu rgh U n i v e rs i ty i n 1 86 5 th e y e ar in w hic h F r ede r i ck the Gr e a t w as
, ,

fi n ishe d I n th e m id st of hi s t riu m p h an d w hil e h e w as i n S c o tl an d

. ,

t o d e li v e r hi s i n au gu ral a dd r e ss hi s h ap p in e ss w as s u d d e n ly d e s tr oy e d
,

by th e d e ath of h i s w ife a t e r ribl e bl o w fr o m w h i c h h e n e v e r r e

, ,

c o v e re d H e liv e d on for fi fte e n y e ars s horn of h i s s tre n gth an d i n

. ,

t e r e s t i n li fe ; an d hi s c l os i n g h ou r s w e re like t h e d u ll s u n s e t of a
.

N o v e m b e r d ay On ly a s w e r e m e m b e r hi s gri e f an d r e m o rs e at the
.

d e ath of th e c o m p an i o n w ho had s hare d hi s t o i l b u t n o t hi s t r i u m p h ,

c an w e u n d e rs t an d t h e s o r row t h at p e r v ad e s t h e p age s o f hi s R e m i

n i s ce n ce s H e d i e d i n 1 88 1 an d at hi s o w n w i sh w a s bu r i e d n o t i n
.
, ,

We s tm in s t e r Abbe y b u t am on g h i s h u m bl e kin s folk i n Ec c l e fe c han

, .

H ow e v e r m u c h w e m ay d i ffe r fro m h i s p h il os op hy o r r e gre t t h e

hars hn e s s of hi s m i n or w orks w e shal l p r obably al l agr e e i n th i s s e n

,

t i m e n t from on e of hi s ow n l e tte r s t h at th e obje c t o f al l hi s ,

—

s tru ggl e an d w r i t i n g w as t h at m e n s h ou l d fin d o u t an d b e li e v e t h e
”
t ru th an d m at c h t h e i r li v e s t o i t
, .

Work s of Car l y l e . Th e r e wid e l y di ffe r e n t j u dg ar e tw o

m e n t s of Ca r l y l e as a m an a n d a w r it e r Th e fi r s t which i s .
,

fou n d e d l ar g e l y on h i s m i n or w r iti n g s lik e Cha r t i s m L a t te r , ,

D ay P a mp hl e ts an d S hooti ng N i ag a ra d e cl ar e s th at h e i s a
, ,

m i s an th ro p e a n d d y s p e ptic with a b ar bar ou s s t y l e o f w r iti n g ;

5 3 2 E NG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

th an t he w or k s of a w r it e r t h e b e s t ar e th os e on B u r n s , ,

” ” “ ” “ ” “
S c ott ,
N ov ali s G oe th e Ch a r a ct e r i s tic s
,
S i gn s 01
, ,

” ”
1
B os w e ll s Li fe of J oh n s on I n t he fa m ou s
’
t h e Ti m e s an d , .

Es s ay on E ssa
y o n B u rns which i s g e n e r all
y s e l e ct e d for
,

B um s s p e ci al s tud
y w e n ot e f ou r s i gn ific an t
, thi n gs

C ar l l e i s p e c u lia r l y w e ll fitt e d fo r h i s t a s k h avi n g m an

( )
1 y y ,

p oi n t s i n c om m on W i th h i s h e ro ( 2 ) I n m os t o f hi s w ork .

Car ly l e b y h i s s t y l e an d m an n e r i s m s an d p os itiv e Opi n i on s

,
‘

n e rall tt r a ct s ou r att e n ti on a w a f r o m h i s s u bj e ct ; b u t
g e y a
y
i n thi s e s s ay h e s h ow s hi m s e l f c ap abl e o f forg e tti n g hi m s e l f
for a m om e n t T o an u n u s u a l e xt e n t h e s tick s t o h i s s u bj e ct
.
,

a n d m ak e s u s thi n k o f B u r n s r ath e r th an o f Car l l e T h

y e .

s t le th ou g h u n p o li s h e d i s fa i r l s i m pl e a n d r e a d a bl e an d i s
y , y , ,

fr e e fr om t h e b r e ak s c r u dit i e s e j ac u l a ti on s a n d g e n e ra l, , ,

n o du l os i t i e s which d i s fig u r e m u ch o f h i s w or k 3) C ar ly l e .

h as an Or i g i n al an d i n t e r e s ti n g th e or y of bi ograph y an d c r i t i
c ism Th e obj e ct o f cr itici s m i s t o s h ow t h e m an hi m s e l f h i s
.
,

a i m s id e al s an d o u tl ook on t h e u n iv e r s e ; t h e obj e ct of bi og
, ,
“
r ap h
y i s t o S h o w wh a t an d h ow p r od u c e d w as t h e e ff e ct o f

s oci e t up on h i m ; wh at a n d h ow p rod u c e d w a s h i s e ffe ct on

y
”
s o ci e t
y (4 )
. C a r l y l e i s o f t e n s e v e r e e v e n h a r s h i n h i s e s ti , ,

m at e s of oth e r m e n but i n thi s c a s e t h e t r ag e d y of B u rn s s

’

,
“ ”
li fe of frag m e n t s att r a ct s an d s oft e n s hi m H e gr o w s .

e n th u s i a s tic a n d a r a r e thi n g for Car l y l e

— ap ol og i ze s for —

h i s e n th u s i as m i n t he s t r iki n g s e n t e n c e We l ov e B u r n s ,
“
,
”
an d w e pit hi m an d l ov e a n d pit ar e p r on e t o m agn i f
y ; y y .

S O h e g iv e s u s t h e m os t t e n d e r a n d app r e ciativ e of h i s e s s ay s ,

a n d on e o f t h e m o s t ill u m i n ati n c itici m s o f B u r n s th at has

g r s

app e a r e d i n ou r l an u a e
g g .

Th e c e n t ral id e a of Car l y l e s hi s t oric a l w or k s i s fou n d i n h i s

’

H e r oe s a n d H e r o Wor s h ip h i s m o s t wid e l y r e a d b o ok .

“ ”
U n iv e r s al hi s t ory h e s ay s i s at b ott om t he h i s t ory of
‘

, ,

1 Th e s t u d e n t s h ou ld
m e m b e r t h at Car y
re l l lit y p i i
’
e s th
e ra rgh v O n on s , ou po s t e ,
e ry i iv
are to be re ce iv i i
e d w t h c a u t on . S o m e t m e s , i i d d th y
n ee ,
id d
e a re so on e - s e a n d p re i n

d i ce d t h a t t he y a re m or e vl a u ab e l as a re v l t i f C ly l hi m se lf t ha
e a on o ar e n as a s t u d y o f

t he a u t h or he i s c on s id ie r n g.
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 33

t h e gr e at m e n w h o h av e w or k e d h e r e To ge t at t h e t r uth of
.

hi s t o ry w e m u s t s t u d y n ot m ov e m e n t s b u t m e n an d r e a d n ot ,

H e roe s an d s t at e p ap e r s but t h e bi og raphi e s o f h e r oe s H is .

n e w “7m m?
s u m m ary of hi s t ory a s p r e s e n t e d i n thi s w or k h as

s i x divi s i on s T h H e ro as D ivi n it y h a vi n g for i t s g e n e ral

( )
I e ,
“ ”
s u bj e ct O di n t h e ,
t y p e N o r s e m an w h o Car lyl e thi n k s w as
, , ,

s o m e o l d h e r o I c Chi e f aft e r war d s d e ifi e d b h i s c ou n t r m e n ;

, y y
2 ) Th e H e r o a s Pr oph e t t r e ati n g o f Ma h om e t an d t h e r i s e of
( ,

I s l am ( 3 ) The H e r o as Poe t i n which D an t e an d S h ak e s p e ar e

,

a r e t ak e n a s t p e s
y (4 ) T h e H e r o a s Pr i e s t or r e li g i o u s l e ad e r
, ,

i n which L u th e r app e a r s as t h e h e ro of t h e R e for m at i on a n d ,

K n o x a s t he h e r o o f Pu r it an i s m (5) Th e H e r o a s M a n of
Le tt e r s i n which w e h av e t h e c u r i ou s ch oic e of J oh n s on R o u s
, ,

s e a u an d B u r n s ; 6 T h e H e ro a s K i n g i n which Cr om w e ll
, ( ) ,

an d N ap o l e on a pp e a r a s t h e h e r oe s o f r e for m b r e v o l u ti on
y .

I t i s n e e dl e s s t o s ay t h a t H e r oe s i s n ot a b ook o f hi s t or y ;
n e ith e r i s it s ci e n tifi c all w r itt e n i n t h e m an n e r o f G ibb on
y .

With s ci e n c e i n an y for m Carly l e had n o pati e n c e ; an d he

m i s c a lc u l at e d t h e v al u e of th at p a ti e n t s e ar ch for fa ct s a n d
e vid e n c e which s ci e n c e u n d e r t ak e s b e for e b u ildi n g a n th e o
y
r i e s e ith e r of ki n s o r c a bb a g e s
, g T h e b oo k th e re for e a b o u n d s
. , ,

i n e rro r s ; b u t th e y ar e t h e e r ror s of c a r e l e s s n e s s a n d a re
p e r h ap s of s m all c on s e q u e n c e H i s m i s c on c e pti on o f hi s t ory
. ,

h ow e v e r i s m or e s e r i ou s W ith t h e m od e r n id e a of hi s t o ry a s
, .
,

t h e g rowth of fre e d om a m on g all cl as s e s h e has n o s y m p athy. ,

Th e p r og r e s s of d e m o c rac y w as t o h i m a n e vil th i n g a t u rn,

”
i n g of t h e fa c e t owar d s d a r k n e s s an d an a r ch y At c e r t ai n
.

p e r i od s a cc or di n g t o C ar l y l e God s e n d s u s g e n i u s e s s om e
, , ,

ti m e s a s p r i e s t s or p o e t s s om e ti m e s a s s oldi e r s o r s t at e s m e n
,

b u t i n wh at e v e r g u i s e th e y a pp e ar th e s e a r e o u r r e al ru l e r s
, .

H e S h ow s m or e ov e r th at wh e n e v e r s u ch m e n a pp e a r m u lti
, , ,
’
t u d e s foll ow th e m an d th at a m an s foll owi n g i s a s u r e i n d e x
,

o f h i s h e r oi s m an d ki n s hip
g .

Wh e th e r w e agr e e with Car l y l e or n ot w e m u s t acc e pt for ,

t h e m om e n t h i s p e culi ar vi e w of hi s t or y e l s e H e r oe s c an n e v e r
,
5 34 EN G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

O p e n i t s t re as u r e s t o u s Th e b ook ab ou n d s i n s t ar tli n g id e as
.
,

e xp re s s e d with or i g i n alit y an d p ow e r an d i s p e r vad e d th rou g h ,

.

ou t b y an at m os ph e r e of i n t e n s e m oral e ar n e s t n e s s Th e .

m or e w e r e ad it t h e m or e w e fin d t o a d m i r e an d t o r e m e m b e r
, .

Car l y l e s Fre n ch R e v ol u t i on ( 1 83 7) i s t o b e t ak e n m or e
’

s e r i ou s l y as a hi s t or ic al w or k ; b u t h e r e aga i n h i s h e r o w or x

F ren ch s hip c o m e s t o t h e f ron t a n d h i s b oo k i s a

, s e r i e s of

R v°1u t i °n
e
fl as hli g ht s th r ow n u p on m e n i n d ram atic s it u ati on s ,

r ath e r th an a t r a ci n g o f c au s e s t o th e i r c on s e q u e n c e s Th e .

v e ry titl e s of h i s ch apt e r s A s t r ae a R e d u x
”
W i n dbag s , ,
”

B ro gli e t h e War God

”
d o vi ol e n c e t o ou r c o n c e pti on of
—

'
hi s t ory an d ar e m ore s u gg e s tiv e o f Car l y l e s in divid u ali s m
,

than of F r e n ch hi s t ory H e i s h e r e t h e p r e a ch e r rath e r th an

.

t h e hi s t or i an h i s t e xt i s t h e e t e r n al j u s tic e an d h i s m e s s ag e

i s th a t al l w ron gd o i n g i s i n e vit abl y foll ow e d b y v e n ge an c e .

H i s m e th od i s i n t e n s e l y d r am atic F r om a m as s of hi s t or i cal
.

d e t ail s h e s e l e ct s a fe w pict u r e s q u e i n cid e n t s a n d s t r iki n g fig

u r e s an d h i s vivid pict u r e s of t h e s t orm i n g of t h e B as till e
V V
, ,

t h e r u s h of t h e m ob t o e r s a ill e s t h e d e ath of L ou i s X I
, ,

an d t h e R e i g n o f T e r r or s e e m lik e t h e w or k o f a n e e wit n e s s
, y
d e s c r ibi n g s om e t e r r ibl e c a t as t r oph e At t im e s as it p or t ray s . ,

D an t on R ob e s pi e r r e a n d t h e g r e a t Ch ar act e r s of th e t r ag e d y
, , ,

Car l y l e s w or k i s s u gg e s tiv e of a n hi s t or ic a l pl ay of S h ak e
’

S p e ar e ; a n d ag a i n a s it d e s c r ib e s t h e r u s h an d r i o t o f m e n
,

l e d b y e l e m e n t a l p as s i on it i s m or e lik e a gr e at p r o s e e pic
, .

Th ou gh n ot a r e li abl e hi s t o r y i n an y s e n s e it i s on e of t h e ,

m o s t d ram at ic an d s ti r r i n g n ar ra tiv e s i n ou r l an gu ag e .

T w o oth e r h i s t or ic al w or k s d e s e r v e at l e a s t a p as s i n g n otic e .

The H i s tory o
f F r e d e r i c k the Gr e a t ( 1 85 8 in S i x v ol

u m e s, is a c ol o s s al pict u r e of th e li fe an d ti m e s of
ofiv e ,
01 0m m “ the h e ro of t h e Pr u s s i an Em pi r e . Ol i ve r Cr om
w e ll Sp e e ch e s i s , i n
’
s L e tte r s and p e r s o n al j u d g m e n t ou r ,

Car l y l e s b e s t hi s t or ical w or k H i s id e a i s t o pr e s e n t t h e v e ry
’
.

s oul of t h e gr e at Pu r it an l e ad e r H e giv e s u s as of fi r s t i m
.
,

p or t an c e Cr om w e ll s ow n w or d s an d c on n e ct s th e m b y a
,
’

,
5 36 E N G LI S H L I TE R ATU R E

of t he t y l e which th ou g h pict u r e s q u e i s s om e ti m e s c on fu s e d
s , , ,

a n d u n g r am m atic a l S a r tor i s n ot e a s y r e adin g ; b u t it am pl y

,

r e p ay s wh at e v e r ti m e a n d s t u d y w e g iv e t o it Man y of i t s
.

p as s ag e s ar e m or e lik e p oe t ry th an p ros e ; an d o n e c an n ot
“ ” “
r e ad s u ch ch apt e r s as Th e E v e r l a s ti n g N o Th e Ev e r
,
”
l as tin g Y e a , R e m in i s c e n c e s an d ,
Na t u r a l S u p e r n a t u r a l
”
ism an d b e quit e t h e s am e m an a ft e r war d s ; for Ca r l y l e s
’

t h o u g ht ha s e n t e r e d i n t o h i m an d h e w alk s h e n c e for th m ore

,

g e n tl
y m, o r e r e v e r e n tl y th r o u g h t h e w o r ld as i n t h e p re s e n c e
,

o f t h e E t e rn al .

Ge n e r al Ch ar act e r i s t i cs Con c e r n i n g Ca rl y l e s s t y l e th e r e
’
.

a r e a l m os t as m an
y opi n i on s as th e r e a r e r e ad e r s T hi s is .

Carl y l e s p ar tl y b e c au s e h e i m p r e s s e s di ff e re n t p e opl e i n

S W“ ?
wid e l y di ffe r e n t w ay s an d p ar tly b e c au s e hi s e x
,

p r e s s i on v ar i e s g r e atl y A t t im e s h e i s c alm p e rs u as ive

. , ,

gr i m l y h u m or ou s as if c on v e rs in g ; a t oth e r ti m e s wildly
, ,

e x cl am at or a s i f h e w e re S h ou ti n g an d w avi n g hi s ar m s at
y ,

t h e r e a d e r We h av e s p ok e n of Mac a u l ay s s t y l e as th a t of t h e
’
.

fi n i s h e d orat or an d w e m i ght r e as on abl y s p e ak of Car ly l e s a s

,
’

th at of t h e e xh ort e r w h o car e s littl e for m e th od s s o l on g as h e

,

m ak e s a s t ron g i m p r e s s i on on h i s h e a r e r s E v e ry s e n t e n c e
.

”
i s aliv e t o i t s fi n g e r tip s w r it e s a m od e rn c r itic ; an d t h ou gh
,

Car l y l e O ft e n vi ol at e s t he r ul e s of g r am m ar an d r h e t or ic w e ,

c an w e ll aff o r d t o l e t an or ig i n al g e n i u s e xp r e s s hi s o w n i n «

t e n s e c on vi cti on i n h i s ow n vivid an d pict u r e s q u e w ay .

Car l y l e s m e s s ag e m ay b e s u m m e d u p i n t w o i m p e rativ e s
’

l ab or an d b e s i n c e r e H e l e ct u re d an d w r ot e chi e fl y for t h e
, .

u pp e r cl a s s e s w h o h ad b e u n t o thi n k s o m e wh at
Hi s Me s s a g e
g ,

s e n ti m e n t all of t h e c on diti on s o f t h e l ab or i n g m e n
y ,

o f t h e w o r ld ; a n d h e d e m an d e d for t h e l att e r n ot ch ar it or
, y
pit y b u t j u s tic e an d h on or All l ab o r wh e th e r of h e ad or
, .
,

h an d i s divi n e ; an d l ab or al on e j u s tifi e s a m an as a s on of
,

e ar th an d h e a v e n To s oci e t y which Car l y l e th ou g ht t o b e

. ,

o cc u pi e d wh oll with c o n v e n ti on a l affai r s h e c am e with t h e

y ,

s t am p of s i n c e r it c alli n g up on m e n t o la a s id e h y p o c r i s y
y , y
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 37

an d to thi n k an d s p e a k an d liv e t he t ru th H e had n on e of .

Addi s on s d e lic a t e s ati r e an d h u m or an d i n hi s fu ry at wh at

’

he th ou g ht w as fal s e h e w as g e n e r all y u n s y m path e tic a n d

t
of e n h a r s h ; b u t w e m u s t n o t f o r g e t th at T h a ck e r a
y
— w h o

k n e w s oci e t y m u ch b e tt e r th an did Carl y l e — gav e a v e ry

u n fl att e r i n g pic t u r e of it i n V
a n i ty Fa i r an d The B ook o f
S n obs App ar e n tly t h e ag e n e e d e d pl a i n s p e aki n g an d Car
. ,

l y l e f u rn i s h e d it i n s c r ipt u r e m e as u r e H arr i e t Mart in e au . ,

w h o k n e w t h e w or ld for which Car ly l e w rot e s u m m e d up hi s ,

“
i n fl u e n c e wh e n s h e s aid th at he had i n fu s e d i n t o t h e m i n d
of t h e En g li s h n ati on s i n c e r it e arn e s t n e s s h e a lth fu l n e s s
y , , ,

” ’
an d c ou rag e I f w e add t o t h e ab ov e m e s s age Car ly l e s c on
.

c e p t i o n s of t h e w or ld a s g ov e r n e d b a Go d o f j u s t ic e w h o
y
”
n e v e r for g e t s an d o f h u m an hi s t or an i n ar tic u l at e B ibl e
, y as ,

s l owl r e v e ali n g t h e divi n e p u r p o s e w e S h all u n d e r s t an d b e tt e r

y ,

t h e for c e of h i s e thic a l a pp e a l an d t h e p r ofo u n d i n fl u e n c e h e

e x e r ci s e d on t h e m or a l an d i n t e ll e ct u al li fe of t h e p a s t c e n t u r y .

J OH N R U S KI N ( 1 8 1 9— 1 9 00 )
In pp roachi n g t he s t u d y of R u s ki n w e are t o r e m e m b e r
a ,

fi r s t of al l th at w e ar e d e a li n g with a g r e a t an d g oo d m an
, ,

w h o i s hi m s e l f m or e I n s p I rI n g th an a n y o f h i s b ook s I n s om e .

re s p e ct s h e i s lik e hi s fr i e n d Car l l e wh o s e di s cipl e h e ac

y ,

k n owl e d g e d hi m s e l f t o b e ; b u t h e i s b road e r i n h i s s y m p a
thi e s an d i n e v e ry w ay m or e h op e fu l h e lp fu l an d h u m an e
, , , .

T hu s i n t h e fa c e of t h e d ru d g e r y an d p ov e r t y of t h e c om p e ti
,

tiv e s y s t e m Car ly l e p rop os e d with t h e gr i m s ati r e of S wift s

, ,
’

Mod e s t Pr o p osal t o or gan i ze an an n u al h u n t i n which s u c

”
,

c e s s fu l p e opl e s h o u ld s h o o t t h e u n for t u n at e an d t o u s e t h e ,

g a m e f o r t h e s u pp or t o f t h e ar m y a n d n a v y R u s ki n fa ci n g . ,

t h e s am e p ro bl e m w r ot e , I will e n d u r e it n o l on g e r qui e tl y
b u t h e n c e forwar d with an y fe w or m an y w h o will h e lp d o m y
, ,
”
b e s t t o abat e thi s m i s e ry Th e n l e avi n g t h e fi e ld of ar t
. ,

c r itici s m wh e r e h e w as t h e ack n o wl e d g e d l e ad e r he b e g i n s
, ,

t o w r it e o f l ab o r an d j u s tic e ; g iv e s h i s for tu n e i n ch ar it y in ,
5 38 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

es at bli s hi n g s ch ool s an d librar i e s an d fo u n d s h i s S t G e or ge s .

’

G u ild of w or ki n g m e n to p u t i n p r act ic e t h e p r i n cipl e s of

,

b roth e r h ood an d c oop e rati on for which h e an d Car ly l e c on

t e n d e d Th ou gh h i s s t y l e m ar k s h i m as on e of t he m as t e r s
.

of E n g li s h p r o s e h e i s ge n e r all y s t u di e d n ot a s a lit e ra ry m an
,

b u t a s an e thic al t e ach e r an d w e s h all h ar dl y a pp r e ci at e hi s

,

w or k s u n l e s s w e s e e b e hi n d e v e ry b ook t h e fi g u re of t h e
h e r o ically s i n c e r e m an w ho w r ot e it .

Li fe . R u ski n w a s b or n i n Lon d on , i n 1 8 1 9 . H i s fa th e r w a s a

p rosp e r o u s w in e m e rc han t w ho ga in e d a for tu n e i n t rad e , an d w ho

spe n t his l e i s u r e hou r s i n the c om p an y of goo d book s an d pic tu re s .

O n hi s t om b s ton e on e m ay s till re ad t h i s i n sc ri p t i o n w ri t te n b y R u s
“
ki n : H e w as an e n ti re ly h on e s t m e rc han t an d hi s m e m ory i s t o
'

a l l w h o k e e p it d e ar an d h e l pfu l H i s s on w h o m h e l ove d t o t he
.
,
”
u tt e r m os t an d t au gh t t o s p e ak t ru th s a y s t h i s of hi m R u ski n s
’
.
,

m o th e r a d e vou t an d som e w hat au s te r e w o m an b rou gh t h e r s on u p

, ,

w i th Pu ri tan i c al s t r i c tn e s s n ot fo rge tt i n g S ol o m on s i n j u n c t i on t hat

’
,
”
t h e r od an d re p roof gi v e w i sd om .

Of R u ski n s e arl y y e ars a t H e rn e H ill on t he ou tski r ts of Lon d on

’
, ,

i t i s b e t t e r t o re ad h i s ow n i n t e r e st i n g r e c or d i n P r w te r i ta I t w as .

i n s om e r e s p e c t s a c ram p e d an d l o n e ly c hil d h ood b u t c e rtai n thi n gs ,

w hi c h s t ro n gly m o l d e d hi s c harac t e r ar e w ort hy o f m e n t i on Fi r s t .

,

h e w a s tau gh t b y w or d an d e x am p l e i n all thi n gs t o sp e ak t h e t ru th ,

an d h e n e v e r forgo t t h e l e s son S e c on d h e had fe w t o y s an d s p e n t

. , ,

m u c h t i m e i n s tu d yi n g t h e l e ave s th e fl ow e r s th e gras s th e c l ou d s
, , , ,

e v e n t h e fi gu r e s an d c o l o r s o f t h e c arp e t a n d s o l ai d t h e fo un d ati on
,

for that m i n u t e an d ac c u ra te Ob se rv at i on w hi c h i s m an ife s t i n al l hi s

w r i ti n gs Thi rd h e w as e d u c a t e d fi r st by hi s m ot he r t h e n by p r iva te
.
, ,

t u t or s an d s o m i ss e d t h e d i sc i p lin e of t h e p u bli c s c h ool s Th e i n fl u

, .

e n c e o f t h i s l on e l y t rai n i n g i s e v id e n t i n a l l h i s w o rk Like Carlyl e . ,

h e i s ofte n t oo p os i t i v e a n d d ogm ati c — t h e r e su l t of fail i n g t o t e st

,

h i s w ork b y th e s tan d ard s of o th e r m e n of h i s age Fou rth h e w as . ,

obl i ge d t o r e ad t h e B ibl e e v e r d a n d t o l e arn l on g p as sage s v e r

y a y
“
bati m The r e su l t of thi s t rain i n g w as h e say s to m ak e e v e ry
.
, ,

w ord of th e S c r i p t u r e s fa m ili ar to m y e ar i n h abi tu al m u s i c

”
We .

c an hardly r e ad a p age o f h i s l at e r w o rk w i thou t fi n di n g som e r e fl e c

tion of th e n obl e s i m pl i c i ty or vivid i m age ry o f t h e sac r e d r e c ord s .

Fifth h e t rave l e d m u c h w i th h i s fath e r an d m oth e r an d h i s in n at e

, ,
540 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

E ng l a n d , Vl d Aa
’
rno
( l e c tu r e s on Tu sc an a rt
) S t. M a r k s R es t
’

(
f Vi )
, a

hi s t o r y o e n ce , M or n i ng s i n F l or e n ce ( s tu d e s i i n Chri st i an art ,

n ow . m uch u se d as a gu i d e b ook to t h e p i c tu r e gall e ri e s of Fl or e n c e ) ,

f a t re a t i s e o n d raw i n i i l
The L a w s o F i e s ol e ( g and
p a n t n g fo r s c h o o s) ,

A ca de my f
o Fi n e A r ts in Vi e n ce , P l e a s u r es o f E ng l a n d , — all t h e se
w or ks on a r t S h ow Ru skin
lit e rary i n d u st ry An d w e m u st al s o r e
’
s .

c o rd L ove s M e i n i e a s tu d bi
(
’

y o f rd s
) P r ose r i n a
p ( a s t u d
, y o f fl o w e r s ) ,

D e u ca l i on ( a stu dy of w av e s an d s ton e s ) b e s i d e s v ar i ou s e ssay s on ,

p oli t i c al e c on om y w h i c h i n dic at e t hat R u sk i n l ik e Arn ol d had be gu n , ,

t o c on s i d e r t h e p rac ti c al p ro bl e m s of h i s age .

At th e he i gh t o f hi s fam e i n 1 860 R u skin tu rn e d for a t i m e from

, ,

art t o c on s i d e r qu e s ti on s o f w e al th an d l ab or
, t e rm s w hic h w e r e ,

u s e d glibly b y t h e e c on om i s t s o f th e age w i tho u t m u c h t h ou gh t for

“ ”
th e i r fu n d am e n t al m e an in g T he r e i s n o w e al th b u t li fe
. an ,

n ou n c e d R u ski n life i n c l u di n g all i ts p ow e rs of l o v e Of joy an d

, , ,

of ad m i ra ti on Th at c ou n tr y i s t he r i c h e s t w hi c h n ou ri sh e s t h e gr e at
.

”
e st n u m b e r o f n obl e an d h a p p y h u m an b e i n gs S u c h a d oc tri n e
p roc l ai m e d b y G old sm i th i n hi s D es e r te d V
.
,

i l l ag e w a s r e gard e d as a
‘

pre tty s e n ti m e n t b u t c om in g from on e o f th e gre at e st l e ad e rs an d

,

te ac h e rs of En gl an d it w as lik e a b o m b sh e ll R u ski n w rot e fo u r .

e s s ay s e s t abli s h i n g t h i s d o c tri n e an d p l e ad i n g for a m or e s oc i ali s ti c

form of go v e rn m e n t i n w h i c h r e form m i ght b e p oss ibl e Th e e s say s .

w e re p u bli s he d i n t h e Cor n h i l l M ag a zi n e o f w hi c h Th ac ke ray w as ,

e di tor an d t h e y a rou s e d su c h a s to r m t h at th e p u bli c ati on w a s d i s

,

c on ti n u e d . R u ski n t h e n p u bli s h e d t h e e s say s i n b o ok fo rm w i th the ,

t i tl e U nto Thi s L a s t i n 1 86 2 , M u n e r a P u l ve r i s ( 1 86 2 ) w as an o th e r
.

w ork i n w h i c h t h e p ri n c i p l e s of c ap i tal an d l ab o r an d t h e e v il s of
th e c om p e t i t i v e s y s t e m w e r e d i sc u ss e d i n s u c h a w ay t hat th e au thor
w as d e n ou n c e d as a V i s ion ary o r a m ad m an O th e r w orks of thi s .

c ti c al p e r i od ar e Ti m e a n d Ti de F or s Cl a v z g S e s a m e a n d L i l i es
p r a e r a , , ,

an d th e Cr ow n o f W i l d Ol i ve .

The l atte r p art of R u ski n s li fe w as a t i m e of i n c r e asi n g s ad n e ss

’
,

d u e p artly t o th e failu r e of hi s p lan s an d p ar tly t o p u bli c a t tac ks ,

u p on h i s m o t i v e s o r u p on hi s s an i ty H e gr e w b i t t e r at fi rs t as h i s
. ,

c r i t i c s r i d i c u l e d o r d e n ou n c e d h i s p ri n c i p l e s an d a t t i m e s h i s vo i c e ,

i s as q u e ru l ou s a s t hat of Ca rlyl e We ar e to r e m e m b e r how e ve r . , ,

t h e c on d i t i on s u n d e r w hi c h h e s tru ggl e d H i s h e al th had b e e n s h at

.

t e re d by su c c e s s i v e a ttac ks of di s e as e he had b e e n d i sapp oi n t e d i n

l o v e ; hi s m arriage w as u n hap p y ; an d hi s w ork s e e m e d a fail u re .

H e had give n n e arly al l h i s fortu n e i n c hari ty an d th e p oor w e re ,

 TH E VI CTOR I AN AGE

m or e n u m e rou s v e r b e fore H is fam ou s St G e orge s G u ild w as

than e . .
’

n o t su c c e s sfu l an d t h e t y ran n y of t h e c o m p e titive s y s t e m s e e m e d

~

too d e e p ly roo t e d t o b e ove rt h r ow n O n t h e d e at h o f h i s m o t h e r h e .

l e ft Lon d on an d i n 1 879 r e ti re d to Bran tw ood on Con i ston Lake

, , , ,

i n the b e au t ifu l r e gi on b e l o v e d of Wo rd sw o rt h H e r e h e p as s e d t h e .

l ast qu i e t y e ars o f h i s life u n d e r th e c ar e of hi s c ou sin Mrs S e ve rn ,

.
,
”
an ge l of th e h o u s e an d w ro t e a t Profe s sor N o r ton s s u gge s
’
the , ,

t i on P r wte r i ta on e of h i s m o st i n t e r e s ti n g b ooks i n w h i c h h e d e
, , ,

sc rib e s t he e ve n ts of h i s y ou th fro m h i s o w n v i e w p o i n t H e d ie d .

qu i e tly i n 1 9 00 an d w as b u r i e d as he w i sh e d w i thou t fu n e ral p o m p

, , ,

o r p u bli c c e r e m on y i n t h e li t tl e c hu r c hya rd at C on i s ton

,
.

Work s of th r e e littl e b ook s which i n

R u s k i n . Th e r e ar e ,

pop u l ar fav or s t an d fi r s t on t h e li s t o f R u s ki n s n u m e r o u s
,
’

w or k s E th i cs of the D u s t a s e r i e s of L e ct u r e s t o L ittl e
,
-
,

H ou s e wiv e s which app e al s m os t t o w om e n ; Cr ow n of Wi l d

,

Ol i ve th r e e l e ct u r e s on W ork T r affic an d Wa r whi ch app e al s

, , , ,

t o th ou g ht fu l m e n fa ci n g t h e p r obl e m s o f w or k an d d u t y ;
an d S e s a m e a n d L i l i e s which app e al s t o m e n an d w om e n ,

T h e l as t i s t h e m o s t wid e l y k n ow n of R u s ki n s w ork s
’
alik e .

an d t h e b e s t with which t o b e g i n ou r r e a di n g .

Th e fi r s t thi n g w e n ot ic e i n S e s a m e a n d L i l i e s i s t h e s y m
”
b ol i c al titl e
’
S e sam e
. t ak e n fro m t h e s t ory of t h e r obb e r s
,

c av e i n t h e A ra b i a n N i h ts m e an s a s e c r e t w or d
S e s a m e an d g ,

L il i e s or t ali s m a n which u n l ock s a t r e as u r e h ou s e I t w as .

i n t e n d e d n o d ou bt t o i n t r od u c e t h e fi r s t p art of t h e w o rk
, , ,
“ ”
c all e d Of K i n g s Tr e as u ri e s which t r e at s of b ook s an d
’

,
”
r e a di n g L ili e s
. t ak e n from I s ai ah a s a s y m b ol of b e au ty
, ,
’
p u r it y an d p e ac e i n t r od u c e s t h e s e c on d l e ct u r e
, , Of Q u e e n s ,

i s an e xq u i s it e s t u d y of w om an s li fe an d
’

e d u c at i on Th e s e t w o l e ct u r e s p rop e r ly c on s t it u t e t h e b ook
. ,

T he My s t e r y of Li fe
” “
b u t a thi r d i s a dd e d on , Th e las t .

be g i n s i n a m on ol og u e up on hi s ow n fail u r e s i n li fe an d i s ,

p e r vad e d b y an at m os ph e r e of s ad n e s s s om e ti m e s of p e s s i m i s m , ,

q u it e di ffe r e n t from t h e S pi r it of t h e oth e r t w o l e ct u r e s .

T h ou g h t h e th e m e of t h e fi r s t l e ctu r e i s b ook s R u s ki n ,

m an age s t o p r e s e n t t o h i s a u di e n c e hi s wh ol e phil os op hy of
5 4 2 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

li fe H e g iv e s u s with a w e alth o f d e t ail a d e s c r ipti on of wh at

.
, ,

c on s tit u t e s a re al b ook he l ook s i n t o t h e m e an i n g of w or d s ,

K i g s Tw as
n
, a n d t e
. a ch e s u s h o w t o r e a d u s i n
g a s e l e cti
, o n f r om
“f i e s Milt on s Ly c i d a s a s an ill u s t r ati on Thi s s t u d y of
’
.

w or d s g iv e s u s t h e k e y with which w e a re t o u n l o ck K i n g s ’

”
Tr e a s u r i e s th at i s t h e b ook s which c on t ai n t h e p r e ciou s
, ,

th ou g ht s of t h e ki n gl y m i n d s o f all age s H e s h ow s t h e r e al .

m e an i n g a n d e n d of e d u c ati on t h e v al u e of l ab or a n d of a ,

p u r p os e i n li fe ; he t r e at s of n at u r e s ci e n c e ar t lit e rat u r e , , , ,

r e li g i on h e d e fi n e s t h e p u r p os e of gov e r n m e n t S h owi n g th a t ,

s o u l li fe n ot m on e o r t ra d e i s t h e m e as u r e of n at i on a l g r e at
y
-
, ,

n e ss an d h e c r itici s e s t h e g e n e r a l i n j u s tic e o f h i s ag e q u oti n

g ,

a h e ar t r e n di n g s t or o f t oil an d s u ffe r i n g fr om t h e n e w s p a p e r s
y
t o s h o w h ow cl os e h i s th e ory i s t o d ail y n e e d s H e r e i s an .

a s t on i s hi n g v ar i e t
y i n a s m all c o m p a s s ; b u t th e r e i s n o c on

fu s i on R u s ki n s m i n d w as w on d e r fu ll y an aly tical an d on e
’
.
,

s u bj e ct d e v e l op s n at u rall
y f r om t h e oth e r .

O f Q u e e n s G ard e n s h e c on s id e r s
’
I n t h e s e c on d l e ct u r e , ,

t h e q u e s ti on of w om an s pl a c e an d e d u c ati on which T e n n y s on
’

h i T
'

Of Que e s n a :d a tt e m pt e d t o a n s w e r n h e P r i n c e s s R u s ki n s .

G d s
ar en
th e ory i s th at t h e pu rp o s e of all e d u c ati on i s t o ac
q u i r e p owe r t o bl e s s a n d t o r e d e e m h u m an s oci e t y ; an d th at
i n thi s n o bl e w or k w om an m u s t a lway s pl ay t h e l e adi n g p ar t .

H e s e ar ch e s al l lit e ratu r e for ill u s t rati on s an d h i s d e s c r ipti on ,

o f lit e r a r e r o i n e s e s p e ci all y o f S h ak e s p e ar e s p e r fe ct w om e n
’

y h , ,

i s u n r ival e d R u s ki n i s alw ay s at h i s b e s t i n w r iti n g of w om e n

.

or fo r w o m e n a n d t h e l oft
, y id e ali s m of thi s e s s a
y t og e th e r ,

with i t s r a r e b e au t y of e xp r e s s i on m ak e s it on t he wh ol e , , ,

t h e m os t d e li ght fu l a n d i n s pi r i n g of h i s w or k s .

Am o n g R u s ki n s p ra ctical w or k s t h e r e ad e r will fin d i n
’

For s Cl a v ig e r a a s e r i e s of l e tt e r s t o w o rki n g m e n an d U n to
, ,

U t o Th i s
n
Th i s L a s t f o u r e s sa
y s o n , t h e p r i n cipl e s O f p o litic a l
Las t e c on o m t h e s u b s t an c e of h i s e c o n om ic t e a chi n g s
y , .

I n t h e l att e r w or k s t arti n g with t h e p r op os iti on th at ou r

,

p r e s e n t c o m p e tit iv e s y s t e m c e n t e r s ab o u t t h e id e a of w e alth ,
5 44 E N G LI SH LI TE R AT U R E

(4 ) th at the m ai n pu rp os e of ar t i s n ot t o d e li g ht a fe w cul
“
t u r e d p e opl e b u t t o s e rv e t h e d ail y u s e s of c o m m on li fe The .

” “
v i n g b r i g ht n e s s t o pict u r e s i s m u ch h e s a s b t t h i
g i
y , u e g v ,

”
i n g b r i ght n e s s t o li fe i s m or e I n thi s att e m pt t o m ak e ar t
.

s e rv e t h e p ra ctic al e n d s of li fe R u s ki n i s alli e d with a l l t h e

,

g r e a t w r it e r s o f t h e p e r i od w h o u s e lit e rat u r e a s t h e i n s t r u
,

m e n t o f h u m an p rog r e s s .

Ge n e r al Ch ar act e r i s t i cs On e w h o r e ad s R u s ki n i s i n a s t at e
.

o f m i n d an al og ou s t o th a t of a m an w h o g o e s th r ou g h a pict ur e

ll p a s i n g n ow t o a d m i r e a fa c e or a l an d s c ap e for i t s
g a e r
y
, u

o w n s ak e ,
a n d ag ai n t o m ar v e l a t t h e t e ch n ic al s kill o f t h e

ar ti s t, with ou t r e gard t o h i s s u bj e ct F or R u s ki n i s a g r e at .

lit e rar y a rti s t an d a gr e at e thica l t e ach e r an d w e ad m i r e on e

'

p age for i t s s t y l e an d t he n e xt for i t s m e s s age t o h u m an it y

, .

T he b e s t of h i s p r os e which on e m ay fin d i n t h e d e s c r iptiv e
,

p as s ag e s of P r wte r i ta an d M od e rn P ai n te rs i s w r itt e n i n a ,

r ichl or n at e s t l e with a w e alth of fi g u r e s an d all u s i on s an d

y y , ,

a t ti m e s a r h th m i c m e l odi ou s q u alit which m ak e s it al m os t

y , y
e q u al t o p oe t r y . R u s ki n h ad a rar e s e n s itiv e n e s s t o b e au t y i n
e v e ry for m ,an d m or e p e rh ap s than an y oth e r w r it e r i n ou r
, ,

l an g u age he h a s h e lpe d u s t o s e e an d app r e ci at e t he b e aut y

,

of t h e w or ld ar ou n d u s .

A s for R u s ki n s e thic al t e achi n g it a pp e ar s i n s o m an y

’

form s an d i n s o m an y di ffe r e n t w or k s th at an y s u m m ar y

Eth i cal m u s t a pp e a r i n a d e q u a t e F or a f u
. ll h a l f c e n t u r
y
”
Te a chi n g he w a s t h e a p os tl e of b e au t y i n En g l an d an d ,

t h e b e au t y for which h e pl e a d e d w as n e v e r s e n s u o u s or p agan ,

as i n th e R e n a i s s an c e b u t alway s S pi r itu al a pp e ali n g t o t h e

, ,

s ou l of m an rath e r th an t o h i s e e s l e adi n g t o b e tt e r w or k
y ,

an d b e tt e r livi n g . I n h i s e c on om ic e s s ay s R u s ki n i s e v e n m or e
di r e ctl y an d p o s it iv e l y e thic al To m iti gat e t he e vil s o f t he
.

u n r e a s on abl e c om p e tit iv e s s t e m u n d e r which w e l ab or an d

y
s orr ow ; t o b r i n m a t r a n d m an t o e th e r i n m u t ual t r u s t
g s e g
an d h e lp fu l n e s s ; t o s e e k b e au t y t r u th g oo d n e s s a s t h e chi e f
, ,

e n d s of li fe an d h a vi n g foun d t h e m t o m a k e ou r ch aract e r s
, , ,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 45

c orre s p on d ; t o s h ar e t h e b e s t t r e as u r e s of art an d lit e r at u r e

with r ich an d p oor alik e ; t o l ab or alway s an d wh e th e r w e , ,

w or k with h an d on h e ad t o do ou r wor k i n p rai s e of s om e t h i n g

,

that w e l ove — thi s s u m s up R u s ki n s pu r p os e an d m e s sag e

,
’
.

An d t h e b e s t of it i s th at lik e Ch au c e r s c ou n t ry p ar s on h e
’

, ,

p ractic e d hi s d o ct r i n e b e for e h e p re a ch e d it .

MATT H E W A R N OL D ( I 82 2 — 1 888)

I n th e w orld of lit e ratu r e Ar n old ha s o ccupi e d for m an y

e ars a n a u th or it at iv e p os iti o n a s c r it ic an d t e a ch e r s i m il ar
y ,

t o th at h e ld b y R u s kin i n t h e w or ld of art I n h i s lit e r ary .

w ork t w o v e r y di ff e r e n t m ood s ar e m an i fe s t I n hi s p oe t ry .

h e re fl e ct s t h e d ou bt o f an ag e which wit n e s s e d t he c on fl ict

b e tw e e n s cie n c e an d r e v e al e d r e lig i on Appar e n tl y h e n e v e r
.

p a s s e d th r ou g h an y s uch d e ci s ive p e r s on al s t r u gg l e a s i s r e
c ord e d i n S a r tor R e s a r tu s an d he has n o p os it iv e c on victio n
,
“ ”
s uch a s i s v oic e d i n Th e Ev e r l as ti n g Y e a H e i s be se t b y .

d oubt s which h e n e v e r s e ttl e s an d h i s p oe m s g e n e r ally e x

,

p re s s s or r ow or r e gr e t or r e s ign ati on I n h i s p rose h e s h ow s

.

t h e c avali e r s pi r it — aggr e s s iv e li g ht h e a r t e d s e l f c on fide n t

, ,
-
,
-
.

Lik e Car l y l e h e di s lik e s s h am s an d p r ot e s t s agai n s t wh at h e

, ,

c all s th e b arb ar i s m s of s oci e t y ; b u t he w r it e s with a light

t ou ch u s i n g s ati re an d b an t e r as t h e b e tt e r p ar t of h i s ar g u
,

m e nt . Car ly l e d e n ou n c e s with t h e ze al of a H e b r e w p roph e t ,

an d l e t s o u k n o w th at r e h op e l e s s l l os t if ou r e j e ct
y y ou a y y
hi s m e s s ag e . A rn old i s m or e lik e t h e c u ltivat e d Gr e e k ; h i s
v oic e i s s oft h i s S p e e ch s u av e but h e l e av e s t h e i m p r e s s i on
, , ,

if y ou h app e n t o di ffe r with h i m th at y ou m u s t b e d e fi ci e n t

,

i n c u ltu r e . B oth th e se m e n s o di ffe re n t i n s pi r it an d m e th od s

, ,

c on fr on t e d t h e s am e p robl e m s s ou ght t he s am e e n d s an d
, ,

w e re d om i n at e d b y t h e s am e m oral s i n c e r it y .

Li fe . Arn old w as b orn i n Lal e ham , i n t h e

vall e y of th e Tham e s ,

i n 1 8 2 2 H i s fathe r w as D r Thom as Arn old h e ad m ast e r o f R u gby

. .
, ,

w i th w hom m an y of u s h ave grow n fam iliar b y r e adi n g Tom B r ow n s

’
5 216 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

S e /zool D ay s . Afte r fi ttin g for t h e un i v e r s i ty at Win c he s t e r an d at

R u gb y , Arn o l d en t e re d Balli ol Col l e ge , Oxford , w h e r e h e w as d i s

ti n gu i sh e d b y w i n n i n g p ri ze s in p oe try an d b y ge n e ra l e x c e ll e n c e i n
the c l ass ic s Mo re than an y o the r p oe t Arn o ld r e fl e c ts th e s p iri t of
.

" "
u n i v e rs i ty . Th e S c h ol ar G i p s y c o n ta i n m an y
”
hi s an d Thy rs i s
-

re fe r e n c e s to Ox ford an d t h e su rrou n d i n g c ou n t r y b ut , th e y are m ore

i
n ot c e a bl e fo r t h e i r
p i r it o f al o ofn e ss —
s as if m e n w e r e t oo
, O x ford
m u c h o c c u pi e d w i th c l ass i c d re am s an d i d e al s t o c on c e rn t h e m s e l v e s
w i th t h e p rac t i c al a ffa i rs o f l ife .

Af te r l e av in g t he u n i v e rs i ty Arn ol d fi rs t t au ght the c l ass ic s at

R u gby ; t h e n i n 1 84 7 h e b e c a m e p r i v a t e s e c r e tary t o Lord Lan s
, ,

d ow n e w ho a pp oi n t e d t h e y ou n g p oe t t o t h e p o s i t i on of i n s p e c t or
,

o f s c h o o l s u n d e r t h e go v e r n m e n t I n t hi s p os i ti on Arn old w o rke d

.

a t i e n tly fo r t h e n e x t t hi rt y fiv e e ars t ra v e li n b o t t h e o u n tr
y y
-
p g a u c , ,

e x a m i n i n g t e ac h e rs an d c o rr e c t i n g e n d l e ss e x am i n a t i on p ap e r s
, Fo r .

t e n y e ar s ( 1 85 7 1 86 7) h e w a s p r ofe s s o r of p oe t ry at O x ford w h e re
—
,

hi s fa m o u s l e c tu r e s 072 Tr a n s l a ti ng H om e r w e r e g i v e n H e m ad e .

n u m e r ou s r e p o r t s o n En gli s h an d fo re i gn s c ho o l s an d w as t h re e t i m e s ,

s e n t ab road t o s tu d y e d u c a t i o n al m e th od s o n t h e Co n t i n e n t F ro m .

t h i s i t w i ll b e s e e n t hat Arn ol d l e d a bu sy oft e n a l abo ri ou s li fe an d , ,

w e c an app r e c i at e h i s s ta te m e n t t hat all h i s b e s t li t e ra ry w ork w as

d on e la te at n i ght afte r a d ay of d ru d ge ry It i s w e l l t o r e m e m b e r
, .

that w h il e Carlyl e w as p re ac hi n g ab ou t l abor Arn old l ab or e d d aily ;

, ,

that h i s w o rk w as c h e e rfu l ly a n d p at i e n tly d on e ; an d t hat aft e r th e

d ay s w ork h e hu rri e d aw ay like Lam b t o th e Ely s i an fi e l d s o f li t e r a
’

, ,

tu r e . H e w a s hap p il y m arr i e d l o v e d h i s ho m e an d e sp e c i ally l o v e d

, ,

c hil d r e n w as fr e e fr o m all bi tt e rn e s s an d e n v y an d n o t w i th stan d i n g

, , ,

hi s c ol d m an n e r w a s at h e ar t s i n c e r e ge n e rou s an d t ru e We s hall
, , , .

app r e c i at e hi s w o rk b e tt e r i f w e c an s e e t h e m an h i m s e l f b e h in d al l

t ha t h e h a s w r i t t e n .

Arn ol d s l i t e rary wo rk d i v i d e s i ts e l f i n to t hr e e p e riod s w hi c h w e

’

m ay c al l t h e p oe t i c al t h e c r i t i c al an d t h e p ra c t i c al
, , H e h ad w r i t t e n .

p o e t r y s i n c e hi s s c h o ol d ay s an d h i s fi r s t v ol u m e
, Tlze S tr ay e a P e w /[ er ,
’

a n a Ot/ze r P oe m s ap p e a r e d an on y m ou sly i n 1 84 9 Th r e e y e ar s l at e r
’
.
,

he p u b l i sh e d E mp e a od e s on [f l ag a n d otfier P oe m s ; b u t o n ly a fe w
’

c o p i e s of t h e s e v o l u m e s w e r e s old an d p r e s e n t ly b o t h w e r e w i t hd raw n
,

f rom c i rc u l at i on I n 1 85 3 — 1 85 5 h e p u bli s h e d h i s s i gn e d P oe m s an d
. ,

tw e l v e y e ars l at e r a pp e ar e d hi s l a s t v o l u m e of p oe try Co m p ar e d w i th .

t h e e arly w o rk of T e n n y s on t h e s e w o rk s m e t w i th li ttl e fa v or an d
, ,

Arn ol d p rac t i c ally ab an d on e d p o e try i n favor of c r i ti c al w r i tin g .

548 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

b e a u ty . N at u rall y on e w h o r e gard s p oe t ry as a c r itici s m

,

will w r it e v e ry di ffe r e n tl y from on e w ho r e gar d s p oe t ry as t h e

n atu r al l an g u ag e o f t h e s o u l H e will w r it e for t he h e ad r ath e r
.

th an for t h e h e art an d will b e c old an d c r itic al rath e r th an e n

,

t h u s ias t i c A cc or di n g t o A rn old e ach p o e m S h ou ld b e a u n it

. , ,

an d h e p r o t e s t e d ag ai n s t t h e t e n d e n c of En gli s h p oe t s t o u s e
y
b rillian t ph ra s e s an d fi g u r e s of s p e e ch which on ly d e t ra ct
att e n ti on f r om t h e p oe m a s a wh ol e F or hi s m od e l s h e w e n t
.

t o G r e e k p oe t r y which h e r e g ar d e d as
, t h e on l y s u r e g uid
”
‘

an c e t o wh at i s s ou n d an d t r u e i n p oe tic a l ar t Ar n old i s . ,

h ow e v e r m or e i n d e bt e d th an h e thi n k s t o En gli s h m as t e r s
, ,

e s p e ci all t o Wor d s w or th an d M ilt wh os e i n fl u e n ce i s

y on ,

n otic e abl e i n a l ar g e p ar t of h i s p oe t ry .

Of Ar n old s n ar rativ e p oe m s t h e t w o b e s t k n own ar e B a l

’

an i n c u r s i on i n t o t h e fi e ld of N or s e m th ol
(
’
a e r D eaa
’
1 85
y
ogy which i s s u gg e s tiv e of G ray an d S oh r a b a n a R u s t u m
’
,

1 85 which t ak e s u s i n t o t h e fi e ld of l e g e n d ar P r s i an
( y e

hi s t ory The th e m e of t h e l a tt e r p oe m i s t ak e n fr om t h e
.

S ha lz N a m a li ( B ook of K i n g s ) of t h e Pe r s i an p oe t Fi r d a u s i
-
,

w h o liv e d an d w r ot e i n t h e e l e v e n th c e n tu ry .

B r i e fl y , th e s t or y is of on e R u s te m or R u s tu m , a Pe rs i an Ac hi ll e s , w h o
fe ll l
as e e p on e d a y w h e n h e h a d g r o w n w e a r y o f h u n t i n g. W h i l e h e
s l e p t a b an d o f ro b b e r s s t o l e h i s fav o r i te h o rs e , R u k s h . In
S oh rab an d
R u s t um
l
t ra i i n g th e ro b b e rs R u s t u m c am e t o th e p a a c e l of th e kin g
o f S am e n g an , w h e r e h e w as r o a w e c om e d , y ll y l an d w h e re
h e fe ll i n l ov e w i th th e ki ng s
d au g h te r , T e m i n e h , an d m arr i e d h e r . B u t
’

h e w a s o f a r ov i n g , ad v e n tu ro u s d i s p o s i ti on , a n d s oon w e n t b ac k t o fi gh t
a m o n g h i s o w n p e op l e , th e Pe rs i an s . W h i l e h e w as o n e hi s s o n S oh r ab
g
w as b orn , g r e w t o m an h ood , an d b e c a m e th e h e r o o f th e T u r an a r m y .
W ar a ro s eb e tw e e n th e t w o p e o p l e s , a n d tw o h os t i l e arm i e s w e r e e n
c am p e d b y th e O x u s E a c h ar m y c h o s e a c h am p i on , a n d R u s tu m an d
.

S oh r ab f ou n d th e m s e lv e s m atc h e d i n m or ta l c om b a t b e tw e e n t h e l i n e s .
At th i s p oi n t S oh r ab , w h os e c h i e f i n te r e s t i n l i fe w as t o fin d h i s fa th e r,
d e m an d e d t o k n ow i f hi s e ne m y w e r e n o t R u s tu m ; b u t th e l a t te r w as
d i s gu i s e d an d d e n i e d hi s i d e n ti t y
. O n t he fi rs t d ay of th e fi gh t R u s tu m
w as o v e r c om e , b u t h i s l i fe w as s p are b y th e g e n e ros i ty
d by a t ri c k an d

o f S oh r ab . O n t h e s e c on d d a R u s tu m p re v a i l e d , a n d m o r t all y w ou n d e d
y
h i s an tagon i s t . Th e n h e r e c o g n i ze d h i s ow n s on b y a g ol d b ra c e l e t
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 49

w h i c h h e h ad l on g ago g i v e n t o h i s w i fe T e m i ne h . Th e tw o a rm i e s ,

ru s h i n g i n to b a tt l e w e re , d b y th e s i g h t o f fa th e r a n d so n w e e p
s to p p e

ing in e a ch o th e r s S oh rab d i e d , the w ar c e ase d , a n d R u s tu m

’
a rm s .

w e n t ho m e to a l i fe of s or r o w an d re m ors e .

A r n old p r od u c e d
'

U s in g thi s i n t e re s ti n g m at e r i a l , p oe m a

which has t he ra re an d d i fli c u lt c om bi n ati on of cl as s ic re s e rve

an d r om an tic fe e li n g I t i s w r itt e n i n bl an k v e r s e a n d on e
. ,

ha s on l y t o r e ad t h e fi r s t fe w li n e s t o s e e th a t t h e p oe t i s n ot
a m a s t e r of h i s i n s t ru m e n t Th e li n e s ar e s e ld om h ar m on i ou s
. ,

an d w e m u s t fr e q u e n tl ch an g e t h e a c c e n t o f c om m o n w o r d s
y ,

or la s t r e s s o n u n i m p or t an t p ar ticl e s t o S h ow t h e r h th m
y y , .

Ar n old fr e q u e n tl y c opi e s Milt on e s p e ci ally i n h i s r e p e t iti on ,

of id e a s a n d ph r a s e s ; b u t t h e p oe m a s a wh ol e i s l a cki n g i n

Milt on s w on d e r fu l m e l od y
’
.

The cl as s ic i n fl u e n c e on S onra o a n a R u s t u m i s e s p e cially

’

n otic e abl e i n Ar n old s u s e of m at e r i al s

’
F i g ht s ar e s h or t ; .

g r i e f i s l on g ; th e r e fore t h e p oe t g iv e s fe w lin e s t o t h e c om
b at but li n ge r s ov e r t h e s on s j oy at fi n di n g h i s fath e r an d
’

, ,

t h e fath e r s q u e n chl e s s s orr ow at t h e de ath of h i s s on The

’
.

l as t li n e s e s p e ciall y with th e i r p as s i on at e gr i e f s e t t o s ol e m n
,
”
m u s ic , m ak e thi s p oe m o n e of t h e b e s t on t h e wh ol e th at , ,

A rn old h a s w r itt e n An d t h e e xq u i s it e e n di n g wh e re t h e
. ,

O x u s u n m i n d fu l of t h e t r ivi al s t r i fe s of m e n fl ow s on s e d at e ly
, ,

t o j oi n hi s l u m i n o u s h om e o f w at e rs i s m os t s u gge s tiv e of
t h e p oe t s c on c e pt i on o f t h e o r d e r l y li fe o f n at u r e i n c on t r a s t
’

with t h e d ou bt an d r e s tl e s s n e s s of h u m an li fe .

N e xt i n i m p or t an c e t o t h e n ar rativ e p oe m s a r e t h e e l e g i e s
V
,

Me m
" ” ” ”
A
“
Thy r s i s ,Th e S ch ol ar G ip s y o r i al-
e rs e s , ,

” ”
Mi s ce l l a S ou th e r n N i ght O b e r m an n S t an za s from t h e
, ,

n e w s P°e m s ” ”
G ran d e Ch art r e u s e an d R u g b y Ch ap e l ,
A ll .

th e s e ar e w or th y of c are fu l r e adi n g b u t t h e b e s t i s Thy r s i s , ,

a l am e n t for t h e p oe t Cl o u gh which i s s o m e ti m e s cl as s e d with ,

Milt on s Ly e i aa s an d S h e ll e y s Ad on a i s Am on g t he m i n or
’ ’ ’
.

p oe m s t h e r e ad e r will fin d th e b e s t e xp re s s i on of Arn old s ’

id e al s an d m e th od s i n D ove r B e a ch t h e l ov e l y r ic s e n tit l e d ,
5 5 0 E N G LI S H LI T E R ATU R E

” ” ” "
S wit ze r l an d , R e q u i e s c at , S h ak e s pe ar e , Th e F utu r e ,
” ” ”
K e n s i n gt on G ar d e n s C al
“
, Phil om e l a, H u m an L i fe ,
Moralit y an d G e i s t s G rav e
’ ” “
li c l e s S on g ,
’
s , t h e l as t ,
—

b e i n g an e xq u i s it e t r ib u t e t o a little d og which lik e all h i s ,

ki n d h ad re p aid o u r s can t c ru m b s of affe cti on with a wh ol e

,

li fe s d e vot i on
’
.

Th e fi rs t pl a c e a m on g A rn old s p ro s e w or k s m u s t b e g iv e n
’

t o t h e E s s ay s i n Cr i t i c i s m which r ai s e d t h e au th or t o t h e
,

Es s ay s n i f ro n t ra n k o f livi n
g c r itic s H i s f u n d am e n t a l id ea .

Cr i ti Ci s m of c r itici s m app e al s t o u s s t ron g l Th e bu sin e s s

y .

of c r itici s m h e s ay s i s n e ith e r t o fin d fau lt n or to di s play t h e

, ,
"
c r it ic s o w n l e ar n i n g or i n fl u e n c e ; it i s t o k n ow th e b e s t
’

”
which h as b e e n th o u ght an d s aid i n t h e w or ld an d b y u s i n g ,

thi s k n owl e d g e t o c r e at e a c u rr e n t of fre s h an d fr e e th ou ght '

.

I f a ch o ic e m u s t b e m ad e a m on g th e s e e s s ay s which ar e all ,

"
w or th y of s t u d y w e w ou ld s u g ge s t Th e S t u d y o f Poe t ry
, ,

Wor d s w or th ”
,B y r on
”
an d Em e r son
, Th e l a s t n am e d .
-

e s sa which i s fou n d i t h e D i s cou r s e s i n A m e r i ca i s h ar dl

y , n y ,

a s at i s fa ct o r e s ti m a t e o f Em e r s on b u t i t s s i n u l ar ch ar m
y g ,

of m an n e r a n d i t s a t m o s ph e r e o f i n t e ll e ct u al c u lt u r e m ak e it

p e r h ap s t h e m os t ch ara ct e r i s tic of A rn old s p r os e w r iti n gs ’

.

Am on g t h e w or k s of Ar n old s p ra ctic al p e r i od t h e r e ar e t w o
’

which m ay b e t ak e n a s t y pica l of all t h e r e s t L i te ra t u r e a n d .

D og m a ( I 873 ) i s i n g e n e ral a pl e a for lib e r a lit y i n r e li g i on

, , .

Ar n old w ou ld h av e u s r e a d t h e B ibl e fo r i n s t an c e a s w e w ou ld , ,

r e a d an o th e r g r e a t w or k an d appl y t o it t h e or di n ar y s t an d
y ,

a r d s o f lit e r a r c r itici s m
y .

Cu l t u r e a n d An a r cny ( 1 86 9 ) c on t a i n s m os t of t h e t e r m s
c u lt u r e s w e e t n e s s an d li ght Bar bar ian Phili s ti n e H e b r ai s m
, , , , ,

Cul t u re a n d a n d m a n
y o th e r s — which a r e n ow a s s o ci at e d with

An t A r n ol d s w ork an d i n fl u e n c e Th e t e r m B ar b ar i an
’
.

r e fe r s t o t h e a r i s t o c ratic cl a s s e s wh o m A r n old th ou g ht t o b e ,

e s s e n ti all c r u d e i n s ou l n otwith s t an di n g th e i r g o o d cl o t h e s
y ,

an d s u p e r fici al c P hili ti ne r e fe r s t o th e m iddl e

g ra e s s .

cl as s e s — n arr ow m i n d e d an d s e l f s ati s fie d p e opl e a c cor di n g

,
- -
,
 EN G LI SH LI TE R ATU R E

J OH N H E N R Y N E WM AN ( 1 80 1 — 1 89 0)

An y re c ord of t h e p r os e lit e rat u r e o f t h e ict or ian e r a V ,

whic h i n cl u d e s t h e hi s t or i cal e s s ay s of Macau l ay an d t h e ar t

c r itici s m of R u s ki n S h ou ld c on t ai n a l s o s om e n ot i c e o f i t s
,

S pi r it u a l l e ad e rs F or th e r e w as n e v e r a ti m e wh e n t h e r e
.

l ig i ou s id e al s th at i n s pi re t h e r a c e w e r e k e pt m or e c on s t an tl y
b e for e m e n s m i n d s th rou gh t h e m e di u m of l it e rat u r e
’
.

Am on g t h e r e li gi ou s w r it e rs of t h e age t h e fi r s t pl a c e b e
l on gs u n q u e s ti on abl y t o Car di n al N e w m an Wh e th e r w e c on .

s id e r h i m as a m an with h i s p o w e r fu l e t g r aci o u s p e r s o n alit

y
, y ,

o r a s a r e li gi ou s r e for m e r w h o did m u ch t o b r e a k d ow n old

,

r e li g i o u s p r e j u dic e s b s h ow i n g t h e u nd e r l i n g b e au t an d
y ,

y y
c on s i s t e n cy of t h e R om an ch u r ch o r as a p ros e w r it e r wh os e
,

s t l e i s a s n e a r p e r fe cti o n as w e h a v e e v e r re a ch e d N e w m an
y ,

i s on e of t h e m os t i n t e r e s ti n g fi g u r e s of t h e wh ol e n i n e
.

t e e n t h c e n t u ry .

Li fe . Thr e e thi n gs t d ou t c l e arly i n Ne w m an s life : fi rst hi s

s an
’
,

u n s hak e n fa i th i n t h e di v i n e c om p an i on s h i p an d gu id an c e ; s e c on d ,

hi s d e s i r e t o fin d an d to t e ac h t he t ru th o f r e v e al e d re li gi on t h i rd ,

h i s q u e st o f an au t hori tat i v e s t an d ard o f fa i th w hi c h S h ou l d r e m ain

,

s t e ad fas t t h rou gh t h e c han gi n g c e n tu r i e s an d am id al l s or t s an d c on

d i ti on s of m e n Th e fi rs t l e d t o that r ar e an d b e au t ifu l s p i ri tu al
.

qu ali ty w hi c h shin e s i n al l hi s w ork ; t he s e c on d to hi s fre qu e n t

d oc trin al an d c on trov e rsi al e ssay s the thi rd t o hi s c on v e rsi on t o the
Cathol i c c hu rc h w h i c h h e s e r v e d as p ri e st an d t e ac h e r fo r t he l ast
,

forty fiv e y e ar s of h i s li fe Pe rhap s w e S h ou l d add o n e m o r e c har

-
.

ac te r i st i c —
, t h e p rac t i c al b e n t of hi s r e li gi on ; for he w as n e v e r so
bu sy w ith s tu dy o r c on trove rsy that he n e gl e c te d to give a l arge p art
o f h i s t i m e t o ge n tl e m i n i st rati on am on g t he p oo r an d n e e d y .

H e w as b orn i n Lon d on i n 1 80 1
. H i s fath e r w a s an En gli sh
, .

ban ke r h i s m oth e r a m e m b e r of a Fr e n c h H u gu e n ot fam il y w as a

, ,

t h ou gh tfu l d e v ou t w om an w ho b rou gh t u p he r s on i n a w ay w h i c h
, ,

s u gge st s th e m o th e r o f R u sk i n Of h i s e a rl y t rai n i n g h i s re adi n g of

. ,

d oc t rin al an d argu m e n tati v e w orks an d of h i s i s ol ati on from m ate rial

,

t h i n gs i n th e t hou gh t t h at t he re w e r e t w o an d o n l y t w o ab so l u te
”
an d l u m i n ou sly se l f e v i d e n t b e i n gs i n t h e w orl d
-
hi m se l f an d hi s,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 553

Cre ator, it be t te r to r e ad hi s ow n r e c o rd in the Ap ol og i a wh ic h

is ,

i s a kin d of s pi ritu al bi ography .

At the age of fift e e n N e w m an had be gu n hi s p rofou n d stu dy of

the ologic al su bj e c t s For sci e n c e lite ratu re art n atu re — all the
. , , , ,

b road in t e re sts w hic h attrac t e d o th e r li t e rary m e n of h is age — he ,

c are d lit tl e hi s m in d b e in g w holl y oc c u p i e d w ith the his tory an d

,

d oc trin e s of th e Chri stian c hu rc h to w hic h he had al re ady d e vot e d

,

hi s life H e w as e d u c at e d fi rst at t h e s c hool i n Ealin g t h e n at

. ,

O x ford takin g hi s d e gre e i n th e l att e r pl ac e i n 1 82 0 Thou gh hi s

, .

c oll e ge c ar e e r w a s n ot m ore b r illi an t t han t hat o f m an y u n kn o wn

m e n h i s u n u su al abili ty w as r e c ogn i ze d an d he w as m ad e a fe ll ow
,

Q U AD R A N GL E O F O R I E L C O L LEGE ,

O XF O R D

of Ori e l Coll e ge , r e tai n in g th e fe ll ow shi p , an d l e adin g a s c hol arly

life fo r ove r tw e n ty y e ars . I n 1 82 4 h e w as o rd ain e d i n t he An glic an
c hu rc h , an d fou r
y e ars l at e r w as c h o s e n vi c a r o f S t M a ry s , at
’
.

Ox ford , w h e re h i s s e rm on s m ad e a d e e p i m p re ss i on o n t he cu ltivat e d
au di e n c e s t hat ga th e r e d from f ar an d n e ar t o h e ar h i m .

A c han ge is n ot ic e abl e i n Ne w m an
’
s life t rip to the
aft e r hi s
Me di te rran e an i n 1 83 2 H e had b e gu n his life as a Calvin i st b u t
. ,

w hil e i n O x ford t h e n t h e c e n t e r of r e li gi ou s u n r e st h e d e sc r ib e d
, ,
”
h i m se l f a s d r iftin g i n the di re c ti on of Lib e rali sm T h e n s t u dy
.

an d b e re a v e m e n t an d an i n n at e m sti c i s m l e d h i m to a p rofou n d
y
sym p ath
y w i t h t h e m e di ae val C h u r c h H e
. had f ro m t h e b e gi n n i n g
op p os e d Cat h oli c i s m b u t d u ri n g hi s vi s it to Ital y w h e r e h e saw th e
,

R om an c h u rc h at the c e n t e r o f i ts p ow e r an d spl e n d o r m an y of ,
 5 54 E N G LI S H LI TE R ATU R E

h i s p r e j u d i c e s w e r e o v e rc o m e . I n t h i s e n l arge m e n t of hi s s p i ritu al
h or i zon N e w m an w a s gre atly i n fl u e n c e d by h i s fri e n d H u rr e ll Frou d e ,
i
w t h w h om h e m ad e t h e p fi rs t art o f the j o u rn e y . H i s poe m s of thi s
i c o ll e c t e d i n t h e Ly r a Ap os tol i ca , ic h
p e r od ( aft e rw a r ds ) a m on
g wh
”
i s t h e fam ou s Le ad , Ki n d ly Li ght ,
i bl e fo r th e i r rad ian t ar e n o t c e a

s p i r i tu ali ty b u t on e w ho r e ad s t h e m
c ar e fu lly s e e s t h e b e i n n i n o f
g g
t ha t m e n tal s t ru ggl e w h i c h e n d e d i n h i s l e a v i n g t h e c hu rc h i n w hi c h
h e w a s bo rn Thu s h e w r i t e s of t h e Cath oli c c hu rc h w h os e s e r v i c e s
.
,

h e had a t t e n d e d a s on e w ho i n a for e i gn l an d r e c e i v e s t h e gift s o f

a g d
oo Sa m ar i tan

0 th a t thy c re e d w e re s ou n d !
F or th o u d os t s oo th e th e h e ar t, th ou c h u r c h of R om e ,
B y .th y u n w e ar i e v ari e d r ou n d d w a tc h an d

O f s e r v i c e i n th y S a v i o u r s h ol y h o m e
’
, .

I c a n n o t .w alk th e c i t y s s u l try s tre e ts ’

,

B u t th e w i d e p o r c h i n v i te s t o s ti ll r e tr e a ts ,

Wh e re p as s i on s thi rs t i s c al me d an d c are ’
~

,
’
s u n th a n k fu l g l o om .

On h i s r e t u rn t o En gl an d , i n l i giou s“

1 83 3 , h e e n te re d i n to t h e re

s t ru ggl e kn o w n as t h e Oxfo rd o r T ra c t a r i an M o v e m e n t an d s p e e d il
1
y ,

b e c am e i ts ac kn ow l e d ged l e ad e r Thos e w ho w i sh t o follo w thi s ‘

a tt e m pt a t r e l i gi ou s r e fo r m w hi c h p ro fou n d ly a ff e c t e d th e l i fe of ,

t h e w h ol e En gli s h c h u rc h w il l fin d i t r e c o rd e d i n t h e Tr a cts f or ,

t/ze Ti m e s t w e n ty n i n e o f w h i c h w e r e w r i tt e n by N e w m an an d i n
,
-
,

hi s P a r oc/zi a l a n a P l a i n S e r m on s ( 1 83 7 ’
Afte r n in e y e ars of
s p i r i tu al c o n fl i c t N e w m a n re t i r e d t o Li t tl e m o r e w h e r e w i th a fe w , ,

foll o w e r s h e l e d a l ife of al m o s t m on as t i c s e c l u si on s till s tr i v i n g t o

, ,

r e c on c i l e hi s c han gi n g b e li e f w i t h t h e d o c t r i n e s o f h i s ow n c h u rc h .

Tw o y e ar s l at e r h e r e s i gn e d h i s c ha r ge a t S t M a ry s an d l e ft th e
’
.

An glic an c o m m u n i on n o t b i t t e rly b u t w i th a d e e p an d t e n d e r
,
—
,
”
r e gr e t H i s l a s t s e r m on a t Li ttl e m o re o n
. Th e Part i n g o f Fri e n d s
1 Th O f d m v m
e t i
x or ligi h m y p i t f
o e en mbl
n t
re th P on as an o n s o re s e an c e o e re

R p h li t m v m
a ae et i t B th p t t d
o e en
g i t t h m t i li m f t h
n ar . o g d ro e s e a a ns e a er a s o e a e ,
an

b th w
o t ben k f t h i m d l t t h M i dd l Ag O igi ll y t h m v m t w i
ac or e r o e s o e e e s. r na e o e en as n

ten d d t b i g
e o w li f t t h A gli
r n ne h h by
e o viv l f t h d t i
e n d p ca n c u rc a re a o e oc r n e a n ra c

ti ce s o f li p i d R g i i g t h p w f t h p
a n e ar er er o . e coth l d h n z nli t t e o er o e re s s , e ea e rs c os e e r a u re

for th i i e rt m t f
n s ru f m d b y th i T
en o ret f t/
or T m th y b
,
an m k w e r r ac s or ze i es e e ca e no n

as T t i T
ra c a r an s .
pp li b li m d
o o t t o set h d t i d
e ra t h i t ys f t h an o r e s o re e oc r n e an au or o e

e ar l y Ch h w t h u rc t f th i t
as h i g T h i b li f m i gh t b
e ce n e r o mm d p i
e r e ac n . e r e e e su e u n on e

ti l d w i t h l l t h t i t i m p li I b li v i C t h li d Ap “
g re a t ar f th C
c e o e re e , a a e s, -
e e e n on e a o c an os

t li Ch
o c h Th m v m
u rc .
”
t b g t O f d w i th K b l
e o e en f m me N ti
an a l x or e e s
’
a ou s s e r o n on a on a

Ap t y i os a s ,
”
83 3 ; b t N w m
n 1 w th l l d f t h m v m t w h i h p t i ll y
u e an as e re a ea er o e o e en ,
c rac ca

en d d wh
e h t
en d t h C t h li
e e n e re h h i 84 5 e a o c c u rc n 1 .
55 6 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

m an y o th e r p u blic p r e s s H i s r e ti r e m e n t t o s oli
m e n , i n t he .

tud e an d m e dit ati on at Littl e m or e had b e e n o u t r age ou s l y

m i s u n d e r s t ood an d it w a s op e n l y ch ar g e d th a t hi s c on v e r
,

s i on w as a c u n n i n g l d e vi s e d pl ot t o w i n a l ar g e n u m b e r of
y
h i s foll ow e r s t o t h e Cath o lic ch u r ch T hi s ch ar g e i n v olv e d .

oth e r s a n d it w as t o d e fe n d th e m
,
a s w e ll a s t o vi n di ca t e
,

hi m s e l f th at N e w m an w r ot e t h e Ap ol og i a Th e p e rfe ct s i n
, .

c e r i t y with which b e t ra c e d h i S r e li g i o u s hi s t ory s h owi n g th at

'

hi s c on v e r s i on w as on l y t h e fi n al s t e p i n a c o u r s e h e h ad b e e n
foll owi n g s i n c e b oy h ood s il e n c e d h i s c r itic s an d r e v olut i on i ze d
,

p u bli c opi n i on c on c e rn i n g hi m s e l f an d t he ch u r ch which he

h ad j oi n e d A s t h e r e v e l at i o n of a s o u l s hi s t or y an d as a
’
.
,

m od e l of p u r e S i m pl e u n a ff e ct e d En g li s h t hi s b ook e n ti r e l y
, , , ,

apar t f rom i t s d oct r i n a l t e achi n g d e s e r v e s a hi gh pl ac e i n ,

ou r p ros e lit e ra tu r e

V
.

I n N e w m an s d o ct r i n al w or k s t h e i a M e d i a t h e Gra m m a r
’

, ,

o
f A s s e n t an d i n n u m e r o u s c on t ro v e r s i a l e s s a s t h e s t u d e n t
, y
of lit e ra tu r e will h av e littl e i n t e r e s t Mu ch m or e S i gn ifi ca n t.

are h i s s e r m on s t h e u n c on s ci o u s r e fl e cti on o f a rare S pi r it u al

,

"
n at u r e, of which Profe s s or S hai rp s aid : H i s p ow e r s h ow s
it s e l f cl e ar l y i n t h e n e w an d u n l ook e d for w ay i n which h e -

t ou ch e d i n t o li fe o ld t r uth s m oral or s pi r it u al , An d as .

h e s p ok e h ow t h e ol d t r u th b e c am e n e w ! an d h ow it c am e
,

h om e with a m e an i n g n e v e r fe lt b e fore ! H e l aid h i s fi n g e r

h ow g e n tl y y e t h ow p ow e r fu ll y on s om e i n n e r pl ac e i n t h e
h e ar e r s h e ar t an d t old h i m thi n g s ab ou t hi m s e l f he h ad n e v e r
’

kn ow n till th e n S u btl e s t t r u th s which w ou ld h av e t ak e n

. ,

phil os oph e r s p age s of ci r cu m l oc u ti on an d b ig w or d s t o s t at e ,

w e r e d r opp e d ou t b y t he w ay i n a s e n t e n c e or t w o of t he
”
m os t t r an s p ar e n t S a x on Of g r e at e r i n t e r e s t t o t h e ge n e ral
.

r e ad e r ar e Tli e I d e a o f a U n i v e r sit
y di s c o u r s e s d e liv e r e d at
,

D u bli n an d h i s t w o w ork s of fi cti o n L os s a n d Ga i n t r e a ti n g

, , ,

of a m an s c on v e r s i on t o Cath olici s m a n d Ca lli s ta

’
which i s , , ,

“
i n h i s o w n w or d s an att e m pt t o e xp r e s s t h e fe e li n g s an d
,

m ut u al r e l ati on s of Ch r i s tian s an d h e ath e n s i n t h e m iddl e of

 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 557

the thi rd c e n t u ry The l att e r i s i n o u r j u dg m e n t t h e m os t

. , ,

r e ad abl e an d i n t e r e s ti n g of Ne w m an s w ork s
’
Th e c har a ct e r
.

of C alli s t a a b e au ti f u l G re e k s c u lpt or of id o l s
, is ,
C l l i s ta
a
p ow e r fu ll y d e li n e at e d t h e s t y l e i s cl e ar an d t r an s
p ar e n t as ai r an d t h e s t ory o f t h e h e r oi n e s c on v e r s ion an d
,
’

d e ath m ak e s o n e o f t he m o s t fas ci n at i n g ch apt e r s i n ficti on ,

’
th o u gh it i s n ot t he s t ory s o m u ch as t he a u th or s u n c on s ci o u s
re v e l a ti on of hi m s e l f th at ch a r m s u s I t w o uld b e w e ll t o re ad
.
.

thi s n ove l i n c on n e ct i on wi th K i n g s l e y s Hyp a t i a w hich at’

t e m pt s t o r e c on s t ru ct t h e li fe an d id e al s of t he s am e p e r i od .

N e wm an s p oe m s a r e n ot s o w e ll k n ow n a s h i s p r o s e b u t
’

V
,

t h e r e ad e r w h o e x am i n e s t he Ly ra Ap os tol i ca an d e r s e s on

Po m s
e
V a r i ou s Occa s i on s will fin d m an
y s h or t p o e m s th at

s ti r a r e li g i ou s n at u r e p r ofo u n dl y b y th e i r p u r e an d

l oft y i m ag i n ati on ; an d fu t u r e g e n e r a ti on s m ay p r on ou n c e on e
“ ”
o f th e s e p o e m s Th e D r e am o f Ge r on t i u s t o b e N e w m an s
’

, ,

m os t e n du r i n g w or k T hi s p oe m a i m s t o re p rod u c e t h e t h ou g ht s
.

a n d fe e li n g s o f a m an wh o s e s ou l i s j u s t q u itti n g t h e b o d an d
y ,

w h o i s j u s t b e g i n n i n g a n e w a n d gr e at e r li fe B oth i n s t y l e
.

" ”
an d i n th o u g ht Th e D r e am i s a p ow e r fu l a n d or i g i n al p oe m
an d i s w or th of a tt e n ti on n ot o n l f r it s e l f b u t a s a m od e rn
y y o ,

c r itic s u gg e s t s as a r e v e l at i on o f th a t high s pi r it u al p u rp os e
,

w hich a n i m at e d N e w m an s l i fe fr o m b e g i n n i n g t o e n d
’

O f N e w m a n s s t y l e it i s as di ffic u lt t o w r it e a s it w ou ld b e
’

t o d e s c r ib e t h e d r e s s o f a g e n tl e m an w e h a d m e t w h o w as ,

N e w m an s s o p e r fe ctl d r e s s e d th at w e p aid n o a tt e n ti on t o
’
y
S ty l e hi s cl oth e s H i s s t y l e i s c all e d t r an s p ar e n t b e cau s e
.
,

at fi r s t w e ar e n ot c on s ci ou s of h i s m an n e r ; a n d u n obt r u s iv e ,

b e cau s e w e n e v e r thi n k of N e w m an hi m s e l f b u t on l y of t h e ,

s u bj e ct h e i s di s c u s s i n g H e i s lik e t h e b e s t F r e n ch p ros e
.

w r it e r s i n e xp re s s i n g h i s th ou ght with s u ch n at u ral n e s s an d

appar e n t e a s e th at with ou t thi n ki n g of s t y l e w e r e c e iv e e x
, ,

actl t h i m p r e s s i on which h e m e an s t o c o n v e I h i
y e
y n s s e.r

m on s a n d e s s ay s h e i s w on d e r fu ll y s i m pl e a n d di r e ct in his
c on t r ov e r s i al w r iti n g s g e n tl y i r on ic al an d s atir ic an d t h e
, ,
55 8 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

sa ti r e p e r vad e d b y a de licat e h u m or b u t wh e n h i s fe e li n g s
Is

ar e a rou s e d h e S p e ak s with p o e tic i m ag e s an d s m b o l s an d

y ,

h i s e l oq u e n c e i s l ik e th a t of t he O l d Te s t am e n t p roph e t s .

Lik e R u s ki n s h i s s t y l e i s m o d e l e d l arg e l y on th at of t h e
’

B ibl e b u t n ot e v e n R u s ki n e q u al s hi m i n t h e p o e t ic b e au t y
,

a n d m e l od of hi s s e n t e n c e s O n t h e w h ol e h e c om e s n e ar e r
y .

th an an y oth e r of h i s age t o ou r i d e al of a p e r fe ct p r os e w r it e r
V
.

Ot h e r Es s ay i s t s of t h e i cto r i an Age We h av e s e l e ct e d .

t h e ab o ve fiv e e s s ay i s t s Ma c au l ay Ca r l y l e A r n o ld N e w m an
V
, , , , ,

C it i c al
r
a n d R u s ki n as r e p r e s e n t a tiv e
, w r it e r s of t h e ic
W i te m
f
t or i an A ge ; b u t th e r e are m an y oth e r s w h o w e ll
r e pa ou r s t u d N o t abl e a m o n g th e s e ar e J oh n A ddi n t on
y y .
g
S ym on d s a u th or o f Tli e R e n a i s s a n ce i n I ta ly u n d ou bt e dly
, , __

h i s gr e at e s t w o r k an d of m an y c r itic a l e s s ay s
, Walt e r Pat e r ,

wh os e App r e c i a t i on s an d n u m e r ou s oth e r w o r k s m ar k h i m as
o n e of o u r b e s t lit e ra r y c r itic s ; an d L e s li e S t e ph e n fam ou s ,

for hi s w or k o n t h e m on u m e n t al D i c t i on a ry of N a t i on a l B i og
r ap /z a n d fo r h i s H ou r s i n a L i b r a ry a s e r i e s Of i m p ar t ial
y , ,

a n d e xc e ll e n t c r itici s m s b r i g ht e n e d b y t h e pl ay o f an or i gi n al
,

a n d d e li g ht fu l h u m or .

Am on g t h e m os t fam ou s w r it e r s of t he a g e ar e t h e s c i e n
t i s t s Ly e ll D ar w i n H u xl e y S p e n c e r Ty n d all an d Wa ll a c e
, , , , , , ,

— a w on d e r fu l g r ou p o f m e n wh os e w or k s th o u g h ,
Th e S c t sts
i en i
th e y h ar dl y b e l on g t o ou r p re s e n t s t u d y h av e e x ,

e r c i s e d a n i n c a lc u l abl e i n fl u e n c e o n ou r li fe an d lit e rat u r e .

’
D ar wi n s Or igi n of Sp e c i e s ( I 8 which appar e n tly e s t ab
l i s h e d t h e th e or y o f e vo l u t i on w as an e p o ch m a ki n g b oo k,
-
.

It r e v ol u ti on i ze d n ot on l y o u r c on c e pti on s of n at u ral hi s t ory ,

b u t al s o o u r m e th od s of thi n ki n g on all t h e p r obl e m s of h u m an

s o ci e t
y T h. o s e w h o w o u ld r e ad a s u m m ar
y of t h e g re at e s t

o f t h e ag e will fin d it i n W all a c e s D a r
’
s ci e n tifi c di s c o v e r
y
w i n i s m — a m os t i n t e re s ti n g b oo k w r itt e n b y t h e m an w h o
, ,

cl ai m s with D ar wi n t h e h on or of fi r s t an n ou n ci n g t h e p r i n cipl e
, ,

o f e v ol u ti on An d fr om a m u ltit u d e of s ci e n tific w or k s w e
. , ,

re c om m e n d a l s o t o t h e g e n e ra l r e ad e r H u xl e y s A u t oozog r ap /iy
'
’
 5 6 0 ENG LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

th e y c re at e d i m m or t al w or k s th e i r b ook s h av e m ad e t h e ,

p r e s e n t w o r ld a b e tt e r an d a h appi e r pla c e t o liv e i n An d .

th at i s p e rh ap s t h e b e s t th at c an b e s aid of t h e w or k of an y
ar ti s t or ar ti s an .

S u m m a ry of t he Vy e ar 1 83 0 i g e n e rall y p l c e d at t h e
i t c ori an Age . T h e s a

b e gi i g f t h i p e i d b t i t s li m i t a e v e y i d e fi i t I g e a l w e m ay
nn n o s r o u s r r n n e n ner

f V
, .

thi k n f i t as c v e i g t h e r i g
o o i c t i a ( 1 83 7
r n e H i s t i c a ll y t h e g e
n o or or a

is r m a k b l e f
e r th e g
a w t h o f d m c a c y f ll w i g t h R e f m B ill o f 1 83 2 ;
or ro e o r o o n e or

fo r t h e p e d o f e d c a t i o am o g a l l c l s s e s ; f
s r a u nth e p i d d ne v l p m e t of t he a or ra e o n

a r ts and s c i e c e s ; f o i m p rt a t m c h a i c a l i v e t i o
n r o ; a d f r th e o m
n e sn n n ns n o e n r ou

e xt en s io f th b o n o d s o f h m a k o w l e d ge b y t h e d i c v i e s o f s c i e c e
e un u n n s o er n

f V
.

A t t h e a cc e i i c t o i a t h e ro m a t i c m ov e m e n t had s p e t i ts f c e ;
s s on o r n n or

W o d s w o th h a d w i tt e n h i b e s t w o k ; t h e o t h e o m t i c p o e t s C l i dg e
r r r s r r r an , o er ,

S h ll y K e a ts a d B y o
e e h a d p s s e d a w ay ; a d f o r a t i m e
n r n o new d v l p
a n n e e o

gh t h e V
, , ,

m e t w as ap p
n t i E gli s h p o e t y T h
a re n n n i c t o i a A ge p o d c e d r . ou r n r u

t w o g a t p o e ts T e
re ys an d B o w i n g t h e ag s a w h l e i s m k b l e
, nn on r n , e , a o , re ar a

fo r th e v a i e t y d x c e ll e c e o f i t s p r s e A s t d y o f a l l t he g e t w i t s o f
r an e n o . u r a r er

th e p e ri o d v e l s fo r g e e ra l c h arac t
re a i sut i cs
( 1 ) Li t e a t
n e i t h is A ge h as er : r ur n

c o m e v e y c l os e t o d ail y li fe r e fl e c t i n g i t s p ac t i c a l p
r ,b l m s a d i t e s ts a d r ro e n n er , n

i s a p o w e f l i s t m e n t of h m
r u n p og e s s ( 2 ) Th e t
ru ud e n c y o f li t e a t e i s
an r r . en r ur

s t ro g l y
n t h i c a l ; al l t h e g e a t p e t s
e v e li s t s a d e s s ay i s t s o f t h e ag
r o , no e , n e ar

m o l t e ac h e rs ci c e i n t h i s a e e x e c i s e s an i c a l c l ab l e i fl e n c e
ra
(3 ) S .
g en r n u n u .

O t h e o e h a d i t e m p h as i ze s t th a s t h e s o l
n n n b j e c t of h m a ru d e av ; e o u n en or

i t h as e s t ab li s h e d t h e p i c i p l e f l aw th gh o t t h e
r n n iv e s e ; a d i t h as
o ro u u u r n

g iv e n s a u t i l y e w vi e w
n en f li f
re e s s mmed
n p i t h e w rd
o e vol ti
, a u u n o u on ,
”

that i s t h p i c i p l e
, ef g ro w t h
r n d e ve l p m o t f om s i m p l e t c om p l e x f
or ms o en r o or .

O n t h e o th e r h d i ts fi s t e ff e c t s e e m s t o b e t d i s c o
an ,
r
ge w k s o f th e o u ra or

i m agi at i on Th o gh t he age p d c e d a i c e d ib l e m b of b o ok s v e y
n . u ro u n n r nu er , r

f e w of t h e m b e l g am g t h e g e a t c at iv e w k s o f li t e a t re
on on r
( 4 ) Th o re
gh or r u . u

t h e a ge i g e e ll y c h a c t e r i ze d as p ac t i c al a d m at e i li s t i c i t i s s i g ifi c a t
s n ra ra r n r a , n n

t h at n e a l y al l t h e w i t e s w h o m t h
r t i o n d e li gh t s t
r r h o o r vi go o s l y a t
e na o n r u

t ac k m a t e i a li s m a n d e x a l t a p
r e ly id e al c o c e p ti n
, f li fe O t h w h l e w e
ur n o o . n e o ,

a re i c li e d t o c ll t h i s a n i d e a li s t i c age f
n n a d a m e t a ll y S i c e l o v e t t h j s un n , n , ru , u

t ice b , t h e hoo d — a l l g e a t i d e a l s
ro r a e e m p h as i ze d as t h e c h i e f e d s
r — f li fe
r n o ,

n ot o ly b i t s p o e ts b t a l s o b y i t s n o v e li s t s a d e s ay i s t s
u n s
n
y .

I n o r s t d y w e h a v e c o s i d e e d ( 1 ) Th e Po e t s ; t h e l ife a d w o k s o f
u u n r : n r

Te nn ys o an d B row i g ; a d t h e c h i e f c h arac t i s t i c s of t h e m i n o r p oe ts
n n n n er ,

E li zab e th B arre t t ( Mrs B row n i g) R s s e t t i Mo r i s a d S w i b . n , e ( 2 ) Th e

o , r , n n u rn .

N o v e li t ; t h e lif e a d w k s o f D i c k
s s n T h ac k e ra y a d G
or g e E li o t ; an d e n s, , n e or

t h e c h i f w o k s o f C h a rl e
e r R e d e A th o y Tro ll o p e C h a l t t e B o t e B l
s a , n n , r o r n , u

w e r Ly t t
-
K i n gs l e y M s G as k e ll B l ac k m o re G e o rge Me e d i th H a d y a d
on , , r .
, ,
r , r , n

S te ve s n
(3) Th
on e E
. s s ay i s t s ; t h e li fe an d w o k s o f M a c a l a y M att h e w r u ,

Arn o l d C a l y l N ewm a an d R s ki T h e s e w e re s e l e c t e d f o m a m on g
m an y e s s ay i s ts an d m i s c e ll an e o u s w ri t e rs as m os t t y p i c a l o f t h e V
, r e ,
n, u n. , r

i c t o ri an ,
 TH E V
I CTO R I AN AGE 5 6 1

Age . Th e gr e a t i s c e n t s ts , i lik e L y e ll , D xl e y Wa ll ac e
arw n , i Hu , , T y n da ll , an d

S p e n c e r, h a rd l y b e l on
g to our s t dy u o f li t e ra t r e th gh t h i u , ou e r w or ks a re of

v as t i m p o rtan c e -
an d we om it the w o rk s o f livi n g w ri t e rs w h o b e l on g to th e

p r e s e n t ra t h e r t h an t o t h e p as t c e n t ryu .

S e l e ct i on s for R e ad i n g . Man l y s ’
En g li sh Po e t r y an d Man l y ’
s En g lis h
Pros e ( G i n n an d C o m p an ) y
x c e ll e t s e l e c t i o s f o m al l a u th o s o f
c o n ta n i e n n r r

t h i s p e ri o d Ma y o th e r c ll e c t i s lik e W a d s E gli s h P e t s Ga rn e tt s
n o on r
’
n o
’

En g li s h P s e f r m E li zab e t h t o V
. , ,

ro ic to ri a Pa ge s B ri t i s h Po e ts f t h e N in e
o
’
o

t e e n t h C e t ry a d S t e d m a s A V
,

n u , i c t o ri an A th l gy m ay b e s e d t o ad
n n
’
n o o , u

v a tage All i m p t ant w o rk s m ay b e fo d i n t h e c v e i e t a d i e x p e n s iv e

n . or un on n n n n

s c h oo l e d i t i o n s giv e b e l ow ( Fo r f ll t i t l e s a n d p b li s h e rs s e t h e G e n e ra l
n . u u e

B ib li og ra p h y ) .

T en n
y S h o t
s on p o e m s
. an d s e l e c t i
r o n s f r o m I d y ll s o f
, t h e K i n g I M emo , n

ri am E n oc h A d e
,
a d Th e P i c e s sr n , Th e s e a re f
n d i n v a ri o s s c h o o l
r n . oun u

e d it ion s S tan d ar d E n gli s h C l as s i c s Po c k e t C las s i c s R iv e s i d e L i t e a t e

, , , r r ur

S e i e s e tc Po e m s b y T e
r ys s e l e c te d a d e d i te d w i th n t e s b
nn
y H
on e ry n o n

V
, . ,

a nD y k e ( A th e ae m Pre s s S e i e s ) i s an e x c e ll e n t li t t l e v o l u m e f o r b e gi n n e s
n u r , r .

B w i g S e l e c t i o n s e d i t e d b y R M Lo v e t t i n S t a d ar d E gli s h C l as s i c s
ro n n . , . . ,
n n .

O t h e r s c h o o l e d i t i o s i E v e ry m a s Li b ra ry B e ll e s L e t t e s S e ri e s e t c
’
n n n , r , .

E l i z be tn B a e tt B r w i g S l e c t i o n s e d i t e d b y E li zab e t h L e e i n S t a d
ar r o n n . e , , n

a rd E n gli s h C l as s i c s S e l e cti s als i Po c k e t C l a s s i c s e t c

. on o n , .

M tt/ e w A a c l d S o h ra b a d R s t u m e d i t e d b y Tr e n t a d B re w s t e r i n
rno . n u , n ,

S tan d a r d E n glis h C l as s i cs T h e s am e p o e m i R iv e rs i d e Li t e a t re S e ri e s e tc
. n r u , .

S e le ct i o s i G l d T e as ry S e ri e s e t c Po e m s s t d e n t s e d i t i o n ( C ro w e ll )
’
n n o en r u , . , u .

Es s ay s i n Ev e ry m a s Li b ra y e t c Pro s e s e l e ct i on s ( H o l t All y B ac o n
’
n r , . , n ,

D i k c Ta l e
en s. f T w o C i t i e s e d i te d b y J W L in n i n S t a n d a d E n gli s h
o r

C l as s ic s A C h i s t m a s C a ro l D a vi d C o pp e rfi l d a n d Pi c k w i c k Pap e rs V
, . . ,

. r , a ri e , .

o u s g o o d s c h o o l e d i t i o s o f t h e s e n o v e l s i n E v e ry m an s L i b rary e tc
’
n , .

T/ k r y t ac H e n ry E s m n d e d i t e d b y H B Mo o e i n S t an d ard E n g lis h
e a . o , . . r ,

C l as s i c s Th e s am e n ov e l i n E v e ry m an s Lib ra ry Po ck e t C l as s i c s e t c ’
. , , , .

G g e E l i t S il as Marn e
e or o e d i te d b R A d e l a i d e W i th a m r, i n S t an d ard
.
y .
,

E gli s h C l as s i c s T h e s am e o v e l i n Po c k e t C l as s i c s e t c
n . n , , .

C r ly l
a E s s a y n B rn s e d i t e d b y C L H an s on i S t an d a rd E n g li s h C l as
e. o u , . . , n

s i c s an d H e o e s a d H e ro W o s h i p e d i t e d b
r n
y A Ma c Me c h an i n At h ae m r en u

B ac o n ) V
, , . ,

Pre s s S e i s S e l e c t i o s e d i t e d b y H W B o y n t on ( A ll y n
r e . n , a ri o s . . . u

o t h e r i n e xp e n s iv e e d i t i on s i n Po c k e t C l a s s i cs E c l e c t i c E n li s h C l as s i c s e t c
, g , , .

R ki us S e s am e a d L ili e s e d i t e d b y Lo i s G H ffo rd i n S tan d a d E n g

n . n , . u , r

lis h C l as s i c s O th e r e d i t i o s i n R iv e s i d e Li t e ra t u re E v e ry m an s Lib ary e tc

. n r ,
’
r , .

S e l c t e d E s ay s an d L e t t e rs e d i t e d b y H u ffo rd i n S tan d ard E g li s h C l as s i c s

e s n

S e l e c t i on s e d i t e d b y V
, , .

, i d a D S c d d e r ( S ib l e y ) ; e d i t e d b y C B T i k e r i n . u . . n ,

R iv e rs i d e Li t e rat u re .

M l y
a ca u aE s s a ys o Add i s on a d Mil t on e d i t e d b y H A S m i t h i n
. n n , . . ,

S t a d ard E n gli s h C l as s i c s S m e e s s y s i C
n e ll s N at i o a l Li b ra ry R iv e r
. a a , n as s
’
n ,

s i d e Li t e ra t e e tc Lays o f An c i e n t R om e i n S tan d ard En gli s h C l as s i c s

ur , .
, ,

Poc k e t C l as s i c s e tc , .
 5 6 2 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

N ew m an . S e le c ti on s , w th i i n t ro d u c t o n i b y L . E. Ga t e s ( H o l t) ; Se l e c t i on s
fro m p ro s e a n d p o e t r , i n R i y ve s i d r e i
L t e ra t u re . Th e I d e a of a Un iv e rs i ty i n ,

y
Man l s E n g s h Pr o s e .
’
li

B b i l i ograp h y ( N O T E F f ll t i tl e s a d p b li h e . f g e . l re fe e c eor u n u s rs o en ra r n

a l B ib li o rap h y
b oo ks s e G , e
g ene r
) H is tory T x t b k M tg m y p p 3 5 7 . . e ~
oo , on o er , .

8
3 3 ; C h y y p pe 6 3 2 64 3
ne G ,
l W .k G d i r — a d T ill . Sp i l en era or s. ar ne ,
n ra . ec a

W k Mc C a t h y s H is t ry o f O
or s. r Ow
’
T i m s ; B i gh t H i s t y of E g
o ur n e r
’
s or n

l d v o l s 4 5 ; Le e s Q e e n V
an , .
-
i c t i ; B ry c e s S t d i e s i C t e m p a ry
’
u or a
’
u n on or

Bi g p hy
o ra .

Li te ra ture G l W k G t t a d Go s s e
en era Ta i e Sp i l W k
or s. a rn e n n ec a or s.

H a i o n s E a ly V
. , .

rr s
’
ic t i Li t e at e ; S i t s b ry s A H i s t o y f N i e t e t h
r or an r ur a n u
’
r o n e n

C e t y L i t e ra t ; W a lk e s Th e Ag e o f T e ys ; s am e a t h r s T he ’ ’
n ur u re r nn on u o

G at e r V
re i c t ri n Po e ts ; Mo l e y Li t t e f t h e Age of V
o a i c t o i a ; S te d r
’
s e ra u r o r

ma s V i c t i an P e t s ; M s O li p h t Li t rary H i s t ry o f E gl d i t h e
’ ’
n or o r . an s e o n an n

Ni t t h C e t ry ; B e e s s E g li s h R o m a t i c i s m i t he N i t ry
’
t e th C
i c t o ri an L i t e ra t e i n Tra s c i p t s a d S t d i e s ; B ow e ll s V
ne e en n u r n n n ne e n en u

s V i c to
’ ’
D wd
o en ur , n r n u r n

i P os e M s t e s
r an r a r

d d V
.

T enn
y T x t s C b i e t d i t i n ( L d n 1 897) i s t h s t
s on . e : a n a i s e o on o , e an ar . r ou

g oo d d iti e s G l ob e C m b i dg e Po e t s e t c S e l e c t i s i A t h e
on , , a m P r s , . on n n ae u re s

G i a d C m pa y
( nn n
) o n .

L i fe Al f d L d Te
: ys a Me m o i b y hi s s
re or i s th s t da d ; b y
nn on , r on ,
e an r

Ly ll ( i n E gli s h M e
a f Le tt e s ) ; b y H
n to ; b y W n gh S e a l
o A e r or n au . e so nn

T R i tc h i s T
. y
e
’
a d H is F i e nn d s ; N ap is on Th e H m n d H t s of r en er s
’
o e s an au n

Te nn ys ; R w s l y M e m i s o f th e T ys o s
on a n e
’
s or e e nn n .

C i ti c i s m B o ke s T y h i s A t a d h i s R e l at i on t M d e rn Li fe
’
r : r o e nn s on r n o o

A La g s A l f e d T e n y o ; V D yk e T h e P e t y f T e n y s n S e t h s
,
’ ’ ’
s o a
°
. n r n n an s o r o n n

Th e Mi n d o f T n ys ; Gw y A C i t ic l S t dy f T
en on ys s W k ; nn s
’
r a u o e nn on or s

L c s H
u e
’
db o k t T an y s W o k s ; D ix s A T e ys o n P i m e ; Mas
o o e nn s on
’
r on
’
nn r r

te m a
r Te
n s
’
y s on as a R ligi s T c h ; C lli s s T h e E a l y P m f
nn e ou ea er o n
’
r oe s o

T n y s o ; M ac a ll u m s T e n n y s o s I d y ll s f t h e K i g an d t h A t h ri S t ry
’ ’
e n n n o n e r u an o

B d l y C om m t ry I Me m i am ; B ge h o t s Li t e ary S t u d i e s v o l 2 ;
’ ’
ra e s en a on n or a r , .

B i gh t w ll C o c d a c e ; S h e p h e d s B i b li g p h y
’ ’
r e s n or n r o ra .

E s s ay By F H a is o
s : n Te y R ki Mill a d O th e r Li t e ra y
rr n I nn s on , us n, n r

i V
.
, ,

E t im t s ; b y S t e d m
s a e i c t o ri P t s ; b y H t t i Li t e ry E ys ;
an , n an oe u on , n ra ssa

b y D w de o i S t d i e s i n Li t a t e ; b y G t s i
n , n u S t di a d Ap p e c i a er ur a e , n u es n r

tion s ; by F st r i G at T che s ; b y F m
or e , n i n O r L ivi g Po e t s
re S e ea r or an , u n . e

al s My e s s S c i c a d a F t e Lif e ’
o r en e n u ur

V
.

B w i g
ro T xt
n n C m b i dg
. d Gl b e e d it i o s
e s tc a i o s e d iti n s of
a r e an o n ,
e . r u o

s e l e cti e S l cti s f r R e ad i g b v )
( S
on s . e e e on o n , a o e .

Li f e b y W S h p ( G e t W i t e ) ; b y C h t e t n ( E gli s h M
: . ar r of
a r rs . es r o n en

L t t e ) ; L i f e a d L t t s b y M s S t h l a d O ; b y W a gh i W s t m i
e rs n e er , r . u er n rr u , n e n

st er B i g ap h i e ( S m ll
o r M y d) s a a n ar .

C itic i m S ym s s An I d c t i on t th S t dy of B w i g ;
’
r s : t on me n ro u o e u ro n n sa

t i tl e ,by C s ; M or on O s H db k t th W k f B w i g ; N e t tl
rs . rr
’
. an oo o e or s o ro n n e

s hip R ob e t B w i g ; B o ok e s T h e P e t y f R o b t B w i g ; C k s
'
’ ’ ’
s r ro n n r o r o er ro n n oo e
 6
5 4 E N G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

R u s ki n . Te ts x : B ra n t w o o d e d t ii
d te d b y C . E N o rt on ; on , ar o u s e i . v i
e i i o n s f s e p a at e w k s i
d t o r i li or . L fe : b y H a r r s on ( E n g s h M e n o f L e t t e rs ) ; b y
C lli gw o o d 2 v l ; s e l ki so R us n s Pr ae t e ri t a .
’
o n , o s. e a

C ri t i c is m Ma t h e s R ki hi s Li f a d T e c h i g ; C ok S t die i
’ ’
: r us n , e n a n o e s u s n

R s kin ; W a l d t e i s T h e W k f J h R ki H ob J o h R s ki n
’ ’
u s n or o o n us n s on s n u ,

S o c i a l R e fo m e r ; M s M y e ll J o h n R s ki n ; S ze e s R s ki
’
a d t he
’
r r . e n s u i ran n u n n

R e lig i on of B e a t y t ran s l a t e d f m t h e F e c h ; W h i t e Pr i c i p l e s f A t ;
’
u , ro r n s n o r

W M R os s e t t i s R s ki R e t t i a d P e R p h a li t is m
. .
’
u n, os s , n r -
a e .

E s ay s b y R o b e t o
s : i Mo d rn H m an i t s ; b y S i t s b y i n C
r s n, e ct dn e u s a n ur , o rr e

I m p e s i o s ; b y B ro w e ll H arri s o n F o s t e ( e e ab ov e )
r s n n , , r r s .

M l y
a ca u a Te x t s C o m p l t e w o r k s e d i t e d b y h i s s i s t e r L d y T e v e l y an
. : e , , a r

( L o d n on v a ri o
, e d i ti o s f s p a at w k ( se S l c ti
us s f r Re d n o e r e or s e e e on o a

i n g b o v e ) L if e
, a L if e a d Le t t e rs b y T re v e l y a
. : 2 v o l s ; b y M o ri s n E
( g , n, . r on n

lis h Me of Le t t e s ) n r .

C ri t i c i s m E s s y s b y B ag e h t i n L i t e a ry S t d i e s ; b y L S t e p h
: a ,
\ in o , r u . en,

H ou rs i Li b ry ; b y S i t s b y i
n a raCo c te d I m p s s io s ; b
y H a ri s n a n ur n rre re n r o

i n S t d i e s i n E a ly V
, ,

u i c t o ri n L i t e t e ; b y _Mat t h e w A l d
r a ra u r rn o .

N wm e T e x t s U if o rm e d i t i o
an . o f i m p o rt t w
: k s ( Lo d n 1 868 n an or n on ,

Ap l o gi a ( Lo gm a ) ; S l e c t i o s ( H o l t R iv e i d L i t e ra t e
o n ns e n , rs e ur ,

L if e J e i gs s C a d i l N w m n ; H t t
nn n
’
C ard i a l N e w m a ; E l y Li fe
r na e a u on s
’
n n ar ,

b y F N e w m a ; b y W a ll e r
. d Bn ow i W s tm i s t e r B i g p h i e s S e al s o an a rr , n e n o ra . e

Ch c h s Th e O x fo d M v e m e n t ; F i t zg e ra l d s F if t y Y e s f C a t h o li c L if e
’ ’
ur r o ar o

an d Pr o g re s s .
Cr t i ic is m : Es s a ys , by D on a l d s on , in F iv e G re a t O xfo r d L e ad e rs ; by
Ch u r c h , i n O c c as i o l P p e s v o l 2 ; b y G t e s i Th e S t d i i Li t e a
na a r , . a , n r e u es n r

tur e ; b
y J a c ob s i n L i t e a ry S t d i e s ; b , y H t t o i n M de G i dre s of E g u u n, o rn u n

li s h T h o gh t ; b y Lill y i Es s ys an d S p e e c h s ; b y S h ai rp i n S t d i s in
u , n a e , u e

Po e t ry an d Ph il s op h y S e e l o H tt C di l N w m an ’
o . a s u on s ar na e .

R t ti
os s e W o k 2 v ls ( L d o
. r s, S le c tio i G o l d e n T re as ry
o . on n, e ns, n u

S e ri e s L if b y K n i gh t ( G e t W ri t s ) ; b y S h arp ; H ll C i e
’
. e : R c ll c
r a er a a n s e o e

t i o s o f D n t e Gab ri e l R o s t t i ; C a ry s T h e R s s e t t i s ; M i ll i e s R s e tt i ;
’ ’
n a s e o ar r os

W o d s R o s s e t t i a d th e P R ap h ae li t e Mo v e m e n t ; W M H u n t s Pre
o
’
n re -
. .
’

R ap h a e li t i s m a d t h e P e R p h ae li t e B o t h e h o d
n r -
a r r o .

C r i t i c i s m Ti r e b c k s R s s e t t i hi s W o rk a d I fl e n c e E s ay b y S w in
’
: u o , n n u . s s :

b rn e i n E s s a ys a n d S t d i e s ; b y F rm an i n O r L ivi g P t s ; b y Pa t r i n
u , u o , u n oe e ,

W d s E gli s h Po e ts ; b y F W H My e s i n Es s ys M d
ar
’
n . . . r , a o e rn .

M i Te x ts S t o ry o f t h e Gli t t e ri n g Pl a i
or r s . : H u s e o f t h e W l fin gs e t c n , o o ,
.

( R e e v e s T e r ) ; E a l y R o m u rnc e s i n E v e r y m L i b ry ; S
r i g d t h e an an s
’
ra ur

V
,

o l s n g i n C am e l o t S e i e s ; S
u i li s t i c w ri t in gs ( H m b l d t P b li h i g r oc a u o u s n

Life b y Ma c k i l ; b y C a ry ; b y V
,

: a ll a c e
a n .

C ri t i c i s m Es s ay s b y S y m on s i S t d i e s i n Tw o Li t e at
: , s ; b
y D aw s o , n u r u re n,

i Ma k e rs f M d e
n E gli s h ; b y S a i t s b ry i n C o rre c t e d I m p re s s i
o o rn n s See n u ,
on .

als N db y s I fl e c o f Ol d N o s e Li t e ra t re
’
o or n u n e r u .

Sw i k n T xts u rne.C m p l e t e w o k s ( C h at t o an d W i d s ) ; P e m s a d
e : o r n u o n

B all d s ( L o v e ll ) ; S e l e c t i
a s ( R ivi g t n B e ll e s Le tt re s S e ri e s on Life : n o , ,

Wrat i s l aw s Alge rn on C h a l e s S w i n b u rn e a S t dy
’
r , u .
 TH E V
I CTOR I AN AGE 6
5 5

i i c is m : Es s ays b y F o m a S i ts b ry ( s e e ab o v e ) ; b y Low e ll i n My
Cr t r n a n u

Vi c t o ia P e ts
, , ,

S t d y W i d ow s ; e e l s o S t e d m
’
u n s a an s r n o .

C/z l R d T x ts C l o i t e r a d t h e H e a rt h i E v e ry m s L i b a ry
’
ar es ea e. e : s n , n an r

v a ri e d it io s of s p
ou s a te v e l s Lif e b y C R e d e
n e ar no . . a .

C iticis m
r E s y b y Swi b e i Mis c e ll i e s
: s a , n u rn , n an .

A t/z y T l l p
n Te x t s R y a l e d i t i on o f p i c i p a l
an ro o v e l s ( Ph il ad e l p h i a
e. : o r n no ,

B a ch e t e T w e e tc i E v e ym an s Lib a y Life A t b i o g ap h y
r s r o rs , ., u r
’
r r . : u o r

( H arp e r ,

Cr t i ic i s m : H T . Pe c i io v o l I Es s ys b y
k ’
s I n t ro d u c t o n i to R o yal e d t n a :

i E a ly V
. , . .

H J m e s i Pa t i l P t i t s ; b y H a rri s o
. a , n r a o r rai c t o ri an Li te a t e S e e n , n r r ur .

a l s o C o s s Th e D e v l o p m
r , t f t h e E g li h N o v e l e en o n s .

Ck l tt d E m i ly B T e x ts W k s H aw o t h e d i t i on e d i t e d b y
'

ar o e té
an r on . : or , r ,

Mrs H W a d ( H a p e ) ; C o m p l e t e w o rk s ( D e t
. . r r r J e E y e S hi le y n , an r ,
r ,

a d W t h e i g H e i gh t s i E v e ry m a s Li b a y Li fe O f C h l t t e B
’
n u r n , n te n r r . ar o ro n

b y M s Gas k e ll ; b y S h t e ; b y B i
r . ll ( Gre at W i t e s ) Lif e o f Em il y
or r rre
k
r r .

B t e : b y R ob i S e e a l s o Le y l d T h B ro t e F m il y
’
ron ns on . an s e n a .

C i t i c is m E s s y s b y L S t p h e
r : i H a s i a L ib y ; b y Ga t e s i n S t d i e s
e n n our n ra r u

i Ea ly V
, . , ,

an d Ap p e c i a t i s rb y H a r ri s on i t o i Li t e ra t e ; b y G B S m i th on , n r c r an ur . .
,

i n Po e t s a d N v e li ts S e a l s o S w i b s A N o te Ch l o tt e B o t e
’
n o s . e n u rn e on ar r n .

B lw u Ly tt Te xt
er - W o k s K e b s w th e d i t i o ( R t l e d ge ) ; v a i o s
on . s : r ,
n or n ou r u

e diti ons o f s e p a ra t e w k s ; Las t D y s f P m p e ii e t c i Ev ry m a s L i b rary

or a o o , ., n e n
’
.

L if e b y hi s s
: th E l f Ly t t on ; b y C
on , p e ; b y Te n B i k
ar o oo er r n .

C ri t i c i s m E s s ay b y W S e i or i n E s s y s i F i c t i o
: n a n n

G k ll V
. .
, ,

M rs. a i as e d itie s of s e p a
. te w ks ; C a f d i n S t da d
r ou s on ra or r n or , an r

E gli h C l s s i cs e t c L if
n s a s e e D ic t io a y
, f N t i o n l B i og p h y C i t i c i m :
. e : n r o a a ra . r s

s ee S i t b a n y s N i e t th C e t y L i t e t e
s ur
’
n een -
n ur ra u r .

Ki g l y T x t : W o k C h e t e
n s e . e d itis ; H yp a t i W e s tw d H ! e t c
r s, s r e on a, ar o .
,

in E v ym L i b ry L i f L tt e a d Me m i s b y h i s w i f ; b y K a fm
’
er an s ra e : e rs n or e e u an n

E a ly V
. , .

C i t i i m Es y
r c s by H a i o : i sa i c t i Li t e t e ; b y L S t e
s, rr s n, n r o r an ra u r .

p h en i , H s i
n Lib y
ou r n a ra r .

St e v e n s onT e x ts W k s ( S c i b e ) ; T e as
. : e I la d i or Ev e ry m a s Li r n r r ur s n , n n
’

b ra r
y ; M as t e r o f B ll t ae i Po c k t C l a s s i a ; Le t te s
an rd i t d b y C o lvi
, n e cs r , e e n

( S cri b e ) n L i f e br
y B l
. f ; b y B il:d ; b y B l c k ; b
a
y C o f
ou r o d S e a l so a on a rn r . e

S im p s s Ed i b
on
’
g h D y s ; F asne s I n
ur S t v s s S am a ; O b a an d r r
’
e en on
’
o s o rn e

g s Me m o i f Vili m a
’
S tr on r es o a

C i ti c i s m R l i g h St v s ; Ali c e B w s S te v e s Es s y s b y H
’ ’
r : a e s e en on ro n n on . a : .

J m s i Pa t i l P t i ts ; b y C h ap m i E m e s n a d O th r Es y s
a e , n r a o r ra an , n r o n e sa .

T e x ts W k ( H a p e ) C i t i c i s m M ac d l l s Th o m s H a d y
’
H dy
ar . : or s r r . r : on n e a r

J oh s Th e Art o f T h o m a s H dy S e a l s o W i d l s T h e W e s s e x of
’ ’
n s on ar . e n e

Th m as H a d y ; an d D w s M k e rs o f E g li h F i c t i on
’
o r a s on a n s .

G g M e or d i t/z T e x ts N o v e l s a d S l c t d P e m s ( S c r ib e )
e ere . : n e e e o n r .

C i t i c is m Le Ga lli e G o ge Me d i th ; H a ah L y c h s G e o rge ’ ’
r e s
: nn e r re nn n

Me e d i t h E s y s b y H e l e y i n V
r . s a i e w s an d R e vi e w s ; b y B o w ll i V
: n ic , r ne , n

t o ri an P os e M s t e r ; b y M n kh o s e i a B rs k s a d Pl y s S e l s B ail e y s o u , n oo n a . e a o
’

Th e N o v l f Ge g Me e d it h ; C l
e s o A s p e c t s o f Ge o rge Me re d i t h ; an d
or e r ur e s
’

C ro s s s T h e D e v e l p m n t o f t h e E n glis h N o v e l
’
o e .
5 6 6 EN G LI S H LI T ER ATU R E

S u gge s t i ve Qu e s t i on s . ( N OT E . Th e b e s t q u e s t i on s a re t h os e w h i c h are
y
b as e d u p on t h e b o o k s , e s s a s , a n d p o e m s r e a d b y t h e p u p il . A s t h e w o rk s
y
c h os e n f o r S p e c ia l s t u d y y
v a r gre a t l w i t h d iff e re n t t e ac h e rs an d c l as s e s , w e
i s e t h e o l y a f w q s t i s f ge e l
n r re n e I W h t a e th e c h i e f
ue on o n ra a r

f V
.

ch ac t e i s t i c s
ar i c t ori an li t e at e ? N m th c h i f w ri t e s f t h e p e i d
r o r ur a e e e r o r o

i p os e an d p o e t ry W h t b o k s f t h i s p i o d
n r . e i y r j d g m e t w th y
a o o er ar , n ou u n , or

t o b e p l ac e d a m on g t h e g t w k s o f li t t ? W h at e ff e c t d id th d i s
re a or e ra u re e

c o e ri s
v f s c i c e h av e
e o p t h e
en li t e a t f t h e a g e ? Wh t p u t e fl c ts
on r u re o a oe r e

th e ne w c o c p ti f l aw a d e v l t i n ? W h at h i s t i c l c
n e on o d i t i o s ac c o
n t o u o or a on n un

for t h e fac t t h a t m os t o f t h e V i c t o i an w i t e s e th i l t e ac h s ? r r r ar e ca er

2 T .
y G iv
en n e a b i e f s k e tc h o f T e
s on . y o s lif e d n am e hi s c h i f
r nn s n
’
, an e

w o ks r W h y i s h lik e C h c e r a n a ti o a l p t ? I s y o p l s e i
. e , au ad i g ,
n oe ur ea ur n re n

T ennys o d e c h i e fl y t t h e t h o gh t r t h e m e l o dy of e xp re s s i on ? N o t e t h i s
n u o u o

fi g re i n Th e Lo t o s E t e
u a rs

Mu s i c t h at ge n t l i e r o n t he sp r i it li es

Th an i
t re d e y e d s u p o n t li i re d e ye s .

Wh at doe s th i s s gg e s t c u ys s fi g re s o f s p e e c h i n g e l ?
o n c e rn n g i Te n n on
’
u en ra

C m pa e
o r L o c k s l e y H ll
w i th L c k s l e y H a ll S ix t y Y e a
a
”
Af t Wh t o rs e r.
”
a

d i ff e e c s d o y o fi d i t h
r n e g h t i u w k m an h i p a d
n i p e t i
ou c t h s i m ?
, n or ns , n n o en u as

W hat i T e ys s i d s f fa i th a d i m m
nn on
’
t li t y s e x p
ea o s di I M m i m n or a a re se n n e or a

3 B . w i g I
ro w h a tn e s pne c t s. i s B onw i g lik e S h a k e
r s p e a e ? W h a t i s r n n r

me t b y t h e Op tim i s m
an f h i s p o e t y ? C an y o e x p l i n w h y m
o y t h o ght f l r u a an u u

p e s
r on s p e f e r h i m t o Tr e n y s ? W ha t i s B w i g s c e d n xp on e d in ro n n
’
r e as e re s s

R b b i B e n Ez a ? R F ra L i pp o Li pp i
” ” ”
a d r r ea A d e de l S t a d o n r a ar o , n

t ll w h a t i s m e a t b y
e d a m at i c m o o l o g e I
n a An d e a w h a t i s m e a t b y
r n u . n r n

t h e li e s n ,

Ah b t m h h ld x d hi g p ,
u a
’
an s re a c s ou e ce e s r as ,

O wh t h v f ? r a
’
S a ea en or

4 . D i cke n s . W h a t e p e r e n c e s i n D c e n s s f e a r e r e fl e c t e d i n hi s n o e s ?
x i i k li v l
’

W h a t a re h i s fa o r t e t p e s o f c h ar ac t e r ? W h a t i s m e an t b y t h e e agg e ra t o n
v i y x i
i k
of D c e n s ? W h at w as t h e s e r o u s p u rp os e o f hi s n o e s ? M a e a b r e f i v l k i
an a l ys i s of t h e T l f Tw a e o o Ci ti e s , h a vi n
g i n m n d th e p i lot , th e c h a rac t e r s , a n d

t h e s t y l e as c o m p a e d w i t h v l D ic k e ’
, r ns s o th e r n o e s .

5 Tk k.
y R ad H
ac y E m
era d a d
. xp l ai Th ac k e ay re alis m
e en r s on n e n r
’
s .

W h a t i s th e e e m a k ab l e i th e ty l of t h is n v e l ? C o m p
r r r i t w i th [n k s e o ar e va n oe

as a h i s t ri c a l v e l W h t i s t h e g e ra l c h a ac t e of Th ac k e y s s at i e ?
o no . a ne r r ra
’
r

W h at a e t h e c h i e f c h ac t e ri s t i c s o f hi s n v l s ? D s c ri b e b i e fl y t h e w o k s
r ar o e e r r

w h i c h S h w hi s g e a t S kill as a c i t i c l w ri t e r
o r r a .

6 G .
g E li t R a d S i l
e or e M a d m ak e a b i e f a
o . e l y is h avi g i n as ar n er n r na s , n

m i d t h e p l o t t h e c h ac t s t h e s t y l e an d t h e e t h i c a l t ac h in g o f t h e
n , ar er ve l , , e no .

I s th e m l t e ac h i g o f G e o g e E li t c vi c i g ; t hat i s d s i t s gge s t i t
ora n r o on n n , oe u

s e l f f o m t h e s t o ry o r i
r i t ad d e d f o e ffe c t ? W h at i s t h e ge e a l i m p s s i o n
, s r n r re

le ft b y h e r b o o k s ? H ow d o h e r c h arac t e rs c o m pare w i th t h os e of D i ck e ns
an d T h ac k e r y ? a
 5 6 8 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

C H R O N O L O GY

V
l i n e te e n tk Ce n t u ry

HI ST O R Y L I T E RA T U R E

Ma c a u l ay s E s s ay on M il t o n
1 82 5 .
’

1 82 6 Mrs B ro w n i n g s e a r l y p o e m s ’

V
. .

83 0. W illi
am I 1 83 0. Te nny o n s Po e m s C h i fl y ’
1 s , e

1 83 2 . R e fo r m B ill Ly i c l r a

B o w i g s P li e
’
1 83 3 . r n n au n

C a ly l e s S t
’
1 83 3 1 83 4
-
. R e sa t s
r ar or r u

1 83 6— 1 86
5 D i c k s s n o v e ls en
’

Vi
.

1 83 7. cto r a i (d . 1 90 1 ) 1 83 7 C . l y l e s F e n c h R e v l t i on
ar
’
r o u

1 84 3 . Ma c a u l ay ’
s e ssa ys
1 844 . M o rs e ’
s Te le g ra p h 1 84 3 — 1 860 . Rus ki n s
’
M o d e rn Pa i n t e rs

1 84 6. R e p e a l of C o m Law s
1 84 7 — 18
59 . T h ac ke y ra
’
s im p o rt an t

no v ls
e

1 84 7 -
1 85 7. C har l o tt e B ron t é
’
s no ve ls
1 84 8 1 86 1 .
— Ma c a u l ay s ’
H i s t o ry
1 85 K i n gs l e y y i
’

3 . H p at a s

Mrs . Gas k e ll s C ran fo rd

’

1 i
85 4 . C r m e an W ar
1 85 1 85 M a t t h e w Arn o l d
’

5 p oe m s
-
s
3 .

1 85 6 . Mr s . B ro w n i ng s
’
A u ro ra Le gh i
1 85 7. I n d ia n Mu t i n y
1 85 8- 1 876. G e o r ge E o t s li ’
no v e ls
1 85 9 — 1 888. T e n n s o n s I d
’
y y ll s of the

Kin g
1 i
85 9 D a rw n s O r g n o f S p e c
.
’
i i ie s
1 86 4 . N e w m an s A p o l o gi
’

Te n n ys on s
’
E n o c h Ar d e n
1 865 - 1 888. A rn o d l ’
s Es s a y s i n C ri ti
1 867. D o m n oni i of C a n ad a e s t ab cis m

lis he d
868 B rown i i d t he B o o k
’
1 . ng s R n g an

1 869 . B l ckm o
a re s
’
Lo rn a D o on e

1 v
870. Go e rn m e n t s choo s l
lishe d
1 879 . Me r e d i t h ’
s Th e E go is t
1 880 . G l ad s t on e i
pr m e m i is te r
n

1 883 . S te v e n s o s T as n
’
re u re I l
s an d

1 885 Ru s ki s P ae t e ri t b e gu n
’
. n r a

1 887. Que e n
’
s j u b il e e
1 889 . B ro w n i ’
l as t w or k As o l an d o
VI I
ng s ,

1 90 1 . E d w a rd
1 89 2 . D e a th o f Te n n ys o n
 CH A PTER X I I

AN ES S AY OF RECENT LI TERATU RE

W hat of th e fai th an d fire w i thi n us,

Me n w ho m arch aw a y
T o h azard s w h e n ce no t e ars c an w i n u s ,
W hat of th e fai th an d fire w i thi n us,

Me n w h o m arc h aw ay?
H ar dy , T h e S on g of th e S ol di e r

B e fore the World War wrou ght ch an ge on the S pi rit s of

i ts
m e n fu s i n g the will an d fe e li n g o f m illi on s i n to on e s u p e rb
,

n ati on al i m pul s e li fe s e e m e d v e ry co m pl e x i n En gl an d an d
, ,

lite ratu re w as bu s ily re fl e cti n g i ts c om pl e xity rath e r th an i ts

u n i ty i ts s u rfac e e ddi e s or c ross cu rre n t s rath e r th an i ts d e e p
,
-

u n d e rfl ow A h ost of write rs h e ld up e ach s om e p robl e m or

.

in te re s t or fi e ld of the far fl u n g e m pi re an d th e i r coll e ctive

-
,

work n ow m ak e s up on the r e ad e r an i m p re ss i on of h op e l e s s
c o n fu s i on At the ou ts e t of ou r s tudy th e re fore le t th e se th re e
.
, ,

m att e rs b e cl e arl y u n d e rs t ood

Fi rs t thi s e ssay i s n ot i n an y s e n se a
,
hi s t ory of re ce n t
lite ratu re S i n c e n o m an can po s s ibly wr it e the hi s tory of hi s
,

ow n ti m e s T he b e s t w e can do i s to s e l e ct a fe w r e p re se n tativ e
.

writ e rs to the e xclu s i on of m an y w ho m ay prov e of e qu al or

,

gre at e r p owe r The ge n e ral pl an i s to e x am i n e the wor k of

.

on e i m p ortan t autho r i n s om e d e tail ( thi s t o s ugge s t a s tudy

m e th od ) an d to V i e w the oth e rs broadly i n co n ve n i e n t group s .

S e c on d the s tan d ar d of s e l e cti on i s n ot the Opi n i on of an y

,

c ritic but rath e r a c on se n s u s of re ad e rs opi n i on s wh e n e ve r

,
’

s u ch c an b e fou n d I f you obj e ct th at a s e l e cti on base d on

.

fickl e p opu l ar ity c an h ave littl e val u e the an swe r i s that u n til ,

T i m e has i ts way with b ook s p opu l arity an d p e rs o n al tas te are

the on ly m e an s w e h ave of j u dgi n g th e m .

5 69
5 76 ENG L I S H LI TER ATU R E

Of tas te an d i ts
vagar i e s n on d i sp u ta n du m but of popul ari ty ,

s o m e thi n g m ay s till b e s aid — e n ough at l e as t to di s ti n gui s h

, ,

the fal se from th e t ru e T h e re ar e m an y s o call e d

.
-

p opul ar b ook s which are s up e r fici al or cl e ve r or

fu n n y or se n ti m e n tal or se n s ati on al e ach app e ali n g to i ts ow n
,

cl ass of re ad e rs an d with s uch b ook s which com e an d g o like

, ,

s u m m e r h at s w e h av e h e r e n o c on c e rn
,
B u t th e re i s an oth e r
.

ki n d of p opul arity i n lit e ratu re th at goe s back to the root word -

”
p e opl e which m e an s m e n an d wom e n ol d an d youn g wi s e
, , ,

an d ign o ran t To b e p opul ar i n t he t ru e se n se th e re fore a

. , ,

wr ite r m u st S how s om e e l e m e n t al hu m an qu ality th at app e al s to

folk ge n e rally an d th at n ot on ly div e rts th e m for a m om e n t but
,

m ak e s th e m thi n k an d r e m e m b e r an d app rov e or di s app rov e .

S uch popul ar i ty i n dicate s p owe r of s om e ki n d I t m ay b e .

th e p owe r of t ruth or fal se h ood of a ge n iu s or a d an ci n g d e r

,

vi s h ; but the writ e r w ho h old s the att e n ti on of m an y di ffe re n t

p e opl e i s n ot co m m on ; he s h ould b e l ook e d at twic e I f he i s .

”
m e re l y p opul ar hi s b ook will b e forgott e n on th e app e aran c e
,

of an oth e r as Tr i l by w as fo rgott e n ; but i f h e wi n s the n e x t

,

ge n e rati on an d the n e xt h e i s on the R oad of F e w Trave l e rs

,

which l e ad s to Parn assu s K ipli n g se rve s u s we ll as an ill u s

.

trati on : s om e c ritic s c all hi m a gre at writ e r oth e rs a S h ow ,

m an i n l e tt e rs ; but all agre e on h i s i m m e n se an d fai rly w on

.

p opul ar ity .

T h e thi rd m att e r to b e e m ph as i ze d i s th at n o e s say of

r e c e n t lit e ratu re c an b e autho ritative an d th at at e v e r p oi n t
, y
th e read e r n o l e ss th an the writ e r i s fre e to foll ow h i s own
, ,

j udgm e n t The e s sayi s t e x am i n i n g b y light of h i s p e rs o n al

.
,

tast e a fe w work s which are p opul ar i n the b e st s e n se m u s t ,

'

try t o b e t e m p e rat e with wh at h e lik e s an d fai r with wh at h e

he ar tily di slik e s ; but if h e wh olly s ucc e e d e d i n th e l atte r ai m ,

h e would b e m ore or l e s s th an hu m an Th e r e ad e r on the

. ,

oth e r h an d will re m e m b e r th at Ti m e i s th e on l y c ritic w ho

,

can s u re l
y t e ll which auth ors h av e th e qu a li ty o f g r e at n e ss .

Me an whil e th e b e s t m e an s of an ticipati n g Ti m e s ve rdict i n ’

 EN G LI S H L I T ER ATU R E

th e m in littl e book an d s u dd e n ly fou n d hi m s e l f on the

a ,

w ay to fam e an d for t u n e T h e n h e t rav e l e d wid e ly ab ou t the

.

En gli s h s p e aki n g world an d e ve rywh e re o n l an d or s e a h e had

-
,

th e r e p ort e r s e y e for t h e od d t h e n e w t he pict u re s qu e i n cid e n t

’ ‘

, ,

which wou ld b e c e rtai n to hit hi s re ad e r s H e was a j ou r .

n al i s t b i n s ti n ct an d e v e n n ow aft e r thi r t r s of b ook

y , y y e a ,

m aki n g th e n e w s p ap e r m an s h ows i n h i s S l an g h i s
, p p
e h i s , ,

u p to th e m i n u t e th e m e
— - -
h i s ai r of l ofty s u p e r i or ity as i f i n d e e d
, ,

al l thi n g s w e re k n ow n t o h i m B u t h e i s m u ch m or e th an a
.

j ou rn ali s t ; h e i s a ve ry cl e v e r c raft s m an i n word s an d fe w can ,

m atch h i m i n p ow e r of p r e s e n ti n g a vivid pict u r e to th e e ye or

c re ati n g an e ffe ct of fe ar or won d e r i n the m i n d T hu s b y h i s .

ch oice of fr e s h s ubj e ct s he wi n s an au di e n c e an d b y hi s goo d ,

writi n g he h old s it .

T w o oth e r m att e rs o f s tyl e an d phil os oph y s h ould b e n ot e d

, ,

i n e xpl an ati on of K ipli n g s p op l arity H i s v e rs e goe s blith e ly

’

u .
,

as i f to t h e d ru m s ; h i s p r os e i s alway s V i gorou s ,
H i s R e ad s er
pictu r e s qu e an d m an ly wh e n h e d oe s n ot d e libe r
,

at e l y s e e k an e ffe ct b y S h e e r b ru tality H i s phil os ophy of l ife .

or s u ch as app e ars i n h i s w r iti n g) i s v e ry S i m pl e : h e b e li e v e s

(
i n wor k an d thi s with h e roi s m c on s titu t e s h i s cre e d
,
More .

ov e r h e i s v e ry e xcl u s iv e i n h i s n oti on of work which m ak e s

, ,

it e asy to agre e with h i m S oldi e r s ail or e xpl ore r gov e rn or

. , , ,

of a c ol on y i n ve n tor of s t ran ge m achi n e s

,
s u ch on l
y a re ,
—

wor k e rs ; whil e thi n k e rs t e ach e rs c on gre s s m e n an d al l w ho

, , ,

m u s t ge t up at the whi s tl e ar e w e akli n gs oafs or s u ch fl an , ,

n e l e d fool s as ar e h e ld u p t o S c orn i n The I s l an d e r s By .

a c u r i ou s whi m of fat e m os t of th e s e u se fu l p e rs on s are wi s hi n g

th e y c ou ld chuck th e i r u n rom an tic j ob s an d go off e xpl ori n g or

g o v e r n i n g a c ol on
y ; th e r e for e d o th e
y r e ad K ipli n g fi n di n g ,

h i m a ki n d re d S pi r it an d a v oic e of th e i r s oul s d e s i re
’

V
.

Ki pli n g s ’
e rs e AS a typ e of p op u l ar v e rs e con s id e r we ll
.

The F e e t of th e You n g Me n I t app e are d m an y ye ars

.

ago c e l e b rati n g a v agu e o uth h e adi n g o ff i n to a vagu e wild e r

, y
n e s s b e cau se t h e re d god s we re calli n g hi m ; an d wh e re ve r
 AN E S S AY O F R EC EN T L I T ER AT U R E 5 73

he we n t be hi n d h i m as if he w e re the pi e d pip e r
m an y fe ll i n , .

N ow h i s n am e i s l e g i on ; th os e w ho w rit e for t he S p orti n g

m agazi n e s or go big gam e h u n ti n g or t e n ti n g i n th e wild s or
,
-

bas s fis hi n g i n the c re e k are all d e vot e e s of the re d god s

-
, .

We do n ot kn ow e xactly w ho th e s e divi n iti e s are or how th e y ,

di ffe r from the gre e n god s which are m ore abu n d an t or from
, ,

the pi n k god s which ar e m ore fe m i n i n e

,
I n oth e r word s .
,

K ipli n g s affe ctati on of a c om p e lli n g so m e thi n g l os t b e yon d

’

th e ran ge s
”
w as p oe tic h u m bu g ; b u t it w as a e ry c atc hy hu m V
bug an d w e all cau ght i t — ye s an d are gl ad of the catchi n g , .

Pe r h ap s th e lilt of K ipli n g s v e rs e i s wh at chi e fly r e com

’

m e n d s it T h e r e i s m arti al r hyth m i n h i s li n e s which m ak e s

.

the m pl e asan t to the e ar as id e from th e i r s u bj e ct or m e an i n g

, .

" ”
Thu s you can n ot r e ad
,
Th e B e ll B u oy with out fe e li n g th e
" ”
h e ave of the u n qui e t s e a or D an n y D e e ve r with out m e n ta lly
,
’
h e ar i n g the d e ad m arch th at atte n d s a s oldi e r s b u ri al .

A s id e from thi s attractive rhyth m it i s ofte n d i fli c u l t to ,

n am e an ythi n g of val u e i n K ipli n g s s on gs

’
m os t of which ,

Ty p i cal b e ar the sam e r e l ati on to p oe try th at p opul ar rag

P°° m 8 ti m e b e ars to m u s ic Of the e arly D ep a r tm e n ta l
.

D i tti e s littl e n e e d b e s aid e xc e pt p e rh ap s thi s : the au th or

,

m i ght b e tt e r h av e put th e m i n the fir e th an i n hi s c oll e ct e d

work s B a r r a ck R oom B a l la ds i s be tt e r i n s p ot s b u t t he
.
-
,

Man d al ay ”
S p ot s ar e far b e twe e n The B all ad of Eas t
.

an d We s t ( which i s n ot of t he b arr ack s

) i s a s ti rri n g tal e an d

th e b e s t of i ts ki n d O th e r good li n e s are fou n d s catt e re d

.

th rou gh the p rose work s an d i n occas i on al p oe m s s u ch as

" ” ”
The Fl ag of E n gl an d T he Tru c e of the B e ar
, ( r e ad

thi s i n c on n e cti on with th e s tory of T he Man W ho

For All We H av e an d Are
”
the fam ou s R e c e ss i on al an d ,

wr itt e n at the outbre ak of the G re at War an d g ivi n g the

wor d H u n i ts n e w m e an i n g S uch p oe m s with th e i r vi gor
. ,

ou s e xp re ss i on of n ati on al fe e li n g e xpl ai n w hy m an y r e gar d

,

K ipli n g as th e r e al poe t l au re at e of En gl an d n o m att e r who ,

m ay b e appoi n t e d to th at high o ffic e .

5 74 ENG LI S H L I T ER ATU R E

Pro se Work s . R e adi n g t he e xqui s ite W ith out B e n e fit of

‘
Cl e rgy c om par i s on with the ru fii an ly S ta lky a n d Co or
in .

the s tal e an d u n p rofitabl e A D i v e rs i ty of Cr e a tu re s on e m ay ,

agr e e with c ritic s w h o s ay th at K ipli n g s e arly p ros e w as h i s

’

b e s t T h at i s a m att e r of opi n i on h owe ve r an d the re ad e r

. , ,

m ay b e m ore i n t e re s t e d i n foll owi n g th e s u cc e ss iv e s tage s of

K ipli n g s work H e b e gan with s t or i e s of A n gl o I n di an li fe
’
-
.
,

s uch as app e ar i n Pl a i n Ta l e s f r om tk e H i l ls an d S ol d i e rs

Tk re e T h e n i n En gl an d app are n tly i n an sw e r to th ose w ho

. ,

s aid h e w as n ot arti s t e n ou gh t o r e fl e ct li fe i n a n ov e l he ,

wrot e Tke n k t tka t Fa i l e d N e xt c am e a roun d the world

.
- -

s tage re fl e ct e d i n s e v e ral volu m e s of S ho rt s tor i e s

,
s uch as ,
,

M a ny I n v e n ti on s an d an oth e r of abs orpti on i n e n gi n e s an d

, -

te ch n ical t e rm s Th e se s tage s ove rl ap an d b e twe e n whil e s

.
,

app e are d K i m a p an oram a of I n di an s c e n e s

,
Cap ta i n s Cou r a ,

f
’
b s t o t h fi hi n g fl e e t an d th at d e li ht of al l
g e on s a ,
oy s r
y o e s g ,

child re n you n g or old Tk e j u ng l e B ook , .

Th e Man W ho Was
"
To th e An gl o I n di an s tori e s
-
or
”
Th e Tom b of hi s An c e st or s will se rv e we ll as an i n tro
Ty p i cal ductio n ; whil e The I n carn ati on of Kr i s h n a Mu l
S ’m i e s van e y will s ure ly m ak e you wan t to k n ow m ore
of S ol d i e r s Tk r e e Mu lvan e y i s c on s id e re d the b e st of K i p
.

”
li n g s ch aract e rs ; b u t h e i s a s tage I r i s h m an n e ve rth e l e s s
’

an d Orth e r i s i s m ore t ru e to li fe On e of th e fi n e s t of h i s
.

tal e s of n ative li fe i s The Mi racl e of Pu ru n B h agat i n th e ,

”
s e c on d j u ng l e B ook Th e S hip th at F ou n d H e rse l f
. an d

00 7 ar e fav orit e s am on g the m e ch an ical s t or i e s ; th ose w ho

k n ow how b oil e r pl at e s talk will lik e th e m b u t oth e r r e ad e rs ,

"
will m ore e n j oy The B r id ge B uild e rs which i s a b e tt e r tal e ,
.

K ipli n g i s at hi s b e s t wh e n he wr it e s a d re am s tory th at -

"
has h appily n o pr e t e n s e of re ality Th e B ru s hwood B oy
. a ,

b e au tifu l pi e ce of i m agi n ative w r iti n g se e m s to h av e m ore ad ,

m i re rs th an an y oth e r of h i s S ho rt s t ori e s K i m i s n ot s o m uch

-
.

a n ov e l as a ki n d of m i rage of th at m s t e r iou s l an d which w e

y
call I n di a T h e re are th os e who r e gar d K i m as a pictu re d rawn
.
5 76 ENG LI S H LI TER ATU R E

fre e to pictu re li fe as m e n d re am or d e s i re it to b e or s trive ,

to m ak e it t h e l arge r fre e d om b e i n g wh at chi e fly di sti n gu i s h e s

,

th e rom an tic fro m th e re ali s tic n ov e l B oth d e al with li fe on e

. ,

s e e i n g it with t h e e ye t h e oth e r with e ye an d i m ag in ati on

, .

Th e re are fault s i n th at d e fi n iti on but n o m ore th an i n an y

,

oth e r you m ay for m ul at e .

H e rb e rt G W e ll s an h on e s t n ove li s t w ho tak e s h i s art v e ry

.
,

se r i ou s ly ,
i s th e m os t c on s picu ou s of c on t e m p orary re ali s ts .

We ar e goi n g to wr it e about the wh ol e of li fe ”

We l l s ,

h e an n ou n c e s We ar e goi n g to d e al with p oliti

.

cal qu e s ti on s an d re li g i ou s qu e s ti on s an d soci al qu e s ti on s um ,

til a th ou san d p re t e n se s an d t e n th ou san d i m p osture s s h rive l

”
i n the c old Cl e ar ai r of ou r e l u cidati on s .

Q u e s ti o n s o f s u ch i m p or t with e l e v e n th ou san d c om plic ati on s

,

to b e d e vil th e m m i g ht m ak e e v e n S ol om on h old h i s t on gu e ;
,

but th e y g ive W e ll s hi s m i s s i on an d hi s i n st ru m e n t H i s m i s .

s i on i s to re form ; h i s i n s tru m e n t th e n ove l th at S h all go forth

,

lik e a k n i ght of ol d to d e stroy e vil On e m u s t ad m i re h i s

.

cou rage an d hi s robu s t faith i n the wr itt e n word H e s e e s

, .

m or e S h am s th an e v e r Carlyl e c ou n t e d ; s oci e ty r e li g i on b u s i
, ,

n e ss ,
-
e v e rywh e r e i s m u ddl e ( h i s favor it e wor d) an d a t e ach
,

n e w m uddl e h e hu rl s a b ook That an d n ot m e re s tory t e lli n g

. ,
-
,

i s the p r i m e m e an i n g of h i s twe n ty or thi rty n ove l s b e gi n n i n g

V
,

with p s e u d o s c i e n ti fic t al e s m od e l e d on J u l e s e rn e or More s
’
-

U top i a an d h alti n g for th e m om e n t With j oa n a n d Pe te r ,

which p rofe s se s to picture En gl an d i n the s tre ss of t he G re at

War b u t i s re ally a ti rad e agai n st m od e rn e ducati on .

Lik e oth e r re form e rs W e ll s has hi s s tron g an d h i s we ak

p oi n t s ; he i s s t ron g on s oci ol ogy an d S ci e n c e which he e x alts
,

to a god b ut rath e r w e ak on s oul s an d hum an n atu re

,
Th u s . ,

i n M a r ri ag e he tak e s hi s h e ro an d h e roi n e off to Lab rad or ,

th e r e to live i n a b u t an d prove how b e auti fully S i m pl e li fe

can b e ; which s h ows th at he has gre at d e lu s i on s about
Lab rad or . O n e w ho has liv e d on th at bl e ak c oas t k n ows that
li fe th e re i s rath e r m ore com pl e x than i n a fashion abl e hote l ,
 AN ES S AY O F R EC EN T L I T ER AT U R E 5 77

an d d e cid e dly l e ss c om fo rt abl e S i m plicity i s n ot l e arn e d of

.

s ci e n c e or cultivat e d b y a fis h di e t ; it i s a soul qu ality which

S hi n e s with th e s am e cl e ar li g ht i n e v e ry c orn e r of t he e arth .

An d c om pl e xity i s n ot th e re s u lt of town life or capitali s m or

an y oth e r m od e rn ity ; it i s d u e s ol e ly to c r os s pu rp os e s an d -
,

th e re m ay b e as m uch of it b e twe e n two p e rson s i n a hut as

-

am on g five m illi on s i n Lon d on city .

I n s um m os t of th e d e e p e r m e an i n gs of life i ts faith i ts
, , , ,

c ou rage ,
i ts l au ght e r i ts i n vi n cibl e h op e s e e m l arge ly to h ave
, ,

H e i s so b e n t on re form i n g
’
e s c ap e d thi s r e ali s t s ob se r vati on .

the e vil of soci e ty th at h e m i s s e s n e arly al l th e goo d i n it .

AS a typ e of h i s e ar ly w on d e r s t ori e s Tk e Wa r of tk e Wor l ds

-

will se rve as we ll as an oth e r ; of hi s l at e r ficti on Ton o B u ng ay -

or Tk e N e w M a cki a v e l l i will s h ow th e auth or s ze al for k n ock

’

i n g t he hu m bug ou t of bu s i n e ss or p olitic s H e i s a good wr it e r .

,

vi gorou s an d s i n c e re but i n h i s wor k o n e i s v e ry ap t to l ose

,

S ight of the s t ory t e ll e r i n th e r e form e r

-
An e xc e pti on i s fou n d
.

i n Tk e Wk e e l s of Ck a n c e a pl e asan t s t ory wr itt e n b e fore We ll s

,

tu rn e d k n i ght e rran t with a t re nchan t p e n for a we ap on

-
.

J os e ph Con rad ( En gli s h for Te od or J oze f K on rad K orze n i

ofs ki) i s u n lik e an y oth e r re c e n t n ov e li s t which m ay acc ou n t ,

for h i s s m all e r Ci rcl e of r e ad e rs We s h all be tte r

.
Conrad
app re ci at e the p e c u li ar qu ality of h i s wo r k if w e
V i e w it i n th e lig ht of h i s pe rson al hi story H e i s Poli s h b y .

bi rth ; hi s li fe b e gan i n th e U krai n e wh e re hi s cultu re d fath e r

,

an d m oth e r w e r e d on e to d e ath b
y R u ss i an o fli c i al s A t n in e .

t e e n afte r hi s e d u cati on at the h an d s of a Fre n ch tutor he

, ,

l e arn e d En gli s h foll owe d a wan d e r i n g h e art to se a an d for

, ,

twe n ty ye ars w e n t up an d d own the world i n s aili n g S hip s .

I n all th at ti m e he n e ve r m e t on e of hi s c ou n trym e n ( th e
Pol e s ar e n ot a s e afar i n g folk) an d the solitud e of e xil e
,

an d t he vas t s olitud e of the wat e rs e n t e re d d e e p i n to hi s

i m pre s s i on abl e S l avic n atu re .

S om e wh e re Con rad S p e ak s fe e li n gly of th e l on e l i n e s s

that s u rrou n d s e ve ry hu m an s oul from t he c radl e to the
578 EN G L I S H L I T ER AT U R E

grave ,
an d i n th at wo rd h e u n c on s ci ou s ly r e v e al e d hi m s e l f

an d wh at h e m u s t w r it e S olitud e th e m ys te ry of fat e an d
. , ,

th e m e l an ch ol y th at att e n d s on e w ho se e s li fe as s olitud e ,

an d m ys t e ry ,
—
s uch i s th e th e m e of h i s n ov e l s S o far he .

i s lik e H awth orn e ; h e s u gge s t s the Am e rican n ov e li s t i n thi s

al s o th at t o h i m th e e v e n t s of an y m an s li fe ar e m e as u re d
’

b y th e i r m oral e ffe ct on the m an s ch aract e r

’
.

The s c e n e of h i s s t ory i s always i n k e e pi n g with h i s s om b e r

an d fat e ful th e m e O ccas i on ally h e l ocate s on the African or
.

A m e r ican c oas t b u t m ore oft e n on s om e l on e ly S outh S e a

,

i s l an d wh e re e ve ry sail or who m ak e s p ort i s a s t ran g e r to

,

e v e ry oth e r an d wh e r e th e u n d e rt on e of th e s e a i s n e v e r
s till e d
. H e wr it e s we ll s u r p r i s i n gly so wh e n you r e m e m b e r
,

that En gli s h i s n ot hi s n ativ e s p e e ch an d always with re strai n e d ,

p owe r H i s charact e rs s e e m h al f re al for the m om e n t lik e

. ,

oth e r s tran ge rs but soon fad e as if on e had b e e n foll owi n g

,

a d ayd re am . Pre se n tly th e i r v e ry n am e s are forgott e n ; o n ly

an i m p re ss i on r e m ai n s as of m y s t e ry m ad e vi s ibl e To re ad
V
, .

Cka n ce or i c tory i s to k n ow thi s wr it e r for all hi s wor k i s ,

i n th e s am e v e i n N os tr om o i s p e r h ap s h i s b e s t n ove l an d
. ,

Typ koon i s e s p e ci ally n otabl e for i ts word pictu r e s of the -

ch an gi n g but e ve r ch an ge l e s s s e a
-
.

J oh n G al sworthy i s a re form e r lik e W e ll s b u t app roac h e s , ,

h i s victi m i n sati ric rath e r th an i n h am m e r an d ton gs fas hi on - -

.

H e i s m as te r of a good s tyl e qu i e t as s u re d u n con , , ,

Gal s w ort h y
s ci ou s an d th e re i s a fi n e ly d ram atic qu al ty i n h i s
,
i
wor k which s h ows i n the dial ogu e an d i n t he arran ge m e n t of
ch apte rs e ach b e i n g fi n i s h e d lik e a s c e n e from a dram a
, .

I n hi s typical s t ory two or d e rs of soci e ty app e ar i n con tras t

an ar i s t oc ratic cl ass dull se l f sati sfie d Opp os e d to ch an ge ;
, ,
-
,

an d a l owe r cl ass of radical s b rai n y an d re s tl e ss w ho are be n t

, ,

on r e for m i n g thi n gs Am on g hi s be s t wor k s are Tlze M a n

.

of P rop e r ty , Tli e Pa tr i ci a n , an d Tk e Cou n try H ous e . I n hi s

l ate s t n ove l s he fall s sadly away an d t e ll s , an u n p easan l t s tory
th at s e rv e s n o arti s ti c or u se fu l e n d .
5 80 EN G LI S H L I TER ATU R E

n u m be r of n ove l s d e ali n g with al l m att e rs of po ss ibl e i n te re st

i n the S outh of En gl an d Wi d e com b e Fa i r ( i n which a village
.

app e ars as a ch aract e r) i s h i s b ri g ht e s t wo r k Tli e Tki ef of

V
.

i r tu e an d Tle e Tk r e e B rotk e rs are c on s id e re d hi s b e s t n ove l s .

” "
Arn old B e n n e tt fi n d s hi s m at e ri al i n the all e ge d Fi ve
Town s of a pott e ry di s tr ict H i s A m e rican r e ad e rs an d th e y
. ,

are m an y are i n tw o group s

,
on e fi n d s a n ove l v e r
y
B e nn e tt
cl e ve r or po s s ibly good an d re com m e n d s B e n n e tt
, ,

to a fri e n d th e fr i e n d goe s to the library tak e s ou t a di ffe re n t ,

n ov e l,
fi n d s frothy c on c e its with ou t hu m an i n t e re s t or lit e rary
vi rtu e an d won d e r s w hy an yon e s h ould was t e an h ou r ov e r s uch
,

t ruck Thi s cu r i ou s di ffe re n c e which i n volve s m ore th an p e r

. ,

s on al tas t e m ay po ss ibly b e e xpl ai n e d b y th e n ov e li s t s w ay of

’

work H e b e gan as j ou rn ali s t for a wo m an s p e r i odical to

. ,
’

write t ras hy fiction for th e fran k pu rpo s e of m aki n g m o n e y .

W h e n he fail e d of hi s purp ose hi s s e ve n or e i ght n ove l s fi n din g

,

fe w r e ad e rs i n E n gl an d an d n o re c ogn iti on i n Am e r ica h e gave

V
,

ti m e an d th ou ght an d som e c on s ci e n c e to Tke Ol d l i ve s Ta l e /

’

m aki n g a n ov e l to pl e ase hi m s e l f it i s s aid A m ultitud e of

, .

Am e r ican r e ad e rs gr e e t e d thi s book as it d e s e rve d wh e re upon

,

t he auth or followe d h i s m ar k e t whil e th e foll owi n g w as good ,

has tily writi n g m ore n ove l s an d re publi s hi n g hi s e arly tras h i n

Am e r ica as n e w e diti on s of d at e s ubs e qu e n t to th at of Tkc
Ol d Wi ve s Ta l e
’
givi n g re ad e rs h e re the i m pre ss io n
that th e y w e re n e w works S o the m att e r i s e xpl ai n e d b y
.

Profe ss or Ph e lp s To j u dge it fairly you m u s t re m e m b e r th at

.

m od e rn lit e rat u re has i ts c om m e rci al s id e (th e on ly s id e that

app e al s to som e publi s h e rs of ficti on an d th at m an uth
) y a ors

n ow w rit e to m ak e a livi n g

V
.

’
Tke Old l i v e s Ta l e re l ati n g the tragi c li fe s tory of two
/
,
-

s i s t e rs i s B e n n e tt s b e s t n ov e l an d it m ak e s on e wi s h he had
’

, ,

wr itt e n fe w e r b ook s with m ore s i n ce rity A s e con d Choice i s .

th e hu m orou s D e n ry tke A u d a c i ou s ( publi s h e d i n En gl an d as

Tk e Ca r d ,
an d with an
y thi rd s uch as H e l e
, n of tk o

H zglz H a n d you approach t he tras hy bo rd e rl an d

, .
 AN ES S AY O F R EC ENT L I T ER AT U R E 5 81

An old e r an d m ore e arn e s Mrs H u m ph ry Ward

t v li s t
no e is .
,

fam ou s e v e r s i n ce he r R ob e r t E l s m e re w as t ru m p e te d b y G l ad
s t on e an d re ad b
y a l m os t e ve r b ody e l se
y O n e w ho .

n ow awn s ov e r th at qu as i re ligi ou s s t ory m u st

y
-

won d e r at the lit e rary c om m oti on which it occas i on e d Y e t .

re m e m b e r i t s d a
y an d g e n e rati on
- A pp e ar i n g at a ti m e wh e n
.

re li gi on w as s upp os e d to b e s h ak e n b t h di c ove r i e s o f s ci e n c e
y e s ,

it app e al e d to th at m ultitud e of re ad e rs who are i n te re s t e d i n

an y s e r i ou s t re at m e n t of a r e ligi ou s qu e sti on A n d Mr s Ward . .

i s always s e ri ou s ; we ll i n form e d al s o an d u p to d at e ,
S he i s .

an i n t e ll e ctu al b i n h e r itan c e b e l on gi n g t o th e Ar n old fam ily

y ,

r e n ow n e d i n E n gli s h li fe an d l e tt e rs .

H e r l ate r n ov e l s M a r ce l l a Tk c M a r r i ag e of Wi l l i a m As k e
, , ,
’
La dy R os e s D a ug k te r an d t he r e s t are all alik e ,
c on sc i e n ,

tiou s we ll wr itte n of high pu rp os e but with out ge n iu s or hu m or

, , ,

or e v e n a fr i vol ou s fe m i n i n e t ouch to giv e th e m ch ar m

. S he .

de al s e xcl u s ive ly with the b e s t s oci e ty i n trod u ci n g you to ,

br illi an t Stat e s m e n m od e s t ge n iu se s b e auti ful an d cl e v e r you n g

, ,

wom e n an d oth e r d e s i rabl e s wh om you e xp e ct to m e e t an d

, ,
’
d on t wh e n you pas s th e port al of s oci e ty T hat i s p e rh ap s the
, .

s e c r e t o f Mr s War d s p op u l ar i t : S h e tak e s
’
i n t o th e up
.
y y ou

p e r ci r cl e s an d fl a t t e rs
y ou r d e lu s i o n th at th e y a r e a n
y m o r e

brai n y or h appy th an your ow n H e r be s t an d l e as t p op u l ar .

n ove l i s D a v i d Gr i e ve i n th e v e i n of R ob e r t E ls m e r e but
,

s h owi n g m ore ability t o d raw a h u m an ch aract e r hu m an ly ; th at

i s with out p u tti n g hi m on i n t e ll e ctu al s tilt s

,
.

Th e Mode r n R om an ce A ft e r re adi n g a s c ore of re for m atory

.

n ov e l s with th e i r ov e rw rou ght p r obl e m s an d w oolly s oci ali s tic

th e ori e s on e we ar i e s for a good s tory an d as k s Are th e re i n

, ,

r e c e n t fict io n n o pl e as an t b ook s of li fe or l ov e or n on se n s e
"
for h appy folk i n h ou s e n Y e s pl e n ty Lock e has on e to,
.

k e e p you m e n tally s m ili n g an d D e Morgan on e to e vok e s m il e s

,

an d t e ar s at th e s am e ti m e a rare e xp e r i e n c e al m o s t forgotte n ,

s i n c e D ick e n s u s e d to co m pou n d hi s s to r i e s of patho s an d

i rre pre s s ibl e hu m or .

5 8 2 EN G LI S H L I TER AT U R E

William J . Lock e i s chit e ct offic e r of s o m e p on d e rou s

an ar ,

R oyal B r iti s h I n s titut e w ho wr it e s for re l axati on

,
H i s p hiloso .

h i th t v p e r son p as t th e won d e rl an d of
p y s a e e r
y
Lock e
childh ood has two n atu re s on e of e ve ryd ay h abit , ,

th e oth e r of p r i m itiv e s tu ff which ru n s t o d re am s e m oti on s , ,

n e w s e n sati on s Wor k sati s fi e s the form e r m an lit e rature the

. ,

l atte r ; th e re fore d oe s Lock e work b y day an d writ e n ove l s b y

n i g ht — a h appy fas hi on which R al e i gh an d oth e r E lizab e th an s
,

ch e ri s h e d S ep ti m u s i s hi s br i ghte s t wor k of fan cy an d Tke

V
. ,

B e l ove d ag a bon d i s b y m an y c on s id e re d h i s m ast e rpi e c e .

The l atte r a re ad abl e s tory d e ali n g with the adv e n tu re s of a

,

foot l oose fiddl e r i s b oh e m i an an d rath e r p agan i n s pi rit Afte r

-
,
.

r e adi n g it on e m ay wan t to k n ow t he auth or s d e e p e r V i e w of

’

li fe which app e ars i n Tke Tk r e e Wi s e M e n

,
.

W illi am Fre n d D e Morgan w as fi rs t an arti s t th e n a d e s ign e r ,

“

an d m ak e r of p ott e ry an d n ot till h e w as p as t s ixt did h e

y
V
,

b e gi n to wr it e ficti on H i s fi rs t n ove l j os ep k a n ce
. , ,
D e Mor gan
app e are d i n 1 9 06 an d t ook tw o c ou n tri e s by s t orm .

A l m ost e ve ryon e w ho r e ad the s t ory th ou ght of D ick e n s ; but

D e Morgan i s always hi m s e l f n ot an e ch o of s o m e body e l s e ;
,

h e on ly s u gge s t s D ick e n s i n h i s h e arty l ove of li fe an d i n h i s

lit e rary m e th od which i s to plu n ge i n to the m iddl e of a s tory
,

t ru s ti n g h e ave n an d h u m an n ature to b ri n g hi m to a good e n d .

Al so h e c om m on l y b e gi n s with u n prom i s i n g ch aracte rs of th e

S l u m s an d t e ll s a t al e of
,
the s p ar k i n th e cl od tu rn i n g to
p u r e fl am e an d burn i n g away all d ros s H i s two b e st n ove l s
V
.
' ‘

ar e A li ce f or S kor t an d j os ep k
—
a n ce o n e d e ali n g w i th a gi rl
, ,

th e oth e r with a b oy b oth of the s tr e e t b u t on th e i r upward

,

w ay t o w om an h ood or m an h ood T h e y are rar e ly good n ove l s

.
,

b u t h aph azar d an d n ot e ve rywh e re e asy to re ad .

J am e s M B arr i e w as the m os t p op u l ar of re ce n t rom an c e rs

.

till he wrote Pe te r Pa n which m ad e hi m the m o st p opu l ar of

,

pl aywri ght s H e b e gan i n A Wi n d ow i n Tk r um s

.
B arr i e
an d A u l d Li e b t I dy l l s t o p ort ray t h e li fe of a S c otti s h

vill age — ,
a d re ar li fe at b e st with h e re an d th e re a glin t of
,
5 84 ENG LI S H L I TER ATU R E

Gr e e n M a n s i on s th e r tal e s of the t ropical fore st ; An th on y

an d o

H op e May S i n cl ai r Mary W illc ock s ( b e fore s he w e n t wron g

, ,

on w om an s r i g ht s )
’

Q u ill e r,
Co uch M au r ic e
-
H e
,
wl e tt W B , . .

Ma e xw ll Le o an r d
,
M e rr ick — th e se are a fe w n am e s which
,

s e rv e as S ign bo ar d s to the pl e asan t or rocky r o ad s of r e c e n t

ficti on .

TH E POE T S

By s om e of
hu m an p sych ol ogy or it m ay b e of hu m an
whi m ,

l ove m os t of u s r e gar d p oe t ry as a m oth e r re gard s h e r grown

,

up b oy : he m ay b e e xpl or i n g A l as ka or fi ghti n g i n Fran ce ,

b u t always i n he r th ou ght h e r e m ai n s a child w h o m u s t b e

m oth e r e d from th e c old an d th e rai n E v e n s o d oe s p oe try
.
,

ol d an d ru gge d as t he hill s re app e ar i n ou r m e m ory as a frail

, ,

t e n d e r youth fu l thi n g u n fit for the rou gh an d bu sy ways of

,

men . S o w e e xp e ct th e l an gu age of p oe t ry to b e th at of the

’
o r th e m oon li ght or th e l ov e r s pl e a whil e p ros e i s
n u rs e r
y ,

r e s e rv e d for g re at e r o r s t e rn e r m att e rs .

N ow th ou gh a fe w S i n ge r s h av e di e d you n g th e world s
’

, ,

p oe ts are m os tl y s t ron g m e n ; th e y writ e of thi n gs n atu ral or

thi n gs h u m an i n the s i m pl e s t w ay an d th e i r v e rse i s m ore
,

c on ci se an d m or e p owe rfu l th an an y p ros e Poe t ry i s the e le .

m e n tal s p e e ch of h u m an ity i n m om e n t s of n obl e th ou ght or

d e e p fe e li n g an d b e cau se it c on tai n s n othi n g artifici al or s u p e r
,

fl u ou s it i s e as ily m e m ori ze d Th e re for e did the e arli e s t hi st o

.

r i an s w r it e on l b all ad s of b rav e d e e d s an d e v e n i n thi s p rosaic

y
age ,
i f you thi n k a s tron g th ou ght or a wi s e th ou ght an d wan t
it t o b e r e m e m be re d you m u s t giv e it p oe tic e xp re ss i on
, .

T hi s littl e h om ily i s b ase d u p on th e wor k of re c e n t E n gli s h

p oe t s Th e re ar e m an y of th e m m or e th an i n an y oth e r
.
,

age ; th e y d e al with t h e big thi n s or t h e d e e p thi n s of li fe

g g ,

an d d e al with th e m h on e s tl i n m an fas hi on T h q ualit

y e on e y
-
, .

which th e y h ave i n c om m on i s th e i r s i n ce rity th e i r p u rp os e ,

to k e e p p oe t ry n e ar t o c om m on m e n wh e re it o ri gi n at e d an d
,

wh e re it e ve r b e l on gs .
 AN ES S AY O F R EC ENT L I TER AT U R E 8
5 5

Poe try of J oh n Mas e fie l d m os t ru gge d of

Ev e ry day Lif e . ,

re c e n t p oe t s i s a v e r itabl e s aga m an w ho would h av e b e e n at

,
-

h om e i n the V iki n g s hip of Er ic the R e d but who app e ars ,

n ow i n a ta m e or c on v e n ti on al age to s i n g the s e am id of
y S e

civilization AS a b oy h e ran away to s e a an d k n ock e d ab out

. ,

the rou g h fri n ge s of e arth for m an y s e as on s O n e n i ght it i s .

,

said he fou n d a c opy of Ch au c e r s at up with it till the s tars

, ,

pal e d an d we n t forth i n the m orn i n g k n owi n g wh at h i s calli n g

,

was . Of al l gre at p oe ts Ch auc e r i s p e r h ap s the m os t s e n s ibl e ,

an d Mas e fie ld i s hi s
”
the m os t hu m an th e m os t ,
m od e rn ,

di s cipl e I f you re ad the s i m pl e Op e n i n g of the N u n s Pr i e st s

.
’ ’

s tory of Ch an ticl e e r ( i n the Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s ) an d t he p owe r

fully c om p re ss e d b e gi n n i n g of Mas e fie l d s Wi d ow i n tb c By e
’

S tr e e t you will s e e th e m ast e r h on ore d i n h i s pupil

, .

Practically al l Mase fie ld s n arrative p oe m s d e al with c om m o n

’

m e n or wom e n as hi s lyric s d e al with the ordi n ary thi n gs of

,

s e a or l an d Ch auc e r w as gr e at e n ou g h to i n clud e all typ e s

.

of hu m an i t i h i s sym p athy but Mas e fie l d k n ow s n o gall an t

y n ,

kn i ghts or d ai n ty Madam e Egl e n tyn e s ; hi s ran ge i s n arrowe d

to worki n g folk ; h e has n o r om an tic h e roe s b u t on ly s u ch h al f
failu re s as you m e e t an y day at th e d ock or i n th e s tr e e t
T he l
sai or, th e s to ke r o f s t e am e r s , the m an w i th a c ou t, l
T he y m an b e n t at th e h all i ar d s p u tti n g a tu n e to
c h an te , th e s h ou t ,
T he d row s y m an at the w h e e l an d th e ti re d l oo k ou t
, ,

O f t he se s h all m y s on g b e fas hi on e d m y s tor y b e tol d , .

Of t he l on ge r n arrative s D a u b e r re c ou n ti n g the e xp e ri e n c e
,

of a p oor arti st who s hipp e d b e for e the m as t an d w as d on e

Ma s e fie l d s rto d e ath b y h e ar tl e ss s e am e n i s c om m o n l y re c om,

m e n d e d b y c r itic s I t has s om e m e m orabl e li n e s of

.

the S hip an d the oc e an i n s to rm or c al m ; but th e tal e i s too

hars h an d the sail ors too h orribly brutal to b e i n t e re s ti n g Tw o .

b e tte r n arrativ e s ar e Tb e Wi dow i n tke By e S tr e e t an d Tke

Ev e r l a s ti ng M e rcy T h e se ar e the auth or s favor it e s an d b y
’
. ,

th e m he would b e j udge d as a po e t ; but avoid th e m i f you

are looki n g for m e re ly pl easan t r eadi n g T h e y are m o s tly .
5 86 ENG L I S H LI TER ATU R E

c
s enes hu m an p ov e rty or d e gradati on powe rfully d rawn
of ,

agai n s t a b ackgrou n d of n atu re T he lyr ic s are too m an y for

.

bri e f re vi e w T h e y abou n d i n s tron g or b e auti fu l li n e s ; but

.

th e y cl e arly i n dicat e th at Mase fie l d w rite s too m uch an d too

rapidly for th e b e s t r e s ults Am on g th e volu m e s th at on e m ay
.

p rofitably dip i n to are Good F ri day Pki lip tb c K i ng an d S a l t , ,

Wa te r B a l l a ds and Ly r i cs .
Vyer di ffe re n t fro m Mas e fie l d i s A l fre d N oye s a p oe t of ,

ch e e rful m ood w ho live s an d w orks on the s u n n y s id e of the

road H e i s on e of th e m os t m e l odi ou s of p re s e n t
.

d ay s i n ge rs u s i n g a gre at var i e ty of v e rs e form s ve ry

,

s kill full an d th ou gh h e r are l y p rod u c e s an ythi n g of s tr iki n g

y ,

p owe r or b e auty hi s v e rse i s always m us ical an d good to re ad .

As an i n dicati on of hi s wid e var i e ty of pl e asan t s u bj e ct s w e

n e e d qu ot e on l y h i s titl e s Tk e Fore s t of Wi ld Tky m e with i ts ,

Alic e i n Won d e rl an d s pi rit ; F ifty S i ngi ng S e a m e n with som e

- -
,

e xc e ll e n t l yr ic s ; Tb e B a rr e l Org a n a r ollicki n g s o n g of t he
,

s t re e t i n t o which bl ows a b re ath of s p r i n g to m ak e m e n gl ad ;

,

D ra ke an e pic of t h e E li zab e th an s e am an ; S k e r w ood a d ra

, ,

m atic p oe m of th e d ays of R obi n H ood with a rar e fool or ,

j e s t e r call e d S h ad ow of a Le af ; an d se ve ral oth e rs as di ffe re n t

- - -

as Tk e F l ow e r of Ol d j ap a n an d Ta l e s of tke M e rm a i d
Ta ve rn .
Th e S y m b ol i s t s . We give thi s p oor grou p of n am e to a
p oe t s l at e foll owe rs of S p e n se r an d R os se tti who re pre s e n t
, ,

li fe or b e auty b y a road or fl owe r or s om e oth e r sym b ol which ,

i s lik e a fl ag i n th at it S p e ak s m ore th an w or d s Cove n t ry .

Pat m or e se e m s t o h ave b e e n th e l e ad e r of thi s group H is .

s i m pl e s t wor k Tb e Ang e l i n tb c H ou s e a pl acid n arrativ e of

, , ,

li fe an d l ove w as o n c e wid e l y re ad I t i s s till a good t e s t n ot

, . ,

of th e p oe t but of t h e re ad e r who m a quickl l e ar n from it

y y ,

wh e th e r or n ot Pat m ore i s to b e foll ow e d i n to oth e r fi e ld s B ut .

i f y ou care n ot m u ch for Tk e A ng e l b e n ot di s c ou rage d ; try ,

an oth e r p oe t T h e r e i s as m uc h l atitud e of tast e i n po e t ry as

.

i n food or rom an c e .
5 88 EN G LI S H L I TER ATU R E

Th e Ce l ti c R e vi val . Of lat e ye ars

c e rtai n poe t s an d d ram a
t i s ts of I r i s h bi rth or sy m pathy h av e b e e n c alli n g att e n ti on to
the ol d Er i n of son g an d r o m an c e T h e i r wor k i s s u pp os e d to
.

b e a re n ai ss an c e of Ce ltic lite rature an d occas i on ally i s ; b u t ,

m ore oft e n it i s a m od e rn v e rs i on of th at id e al b e au ty which

S p e n s e r l ocate d i n the Lan d of Fae ry an d which n ow fi n d s a
' ,

l ocal h abitati on a n d a n am e i n I re l an d .

W illi am B u tl e r Y e at s i s the l e adi n g p oe t of thi s bu sy grou p ,

w ho h av e al re ady e s tabli s h e d a n ati on al th e at e r i n D u bli n an d ,

w ho are e v e n t ry i n g to r e vive th e an ci e n t I r i s h
.

Ye at s
l an gu age I n hi s p oe t ry an d d ram a h e thi n k s of
.

hi m s e l f as a re vive r of old sym b ol s an d wr ite s i n p ros e a ,

th e ory of hi s art ; but a rose b

y an
y o th e r n am e w ou ld s m e ll
”
as s we e t . H e i s fi rs t an d l as t a l ov e r o f b e au ty which k n ows ,

n o age n o d e ath n o r e vival b e i n g for e v e r ou n g as th e m or n

, , ,y
i n g ; an d s o l On g as h e writ e s of b e au ty h i s En gli s h re ad e rs
care littl e for hi s th e ory Th e re i s a rar e p u r ity an d s i m plicity
.

i n h i s work which b e s p eak a child s h e art ; s o h e can wr it e of

’

on e wh om h e l ove s an d b e for e wh om h e wou ld s p re ad a cl oth

,

of gold or s tar s as R al e i g h s p r e ad h i s cl oak b e fore th e Q u e e n :

,

B u t I , b e i n g p oor , h av e on l y m y d re am s ;
I h av e s p r e ad m y dre am s u n d e r y ou r fe e t.

Ye at s
’
s po e tic titl e s ,
Tk e Wi n d a m ong tk e R e e d s , I n tk e S e ve n
Woods ,
S k a d owy Wa te rs ,
Tb e La n d o f
l as t H e a rt
’
s D e s i re
( t h e

tw o b e i n g d ram as) are as i n viti n g as an op e n d oor

,
E n te r .

fre e ly i n t o an y of hi s littl e v ol u m e s for th e re i s n o b e s t wh e re

,

all i s s i m pl e an d good B u t i f you m u s t h av e di re cti on S kip at

. ,

fi rs t Tb e Wa n d e r i ng s of Oi s i n an d oth e r re vival s of l on g d e ad -

h e roe s an d b e g i n with a c oll e cti on of ball ad s an d l yr ic s

, .

Oth e r gli m p s e s of the Ce ltic re n ai s san c e m ay b e had i n

the pl ay s of Lady G r e gory an d J oh n Milli n gt on S yn ge (try
hi s R i de rs to tk e S e a ) i n th e p oe m s of Pad raic Colu m an d
,

G e orge W R u s s e ll an d i n the h appy s h ort s tori e s of S e u m as

. ,

Mac Man u s coll e ct e d i n Tk r oug k tb c Tu rf S m oke .

 AN ES S AY O F R ECENT L I TER ATU R E 5 89

B O OK S OF MANY K I N D S

In V
c on trast with th e icto ri an age the p re se n t i s e xtraordi n a
r il
y i n t e r e s t e d i n pl ays of e v e ry ki n d A s id e fro m p rofe ss i onal
.

pl aywr ight s who ar e m an y an d we ll re ward e d m os t of the

, ,

p oe t s an d n ov e li s t s w e have j u s t m e t h ave tu rn e d th e i r h an d
to d ram a an d n o s o on e r d oe s a n ov e l app e al t o t he public
,

th an th e author or som e body e l s e quickly m ake s it ove r for

t he s tage .

To s u m m ar i ze th e se pl ays i n a ch apt e r of lit e ratu re i s i n ad

vi sabl e for vari ou s r e ason s th e y are h op e l e ss l y abu n d an t ; with
rare e xc e pti on s th e y ar e e ph e m e ral i n ch aract e r ;

an d fi n ally th e i r e sse n ti al d ram atic q u ali ty d e m an d s

,

th at on e w ho would cr itici ze th e m m u s t vi e w th em on the

s t age ,
n ot i n th e c old p age s of a b ook Th e y n e e d actors
. ,

li ght s c e n e ry — al l the illu s i on of the th e at e r i f th e y ar e to

, , ,

b e fai rly j ud ge d To tak e th e m ou t of th e i r p rop e r se tti n g i s

.

t o e x am i n e a di am on d i n th e d u s k A rth u r W i n g Pi n e ro i s an
.

e xc e ll e n t illu s trati on ; h e has m ad e som e forty pl ays light or

,

se r i ou s an d s e ld om a p oor wor k am on g th e m ; but th e y ar e

,

n ot re ad ; th e i r v e ry n am e s ar e forgott e n sav e b f w old

y a e

th e at e rgoe rs an d a fe w you n g pl aywr i ght s w ho s tu dy th e m as

m od e l s ; s o w hy s h ould w e c oldly c on s id e r th e m as lit e ratur e ?
I n a di ffe r e n t an d p u re l y lit e rary cl ass ar e th e e s s ay s ; b u t
h e re agai n w e ar e b e wild e re d b y th e n u m b e r of w r it e r s w ho
re fl e ct e v e r i n t e r e s t of m od e r n li f i t b u s in e ss
Es sa y s
y e s , ,

p olitic s r e lig i on an d s ci e n c e n o l e ss th an i ts fu n
,

an d n on s e n se ,
i n a fl ood of m agazi n e articl e s th at for for c e
an d b rilli an cy h av e r ar e ly b e e n s u rp ass e d F rom the m u ltitu d e
.

w e s e l e ct on ly th re e as ty pical ; b u t th e s tud e n t will re m e m b e r

th at thi s p articu l ar s e l e cti on i s wh olly a m att e r of p e rs o n al
t as te an d th at h appily tast e s di ffe r
, .

Of work s d e ali n g with lit e ratu re an d c r itici s m A B ookm a n s

’

Le tte rs b y W R ob e rt son N ic oll (w ho app e ar s as

. Cl audi u s
i n Tk e B r i ti s k We e kly ) i s On e of the pl e as an te s t
”
Cl e ar It
.
5 90 EN G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

is a book of wid e ran ge an d wid e sym p athy d e ali n g ge n e r ,

ou sl with m od e rn lit e ratu r e — a wi se h e lp ful ki n dl book

y , y , , ,

ki n d t o the auth or u n d e r di s cu s s ion an d above all ki n d to the , ,

re ad e r I n th e e thical an d r e ligi ou s fi e ld s th e re are fe w e s s ays

.

”
to c om par e with tho se of J B ri e r l e y ( th e m od e s t .
J B of . .

the p e r i odical s) which ar e c oll e ct e d i n Ou rs e l v e s a n d tk e U n i

,

v e rs e an d th re e or fou r s i m il ar v olu m e s ch aract e r i ze d b y d e e p

th ought lucid e xp re ss i on an d a v e ry wid e ran ge of lite rary

,

allu s i on An d for a c r itici sm of lite ratu re an d li fe th e re are

.

“
the n u m e rou s b ook s of Ch e s t e rt on ( G K n ot Ce cil . .

Ch e s t e rton ) a bl u ff fat h e arty m an of Fal stafli an wit an d

, , ,

l ogic H e i s a m aste r of p aradox of t op sy tu rvy ob s e rvation ;

. ,
-

an d h e has a g e n i u s for p re s e n ti n g an y ol d s u bj e ct u n d e r the

s u n or an y n e w fad or fas hi on i n a w ay n ob ody e v e r h app e n e d

, ,

to thi n k of b e fore More ove r u n d e r h i s m os t e xt ravagan t

. ,

whi m or parad ox th e re i s always th ou ght an d li fe a d own ri ght ,

hatre d of s h am an d a ge n u i n e l ove of h u m an ity .

Book s of t h e War T h re e thi n gs of lite rary i n te re s t h av e

.

al re ad e m e rge d from th e W orld War T h e fi rs t i s th e m ar

y .

v e l ou s S pi r it of E n gl an d Mas e fie ld voice d it for u s s i m ply

. ,

an d m an fully i n on e of hi s add r e s s e s to an A m e rican audi e n c e

,

i n Tke Wa r a n d tke F u tu re
”
S t Ge o rge an d the D ragon
. , ,

N e ve r b e fo re n ot e ve n i n the d ays of Elizab e th we re

, ,

En gli s h m e n S 0 b rav e s o s tro n g so u n it e d ; an d with E n gl an d

, ,

w e n t h e art an d s oul the m i ghty E n gli s h S p e aki n g world Thi s -

.

gl ori ou s n ati on al s pi rit fu s i n g m e n to u n ity of th ou ght an d fe e l

,

i n g m u st agai n h ave a t re m e n d ou s i n fl u e n c e o n E n gli s h lit e ra

,

ture The com i n g d ays s h all se e it ; the fl ood of b ook s has

.

al re ady b e gu n an d i n th e m u n l e s s all s i g n s fail s h all b e s om e

, , ,

thi n g of fire an d faith th at n o E n gli s h b ook s e ve r had b e fore .

T h e s e con d ph e n om e n on i s the r e tu rn of old wr it e rs with a

n e w s o n g or tal e on th e i r lip s an d th e app e aran c e of n e w po e ts
,

Wr it ers i n wh o m th e fi e rc e li ght of w ar has r e ve al e d a hid

Old a d Ne w d e n tal e n t
n
A fe w p opul ar auth ors h ave u s e d the
.

war u n wo rthily i n a catchp e n n y s pir it ; but th e y are e xc e pti on s

, ,
59 2 EN G LI S H L I T ER AT U R E

s h ow you a s oldi e r s h e art with i ts t e n d e r m e m ori e s S o for

’
.

”
on e old s tyl e p oe m of H ow the Guard Cam e Th rough th e re
V
-

are hun d re d s like Li e ute nan t As quith s

,
The olu n te e r
’

,
”

which s ay n othi n g what e ve r of fighti n g thou gh th e y l e ave you ,

with d e e p e r re s p e ct for hu m an courage an d al m os t a re ve re n c e

for the m e n of you r ow n b re e d Mase fie l d s Augu st 1 9 1 4
’
. ,

i s typical of an oth e r s tran ge ki n d of w ar po e m ; it d raws a pic

t u re of qui e t En gli s h fi e ld s l e avi n g you r i m agi n ati on to s e e or
,

h e ar the s tar k h orro r of the tre n ch e s the fl as h an d b oo m of ,

gu n s an d the gl are of burn i n g h om e s acros s the Chan n e l

-
.

I n all th e s e p oe t s you n g or old two n obl e qu aliti e s app ear

, ,

a d e athl e s s l oyalty t o an id e al E n gl an d an d a d e e p love of

p e ac e as the on ly n orm al c on dition of hu m an li fe B oth quali .

_

ti e s app e ar with a p ro m i se th at was n e ve r fulfill e d i n the

, ,

wor k of R up e rt B rook e for e x am pl e a you n g p oe t w ho w e n t

, ,

ou t as a soldi e r on the D ard an e ll e s e xp e diti on H e di e d th e re . ,

i n the Ai ge an an d th e y m ad e hi s grave i n S kyr o s th at Achill e s

,

kn e w Ere he gave a li fe for hi s cou n t ry he brav e ly wrot e as

.
,

our Nath an H al e s pok e hi s own i m m o rtal e pitaph ,

If I s hou ld di e , th i n k onl y thi s of me

T hat t he re s s om e c orn e r of a fore i gn fie ld
’

T hat i s fore v e r E n g l an d. T he re s hall b e

I n th at ri c h e arth a ri che r d u st con ce al e d ,
A du s t l
w h om E n g an d b ore , s hap e d , m ad e aw are ,
v l v y
Ga e on ce he r fl ow e rs to o e , h e r w a s to roam ,
A b od y of E n g l an d s b re athi n g E n g l i sh ai r
’
, ,

W as he d b y the ri v e rs b le st b y s u n s of h om e , .

An d thi n k : thi s he art all e v il she d aw ay , ,

A p u l s e i n the e te r n al m i n d, n o l e s s ,

Gi v e s s om e w h e r eb ack th e th ou ghts b y E n glan d give n ,

H e r s i gh ts an d s ou n ds , d re am s h ap p y as h e r d ay ,

An d l au ghte r l e arn t of fr i e n d s , g e n tl e n e s s
an d

I n he arts at p e ace , u n d e r an E n gl i s h h e av e n .1

1 R e pri from Coll e ct e d P oe m s of R up e r t B r ooke b y p e rm s s on

n te d i i of i
th e l te rar y
x li
e e cu to r an d of th e p u b s h e rs , S d gw c i ik
an d J ack son , Lt d ., an d D odd , Me ad Com
y yi
p an , I n c . Cop r ght , 1 9 1 5 , b y D o dd , Me ad C om p an , I n c . y
 AN ES S AY OF R EC ENT L I TER AT U R E 593

B i b l i ograp hy . Th e r e ar e n e ar ak s d e ali n g w i th r e c e n t
h u n d re d b oo
l i te ratu re b u t n ot o e to t e ll y ou w hat y ou w an t t o k n ow ; th at i s for e ac h
,
n ,

i m p ortan t au th or s u c h e v e n ts of hi s life as m ay c ol o r h i s w or k h i s c hi e f ,

b oo k s i n o r d e r h i s p h il os op h y or w o r l d vi e w h i s m otiv e i n w i t i g a d th e n
, , r n , n

a w o r d o f c r i t i c i s m or ap p r e c i ati on Th e b oo k s av ail ab l e ar e m os t l y c o ll e c t i on s
.

o f m ag azi n e art i c l e s ; t h e s e l e c ti on of au t h or s i s c o n s e q u e n t l y h ap h azar d ,

m an y of t h e m o s t i m p o r ta n t b e i n g om i tt e d ; an d t h e y are al m os t w h oll y
c r i t i c al g ivi n g y o u n o t t h e au t h o r o r h i s w o r k b u t t h e c r i ti c s re ac t i on o n t h e
’
,

a u t h or. Am on g t h e b e s t of t h e s e r e ac t i on s ar e
Ph e l p s Ad v a c e of t h e En g li s h N ov e l ( D od d ) an d Es s ay s on Mod e rn
, n ,

N ov e li s t s ( Ma c m ill n ) ; C oo p e r S om e En g li sh S t ory T e ll e rs ( H ol t ) ; F ol l e tt
a , ,

S om e Mod e r n N o v e li s t s ( H o l t ) ; F r e e m an Th e M o d e rn s ( C r ow e ll ) , .
Ph e l p s . ,

Ad v an c e of En g li s h Po e try i n t h e Tw e n t i e th C e n tu ry ( D o dd ) C han d l e r .
,

As p e c t s o f Mod e r n D ram a ( Mac m ill a ) ; Ph e l p s Tw e n t i e th C e n tu r y Th e at r e

n ,

( Ma c m ill an ) ; An d r e w s T h e D ram a of T o d y ( Li p p i n c ott ) ; H ow e D r am at i c

,
-
a ,

Port ra it s ( K e n n e rl e y ) Cl a k B i t i s h an d Am e ri c an D ram a o f T o d ay ( H ol t )
r , r -
.

A b ook w h i c h at t e m p t s t o c on t i n u e t h e h i s t or y of E n g li s h pr os e an d v e r s e
fr om th e V i c tori an Age t o th e p re s e n t d ay i s Cu n li ffe En g li s h Li te ratu re ,

d u r i n g t h e Las t H al f C e n tu ry ( Mac m ill an

-
,

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e ab ov e c oll e c t iv e s tu d i e s t h e r e ar e n u m e rou s p r e s e n ta
t i on s o f K i p li n g B arr i e C h e s t e rt o
, , Y e ats S y n g e an d oth e r re c e n t w r i te rs
n , ,

an d d r am at i s t s e ac h i n a s i n g l e v ol u m e
, .
 59 6 ENG LI SH LI TER ATU R E

Oxford Man u al s of En gli sh H i story , H an dbook s of En gli sh H i si

t or y , an d Ke n d all
’
s Sou rc e B ook of En gli sh H i sto ry ( Mac m il lan
) .

Li n gard H i s t ory of En gl an d il ( vi se d vo l s
’
s un t 1 688 re , 1 0 ., 1 85 5 )
i s t he d ard Catholic h istory
s tan .

O the r hi sto ri e s of En gl an d are by Kn i ght Frou d e Mac au l ay e tc , , , .

S p e c i al w orks on t h e h i s to ry of e ac h p e r i od ar e re c om m e n d e d i n
t he p r e c e d i n g c h ap te rs .

H i s t ory o f L i t e ra t u r e

J u s s e ra n d Li t e rary H i sto ry of t he En gli s h Pe op l e , vol s

’
s 2 .

( P )
u tn a m .

Te n Bri n k Early En gli sh Li t e ratu r e , 3 vol s . ( H ol t) .

’
s

C o u rt h o p e H i s tory o f En gli s h Po e try ( Mac m ill an ) .

’
s

The Cam b rid ge H i sto ry of En gli sh Li t e ratu r e , m an y v ol s .

, i n c om
p l e t e ( Pu tn am ) .

H an dbooks En gli s h Li te ra t u r e , 9 vol s . ( Ma c m illan ) .

of

G arn e tt an d G osse s Il l u s trate d H i s tory of En gli sh Li te ratu re ,

’

4 vol s ( Mac m illan )

. .

Morl e y s En glish Wri te r s 1 1 vol s ( Cass e ll ) e x t e n d s th rou gh

’
,
.
,

Elizab e th an li t e ra tu r e I t i s rath e r c om p l e x an d n ot u p t o d at e
. ,

b u t has m an y qu otati on s fro m au tho rs s tu d i e d .

Ta in e s En gli sh Li t e r atu r e ( m an y e diti on s ) i s b rilli an t an d i n t e r

’
,

e s ti n g b u t u n r e liabl e
, .

L i t e ra ry Cr i t i c is m

Lo w e ll Li t e r ary Es say s .
’
s

H azl i tt
’
s Le c tu r e s on t h e En g li sh Po e t s .

Mac ka il ’
s The Sp ri n gs of H e li c o n
( a s tu d y of En gli s h p oe try from
C hau c e r t o Milton ) .

D ow d e n S tu d i e s i n Li t e ra tu r e , ow d e n s T ran sc r i p ts an d
’
an d
’
s D
S tu di e s .
Mi n to s Chara c te r i st ic s of En gli s h Poe ts
’
.

Matth e w Arn o l d s Essay s i n Cri t i c i sm ’

.

S te v e n s on s Fam ili ar Stu d i e s i n Me n an d B ook s .

’

Le sli e S t e p h e n Lib rary .

’
s H ou r s i n a

B i rre l l Obi te r D i c ta .
’
s

Foli a Li tt e raria .
’
H al e s s

Pat e r App re c ia ti on s
’
s .

N OT E . S p e c i a l w o rk s o n c ri t i c i s m , t h e d ra m a, t h e no ve l ,
e t c ., w ill be
f o u n d i n t h e B ib li ograp h i e s o n p p . 9, 1 8 1 , e t c .
 G ENERAL B I BLI O G R APH Y 5 97

Te xts an d H e lp s ( i n e x p e n s i ve s c ho o l e di t i on s
) .

Stan d ard En gli sh Cl ass i c s , an d Ath e n ae u m Pr e ss S e ri e s ( G i nn an d

Com pan y ) .
Ev e ry m an Lib rary ( u tt on .
)
’
s D
Poc ke t Class i c s , G o ld e n Tre asu ry Se ri e s e tc ( Mac m illan ) , . .

B e ll e s Le t tre s S e ri e s ( H e ath) .

En gli s h R e ad i n gS S e r i e s ( H ol t) .

R ive rs id e Li te ratu re S e ri e s ( H ou gh ton M itfl in ) , .

Can te rb u ry Cla s s i c s ( R an d Mc Nal ly )

’
.
,

Ac ad e m y Cl assi c s ( Ally n Bac on ) .

Cam b ri d ge Li t e r a tu r e S e ri e s ( S an b orn ) .

S il v e r S e ri e s ( S il v e r B u rd e tt) ,
.

S tu d e n t s S e ri e s ( S ib le y )
’
.

Lake si d e Cl a s s i c s ( Ain sw or th) .

Lake En gli s h Cl ass ic s ( Sc o tt For e sm an ) , .

May n ard s En gl i sh Cl as s i c s ( M e rrill )

’
.

Ec l e c ti c En gli sh Cl as s i c s ( Am e ri c an B ook
Cax ton Cl as si c s ( Sc ribn e r) .

The K i n g s Cl a ss i c s ( Lu c e )
’
.

The Wo rld s Cl ass i c s ( Cl ar e n d on Pre s s )

’
.

Li t tl e Mast e rp i e c e s S e ri e s ( D ou bl e d ay Page ) , .

Arb e r s En gli sh R e p rin t s ( Mac m illan )

’
.

N e w Me di ae val Lib rary ( D u ffie ld ) .

Ar thu ri an R om an c e s S e ri e s ( Nu t t) .

Morl e y s U n i v e r s al Lib rary ( R ou tl e d ge )

’
.

Cass e ll s Nati on al Lib rary ( Cas s e l l )

’
.

B ohn Lib rar i e s ( Mac m illan ) .

Te m p l e D ram a t i st s ( Mac m ill an ) .

Me rm aid S e ri e s o f En gli sh D ra m at i s t s ( S c ribn e r) .

N OT E We h v e i c l d d i
. a t h e ab o v e li s t a ll t h e e d i t i
n u e n s f w h ic h on o we
ha v e a y p e rs o n al k n w l e dg e b t t h e e e d o b t l s s th s t h at h av e
n o , u r ar u e o er es

ca p e d a t t e t i on
n .

Bi og rap hy

D i c ti on ary of N ati on al B i ograp hy , 6 3 v ol s .

( M ac m i l l an
) ,

s tan d ard .

En gli sh Me n of Le tt e rs S e r i e s ( Mac m ill an

) .

G re at Wri te rs S e ri e s ( S c ribn e r) .

Be ac on B i ograp hi e s ( H ou ghton M i fll i n )
‘
, .
59 8 E N G LI S H LI TER ATU R E

We stm in st e r Bi ograp hi e s ( S m all Mayn ard ) , .

H in c hm an an d Gu m m e re s Live s of G re at En gli s h Wri te rs

’

( H ou gh ton M iffl i n
) i s a go od s i n gl e v ol u m e
, c o n t ain i n
g t h i r ty e i gh t ,
-

biograp hi e s .

N OT E. F o r t h e b e s t b i o grap h i e s of i n d ivi d u al w ri t e rs , se e th e B ib liograp h i e s

at t h e e n d s o f t h e p re c e d i n g c h ap t e rs .

S e l e c t i on s

Man ly ’
s En gli sh Po e try an d Man ly ’
s En gli sh Prose ( G i nn an d

Co m p an y ) are the b e s t S in gl e volu m e

-
co ll e c tion s ,
co v e ri n g t h e w ho e l
fi e ld of En gli s h
li t e ratu r e .

Pan c oas t s S tan d ard En gli sh Poe tr y an d Pan c oast s S tan d ard
’ ’
,

En gli s h Pro s e ( H ol t)
f En gli s h V
.

O xford B ook O e rse an d O xfo rd T r e as u ry o f En gli s h ,

Li t e ratu re 3 v ol s ( Cl a re n d on Pre ss )
,
. .

Page s B ri t i s h Poe t s of t h e N i n e t e e n th Ce n tu ry ( S an b orn )

’

S te d m an s V
.

i c t orian An thol ogy ( H ou ghton Mi ffl i n )

’
, .

Ward s En gli sh Poe ts 4 v ol s ; Craik s En gli s h Prose S e l e c tion s

’
, .
’
,

5 v o l s.
; C h am b e r s s E n c y c l o p e di a o f E
’
n gli s h Li t e ra tu r e e t c , .

Mis ce l l a n e ous
T h e Cl ass i c My th s i n En gli s h Lit e ratu r e ( G i nn an d Com p an y) .
Ad am s D i c t i on ar y of En gli sh Li t e rat u r e
’
s .

R ylan d Chron ol ogic al O u tli n e s of E n gli sh Li t e rat u re .

’
s

R e ad e r H an d b ook .
’ ’
B re w e r s s

H an d b ook of U n i v e rsal Li t e ratu re .

’
B otta s

Pl o e tz s E p i tom e o f U n ive rsal H i s t ory .

’

H u tt on s Li t e rar y Lan d m ark s o f Lon d on .

’

H e yd r i c k H ow t o S tu d y Li te ratu r e .
’
s

F or w orks on th e E n gli s h lan gu age se e B ibli ograp hy of th e

N o r m an p e ri od , p . 65 .
6 00 EN G LI S H L I T ER ATU R E

Art i s t i c p e ri od of d ram a, 1 2 3 B i cke r s tafi Al m a n a c , 2 73

"
’

Art i s t i c q u ali ty of li t e ratu r e , 2 B i ogr ap k i a L i te ra r i a , 3 93

As c h am , R o g e r, 9 2 l k
B a c m o r e , R c h ar d , 5 1 6 i
As q u i th Li e u t e n an t , 5 9 2
, B a e, W
l k illi
am , 3 2 8 ; fe , 3 2 9 ; w or li ks ,

A s s on an c e , 5 4 , 5 5 3 1

As t r oe a R e d u x ( as t r é a r é d u k s ) , 2 4 4 -
’ ’
fi
B l a k e rs e , 9 5 v
As tr op k e l a n d S te l l a ( as t r O—f e l ) , 1 1 4
’
B l e s s e d D a m oze l , 4 84
Ata l a n ta i n Ca ly d on ( at a l an t a, k ar B l ot i n tk e S c u tck e on , A, 4 75
’ ’
- -

d on ) , 4 86 B ob , S on of B a tt l e , 5 83
A u g u s t , 1 91 4 , 5 9 2 i
B oe th u s ( b O—e t h u s ) , 4 1
’
i -

A u g u s tan Ag e , m e an i n g , 2 63 . S e e il
B o e au ( b w a F r e n c h c r i ti c , 2 4 2 ,
i
E g h t e e n t h C e n t u r L t e r at u r e
-
y i 2 62
Au l d L i ck t I dy l l s , 5 82 B oke of i k e D u ck e s s e , 73 , 80
Au r ora L e zg/z ( a -r O r a B ook m a n s L e tte r s , A, 5 89
’

4 83
’

Au s t e n , an e , J
3 75 , ’ 4 3 7 ; fe , 4 3 8 ; li B ook of M a r ty r s , 1 76
v l
n o e s , 43 9 S c ot t s c r t c s m o f , 4 3 9 ii i B or ou g k , Tk e ,
ll J
B o s w e , am e s , 2 9 3 . S e e a l s o oh n s on J
B ac on , F ran c is
67 ; w or s ,
, 1 66 ; life , 1 k B oy ac t or s , 1 3 0
l
1 70 ; p ac e a n d n fl u e n c e , 1 73 i i
B r e t on , N c h o a s , 1 9 2 l
B a c o n , R og e r , 5 1 , 1 73 B r i dg e B u i ld e rs , Tk e , 5 74
ll
B a ad, t h e , 6 1 , 5 2 4 i l y
B r e r e , J , 5 90
V
.

B a l l a d of Ea s t a n d I/ e s t , Tk e , 5 73 B r on t e, C h ar ott e a n d E m
’

l , 5 14 il y
B a l l a d s a n d S on n e ts , 4 84 k
B roo e , R u p e r t, 5 9 2
B a r clze s te r Tow e r s , 5 1 4 B r ow n e , Th o m as , 2 2 8 ; w o r s , 2 2 9 k
B a r d , Tb c , 3 1 0 i
B r ow n n g , Mrs E zab e t h B ar r e tt, . li
B a r d of tk e D i m b ov i tza ( d i m -b o —
4 83
R ou m an an f o i
s on g s , 2- 3 lk i
B r ow n n g , R o b e rt , 4 69 ; fe , 4 71 ; li
B a r r ack-R oom B a l l a d s , 5 73 k
w or s , 4 73 ; o b s c u r t o f, 4 69 ; as iy
B a rr e l Org a n , Tb c , 5 86 a t e ac h e r, 4 70 ; c om p are d w th i
i J
B ar r e , am e s M , 5 82 . k
S h a e s p e ar e , 4 74 ; w th T e n n s on , i y
B a ttl e of Agi n cou r t ( E n g s h , it j i n
’
li i
4 80 ; p e r o d s o f w or , 4 75 ; s ou k l
k ort ) , 1 I 5 i l
s t u d e s , 4 76 ; p a c e an d m e s s ag e , 4 80

B a ttl e of B r un a n b u r /z, 4 1 B r u s k w ood B oy , Tk e , 5 74

'
B a ttl e ry i k e B ooks , 2 71 B 7 u t , Lay am on s , 5 3 ; q u ot at o n fro m ,
’
i
x
B a t e r , R c h ar d , 2 3 0 i
h
4
B e au m o n t , F r an c s 1 63 i ll
B r t u s , a e g e d f ou n d e r o f B r t a n , 5 1 i i
B e cke t, 4 63 l
B u w e r L tt on , 5 1 5 y
B e de , 3 1 hi s h s t or , 3 2 ; h i s ac c ou n t i y y
B u n an , oh n , 2 1 9 ; J f e , 2 1 9 ; w or s , li k
o f C ae d m o n , 3 3 2 24 ; h i s st e , 2 26 yl
B e l l B u oy , Tb e , 5 73 k
B u r e , E d m u n d , 2 9 7 ; fe , 2 9 7 ; w o r s , li k
B e l l s a n d Pom eg r a n a te s , 4 72 , 4 75 2 98 ; an a ly i
s s o f hi s orat o n s , 3 00 i
V
B e l ov efd ag a b on d , Tb e , 5 82 B u rn e , F an n y ( M a d am e y
D
’
A r b l a
y) ,
fi
B e n e t of c e rg , 1 5 9 l y 3 7S
B e n n e tt , Ar n o d , 5 79 , 5 80 l B u 1 n s , R ob e r t , 3 2 1 fe , 3 2 2 ; p oe t r , li y
’
B e ow u lf ( b a O-w u f) , t h e p o e m , 1 0— 1 6 l 3 5
2 ; C a r e
’
s e ssa ly l
on , 5 3 2 y
i
h s t or , 1 7 y
p oe t c a f orm , 1 7 i l B u r ton , R o b e rt , 2 2 8
m an u s c r p t o f, 3 9 i l l
B u t e r , S am u e , H u d i b r a s , 2 5 0
l
B e ow u f s M ou n t , 1 5
’
l
B u t e r, S am u e , 5 79 l
i li i
B b o g rap h e s , s t u d of t e r atu r e , 9 ; y li y
B r on , 4 0 5 ; li
f e , 4 0 6 ; w or s , 4 08 ; k
l x
A n g o - S a o n Pe r o d , 4 3 ; N orm an , i c o m p ar e d w t h S c o t t , 4 1 0 i
64 ; C h au c e r , 86 ; R e a o f L e arn viv l
i n g, 9 7 ; E zab e th a n , 1 81 li
Pu r i C ae d m on fe , 3 3 ; w o r s , li k
t an , 2 3 3 ; R e s t or at on , 2 5 6 ; E g h t i i 34 ; h i s P a r a
p lzr a s e , 3 4 ; s c h oo of, l
e e n t h C e n t u r , 3 60 ; R o m an t c s m , y i i 36
4 44 ; Vi c t o r an , i 5 6 2 ; g e n e ra l , 595 Ca i n , 4 09
 I N D EX 60 1

Ca l l i s to , 5 5 6 9 8 ; E liza b e t h an , 1 85 ; Pu r i t a n , 2
35 ;
lv il y
C a e r t , R a s e , 3 80 R e s t orat i o n , 2 5 7 ; E i g h t e e n t h C e n
C am d e n , W illi
am , 2 4 , 1 77 y
t u r , 3 6 7 ; R om a n t i c i s m , 4 5 1 ic V
Ca mp a ign , Tk e , 2 80 t o r i an , 5 68
i
C am p o n , Th o m as , 1 9 2 Ci ti ze n of Me Wb r ld , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4
Ca n te r b u ry Ta l e s , 74 ; p an of, 75 ; l Cl a r i s s a , 3 5 2
p ro l o g u e , 77 ; D r d e n
’
s y
c r t c sm ii i C l as s i c an d c l as s i c i s m , 2 6 1 — 2 63
of.77 C l as s i c i n fl u e n c e o n t h e d ram a, 1 2 6
C an y n g e s c o ffe r , 3 3 6 C l e ar, C l au d i u s , 5 89
”
’

Cap ta i n s Co u r ag e ou s , 5 74 Cl oi s te r a n d tb c H e a r t/z, 5 1 3
Ca rd , Tb c , 5 80 l
C ou g h , A r t h u r H u g h , 4 86
C ar e w , Th o m a s , 2 00 Cockay g n e , L a n d of ( k O 61
C ar ly l e , 5 27; li
fe , 5 2 7 ; w or s , 5 3 0 ; k l i
C o e r d g e , 3 73 , 3 76, 3 87 ; li fe , 3 87 ;
styl e a n d m e s sa g e , 5 3 6 w o k s 3 9 1 ; c iti c al w r i ti g s
r , r n , 3 93
l
C aro s , i n e a r ly l y C olli e r J e e m y 2 93
V
p a s , 1 20 , r ,

Ca s a Gu i d i I/ i n d ow s ( a s a gw é d é ) , k C o lli s W illi am 3 3 3
’ ’
n , ,

4 83 C o l m P d a i c 5 88
u , a r ,

Cas te l l of Pe r s e v e r a n ce , 1 2 2 C om e d y d e fi i t i o , 1 23 ; fi st n n, r En g
Ca s tl e of I n d ol e n ce , 3 3 3 li s h 1 5 1 ; o f t h e c o t 1 3 6
, ur ,

Ca to, 2 83 Comp l e te An g l e r , Tk e , 2 3 1
v li
C a a e r p o e t s , 200 Com u s , M a s q u e of, 2 1 0
x i
C a t o n , 9 5 ; s p e c m e n o f p r n t n g , 90 i i Con ci l i a ti on w i t/z Am e r i ca , B u r e s
’
k
li l
C e t c e ge n d s , 5 6 s p e e c h , 3 CO
i i viv l
t c re a , 5 88 Conf e s s i on s of a n E n g l i s k Op i u m
Ck a n ce , 5 78 E a te r , 4 3 3 , 4 3 5
C/za n s on s d e Ge s te , 5 5 J
C on ra d , o s e p h , 5 77
C/za n s on d e R ol a n d , 5 5 Con s ol a t i on s o f Pk i l os op ky , 4 1
C h ap m an , G e org e , 1 1 4 ; h i s H om e r , Cotte r s S a t u r d ay N zg/zt, 3 2 8
’

1 14 ; K e ats ’
s s on n e t on , 421 Cou n try H ou s e , Tk e , 5 78
Ch at t e r to n , T h o m as , 3 3 6 l
C ou p e t , t h e , 2 4 2
C h au c e r , h ow t o r e ad , 6 8 ; fe , 69 ; li C ou rt c om e d e s , 1 3 6 i
k
w o r s , 72 ; f o rm o f h i s p o e t r , 79 ; y v
C o e n a n t of 1 64 3 , 1 88
l y
m e od , 80 ; c o m p ar e d w t h S p e n s e r , i v
Co e n tr p a s , 1 1 8 y l y
1 11 l y
C o w e , A b r a h a m , 1 93
i
C h au c e r , Ag e of : h s t or , 6 7; w r t e r s , y i C ow p e r , W am ,
3 6;
1 illi fe , 3 1 7 ; li
y
68—86 ; s u m m ar , 86 ; s e e c t on s l i w or s , 3 1 8k
i
f o r r e ad n g , 86 ; b b og r ap h , 86 ; i li y C rab b e , Ge or g e , 3 3 3
q u e s t i
o n s o n , 87 ; c h r o no o
g , 88 l y Cra nf or d , 5 1 6
l y
Ch e s te r p a s , 1 1 8 C ra s h aw , R c h ar d , 1 93 i
C h e s t e r t o n ( G. K . 59 0 ii
C r t c , m e an n g o f, 2 4 8 i
y
Ch e n e R ow , 5 2 9 ii l ii
Cr t c a w r t n g, D r d e n , 2 48 ; Co e y l
Ck i ld e H a r ol d , 4 0 5 , 4 0 7, 4 09 i
r dg e , i A f R m m i i
Vi
t
V 3 93 ; n g e o o an c s ,

Ck i l d s Ga r d e n of
’
e rs e s ,
5 20 42 5 ; i n c t o r an Ag e , 5 5 0 , 5 5 8 i
C h o c h i la i c u s ( k O -
kil -
’
a i cu s) , 1 7 -
ii i
C r t c s m , Ar n o d s d e n t o n , 5 5 0
’
l fi ii
y
Ck r i s t, Tb e , o f C n e wu f, 3 7 l C r o s s , o h n W a t e r , 5 08
J l
Ck r i s ta b e l , 3 9 1 Crow n of Wi ld Ol i v e , 5 4 1
C/zr i s t i a n Ye a r , 4 86 Cu l t u r e a n d An a rcky , 5 4 7, 5 5 0
Ck r i s t m a s Ca r ol , A, 4 9 5 Cu r s e of R e /za m a ( k é
'

3 94
i i l
C h r s t s H os p ta , L o n d on , 3 88, 4 2 8
’
Cu r s or M u n d i , 60
Ck ron i cl e , Tk e An g l o-S a x on , 2 8, 4 5 , 4 8 y l l y
C c e s , of p a s , 1 1 8 ; o f r om a n c e s , 5 5
i l l y
C hron c e p a s , 1 3 5 y l ki
C n e w u f ( n e w u f ) , 3 6—3 8
’
-
l
i l i i
Ch ro n c e s , r m n g , 5 3
’ ’
Cy n tk i a s R e ve l s ( s i n t h i a) , 1 60 -

C h r on o o g :l y l
An g o S a on Pe r o d ,
-
x i
45 ; N or m an -
Fr e n c h , 66 ; Ag e of D an e i lS am u e , 1 9 1
, l
Ch au c e r, 88 ; R e viv l
a o f Le arn n g , i D a n i e l D e ron d a ,
5 0 7, 5 09
6 02 EN G L I S H L I T ER ATU R E

D a n ny D e e v e r , 5 73 D r amé o
f Ge ron ti u s , Tk e ( j e r On s hi
-
’

D Ar b l ay , Ma d am e ( Fan n y B u rn e y )
’
, 555, 5 57
D r y d e n , 2 4 3 ; l i f e , 2 4 3 ; w or k s 2 4 6 ;
.

gg
7 ,

D rv i n an d D a r w i n i s m , 5 5 8 i n fl u e n c e , 2 4 8, 249 ; c r it i c i s m of
D a u b e r , 5 85 Ca n te r b u ry Tal e s , 76
D a v i d Gr i e v e , 5 8 1 D u ck e s s of M a l/f 1 64
’
l i
D e a th , R a e g h s ap o s t r op h e t o , 1 76 D u n ci a d , Tk e (du n
’
s i -a d ) , 2 69

D e c l i n e a n d F a l l of tk e R om a n E m
p i r e , 3 03 Eal h i l d , q u e e n ( e 18

D ef e n s e of Poe s i e , 1 1 4 Ea r l /zly Pa r a d i s e , 4 85
D efe n s i o p r o Pop u l o An g l i c a n o, 2 08 E as tw a r d H o 1 58

D e fo e , 3 4 5 ; li
fe , 3 4 6 ; w o r s , 3 4 9 k i ii
Ec o n o m c c o n d t o n s , i n A g e o f R 0
De kke r , Th o m a s , 1 6 5 i i
m an t c s m , 3 71
D el i a , 1 9 1 E d g e w or t h , Mar a, 3 75 , 4 3 7 i
D e m o c r ac an d y
R o m an t c s m , 3 69 ; i i Ed w a r d I I , 1 3 4
in Vi
c t o r a n Ag e , 4 5 3 i Eg oi s t, Tb c , 5 1 8
D e Mo rg an , \ i ll i a m F r e n d , 5 81 , 5 82V i
E g ht e e n t h- C e n tu r y
L t e r atu re : h i s i
D e u ry tb c Au d a c i ou s , 5 80 t or yof th e p e r od, 2 5 8 ; i t e rary li
’
D e or s L a m e n t , 2 0 c h ara c t e r s t c s ,i i 2 60 ; the C as s c l i
D ep a r tm e n ta l D i tti e s , 5 73 Ag e , 2 6 1 ; Au g u s t an w r t e rs , 2 64 ; i
i
D e Qu n c e , 4 25 , 43 1 ; y fe , 4 3 2 ; li r o m an t c i re a , viv l
3 04 ; t h e rs t fi
w or ks
4 3 4 ; s t e , 43 2, 43 5 yl v li
n o e s ts ,
3 3 8 ; s u m m ar , 3 5 7 ; s e y
V
,

D e S ap i e n t i a e te r um , 1 73 l i
e c t o n s f o r re a d n g , 3 5 9 ; b b og i i li
D e s e rte d V
i l l ag e , I k e , 3 1 1 , 3 1 4 r ap h y , 3 60 ; q u e s t o n s , 3 64 ; e b r o i
a n c k e t k e D u ck e s s e , 73 , 80 n o l ogy , 3 67
D e tk e o f B l
D
’
v ly
i a ry , E e n s , 2 5 3 ; Pe p y s s , 2 5 3 ;
’
E i kon B a s i l i ke ( on b i s ik
’’
i 2 07 -
il
l
s e e c t on s i
fro m , 2 5 4 E i k o n o kl a s t e s ( i k o n O -
20 7 -

D ick e n s , 4 87 ; f e , 4 87 ; w o r s , 4 90 ; li k El egy , Gra s , 3 0 7, 3 09

’
y
g e n e ra p an o f nlo e l
s , 492 ; hi s v l Elen e , 3 8
c h ar ac t e rs , 4 93 ; h i s p u b c , 49 1 ; li li
E zab e t h a n Ag e : h s t or , 99 ; n on i y
li m i tati o n s, 4 93 i
d ram a t c p o e t s , 1 0 1 , 1 1 2 ; rs t fi
D i cti on a ry , J
291
’
oh n s on s , d ram a t s t s ,i 1 15 ; S h a e s p e ar e s k ’

D i s cov e r i e of Gu i a n a ( g é 1 75 p r e d e c e s s o r s , 1 3 0 ; S h a e s p e a re , k
D i v e r s i ty of Cr e a t u re s , A , 5 74 k
1 3 7; S h a e s p e ar e s c o n t e m p o rar e s
’
i
D i vi n a Com m e d i a ( d é -
’
e na v k om a n d s u c c e s s or s , 1 6 ; p r o s e w r t e r s ,
5 i
’
m a d e a) , 2 1 7 -
1 66 ; s u m m ar , 1 79 ; y
s e e c t on s , l i
D r . j e ky l l a n d M r . Hy d e , 5 1 9 i li
1 80 ; b b o g r ap h , 1 8 1 ; q u e s t on s , y i
D i
o m e s t c d r am a, 1 3 6 1 83 ; c h r o n o o g , 1 85 l y
D on n e , J
oh n , 1 9 4 ; h i s p o e t r , 1 9 5 y E n dy m i on , 4 2 1
D ot h e b o y s H a l ( d o t h e b o s ) , 4 88 l - -
y E n g l i s k B a rds an d S cotck R e v i ew e rs ,
yl
D o e , Ar th u r C o n an , 5 83 406
D r a ke , 5 86 E n g l i s k H u m or i s ts , 4 09 , 5 02
li
D r am a, i n E zab e th an Ag e , 1 0 1 ; o r i E n g l i s k I dy l s , 4 66
g i n , 1 1 5 p
; e r o d s o f, 1 1 6, i E o r m an r i c ( é o r m an —r i c ) , 1 8
’
-

i l
m r ac e a n d m s t e r p a s, 1 1 7 ; y y l y Ep i coen e ( é p i s é n ) , or Tk e
’
-
S i len t
i l
n t e r u d e s , 1 2 2 ; c as s c a n flu e n c e l i l i Wom a n , 1 61
ii
o n , 1 2 6 ; u n t e s , 1 2 6 ; t h e En g s h , li Ep i t/za l a m i on ( ep i th a a m i O H ) , 1 0 9
'
- -
l
-
’
-

y
1 2 7 ; t p e s o f, 1 3 5 ; d e c n e o f, 1 5 6. li E r as m u s , 9 3
S e e a l s o E zab e t h an A g e , S h a e li k Es s ay con ce r n i n g H u m a n U n d e r s ta n d
s p e ar e , J on s o n , Mar l ow e , e tc. i ng, 2 5 2
D i i i 1 26
r am at c u n t e s , E ss ay of D r a m a ti c Poe sy , 2 4 9
D am t i s t s
r am e th od s of , , 131. S ee E ss ay on B u r n s , 5 3 2
S h k e s p e e M l ow e
a ar , ar , e tc . E s s ay on Cr i ti c i s m 2 66 ,

D ra p i ’
e r s L e t te r s , 2 77 E ss ay on M a n , 2 68
D ra y to n , Mi c h ae l , 1 14 Es s ay on M i l ton , 5 2 2 , 5 2 3 , 5 2 6
604 EN G LI S H L I TER AT U R E

i i l
H s t or c a n o e , 4 0 2 v l Wood s 5 88
'

I n tk e S e v e n ,

H i s tory of E n g l a n d , Mac au l ys
a
’
, 5 22, I n ti m a ti on s o f I m m orta l i ty , 3 84 , 3 85
5 5
2

H i s tory f
o F re d e r i ck tk e Gr e a t, C ar J ac ob e an p o e ts , 1 9 1
lyle ’
j a n e Ey r e ( ar ) , 5 1 4
5 3 0, 5 3 4
V
s,

H i s tory of H e n ry I I I B ac on s 1 73 ,
’
, J y
e ffre , F ra n c s , 3 75 i
H i s tory f tb c Ref or m a ti on i n S cotl a n d ,
o J e s t ( or g e s t ) b o o s , 5 6 k
Kn ox j ew of M a l ta , 1 3 4
’
s, 1 77
H i s tory of tk e Wb r l d , R a l e igh s j oa n a n d Pe te r , 5 76
’
, 1 75
H n ae f ( n e f ) , 2 2 j ok n Gi lpi n , 3 2 0
H ob b e s , Th o m as , 2 5 1 J oh n s o n , S a m u e , 2 87 fe , 2 89 ; l li
l
H o ofe rn e s ( h ol O -
in j u d i tk , w or s , 2 9 1 k h i s c o n e rs at on s , 2 9 4 ; v i
36 B os w e s L ife o
’
ll f j ok n s on , 2 93
H oly a n d P rof a n e S ta te , 2 2 9 j on a tk a n I/ i ld , 3 5 4 V
H oly L i v i n g , 2 3 0 J on s on , B e n , 1 5 7 ; fe , 1 5 8 ; w or s , 1 5 9
'
li k
H oly M r , 2 2 6 j os ep k An d r e w s , 3 5 3
’
H om e r , C h ap m an s , 1 1 4 ; D r d e n s ,
’
y j po s e /t a n ce ,
5 8V2

2 4 6 ; Po p e s , 2 67 ; C o w p e r s , 3 1 9 j ou rn a l of tk e Pl ag ue Ye a r , 3 5 0
’ ’

k
H oo e r, R c h a r d , 1 74 i j ou rn a l to S te l l a , 2 72 , 2 76
k
H o o e r , Th om as , 1 86 j u d i tlz, 3 6
H o p e , An t h on , 5 84 y j u li an a, 3 6
H ou n d of H e a ve n , Tb e , 5 87 j u n l e B ook , I k e ,
g 5 74 , 5 75
H ou rs i n a L i b ra ry , 5 5 8
H ou r s qf I dl e n e s s , 4 06, 409 K e at s , 4 1 8 ; life
4 1 9 ; w or , ks , 4 20 ;
H ou s e qf F a m e , 73 p l ac e
li in t e r a tu r e , 4 2 3
H ou s e of L if e , 4 84 K il m arn o c k Bu rn s , th e , 3 2 5
H ro th gar 1 1 K m 5 74 5 75
, ,
’
H u d i b r a s ( h fi d i -b ras ) , 2 5 0
’
R i n gs Tre a s u r i e s , 5 4 2
H u d s on , 5 83 i l y
K n g s e , C h ar e s , 5 1 5 , 5 5 5 l
H u m an s m , 9 1 i [( i n g S ol om on s M i n e s , 5 83
’

H u mp /t r ey Cl i n ke r , 3 5 5 i li
K p n g , 5 70, 5 71 ; fe , 5 71 ; li v e rs e ,

H u n t , Le gh , 4 2 6 i 5 7 2 ; p r o s e , 5 74

H u s b a n d s M e s s ag e , 2 6 a gb i s Ta l e , T/ze , 78
’ ’

xl y
H u e , 5 58 x J
K n o , o h n , 1 77
H yg e l ac ( h i 17 K u b l a R lza n ( ob a k a n ) , 3 9 1
'

k ’
l
y
H m n b o o , r s t E n g sh , 1 9 3 k fi li Ky d , Th o m as , 1 3 1
Hy m n to I n te l l e ct u a l B e a u ty , 4 1 2
Hy m n s , A d d s o n s , 2 83 ; C ow p e r s ,
’
i ’
L Al l eg ro ( l al
’
2 09

3 1 8, 3 1 9 L ady of tk e La ke , 3 9 7, 4 0 1
Hy p a t i a ( h i 16 Lady R os e s D a u g /zte r , 5 81
’
5
’
H yp e r i on ( hi p é r i - on ) , 4 2 2 -
k
La e p oe t s , t h e , 3 73
l
L am b , C h ar e s , 4 2 6 ; fe , 4 2 7 w or li ks
V
,

I d e a s m ofli i
c t or an Ag e , 4 5 6 i 4 29 ; s t e , 4 3 0 yl
I de a s, 8 l Lam b , Ma r , 4 2 8, 4 29 y
l
I d o s , of B ac on , 1 70, 1 73
’
l
L a m i a ( a m a) , 4 1 8, 4 2 2 i -

I dy ll s of tk e I ( i n g , 4 66 L a n d of Cockay gn e ( k O 61
1 1 Pe n s e r os o ( i l p e n S é 2 09 -
L a n d of D r e a m s , 3 3 2
I l i a d , Po p e s t r an s at on , 2 67 ; C h ap
’
l i La n d of H e a rt s D e s i r e , Tb e , 5 88
’

m an s , 1 1 4 ; D r d e n s , 2 4 6 y Lan d or, Wa t e r S a ag e , 4 40 ; l v li fe
’ ’
,

I m ag i n a ry Con v e r s a t i on s , 4 4 1 4 40 ; w or s , 4 4 1 k
I mp e a ck m e n t of Wa r re n H a s t i n g s , 3 00 La n g a n d , W l a m , 81 illi
I n M e m or i a m , 4 6 1 , 4 64 Lan gu ag e , o u r r s t S p e e c h , fi 27; du a l
I n ca rn a ti o n of K r i s k n a M u l v a n ey , 5 74 c h arac t e r o f, 2 9 T e u t o n c i i i
or g n , 28
I n s ta u ra ti o M ag n a ( i n -s ta r a s h -o) , 1 70 -
’
i La s t D ay s of Pom p e i i ( p om 515
l
I n te r u d e s, 1 2 2 Law , H oo e r s d e a of, 1 75
’
k i
 I N D EX 60 5

La w s of Eccl e s i a s ti ca l Pol i ty , 1 74 M a rg a re t Ogi l vy 5 83 ,

Lay S e r m on s , 5 5 9 Mar l ow e 1 3 2 ; li fe 1 3 2 ; w o r k s 1 3 3 ;
, , ,

y
La am on , 5 3 an d M il t o n 1 3 4 ; an d S h ak e s p e ar e , ,

Lay s of An c i e n t R om e , 5 2 4 I 3S
Le a d , [ i( n d ly n k t, 5 5 4 M a r m i on 3 9 7 40 1 , ,

L e ctu r e s on S k a ke sp e a re , 3 93 M a rp e s s a 5 87
V
,

L eg e n d e of Good e P i m m e n , 74 M a r r i age 5 76 ,

Le v i a tk a n , 2 5 1 M a rr i ag e of Wi l l i a m As i t e Tae 5 81 , ,

Le w e s , Ge o rg e H e n r ; 5 06 y Marv e ll A n d re w 1 93
, ,

L i b e r ty of P r op /ze sy i n g , 2 3 0 Mas e fie l d J oh n 5 85 5 90 5 9 1 5 9 2
, , , , ,

i
L fe , c om p ar e d t o a s e a o ag e , 3 7 v y Mas s i n g e r Ph ili p 1 65 , ,

L if e of j ok n s on , 2 93 , 2 9 6 Matt e r of F ran c e R om e an d B r i t ai n , , ,

L if e of S a v ag e , 2 90 5 5, 56
n k t tk a t Fa i l e d , Tk e , 5 74 Maxw e ll W B 5 84 , . .
,

i y vi
L n dsa , D a d, 1 2 2 M e l od r am a 1 3 6 ,

i y l
L te r ar C u b , t h e , 2 9 1 M e m oi r s of a Ca va l i e r 3 49 3 5 0 , ,

i
L t e rar y ii ic r t c sm , 425. Se e a ls o Me r e d i t h G e o r g e 5 1 7 , ,

ii l ii
Cr t c a w r t n g [Me r l i n a n d t/ze Gl e a m 457 ,

L i te ra ry R e m i n i s ce n ce s , 4 3 4 Me rr i c k Le o n ar d 5 84, ,

i fi ii
L t e rat u r e , d e n t o n , 8 ; q u a t e s , 2 ; li i Me t ap h y s i c al p o e t s 1 9 1 1 9 3 , ,

t e s ts , 5 ob e c t i n s t u d j
n g, 6 ; i m yi M e t r i c a l r o m an c e s 5 4 5 5 , ,

p ort an c e , 7 G o e t h e s d e n t on ,
’
fi ii Mi d d l e t on T ho m as 1 64 , ,

7 ; s p r tii o f m o d e r n , 5 59 Mi l e s Gl or i os u s ( m é l e s gl o r i
.
’
-
‘

L i te r a tu r e a n d D ogm a , 5 4 7, 5 5 0 1 23
L i ttl e M i n i s te r , Tlze , 5 83 M i ll on tit e Fl os s , 5 10

L i ttl e Wk i te B i r d , Tb e , 5 83 Mil ton , 2 02 ; life , 204 ; e ar ly or H or

L i ve s , P u ta r c h s , 1 78 ; W a ton s , 2 3 1
l l k
’ ’
t o n p o e m s , 2 09 ; p r o s e w o r s , 2 1 2
L i ve s of tb c Poe ts , 2 9 2 lat e r p oe t r , 2 1 3 an d S h a e s e ar e ,
p y k
k J
L oc e , o h n , 2 5 2 2 02 ; Wo r d s w or th ’
s s on n e t on , 2 02
Loc e , W k illi am J ,
5 8 1 , 5 82 . M i n s tre l sy of til e S cott i s /z B or d e r 3 9 7 ,

k J
Lo c h art , oh n , 3 75 M i ra cl e cy Pu ri m B i zag a t, T/ze 5 74
'
,

L orn a D oon e , 5 1 6 Mi ra c l e p l ay s 1 1 7 ,

Los t L e a d e r , Tk c , 3 80 M i r r or f or M ag i s tra te s 1 1 3 ,

v l i
Lo e ac e , R c h a r d , 2 0 2 M r B a d man L if e a n d D e a t/zof 2
. , ,
’
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Ly c i d a s ( s d a s ) , 2 1 1 -
M r B r i tl i n g S e e s I t Tlzroug /z 5 9 1
. ,

y
L d gat e , oh n , 1 1 3 J Mod e r n li t e rat u r e s p i r i t of 5 5 9 , ,

L y ly J , oh n 1 30 Mo d e r n n ov e li s t s 5 75 ,

5 54 5 57 » M od e rn Pa i n te rs 5 3 9 5 4 3 , ,

3 76 M o d e r n R om a n c e 5 8 1 ,

y
L tt on , Ed w ard B u w e r , 5 1 5 l M od e s t P rop os a l A 2 74 , ,

M or a l Ep i s tl e s 2 6 5 2 6 6 , ,

Mac Man u s S e u m as 5 88 Mo r a l p e r i o d o f t h e d r a m a 1 2 1
V
, , ,

Mac au l ay 5 2 0 ; li fe 5 2 1 w o r k s 5 2 3
, , , ; Mor al p u r p o s e i n i c t o ri an li t e rat u r e ,

i i 5 26
c h ara c t e r s t c s , 4 5 5 5 5 59
Ma c p h e rs o J am e s ( m n, ak
3 34 l y l y
M ora i t p a s , 1 2 1
Magazi e s t h e m o d e
n , rn , 3 75 Mo r e , H an n ah , 3 75
M a l d on Tb e B a ttl e of , 4 1
, Mo r e , Th om as , 93
Mal ory 9 5 , Mo r r s , W am , 4 84
i illi
M a n of P rop e r ty I k e 5 78 , , M orte d Ai t lzu r ( m or t d a r th e r) , 9 5
’ ’

M a n l o S a w Tb c 5 9 1 , , M otae r H u bb a r d s Ta l e , 1 03
’

M a n 144 0 Wa s Tb c 5 73 5 74 , , , M u l é/é e /z ( m fi 4 77
M a n d e v i ll e s Tr a v e l s 85 ’
, My La s t D u e /l e s s , 4 77
M a nf r e d 4 09 , My s te r i e s of U d olp /zo, Tne ( fi
M a ny I n ve n t i on s , 5 74 3 74
M a r ce l l a , 5 81 My s t e ry p l ay s , 1 17
6 06 EN G LI S H L I T ER ATU R E

N e w Ata l a n ti s , 1 72 , 3 4 2
’
P s , Tk e F ou r , 1 2 3
V
j e w com e s , l e , 4 9 7, 5 0 2 Pa l a m on a n d Arc i te ( p a a m o n , a r
’ ’
l
V
-

[ e w M ac/zi a ve l l i , l e , 5 77 i
s t e ) , 78

N e w m an , C ar d n a , 5 5 2 ; i l li fe , 55 2 ;
’
Pa m e l a ( p a m e l a ) , 3 44 , 3 5 1
-

p ros e w or ks , 555 ; p oe m s, 5 57 i y
-
’
Pa n t s oc rac p an ti s o r a-s e ) o f C o e -
k l
st yl e5 57 , i
r d g e , S ou t h e , e t c , y
3 88 .

N e w s p a p e r s , t h e r s t , 2 5 8, 2 5 9 fi Pa ol o a n d F r a n ce s ca , 5 87
M oe l u n g e n l i e d ( n é b e u n g e n -l é t) , 2 2
'
’
-
l -
Pa ra d i s e L os t , 2 1 3 , 2 1 4
N c o , W. R ob e rt s o n , 5 89
i ll P a r a d i s e R eg a i n e d , 2 1 7
oab , p a l y
o f, 1 1 9 P a ra dy s e of D ay n ty D e v i s e s , I 1 2
o r m an C o n q u e s t , 4 7 Pa r ap /zr a s e o f C ae d m on , 3 4
N o r m a n p ag e a n t r , 1 1 6 y Pa r i s lz R eg i s te r , Tli e , 3 3 4
i
N orm an p e r o d S e e A n g o-N o r m an . l Patm o re , C o e n t r , 5 86 v y
N o r m an s , 4 6 ; u n o n w t h S a o n s , 4 8 i i x Pa t r i c i a n , Tk e , 5 78
lit e ra tu r e o f, 4 8 Pa u l i n e , 4 72 , 4 75
N o r th , C h r s t o p h e r ( o h n W s o n ) ,
i J il Pe a r l , l e , 5 9
3 75 Pe l /za m , 5 1 5
N o r t h , T h o m as , 1 78 Pe n d e n n i s , 4 9 8, 5 0 2
N o r t h an g e r Ab b e ( n o r t h an j e r ) , 4 3 9
’
y -
y
Pe p s , S am u e ( p e p
’
l i s, p e p s , p ep s ) ,
N or t/ze rn A n t i q u i ti e s , 3 3 8
N o rt h u m b r a n i li
t e rat u r e , 3 0 ; d e c n e li y
Pe rc , Th o m as , 3 3 7
o f, 3 8 ; h o w s a e d , 4 0 v ’
Pe r egr i n e P i ckl e ( p e r e gr n ) , 3 5 5 -
i
N os t r om o, 5 78 Pe r i cl e s a n d Asp a s i a ( p c r i kl é z, as -p i
’ ’
-

v l i
N o e , m e a n n g an d h s t or , 3 3 9 , 3 4 0 ; i y s h i a) , 4 4 2
-

p r e c u r s o r s o f , 3 4 1 d s c o er o f i v y Pe te r Pa n , 5 83
m o d e rn , 3 4 4 Pfi i l ip tk e Ki n g , 5 86
N ov e l i s t s , t h e fi
r s t E n g s h , 3 3 8,
35 7. li ili i
Ph s t n e s , t h e , 5 5 0
S e e S c ot t , D c e n s , e t c . i k Ph illip s , S t e p h e n , 5 87
V ’
[ ov u m Org a n u m ( o r g a-n u m ) , 1 70 ill
Ph p ott s , E d e n , 5 79
y
N o e s , A fr e d , 5 86 l P/zoen i x 37
P i ck w i ck Pap e r s , 4 87, 4 89 , 4 9 2
Od e on Me M orn i n g of Car i s t s N a t i v
’
P i e r s Pl ow m a n ( p e e rs ) , 8 1
’
i ty , 2 0 5 , 2 09 P i lg r i m s P rog re s s , 2 2 4 , 3 4 3
Ode to D ej e c t i on , 3 87 i i
P n d ar c o d e s ( p i n
V
1 93

Od e to th e We s t I zn d , 4 1 0 /
P n e r o , A r t h u r W n g , 5 89
i i
i
O d e s , P n d ar c , 1 93 i P ipp a Pa s s e s , 4 75 , 4 78
Ody s s ey , P o p e s , 2 67 ; Ch a p m a n s , 1 1 4 ; Pl a i n M a n s Pa t/zw ay to H e a v e n , 2 2 1
’ ’ ’

y
D r d e n s, 24 6
’
Pl a i n Ta l e s f r om tlze H i l l s , 5 74
Ol d For t u n a t u s ( for-t u 1 65 l y
P a s , r e c e n t , 5 89
Ol d F r on t L i n e , Tlze , 5 9 1 l ’
P u t ar c h s L i v e s , 1 78
Ol d Wi v e s Ta l e , Tlze , 5 80
’
Poe m s by Tw o B r ot/ze r s , 4 5 9
Ol i v e r Cr o m w e l l , C ar
’
e s, 5 34 ly l Poe ta s te r , 77 m, 1 60
Ol i v e r Tw i s t, 4 9 2 , 4 9 3 y
Po e t r o f e e r d a v y y li f e , 5 85
O l l i v an t , A fr e d , 5 83 l Po e t s , r e c e n t , 5 84
’
Poly ol oi on ( p ol -i -ol b i o u ) , 1 1 4 -

Or i gi n of Sp e c i e s , 5 5 8 l x
Pop e , A e an d e r, 2 64 ; f e , 2 64 ; li
Or l a n d o F u r i os o ( o r -
l an
’
d 6 f oo r é 6 - -
’
w o r s , 2 66 k
so ) , 1 05 J
Po r t e r , a n e , 3 75
O rm , or O r m e , 60 ; h i s Or m u l u m , 60 P ract i ce of Pi e ty , 2 2 1
i
O r o s u s ( 0 r 6 s i —u s ) , h i s h s t o r , 4 0
’
-
i y P r ee te r i ta ( p r é t e r i ta) , 5 3 8, 5 4 1
-
’
-

i ’
O s s an ( o s h i an ) an d O s s an c p oe m s , i i P r a i s e of F ol ly , 9 3
335 P re l u d e , l e , 3 77, 3 78, 3 79 , 3 86
Ou r s e l v e s a n d tlze U n i v e r s e , 5 90 -
li
Pr e R a p h ae t e s ( r a fa-e l t e s ) , 4 83
’
-
i
Ow l a n d M gfiti n g a l e , H e , 60 Pr i d e a n d P r ej u d i ce , 4 3 7, 4 3 9
x
O for d m o e m e n t , 5 5 4 v Pr i n ce s s , T/ze , 4 6 1 , 4 63
60 8 EN G L I S H L I TER AT U R E

S c o tt , W al t e r 3 95 li fe 3 9 6 ; p oe try S on e ts
f r om tk e Por t u g u e s e , 4 72 , 4 82 ,
g
, ; , ,

40 1 no ve ls , 4 02 c r i t i c i s m o f J an e 4 4
Au s t e n , 4 3 9 y
S ou th e , 3 93 ; w or s , 3 94 k
S cotti s lz Clzi ef s , 3 75 Sp a n i s /t Gy p sy , 5 07
yl
S c d ( s k i l d ) , s t o r o f, 1 0 y Sp a n i s /t Tr ag e dy , 1 3 1
S e a, n am e s of, i n An g o- S a on , 2 5 l x Sp e c i m e n s of E n g l i s k D ra m a t i c Poe ts ,
S e af a r e r , Tb e , 2 0 43 °
S e a s on s , l e , 3 3 3 Sp e cta tor , l e , 2 79, 2 84 , 3 4 4
l i
S e e c t o n s f or r e ad n g : An g o-S a on i l x S p e n s e r, 1 0 1 ; li
fe , 1 0 2 ; w o r s , 1 0 5 ; k
p e r i
o d , 4 3 ; N o r m an , 64 ; C h au c e r , i i
c h ara c t e r s t c s , 1 1 0 ; c o m p ar e d w t h i
86 ; R e viv l
a o f L e ar n n g ,
9 7 E za i li Ch au c e r , 1 1 0
i
b e t h an , 1 80 ; Pu r t an , 2 3 3 ; R e s t o ra i
S p e n s e r an p o e t s , 1 9 2
i i
t on , 2 5 6 ; E g h t e e n th C e n t u r , 3 5 9 ; y i
S p e n s e r an s t an za, 1 07
R om an t c s m , 4 4 3 i i c t or an , 5 6 1 Vi i ly
S tag e , e ar , 1 1 9 ; E zab e th an , 1 2 9 li
S e n t i m e n ta l j ou rn ey , 3 5 6 S ta l ky a n d Co , 5 71 , 5 74 .

S e n ti m e n ta l Tom my , 5 83 l
S te e e , R c h ar d , 2 83i
S ep ti m u s , 5 82 S t e p h e n , Le s e , 5 5 8 li
S t e rn e , Law re n c e , 3 5 6
’
S e s a m e a n d L i l i e s ( s e s a-m é ) , 5 4 1
S k a d owy Wa te r s , 5 88 v
S t e e n s o n , R ob e r t Lou s , 5 1 9 i
k
S h a e s p e ar e , 1 3 7 ; fe , 1 3 9 ; w o r s , li k l
S ty e , a t e s t o f t e rat u r e , 6 li
9 i
1 4 8 ; f ou r p e r o d s , 1 4 ; s o u r c e s o f Suc kli n g, oh n , 2 0 1 J
l y l
p a s , 1 5 0 ; c a s s c at o n o f p a s ,ifi i l y y y
S u r r e , H e n r H ow ar d , Ear of, 9 5 l
1 5 1 ; d o u b t fu l l y
p a s , 1 5 2 ; p oe m s , S w an , l e , 3 7
152 l i
p a c e an d n fl u e n c e , 1 5 3 i
S w ft , 2 70 ; fe , 2 71 li
w o r s , 2 73 ; k
S k e S toop s to Con q u e r , 3 1 5 i
s at r e , 2 74 ; c h arac t e r s t c s , 2 77 i i
ll y
S he e , 4 1 0 ; li
fe , 4 1 2 ; w o r s , 4 1 5 ; k i
S w n b u rn e , 4 85
c o m p ar e d w th W o r d s w o r th , 4 1 7
i Sy l va , 2 5 3
’
S k ep lze r d s B ook , 4 1 y li
S m b o s t s , 5 86
S k ep /ze r d s Ca l e n d a r , 1 08, 1 09
’
y J
S m on d s , o h n Add n gt on , / 5 5 8 i
S /ze r l ock H ol m e s , 5 83 y
S n g e , oh n M J
n g t o n , 5 88 illi
S lze r wood , 5 86
S k ip tk a t F ou n d H e r s e lf , 77l e , 5 74 T ab ar d I n n , 75
il y J
S h r e , am e s , 1 66 Ta l e of a Tu b , 2 71 , 2 73 , 2 75
Ta l e of Tw o Ci ti e s , A, 4 9 5
’
S k oe m a ke r s H ol i d ay , Tb c , 1 6 5
S k or t V
i e w of tk e E n gl i sk S tag e , 2 3 9 Ta l e s f rom S k a ke sp e a r e , 4 29
i y
S d n e , Ph p , 1 1 3 , 1 75 ili Ta l e s i n V
V
e rs e , 3 3 4

S i gu r d tb c ol s u n g , 4 85 Ta l e s of tb c H a l l , 3 3 4
S i l a s M a rn e r , 5 1 1 Ta l e s of t/ze M e r m a i d Ta v e rn , 5 86
S i l e n t Wom a n , Tk e , 1 6 1 Ta m o Sb a n te r , 3 2 8
’

i l i
S n c a r , M ay , 5 84 Ta m b u r l a i n e ( t am b u r l an e ) , 1 3 2 , 1 3 3
’
-

S i r Cli a r l e s Gr a n d i s on , 3 5 2 Ta s k , Tk e ,
k l
S e t on , o h n , 1 2 2J Ta tl e r , 77ze , 2 79 , 2 84 , 3 44
S ke tck e s by B 02 , 4 89 yl J
T a o r, e r e m , 2 3 0 y
ll
S m o e tt , T ob a s , 3 5 5 i m ora , ( te 335
S oc a i l v l
d e e o p m e n t i n e gh t e e n th i Te mp e s t, T/ze , 1 4 7
c e n tu r , 2 5 8 y Te mp l e , Tb c , 1 98
S ok r a b a n d R u s t u m ( s oo r h ab , or
’
y
T e n n s on , 4 5 7 li
fe , 4 5 8 w o r s , 4 6 2 ; k
’
s o h r ab ) , 5 4 8 i i
c h arac t e r s t c s , 4 6 7 ; m e s s ag e , 4 68
S ol d i e r s T/t r e e , 5 74 Te n u r e of [ z ( n g s a n d M ag i s t r a te s , 2 0 6
'

S on g of tb c S ol d i e r , 5 9 1 72mm , 2 5 3
S on g s of I n n oce n ce , an d S on g s of E x li
T e s t s o f t e ratu re , 5
T e u f e l s d ro e c kh ( t oy f e lz d r fik ) , 5 3 5
’

p e r i e n ce , 1
33
-

S on n e t , int r o d u c t on o f, i 95 k
T h ac e r a , 4 96 ; y li
fe , 4 9 7 ; w or s , k
S o n n e ts , of S ha k e s p e are , 1 53 ; of Mi l 4 99 ; c h a ra c t e r s t c s , 5 3
0 i i
; s t e, yl
t on , 2 1 2 5 4
0 ; an d D c e n s , i k
4 9 6
 I ND EX 6 09

I k ad de u s of Wa r s a w , 3 75 5 20 ; ii
s p r t o f, 5 59 ; s u m m ar y , 5 6 0 ;
Tk a l a b a ( t al 3 94 l
s e e c t on s i f or r e ad n g , i 5 61 ; b i b li
T h e at e r, t h e r s t, 1 2 8 fi o g r ap h
5 6 2 q u e s ti on s , 5 66 ;
V
y ; ,

771 i ef of i rt u e , Tk e , 5 80 c h r o n o l o g , 5 68 y
T h o m p s on , F r an c s , 5 87 i V i ctory , 5 78
T h o m s o n , am e s , 3 3 2 J V i e w of tk e S ta te of I re l a n d , 1 03
Tk re e B rot/t e r s , T/ze , 5 80 Vi ll g Tk e , 3 3 3
Vi
a e,

fi re e Wi s e M e n , T/ze , 5 82 i s on o
f tk e R ood , 3 8
Tk roug k tk e Tu rf S m oke , 5 88 Wlp on e ( v o l 1 60

T/ty r s i s Vl o u n te e r , Tk e ,

V 59 2
5 49
o a e s , H ak l u t s , 1 78
’
Ti m be r , 1 6 2 y g y
Ti n te rn Ab b ey , 3 76
Ti r oci n i u m ( ti r é s n i -u m ) , or a R e
-
’
-
i W ak e fi e l d p l ay s 1 1 8 ,

vi e w o f S c/zool s , 3 1 7 Wa lde re ( v al d a r e or v a l d ar e ) -
’

,
’

, 22
Tom j on e s , 3 5 4 Wall e r E d m u n d 1 93 2 4 2
, , ,

Tom b of k i s An ce s tors , I k e , 5 74 Wal ton I zaak 2 3 1 , ,

Tom my a n d Gr i ze l , 5 83 Wa n de r i n g s of Oi s i n 77ze 5 88 , ,

Ton o-B u n g ay , 5 77 Wa r a n d tb c F u t u re Tb c 5 90
Vf Vl d
, ,

T or e s an d W h g s , 23 8
i i P ar o t/ze I/ or Tb c , 5 77 s,

Totte l s M i s ce l l a ny , 9 4
’
W ard Mr s , . H u m p h r , 5 81 y
l y l y
T ow n e p a s , 1 1 8 Wat s on W illi am , , 591
Tox op /zzl u s ( t ok -s of i l u s ) , 9 2
’
-
Ws e r l ey 3 98 ,

i
T r ac tar an m o e m e n t, 5 5 4 v Way of All F l e s /z Tb c , 5 79
V
,

Trac ts f or tk e Ti m e s , 5 5 4 I/ e a l tk of N a t i on s , 3 71
y fi ii
T rag e d , d e n t on , 1 5 1 of b o od , 1 3 6 l We a t/ze r , Tk e Pl ay of t/ze , 1 2 3
'

ii
T ran s t on p o e t s , 1 90 W e b s t e r, oh n , 1 63 J
Tr a ve l l e r , 77u , 3 1 3 , 3 1 4 W e d m or e , T r e at of, 40 y
Tr e a s u r e I s l a n d , 5 1 9 W e s , H e rb e rt G , 5 76, 5 9 1
ll .

Tr e a ti s e s on Gove rn m e n t, 2 5 2 WZ s tw a rd H o 5 1 6
’

Tr i s tr a m S k a n dy , 3 5 6
’
Tr o i l u s a n d Cr e s s i d a , 73
ll
T r o o p e , An th on , 5 1 3
y
T ro e s , T r e at of, 89
W e e /s of Ck a n ce , Tb c, 5 77
’
W h gs an d T or e s , 2 3 8
i i
y W h tb i y
y V 3 2, 3 3
I i d e com b e Fa i r , 5 80
f

Tr u ce of tk e B e a r , Tk e , 5 73 Wi dow i n tk e By e S tre e t, I k e , 5 85
Tr u t/z, or Good Cou n s e l , 72 Wi ds i t/z 1 8, 1 9
T n da e , W
y l am illi 94 W i glaf 1
5
Yyp k oon , 5 78 W c oc s , M ar , 5 84
ill k y
W s on . oh n ( C h r s to p h e r N ort h ) , 3 75
il J i
ll
U d a , N c h o as i l
1 23 Wi n d a m on g tb c R e e d s , Tb e , 5 88
U dolp lzo ( fi 3 74 ”f i n dow i n Tk ru m s , A, 5 82
U nf ort u n a te Tr a ve l l e r , Tk e , 3 4 3 W th e r , G e org e , 1 9 2
i
iv li y
U n e rs a t a t e s t of t e rat u r e , 5 li V
I/ i tk ou t B e n efit o f Cl ergy , 5 74
iv
U n e rs t w t s , 1 2 7iy i W om e n i n te ratu re , 3 73 , 3 74 li
U n to T/zi s L a s t, 5 40, 5 4 2 Wor d s w ort h , 3 73 , 3 76 ; fe , 3 77 li
U top i a , 93 , 3 4 2 p o e t r , 3 81 y
p o e m s o f n atu r e , 3 82
li
p o e m s o f fe , 3 84 ; as t w o r s , 3 86 l k
Vi y F i 5 t W ord s w or th , D o r oth 3 76 y
V i y of H m Wi k 88 V
an a r, 01 ,
'

I/ ortk i e s of E n g l a n d , 2 2 9 , 2 3 0
V g h H y 93
an t u an s es , 2

Wu t/ze r i n g H e zg /zts ( w u t h e r i n g ) , 5 1 4
’

V lli B k 39
au an , e nr , 1 -

W atty Th o m as , 9 4
V
e r ce oo ,

i f W k fi l d W c fy li 83
Vi h i l d p l y 3 5 3 57
ca r o
e a e , 1 ,

t W r d ( v i r d ) , o r fa t e , 1 2
y
V
ce , e , n o a s, 1 2 1
i i Ag
c t o r an 45 hi y e , 2 s to r , 453 ;
li t e r ar y c h ar ac t e r s t c s , i i 4 5 4 ; p oe t s , Y e at s W illi am B u tl e r
, , 5 88
4 5 7; no v e li s ts , 4 87 ; y ists
e s sa , e t c ., Y or k p l ay s 1 1 8 ,