Topology

Topology, Algebra, Geometry and Analysis are the four pillors upon which the
building of Mathematics is built in the twentieth century, Topology is developed
so much that it emerged as an independent field of study. In fact, the ideas which
are topological occurred in the nineteenth century. Nowadays Topology has
several branches such as: Algebraic Topology, Analytic Topology, Geometric
Topology, Point set Topology or General Topology. The word Topology is derived
from a Greek word which means a space. It is formally defined as analysis situs,
the science of situation. Topology arose as a branch of geometry but in the recent
years it has been generalized to such as an extent that it has applications in many
branches of Mathematics and physics. Algebraic and geometric Topology had its
beginnings in the eighteenth century. The systematic study of topology as a
separate field of mathematics began in the late nineteenth century which had
given new generality and depth to the ideas of geometry. The branch of topology
most relevant to modern analysis is called point set topology or general topology
and hence plays a prominent role in many branches of modern mathematics. It
has its beginnings in the nineteenth century when it first established calculus on a
nigorous footings. Continuity plays as we shall see throughout the text a crucial
role in general topology, that is why some mathematician define topology as the
study of continuity. Because of its importance in mathematics, nowadays, general
topology is being taught in the universities as an introductory course in
mathematics. In spite of its abstractness, topology is subject which is concrete
and geometrically comprehensible. Therefore on every possible occasion I have
tried to give the intuitive meaning of mathematical ideas and have provided
diagrams whenever it seems feasible which would help the reader to visualize the
abstract objects.
I have presented the material more carefully and painstakingly. Results about
compactness and metrization are indispensable tools of the modern analysis
connectivity properties of topological spaces are the cores for the later courses in
algebraic geometry and algebraic topology.
This book is divided into 63 sections. Chapter headings are provided but react as a
reference device. In each section, the definitions, examples, theorems and
remarks are numbered in such a way that if theorem 1.2 is referred somewhere
in the book will mean theorem 2 of section 1 and so on.
This book has the following outstanding features:
(1) This book is self contained and is written in an easy style.
(2) It is written in the framework of easy to difficult and concrete to abstract
concepts.
(3) There are plenty of diagrams for the reader to visualize geometrically.
(4) Nearly each chapter begins with a brief introduction which describes
summary theme.
(5) Each definition is followed by examples.
(6) Remarks observations are provided to clear the intuitive meaning of notions.
(7) Objective type questions have been given in the end of each chapter.
(8) The effort has been made to make the book very useful and to stimulate
further interest in the subject.

Metric space

The notion of metric space was given by M. Frecher in 1906. Further, Urysohn,
Hausdorff, Alexandroff, Hopf and others developed into a useful mathematical
discipline.
The concept of a metric on an arbitrary set is a straightforward generalization of
the useful idea of distance in elementary Geometry. A metric space is a non-
empty set equipped with a concept of distance suitable for the development of
convergent sequence in a set and continuous functions defined on a set. In this
chapter, we develop the main elementary facts in a systematic manner. These
facts provide a motivation for our later work on topological spaces.

Metric Space
Given two real numbers x and y, there always exists a non-negative real numbers
ꟾX-Yꟾ, called the difference between x and y. Thus to each ordered pair (x,y) of real
numbers, there is associated the real numbers ꟾX-Yꟾ, we may write this
correspondence in functional notation as:
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = ǀ𝑥 − 𝑦ǀ
When d:ℝ×ℝ→ℝ is a map and ℝ, the set of real numbers. It is easy to verify that
this useful function d has the following four important properties: z
(1) d(x,y)≥0
(2) d(x,x)=0, d(x,y)=0 where x=y
(3) d(x,y)=d(y,x) d(x,y) d(y,z)
(4) d(x,z)≤d(x,y)+d(y,z)
for all x,y,z∈ℝ.
x d(x,y) y
Fortunately the above four properties of distance are sufficient to discuss
convergent sequences and continuity of functions. This suggest to examine and
discuss convergent sequences and continuity in a more general setting, that is in.

Example
Let X be a nonempty set and d:ℝ×ℝ→ℝ defined by
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑦
𝑑(𝑥, 𝑦) = {
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦
It is easy to see that d is a metric on X. This metric is called the discrete or trivial
metric on X and (X,d) is called the discrete metric space.

Open Sets
Let d be a metric on X. for any point a ∈X and any real number r>0, we define
on open sphere, 𝑆𝑟 (𝑎), centered at a and radius r as:
𝑆𝑟 (𝑎) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝑋: 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑎) < 𝑟}

X a r 𝑆𝑟 (𝑎)
Clearly an open sphere is a nonempty set, for it contains at least its centre.

Example
Let X=ℝ and d be the usual metric on ℝ. Then
𝑆2 (1) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑑(𝑥, 1) < 2}
= {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: |𝑥 − 1| < 2}
= {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −2 < 𝑥 − 1 < 2}
= {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: −1 < 𝑥 < 3} = (−1,3)
Open Disc
An open disc D in ℝ2 with centre (a,b) and radius 𝑟 > 0 is defined as:
𝐷{(𝑥, 𝑦): (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝑟 2

r D
(a,b)

Open set
Let (X,d) be a metric space and 𝑈 ⊆ 𝑋. Then U is called an open set, if for each
𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, there exists a real number 𝑟 > 0 such that
𝑥 ∈ 𝑆𝑟 (𝑥) ⊆ 𝑈

G
X
U 𝑆𝑟 (𝑥)
(𝑥)
X

Example
Let (ℝ,d) be the usual metric space. Then (0,1) is an open set, whereas (0,1] is not.
Interior point
Let X be a metric space and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋. Then 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 is called an interior point of A, if
there exists an open sphere 𝑆𝑟 (𝑥) centred at x such that 𝑥 ∈ 𝑆𝑟 (𝑥) ⊆ 𝐴.
The set of interior points is called the interior of A and is denoted by Int(A).
Symbolically,
𝐼𝑛𝑡(𝐴) = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴: 𝑆𝑟 (𝑥) ⊆ 𝐴, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑟}
Clearly 𝐼𝑛𝑡(𝐴) ⊆ 𝐴.

A x
X 𝑆𝑟 (𝑥)

Example
Let ℝ be the usual metric space and A=[0,1) and B=[0,1]. Then 𝐼𝑛𝑡(𝐴) = (0,1) =
𝐼𝑛𝑡(𝐵).
Limit Point
Let X be a metric space and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋. Then a point 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 is called a limit point of A,
if each open sphere centred at x contains at least one point of A different from x.

A x
X
𝑆𝑟 (𝑥) x

Closed Sets
A set 𝐹 ⊆ 𝑋 is closed if it contains all its limit points.

Closed Sphere
The closed sphere 𝑆𝑟 [𝑎] is defined as
 𝑆𝑟 [𝑎] = {𝑥: 𝑑(𝑥, 𝑎) ≤ 𝑟
Where r=0, then 𝑆𝑟 [𝑎] = {𝑎}.

Closure and closure point

Let X be a metric space and 𝐴 ⊆ 𝑋. The closure of A denoted Cl(A) is the union of
A and all its limit points. If 𝐴𝑑 denotes the set of all limit points of A. Then
𝐶𝑙(𝐴) = 𝐴𝑈𝐴𝑑 . Clearly 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐶𝑙(𝐴). Each 𝑥 ∈ 𝐶𝑙(𝐴) is called a closure point.

Example
Let ℝ be the usual metric space.
(1) If A={1,½,⅓,….}, then Cl(A)={0,1,½, }.
(2) If A=[0,1), then Cl(A)=[0,1].
(3) If A=[0,1],then Cl(A)=A.
(4) Cl(ℤ)=ℤ.
(5) Cl(ℚ)=ℝ.