4IndDataCoMMs2 66

1
Unit 4
A. Julsereewong
 Basics of Multiplexing and Error Control in

Data Communications
o Multiplexing vs. Demultiplexing
 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
o Errors Due to Noise
o Error Detection & Correction
01066561 Industrial Data Communications

2
Learning Outcomes of Study Unit 4

A. Julsereewong
After completing this study unit, students will be able to

1. Compare between multiplexing and demultiplexing.
2. Explain ‘What is multiplexing and what are its types?’.
3. List major criteria for selecting a multiplexer.
4. Explain ‘What causes noise in data communications?’
5. Compare between error detection and error
correction.
6. Explain ‘What are the types of error detection?’.

3
Multiplexing & Demultiplexing

A. Julsereewong
• Multiplexing means combining multiple streams of

information for transmission over a shared medium.
• Demultiplexing performs the reverse function: split a
combined stream arriving from a shared medium into
the original information streams.
Source: B. A. Forouzan Data Communications and Networking, 4th edition, McGraw-Hill. 01066561 Industrial Data Communications
4
Why Use Multiplexing?

A. Julsereewong
• Multiplexing was first used to reduce the

number of transmission media needed
between cities and towns.
• This resulted in significantly reduced costs for
trunk circuits.
• Fiber optic cable allows the multiplexer to
combine as many as 6 million signals in one
direction on one fiber strand.

5
Bandwidth
A. Julsereewong
• Bandwidth (Bw) refers to the width of a signal,

which is determined by taking the difference
between the highest frequency of the signal
and its lowest frequency.
• A voice signal is usually though of as a signal
between 0 and 4000 Hz (Bw = 4000 Hz).
Source: https://techpolicyinstitute.org 01066561 Industrial Data Communications

6
Multiplexing
A. Julsereewong
• FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines

analog signals.
• WDM is an analog multiplexing technique to combine
optical signals.
• TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining
several low-rate digital channels into high-rate one.
7
Frequency Division Multiplexing - FDM

A. Julsereewong
• In data communications FDM is implemented by sending

multiple carrier waves over the same copper wire.
• At the receiver’s end, demultiplexing is performed by
filtering out the frequencies other than the one carrying
the expected transmission.
• Any of the modulation methods discussed before can be
used to carry bits within a channel.
• It is the basis for broadcast radio.
8
FDM Process
A. Julsereewong
9
FDM Demultiplexer Example

A. Julsereewong
10
Example of FDM
A. Julsereewong
11
Wavelength Division Multiplexer - WDM

A. Julsereewong
• In optical transmissions, FDM is known as Wavelength Division

Multiplexing (WDM).
• With light different frequencies correspond to different colors.
• Several transmissions can be send over the same fiber by using
different light colors, and combining into a single light stream.
• Prisms are used as multiplexers and demultiplexers.
12
WDM Operation
A. Julsereewong
• Same general architecture as other FDM

• Number of sources generating laser beams at different
frequencies
• Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over
single fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
o Typically tens of km apart
• Demux separates channels at the destination
• Mostly 1550nm wavelength range
• Was 200MHz per channel
• Now 50GHz
13
Time Division Multiplexing- TDM

A. Julsereewong
• It means dividing the available transmission time into time

slots, and allocating a different slot to each transmitter.
• One method for transmitters to take turns is to transmit in
round-robin order..
14
Synchronous TDM
A. Julsereewong
• In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times

faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
• No gaps between items.
• Uses round-robin.
15
Example of Synchronous TDM

A. Julsereewong
16
Unfilled Slots in TDM

A. Julsereewong
• In TDM every possible sender has a reserved time slot,

whether it needs it or not.
• This may lead to underutilization of the transmission
channel.
17
The solution to unfilled slots: Statistical TDM

A. Julsereewong
• Select items for transmission in round-robin order.

• But if a sender’s data is not ready, skip that sender
and move to the next one.
• All slots will be filled as long as some sender has
some data ready to send.
• But now each slot must also contains an identifier to
indicate who is the receiver.
18
TDM Slot Comparison

A. Julsereewong
Synchronous TDM
Statistical TDM
19
Selection Criteria for Multiplexer

A. Julsereewong
• Accuracy, or the degree of signal alteration through the
mulitplexer
• Size, or number of channels switched
• Input signal requirement such as voltage range and polarity,
source impedance, and common mode rejection
• Channel crosstalk
• Driving signal feedthrough
• Sampling rate
• Physical and power requirements
• Whether one (single-ended), two (differential), or three
(including shield) lines are switched for each multiplexer
point.
Source: Bela G. Liptak, Instrument Engineers' Handbook, 2002. 01066561 Industrial Data Communications
20
Review Questions?
A. Julsereewong
1) What are the primary differences between

Multiplexing and Demultiplexing?
2) Which multiplexing technique is most efficient?
and why?
3) Names three characteristics to consider when
selecting multiplexer for an application.

Error Control Concept in 21
A. Julsereewong
Data Communications
o The objective of every data communications
session is to efficiently and accurately transmit
the desired data.
o Data can be corrupted during transmission.
o For reliable communication, errors must be
detected and corrected.
o Error detection and correction are implemented
either at the data link layer or the transport layer
of the OSI model.
Source: J. E. Goldman and P.T. Rawles, Applied Data Communications: A Business-Oriented Approach, Wiley, 2003 01066561 Industrial Data Communications
22
Error due to Noise

A. Julsereewong
• Noise is always present.

• If a communications line experiences too much
noise, the signal will be lost or corrupted.
• Communication systems should check for
transmission errors.
• Once an error is detected, a system may perform
some action.
• Some systems perform no error control, but
simply let the data in error be discarded.
23
Some Types of Noise

A. Julsereewong
White Noise Impulse Noise
Jitter
Echo (Line Reflection)

Crosstalk
24
White Noise
A. Julsereewong
• White Noise:
o Also known as thermal or
Gaussian noise.
o Relatively constant and
can be reduced.
o If white noise gets too
strong, it can completely
disrupt the signal.
25
Impulse Noise
A. Julsereewong
• Impulse Noise:
o One of the most disruptive forms
of noise.
o Random spikes of power that can
destroy one or more bits of
information.
o Difficult to remove from an analog
signal because it may be hard to
distinguish from the original signal.
o Impulse noise can damage more
bits if the bits are closer together
(transmitted at a faster rate).
26
Jitter
A. Julsereewong
• Jitter:
o The result of small timing irregularities during the transmission
of digital signals.
o Occurs when a digital signal is repeated over and over.
o If serious enough, jitter forces systems to slow down their
transmission.
o Steps can be taken to reduce jitter.
27
Crosstalk
A. Julsereewong
• Crosstalk:
o Unwanted coupling between two different signal paths.
• For example, hearing another conversation while talking on
the telephone.
o Relatively constant and can be reduced with proper
measures.
28
Echo
A. Julsereewong
• Echo:
o The reflective feedback of a transmitted signal as the signal
moves through a medium.
o Most often occurs on coaxial cable.
o If echo bad enough, it could interfere with original signal.
o Relatively constant, and can be significantly reduced.
29
Delay Distortion/Harmonic Distortion

A. Julsereewong
• Delay Distortion: In a waveform consisting of two or

more wave components at different frequencies,
distortion caused by the difference in arrival times of
the frequency components at the output of a
transmission system.
30
Attenuation (Loss)
A. Julsereewong
• Attenuation means a loss of energy. The strength of a

signal falls off with distance over any transmission
medium.
31
Review Questions?
A. Julsereewong
Match the items on the right with the items on the left.
a.Due to the velocity of propagation of a
____White Noise signal through a medium varies with the
frequency of the signal
____Impulse Noise
b.Unwanted coupling between signal paths
____Crosstalk
c. Due to poor connections
____Echo
d.Gradual decrease in signal over distance
____Attenuation e.Due to thermal agitation of electrons.
____Jitter f. Suddenly increasing in electricity (e.g.
____Harmonic Distortion lighting)
g. Varying time delays in the circuit paths
from component to component in the
signal path
32
Error Control
A. Julsereewong
• Digital transmission systems introduce errors

• Applications require certain reliability level
 Data applications require error-free transfer
 Voice & video applications tolerate some errors
• Error control
 To ensure a data stream is transmitted to a certain
level of accuracy
 The concept behind error control is the prevention of
delivery of incorrect messages (bits) to a higher level
in the communication hierarchy.
33
Error Prevention
A. Julsereewong
o To prevent errors from happening, several

techniques may be applied:
 Proper shielding of cables to reduce interference
 Telephone line conditioning or equalization
 Replacing older media and equipment with new,
possibly digital components
 Proper use of digital repeaters and analog
amplifiers
 Observe the stated capacities of the media
Source: C. White, Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business User's Approach, Sixth Edition 01066561 Industrial Data Communications
34
Error Prevention
A. Julsereewong
35
Types of Bit Errors

A. Julsereewong
• Single-Bit Error
 In a frame, there is only one bit,
anywhere though, which is corrupt.
 This one bit change cannot be
ignored since one bit change can
change the whole meaning of the
data that is transmitted.
 Single-bit errors are typically caused
by random noise.
https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/routers/asr-9000-series-aggregation-services-routers/211255-Parity-errors-seen-on-ASR9k.html 01066561 Industrial Data Communications

36
Types of Bit Errors

A. Julsereewong
• Multiple-Bit Error/Burst Error

 Frame is received with more than one bits in
corrupted state.
 Burst errors are caused by impulse noise or fading
(external/environment noise).
 Effects of burst errors are greater at higher data rates.

37
Two Approaches of Error Control

A. Julsereewong
• Two basic approaches:

 Error Detection & Retransmission
• Error detection: parity check, CRC
• Retransmission: automatic repeat request (ARQ)
 Error Correction
• Forward error correction (FEC)

38
Error Detection vs. Error Correction

A. Julsereewong
• Error Detection is the detection of errors
caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmitter to the receiver.
• Error Correction is the detection of errors and
reconstruction of the original, error-free data.
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_logical_organization/error_codes 01066561 Industrial Data Communications

39
Basic Idea of Error Detection

A. Julsereewong
• Despite the best prevention techniques, errors

may still happen.
• How to detect errors
 If only data is transmitted, errors cannot be detected.
 To detect an error at the destination, something extra has
to be added to the data/signal --> Redundancy
o This extra is an error detection code.
Transmitter Receiver
redundant bits = ‘compressed’ version of original data bits 01066561 Industrial Data Communications
40
Redundancy
A. Julsereewong
• Redundancy is the concept of sending extra

bits for use in error detection.
41
Hamming Distance (HD)

A. Julsereewong
• A measure for the interference immunity of a

transmission is the Hamming distance (HD).
• It is calculated by determining the number of
errors which can still be detected.
With the parity checking method, the Hamming distance is HD=2.

42
Error Detection Process

A. Julsereewong
• The transmitter and receiver agree on how the error

check is to be calculated.
• The transmitter calculates and transmits the error
check along with the transmitted data.
• The receiver re-calculates the error check based on
the received data and compares its newly calculated
error check to the error check received with the
data.
• If the two error checks match, everything is fine. If
they do not match, an error has occurred.
43
Error Detection Methods

A. Julsereewong
• Several error detection techniques of varying

degrees of complexity have been developed.
 Parity Check, also referred to as a Vertical
Redundancy Check (VRC).
 Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)
 Checksums
 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
44
Error Detection – Parity Check

A. Julsereewong
• One extra bit is sent along with the original bits to make
number of 1s either even, in case of even parity, or in
case of odd parity.
45

A. Julsereewong
 If performing even parity, add a parity bit such that

an even number of 1s are maintained.
 If performing odd parity, add a parity bit such that
an odd number of 1s are maintained.
Letter “A” in odd and even parity 01066561 Industrial Data Communications
46

A. Julsereewong
 If the total number of 1s in 8-bit data is an even number,

a '1' is added as a parity bit; if this is an odd number, a '0'
is added (odd parity check).
 If a 1-bit error occurs in data, the total number of 1s in
that data changes. This allows detection of 1-bit errors.
47

A. Julsereewong
• Even parity:
– The number of 1-bit must add up to an even number
• Example: even parity
– 1010100(?)
– 1010101(?)
– 1101101(?)
• Odd parity:
– The number of 1-bit must add up to an odd number
• Example: odd parity
– 1010100(?)
– 1010101(?)
– 1101101(?)
48

A. Julsereewong
Even-parity checking scheme

49

A. Julsereewong
What happens if the character 10010101 is sent and

the first two 0s accidentally become two 1s?

50
Limitation of Parity Check (VRC)

A. Julsereewong
• The problem with parity is that it can only detect odd

numbers of bit substitution errors, i.e. 1 bit, 3bit, 5, bit,
etc. errors. If there two, four, six, etc. bits which are
transmitted in error, using VRC will not be able to detect
the error.
51
Error Detection – LRC

A. Julsereewong
• Longitudinal Redundancy Checks (LRC) is a block-oriented

parity-checking mechanism that adds an entire parity
character following a block of data character.
Original Data
11001010 10101010 11001100 11100011
11001010
10101010
11001100
11100011
Redundant Row/LRC 01001111
Direction of movement
11001010 10101010 11001100 11100011 01001111
Original Data LRC (Parity Bits)

52

A. Julsereewong
Original Data
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001
11100111
11011101
00111001
10101001
Redundant Row/LRC?
Direction of movement
11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010
Original Data LRC (Parity Bits) ?

53

A. Julsereewong
• The advantage of using LRC over VRC is that it can check

all the burst errors. An LRC of n bits can detect a burst
error of n bits.
Sender’s Data 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010
Receiver’s Data 11100111 11011101 11000110 10101001 10101010

LRC (Parity Bits)
11100111
11011101
11000110
10101001
New LRC 01010101
(At the Receiver)
54
Error Detection – Limitation of LRC

A. Julsereewong
• LRC cannot detect errors where there are even number of damages
bits that are located in the same column position of different rows.
Sender’s Data 11100111 11011101 00111001 10101001 10101010

Receiver’s Data 11100111 11011101 00110011 10100011 10101010
11100111
11011101
00110011
10100011
New LRC 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
(At the Receiver)
So even if the data bits have changed this error won't be detected
at the receiver's end.
55
Error Detection – Parity Check and LRC

A. Julsereewong
• Both parity check (VRC) and LRC do not catch all

errors
• Parity check only catches odd numbers of bit
errors
• LRC is better at catching errors but requires too
many check bits added to a block of data
• We need a better error detection method
– What about 2-D Parity Check?
– What about a checksum?
– What about CRC?
56
Error Detection – 2-D Parity Check

A. Julsereewong
• In two-dimensional parity check, a block of bits is

organized in a table (rows & columns).
• A parity bit is calculated for each row and column.
57

A. Julsereewong
What is its performance?
58

A. Julsereewong
What is its performance?
59

A. Julsereewong
• all 1-bit errors can be detected and

corrected.
• all 2-, 3- bit errors can be detected.
• 4- and more bit errors can be detected in
some cases.
• Drawback: too many check bits !!!

60
Review Question?
A. Julsereewong
• Suppose that the following block of data, error-

protected with 2-D parity check is sent:
10101001 00111001 11011101 11100111 10101010
• However, the block is hit by a burst noise of length 8,

and some bits are corrupted.
10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010
Will the receiver be able to detect the burst error

in the sent data?
61
Error Detection - Checksum

A. Julsereewong
• Checksums are also block-oriented error detection

characters added to a block of data character.
• However, rather than checking the number of ones in
the block, as was the case with the LRC, a checksum
is calculated by adding the decimal face values of all
the character sent in a given data block and sending
only the least significant byte of that sum.
• The receiver generates its own checksum based on
the data it has received, and compares the locally
calculated checksum with the transmitted checksum.

62

A. Julsereewong
• The formula for calculating a checksum is as follows:

o Add the ASCII decimal face value of each of the
128 characters in the block.
o Divide this number by 255.
o Determine the remainder.
o The remainder is the checksum character to be
transmitted to and verified by the receiver.

63

A. Julsereewong
• As demonstrated in the table above the decimal value of the

capital letter "A" is 65.
• If 128 capital A's were transferred in a single block of data, the
total value of the block would be 128 X 65 = 8,320.
• Now divide that total by 255, 8,320/255 = 32 with a
remainder of 160.
• The remainder is also known as the least significant byte. In
order to represent the remainder of 160 as a single checksum
character, it must be converted to binary which would result
in 10100000.
64
Error Detection – Internet Checksum

A. Julsereewong
• Used in TCP and IP on the Internet

• Characters to be transmitted are converted to
numeric form and summed.
• Sum is placed in some form at the end of the
transmission.
• Receiver performs same conversion and summing
and compares new sum with sent sum.
T–T=0

65
Error Detection – Internet Checksum

A. Julsereewong
• Simplified example:
56
72
34
48
210
• Then bring 2 down and add to right-most position
10
2
12
TCP and IP processes a little more complex but idea is the same.
66
Error Detection - CRC

A. Julsereewong
• Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) are similar in concept to

checksums, but they use polynomial division to determine the
value of the CRC, which is usually 16 or 32 bits in length.
67
Error Detection – CRC Generator

A. Julsereewong
68
Error Detection – CRC Checking

A. Julsereewong
69
Error Detection - CRC

A. Julsereewong
o The message is interpreted independent of its length

as binary number, which is then divided by a specific
generator polynomial (divisor).
o Only the proper message and the remainder of the
division are transmitted to the receiver.
o Transmission was accurate when the received data
can be divided by the same polynomial without
leaving a remainder.
o The number of detectable errors depends on the
polynomial used.
70
Error Correction
A. Julsereewong
 Once an error is detected, what is the receiver

going to do?
o Do nothing (simply toss the frame or packet)
o Return an error message to the transmitter
o Fix the error with no further help from the
transmitter
71
Error Correction
A. Julsereewong
• Equipment and circuit requirement
o Buffer
o Reverse channel or D channel
• Retransmission - automatic repeat request (ARQ)
• Methods
o Discrete ARQ - ACK/NAK: long data block & low error rate
o Continuous ARQ - sliding window protocol with block
sequence number: long propagation time
o Selective ARQ
o Forward error correction (FEC): simplex transmission
o Trillis-Coded modulation
o High cost (extra bits & codes)
72
Error Correction
A. Julsereewong
73
Homework (Unit 4)
A. Julsereewong
Answer the following questions to the best of your knowledge.

1. Compare between multiplexing and demultiplexing.
2. Explain ‘What is multiplexing and what are its types?’.
3. List major criteria for selecting a multiplexer.
4. Explain ‘What causes noise in data communications?’
5. Compare between error detection and error
correction.
6. Explain ‘What are the types of error detection?’.

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1

 Basics of Multiplexing and Error Control in

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Learning Outcomes of Study Unit 4

After completing this study unit, students will be able to

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Multiplexing & Demultiplexing

• Multiplexing means combining multiple streams of

Why Use Multiplexing?

• Multiplexing was first used to reduce the

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

• Bandwidth (Bw) refers to the width of a signal,

Source: https://techpolicyinstitute.org 01066561 Industrial Data Communications

• FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines

Frequency Division Multiplexing - FDM

• In data communications FDM is implemented by sending

FDM Demultiplexer Example

Wavelength Division Multiplexer - WDM

• In optical transmissions, FDM is known as Wavelength Division

• Same general architecture as other FDM

Time Division Multiplexing- TDM

• It means dividing the available transmission time into time

• In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times

Example of Synchronous TDM

Unfilled Slots in TDM

• In TDM every possible sender has a reserved time slot,

The solution to unfilled slots: Statistical TDM

• Select items for transmission in round-robin order.

TDM Slot Comparison

Selection Criteria for Multiplexer

1) What are the primary differences between

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Error due to Noise

• Noise is always present.

Some Types of Noise

White Noise Impulse Noise

Echo (Line Reflection)

Delay Distortion/Harmonic Distortion

• Delay Distortion: In a waveform consisting of two or

• Attenuation means a loss of energy. The strength of a

• Digital transmission systems introduce errors

o To prevent errors from happening, several

Types of Bit Errors

https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/support/docs/routers/asr-9000-series-aggregation-services-routers/211255-Parity-errors-seen-on-ASR9k.html 01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Types of Bit Errors

• Multiple-Bit Error/Burst Error

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Two Approaches of Error Control

• Two basic approaches:

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Error Detection vs. Error Correction

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_logical_organization/error_codes 01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Basic Idea of Error Detection

• Despite the best prevention techniques, errors

• Redundancy is the concept of sending extra

Hamming Distance (HD)

• A measure for the interference immunity of a

With the parity checking method, the Hamming distance is HD=2.

01066561 Industrial Data Communications

Error Detection Process

• The transmitter and receiver agree on how the error

Error Detection Methods

• Several error detection techniques of varying