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Effects of dietary fiber on human health

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DOI: 10.1016/j.fshw.2021.07.001

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 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554 545

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Food Science and Human Wellness

journal homepage: http://www.keaipublishing.com/en/journals/food-science-and-human-wellness

Effects of dietary fiber on human health

Yang Hea,b,1, Bixiang Wangb,1, Liankui Wenb,*, Fengzhong Wanga,c,*,
Hansong Yub,c,*, Dongxia Chenb, Xin Sub, Chi Zhangb
a
Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (CAAS), Beijing 100193, China
b
Department of Food Science and Engineering, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China
c
Division of Soybean Processing, Soybean Research & Development Center, Chinese Agricultural Research System, Changchun 130118, China

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Article history: Dietary fiber (DF) is believed to provide important health benefits and it has become a research hotspot. DF exists
Received 28 September 2020 in most natural foods, including fruits (16.74%−91.24%), vegetables (6.53%−85.19%), grains (9.76%−69.20%)
Received in revised form 28 December 2020 and so on. DF has different physicochemical properties such as water holding capacity (WHC) (2.01−25.03 g/g),
Accepted 10 January 2021 water swelling capacity (WSC) (0.95−23.90 mL/g), oil holding capacity (OHC) (0.65−29.00 g/g),
Available Online 1 August 2021 glucose adsorption capacity (GAC) (0.17−4.65 mmol/g), cholesterol adsorption capacity (CAC) (0.03−37.10 mg/g)
and viscosity, which make it exhibits different physiological functions such as reducing the risk of obesity,
Keywords: diabetes, cancer, and intestinal diseases. On the basis of consulting related databases, the physicochemical
Dietary fiber properties of DF and its derived physiological functions are reviewed. It is found that DF has effect on the
Physicochemical properties prevention and treatment of obesity due to good WHC, WSC, OHC and CAC. Good GAC can relieve the
Human health symptoms of diabetes. The physicochemical properties of WHC and WSC can reduce the risk of cancer. The
WHC, WSC and viscosity are beneficial to intestinal health.
© 2021 Beijing Academy of Food Sciences. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi
Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction some hemicelluloses [2-5]. DF comes from a wide range of sources,

Dietary fiber (DF) is the edible parts of plants, which can be
completely or partially fermented in large intestine with undigested
and unabsorbable in the human small intestine. It is the sum
of carbohydrates and their analogues, including nondigestible
polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, and associated plant substances [1].
DF can be divided into soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and insoluble
dietary fiber (IDF) base on its solubility in hot water. SDF is non-
cellulosic polysaccharide, including oligosaccharides and some
indigestible polysaccharides (e.g., inulin, arabic gum, gum, pectins,
galactomannan and β-glucans). IDF includes cellulose, lignin, and
1
The authors contributed equally to this article.
*
Corresponding authors.
E-mail address: wenliankui@jlau.edu.cn (L.K. Wen);
wangfengzhong@sina.com (F.Z. Wang); yuhansong@163.com (H.S. Yu).
Peer review under responsibility of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd.
including fruits, vegetables, grains, as well as others (Table 1).
High viscosity SDF (such as pectin and oligosaccharide) is higher
in apples, oranges, persimmons, pears, dried beans, cauliflower,
carrots, and potatoes, etc. Pectin is a network of polygalacturonic
acid composed of D-galacturonic acid residues linked by α-1,4
glycosidic bonds, and has good viscosity and absorbability. So
it has the property of adsorb glucose, cholesterol and heavy
metals [6,7]. Willats et al. [8] showed that the different degree of
polymerization and complex side chain of pectin are important in
anti-cancer activity and other biological activity characteristics,
and its mechanism needs to be studied. Most IDF such as lignin,
cellulose, and semi-fibers in grains (e.g., wheat, soybeans, mung
beans and oats) are small in viscosity but have good swelling
properties. Cellulose is a polymer-insoluble polysaccharide
connected by glucose through β(1→4) glycosidic bonds and belongs
to linear molecule. The adjacent cellulose chains have a stable
fibrous structure by hydrogen bonding, which makes cellulose has
water holding capacity (WHC), water swelling capacity (WSC), oil

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2213-4530/© 2021 Beijing Academy of Food Sciences. Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co., Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC
BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
546 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554
holding capacity (OHC), glucose adsorption capacity (GAC), and
cholesterol adsorption capacity (CAC), etc. [9,10].
With the rapid development of modern society, many patients
with chronic diseases are dramatically increasing, including obesity,
diabetes, cancer, intestinal diseases, and other non-communicable
diseases. The incidence of disease is increasing year by year
worldwide, which further leads to an increase in mortality worldwide
[11,12]. The occurrence of chronic diseases not only increases the
family and global economic burden, but also reduces the happiness
index. Evidence suggests that DF can participate in human
metabolism to prevent and treat these diseases (Fig. 1) [13,14]. Wei
et al. [15] showed that 10 g/day increase in total fiber intake, the
probability of suffering from metabolic syndrome is reduced by 11%.
It has also been found that among the DF, cereal and fruit fiber can
reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome. DF with different structures
has different physicochemical properties, which play a vital role in
regulating the health mechanism of human body. Studies believe
that the physicochemical properties of DF such as WHC, WSC,
OHC, GAC, CAC, and visibility are closely related to physiological
functions. Therefore, the relationship between these physicochemical
and physiological functions are discussed, and the product of DF in
functional food in life are collected. These are expected to lay the
foundation for the development of DF health food.
2. Physicochemical properties
2.1 WHC
WHC is describe as mix 1 g of DF (dry basis) with water under
specific conditions, and calculate the amount of water retained (g)
after overnight [16]. The WHC has a certain relationship with the
structure of DF. When the contact area and the hydrophilic group
of DF increase, water can be retained in the hydrophilic part or in
the space of network fiber structure, which will improve the WHC.
The WHC of DF ranges from 2.01 g/g to 25.03 g/g, among them,
vegetable DF has the highest WHC (7.10−18.90 g), followed by fruits
Dietary fiber
Stomach Stimulate the secretion of gastric digestive juice,
enhance gastrointestinal motility
Resist the digestion and
Small intestine
absorption of the human
small intestine
Fully fermented fibers include β-glucan, pectin,
guar gum, acacia, seaweed gum and inulin, etc.
Some fermented fibers include fiber crisp,
hemicellulose, lignin, vegetable wax and keratin, etc.
Fig. 1 Metabolism of DF in human body and disease prevention.
(3.38−13.08 g) and grains (2.01−6.23 g) (Table 1). Vegetable DF has
high WHC due to its irregular, loose and porous surface, just as Xie
et al. [17] studied that Angelica keiskei’s root DF has high WHC.
Zheng et al. [18] reported that the DF content in coconut is (13.08 ±
0.36) g, which is higher than that of most vegetables. This may be
due to the DF structure of coconut is looser and more porous than
most vegetables, which increases the surface area and facilitates water
retention. In food research development and industrial production,
processing and modification methods are often used to change the
structure of DF to promote the desire for better physicochemical
properties. DF has a good WHC, which is one of the main reasons
for its role in improving human health. Firstly, DF has a lubricating
effect after absorbing water, which can promote intestinal peristalsis
and intestinal motility [19]. Secondly, DF expands the volume of food
after absorbing water, which can reduce food intake. DF is fermented
in the intestine to produce SCFAs, which can promote the secretion
of satiety hormones [20]. Those will reduce the risk of obesity.
Thirdly, DF can increase stool volume after absorbing water and
swell, promote defecation while taking carcinogens away [21,22]. At
the same time, DF fermentation can regulate gut microbiota, so as to
prevent diseases [23].
2.2 WSC
The method to determine WSC is to add DF sample (1 g) and
water into the graduated cylinder overnight, and record the expansion
volume [24]. DF has WSC for the following reasons: 1) Water has
surface tension strength, it can be maintained in the DF capillary
structure. 2) Hydrogen bonds and dipole hydrophilic groups bind
to water. 3) This is directly related to the contact area of DF. The
WSC of DF ranges from 0.95 mL/g to 23.90 mL/g, of which WSC of
vegetables DF is 5.35−18.70 g/g, the fruit DF is 3.20−10.17 g/g, and
the grain DF is 0.95−7.54 g/g (Table 1). The WSC of coconut DF is
the strongest to reach (10.17 ± 0.40) g/g, it exposes more hydrogen
bonds and dipole forms [18]. Xie et al. [25] reported that the WSC of
Obesity
Diabetes
h
Human health
Cancer
Intestinal disease
Regulate the gut
microbiota and promote
the production of SCFAs
Gut microbiota
Large intestine
Excreted after absorbing
water and swelling
 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554
DF from purple potatoes are related to processing conditions. High
pressure homogenized DF has good WSC (18.30 mL/g), because the
alteration of chemical and structural natures induced by high pressure
treatments. Generally, the WSC of DF is beneficial to its functional
properties for the same reasons as WHC.
2.3 OHC
The method to determine OHC is to mix sample (1 g) with soybean
oil, leave it to stand for reaction, and centrifuge to retain the amount of
oil [26]. The OHC of DF is mainly related to the total charge density,
hydrophobicity, surface properties and treatment conditions. The
OHC of DF ranges from 0.65 g/g to 29.00 g/g. In general, the OHC of
vegetable DF (1.01−25.8 g/g) is higher than fruit DF (0.65−9.91 g/g)
and cereal DF (0.96−29.00 g/g) (Table 1). Among them, walnut
powder has the largest OHC, it has more porous and honey comb
like [27]. Yu et al. [28] proposed that the OHC of carrot DF is
significantly improved because the enzyme treatment exposed more
hydrophilic groups and the cellular network structure. Zhao et al. [29]
showed that the OHC (1.72 g/g) of superfine grinding rice bran IDF
is significantly lower than that of fine IDF (2.09 g/g) and crude DF
(2.96 g/g). As the particle size of superfine grinding decreases, the
honeycomb structure of IDF disappears, which makes the OHC
decrease. The OHC of DF is also the basis of important functional
properties. DF can absorb fat and reduce the intake of excess calories
in the body, which can prevent the occurrence of obesity [30].
2.4 GAC
GAC is describe as the mix DF (1 g ) and 100 mL glucose solution
(5−200 mmol/L) in an enzyme reactor and mix the amount of glucose
retained by centrifugation [31]. GAC of DF is related to its physical
properties, because glucose can adhere to the network structure of DF
and reduce the contact with human intestinal tract [32]. The GAC of
DF in food is from 0.17 mmol/g to 4.65 mmol/g, and studies on GAC
mainly focus on vegetable DF (Table 1). Huang et al. [33] found that
GAC of garlic stems DF increased after ultrasonic treatment, which
is due to the increase of honey-comb network structure. Yu et al. [28]
reported that IDF extracted from carrot using a complex enzyme
method (2.43 mmol/g), and GAC exhibits a significantly improved
with the high hydrostatic pressure (2.63 mmol/g). The GAC of DF is
related to the glucose metabolism function. This is because DF can
absorb sugars, and produce SCFAs through fermentation in the body,
which can prevent the diabetes [34,35].
2.5 CAC
CAC is expressed as the mass of cholesterol absorbed by 1 g of
sample. CAC of DF is divided into physical and chemical adsorption.
Physical adsorption is mainly related to the particle size, specific
surface area, porosity and reaction temperature of DF [36-38].
Chemical adsorption is related to the DF charge and hydrophobic
group. CAC ranges from 0.03 mg/g to 37.10 mg/g, and the major
studies of CAC focus on vegetables DF (12.94−37.10 mg/g) (Table 1).
Bamboo shoot shell DF can bind or adsorb bile acids and cholesterol
(12.94 mg/g), thereby reducing cholesterol [39]. Liu et al. [40]
showed that SDF in soybean hulls has good viscosity, which can
547
enhance the CAC (7.62 mg/g), thereby reducing blood cholesterol
levels. DF with good CAC can prevent and treat obesity disease. DF
can absorb cholesterol, and the SCFAs produced by fermentation can
participate in body metabolism and improve dyslipidemia, which are
the reasons for preventing obesity [38,41].
2.6 Viscosity
Viscosity is the relationship between fluid flow and the force
directed on the fluid, and it can be affected by many factors, such
as chemical composition, structure, particle size, surface area and
processing conditions. Gallaher et al. [42] used whole oatmeal or
instant oatmeal to make muffins and fed to rats, and the viscosity of
the intestinal contents supernatant is measured. The results showed
that the viscosity of whole oatmeal (about 225 cP) is significantly
higher than eating instant oatmeal (about 110 cP). The reason is that
more viscosity fiber such as β-glucan in whole oats, and β-glucan
has more hydrophilic groups, which promotes the increase of the
water film thickness of the intestinal mucosa, thereby increasing the
viscosity of supernatant intestinal contents. Ullah et al. [43] found that
the viscosity of okara stability increased after thermal pre-treatment.
The viscosity of DF can prevent obesity and diabetes by delaying fat
formation and gastric emptying, and increasing insulin sensitivity.
3. DF and human health
3.1 DF and obesity
In recent years, obese patients have been increasing year by year
all over the world. According to statistics from 200 countries, the
global prevalence of obesity has increased from 3.2% in 1975 to
10.8% in 2014 in men. At the same time, the data suggests an increase
from 6.4% of women to 14.9% [61]. In 2016, more than 1.9 billion
adults aged 18 were overweight, of which more than 650 million were
obese, and more than 340 million children and adolescents aged 5−19
were overweight or obese. The increasing number of obese patients
poses a threat to human health worldwide, increases the global
burden, and becomes a challenge for human [62]. Reducing obese
patients has become an urgent problem. Adequate intake of DF has
been shown to play an important role in preventing obesity.
DF can block the fat absorption and reduce energy intake by
regulating food intake, digestion, absorption and metabolism. The
main weight loss mechanism of DF is as follows: 1) The viscosity
of SDF such as gum and gum arabic is high, which can slow down
the migration of nutrients. DF has galacturonic acid structure,
which has a high viscosity [30]. At the same time, DF has good
WHC, OHC and CAC, which can enhance the adsorption of fat. In
addition, the network structure of IDF makes it have better CAC [63].
Mandimika et al. [38] described that broccoli DF contains sticky
pectin, which reduces the intake of dietary fat, and enhances the
removal of cholesterol and bile acid from enterohepatic circulation,
thereby reducing blood cholesterol levels. Luo et al. [39] found
that bamboo shoot shell contained a large amount of IDF, which
can bind or adsorb bile acids and cholesterol, leading to a reduction
of cholesterol in various pools. 2) DF has good WSC, which can
enhance satiety and reduce food intake. Lambert et al. [20] found
that the intake of DF will absorb water and increase satiety, which
 548

Table 1
Summary of DF content and its physicochemical properties from different sources.
DF content (% Dry) GAC
Classification Sources WHC (g/g) WSC (mL/g) OHC (g/g) CAC (mg/g) Viscosity (cp) Extraction methods References
TDF (SDF/IDF) (mmol/g)
Goldenberry 16.74 (-/-) 3.38 ± 0.10 (TDF) 5.24 ± 0.15 1.26 ± 0.02 - - - Chemical [44]
Breadnut fruit 91.24 (1.99/89.25) 4.10 ± 0.38 (IDF) 4.30 ± 0.05 2.60 ± 0.42 - - - Enzymes [45]
Apple pomace - 8.90 (SDF) 7.20 1.90 - - - Microwave-assisted [46]
Mexican apple pomace 70.91 (11.10/59.81) 4.20 ± 0.28 (TDF) 3.20 ± 0.28 1.69 ± 0.13 - - - - [47]
Fruits Citrus pomace 65.51 (8.10/57.41) 7.33 ± 0.52 (IDF) 7.14 ± 0.36 1.34 ± 0.06 - - - Jet grinding [48]
Grape pomace 57.24 (5.54/51.70) 3.84 ± 0.24 (TDF) 6.95 ± 0.26 0.65 ± 0.02 - - - - [49]
Coconut fibre 84.49 (19.33/65.16) 13.08 ± 0.36 (TDF) 10.17 ± 0.40 9.91 ± 1.74 - - - Multiple enzymes [18]
Papaya peel - 5.26 ± 0.15 (SDF) 4.54 ± 0.21 1.40 ± 0.12 - - - Ultrasound-assisted [50]
Orange peel 83.49 ± 0.19 36.33 [51]
Purple fleshed potato 72.80 (39.30/33.50) 18.90 ± 0.10 (TDF) 18.30 ± 0.60 25.80 ± 0.10 - - - High pressure [25]

Yellow fleshed potato - - 18.70 ± 0.80 (IDF) 15.60 ± 1.10 - - - Multiple enzymes [25]
Garlic straw 79.35 (7.15/72.20) 9.72 ± 0.29 (IDF) 13.20 ± 0.36 10.56 ± 0.22 4.65 ± 0.15 16.75 ± 0.19 - Multiple enzymes [33]
Vegetables Carrot pomace 85.19 (2.07/83.12) 7.14 (IDF) 10.02 2.35 2.63 37.10 - Ultrasound assisted [28]
Bamboo shoot shell - 7.10 ± 0.15 (SDF) 10.97 ± 0.35 2.32 ± 0.13 - 12.94 ± 0.14 - Multiple enzymes [39]
Tomato residue fiber 6.53 (-/-) - - 2.12 ± 0.23 - - - Chemical [52]
Node of lotus root - 9.53 ± 0.18 (SDF) 8.67 ± 0.23 2.62 ± 0.19 - - - Multiple enzymes [26]
Alga - 9.32–10.30 (IDF) 5.35 1.01–1.08 0.17 - - Englyst [53]
Angelica keiskei - 18.10 ± 0.10 (IDF) 8.10 ± 0.30 18.10 ± 0.50 - - - Multiple enzymes [17]

Rice bran 30.00 (-/-) 6.23 ± 0.07 (IDF) 7.54 ± 0.22 1.72 ± 0.05 - - - Chemical [29]
Soy hulls soluble fiber - 5.26 ± 0.26 (SDF) - 4.83 ± 0.19 - 7.62 ± 0.34 - Chemical [40]
Black bean coat 69.20 (7.80/61.40) - - - - - - - [54]
Bambara groundnut- black eye - 2.01 ± 0.05 (IDF) 6.83 ± 0.29 - - - - Enzymes [55]
Cereals Defatted walnut flour - 5.39 (TDF) 3.16 29.00 - - - Chemical [27]
Qingke flour 9.76 (-/-) 4.42 ± 0.39 (TDF) 0.95 ± 0.01 0.96 ± 0.02 - - - Grinding [56]
Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554

Cactus racket 56.60 (9.46/47.14) 5.11 ± 0.10 (TDF) - 2.42 ± 0.10 - - - Chemical [57]
Oat bran - - - - - - 220 [58]

Maize straw 83.50 (13.20/70.30) 25.03 ± 2.40 (TDF) 23.90 ± 4.50 2.81 ± 0.23 - 0.03 - Chemical [59]
Others
Espresso cocoa waste 61.24 (24.58/36.66) 5.76 ± 0.32 (TDF) 5.70 ± 0.23 1.18 ± 0.07 - - - Chemical [60]
"-" indicates dietary fiber did not have an effect on this parameter.
 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554 549

can delay nutrients absorption and effectively reduce energy intake.
3) DF produces SCFAs through intestinal microbial fermentation,
while promotes the secretion of glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and
YY peptide (PYY). GLP-1 is released from intestinal L-cells, which
promotes insulin secretion and pancreatic cell proliferation, controls
glycogen synthesis in muscle cells, and enhances satiety [64]. PYY
is an intestinal secretion hormone with anti-obesity effect, which
has the effect of suppressing appetite and reducing food intake [65].
Chang et al. [41] reported that the IDF of pear pomace can dilute
energy, increase energy consumption, and promote GLP-1 and PYY
secretion after intestinal fermentation, thereby reducing fat cells and
effectively improves obesity.
All in all, the improvement of obesity by DF mainly comes from
the physicochemical properties such as WHC, WSC, OHC, CAC and
viscosity, which delay the absorption of fat from food. Both SDF and
IDF have the effects of reducing obesity, which is better requires a lot
of experimental researches.
3.2 DF and diabetes
In the past few decades, the incidence of diabetes, especially
type 2 diabetes, is the highest, accounting for 90% of all diseases. It
has grown very rapidly, and the number of patients with diabetes has
continued to increase globally. It was 151 million in 2000 and 285
million in 2010. The global prevalence of diabetes is expected to be
7.8% by 2030 [66]. The increase in the number of diabetic patients
also increases the global economic burden. These issues make it
urgent for us to prevent and treat type 2 diabetes as soon as possible.
Studies have found that DF has an important role in the prevention
and treatment of diabetes.
The mechanism of DF lowering blood glucose is as follows: 1)
The network structure of DF can form a physical barrier and delay
the diffusion of glucose. Fibrous particles act as a physical barrier
to glucose molecules and entrapment of glucose in the fiber-forming
network. When the structure of DF becomes loose and porous, and
more surface functional groups are exposed, the interaction between
DF and glucose will be enhanced, and the GAC will be improved.
Srichamroen et al. [67] and Ashutosh et al. [68] reported that DF from
sunflower seeds, tamarind and cassia seeds has a positive effect on
retarding glucose diffusion. In addition, DF extracted from potatoes
by Cheng et al. [34] has a significant effect on slowing the diffusion
of glucose. It is due to the porous of DF and the exposure of surface
functional groups, which enhances the interaction between DF and
glucose. Millet IDF can delay glucose absorption and help better
control serum glucose level, which is mainly caused by the physical
barrier of IDF [69]. 2) Viscous fibers can delay gastric emptying and
increase the sensitivity of insulin to hypoglycaemic effects. Bobboi et
al. [70] noted that the viscosity of ingested guar gum can reduce the
postprandial hyperglycemia. 3) DF is fermented by the gut microbiota
to produce SCFAs, thereby stimulate the secretion of satiety hormone
(GLP-1 and PYY), those hormones help to increase insulin secretion
and control the blood glucose level. Zhao et al. [35] reported that
acetic acid and butyric acid can improve glucose homeostasis by
inducing GLP-1 and PYY intestinal production, thereby stimulating
insulin secretion.
3.3 DF and cancer
Cancer is one of the main public problems that seriously threaten
the health of human beings [71]. Therefore, the prevention of cancer
is urgent. The occurrence of cancer is closely related to eating habits,
and high DF diet can effectively prevent the occurrence of a variety of
cancers (Table 2).
The mechanism of DF to prevent cancer is mainly reflected
in the following aspects. 1) DF has WHC and SWC, which can
increase stool volume, accelerate defecation time, and reduce
the concentration of carcinogens in the intestine. Dahl et al. [21]
reported that DF can reduce the risk of colorectal cancer because
the increased fecal bulk and decreased transit time, thereby reducing
the carcinogens concentration of colorectal epithelium. 2) DF can
reduce the concentration of circulating hormones and increase
excretion. The prevention mechanism of ovarian cancer and breast
cancer is mainly to inhibit the secretion of hormones and reduce the
bioavailability of hormones. Ho et al. [72] studies showed that DF
in fruits and vegetables prevents female breast cancer by inhibiting
estrogen enzymes and reducing estrogen secretion. In addition,
Xu et al. [73] reported that intaking DF can reduce steroid hormones
and help regulate insulin growth factor, thereby reducing the risk of
ovarian cancer. For every 5 g/day DF increase, the risk of ovarian
cancer is reduced by 3% (relative risk, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.95–0.99).
3) DF fermentation produces SCFAs such as butyrate, which can
inhibit histone deacetylase and related signaling pathways in cultured
cancer cells, and promote cancer cell apoptosis [74]. Studies by
Kawakita et al. [75] showed that DF seems to have anti-inflammatory
effects through the production of SCFAs by gut bacteria with anti-
proliferation and pro-apoptotic properties, resulting in reducing the
risk of cancer.
3.4 DF and intestinal disease
The gastrointestinal system is the largest barrier tissue of the
human body. In a healthy state, the intestinal environment can play
a key role in promoting food digestion and affecting the mucosal

Table 2
Effect of DF in some types of cancer.
Types of cancer Analytical methods Experimental model Mechanism References
Ovarian cancer Meta-analysis Clinical researches: 5 777 ovarian cancer Reduce concentrations of circulating hormonal [76]
Pancreatic cancer Meta-analysis Clinical researches: 3 287 pancreatic cancer (estrogen, hormonal pancreatic carcinogenesis, [77]
Prostate cancer Prospective analysis Clinical researches: 139 prostate cancer estrogens or androgens) [78]
Breast cancer Case-control study Clinical researches: 306 women breast cancer [79]
Promote the large amount of short-chain fatty
Colorectal cancer Overview of experimental data Clinical researches and animal experiment [80]
acids
Head and neck cancer Case-control studies Clinical researches: 5 959 head and neck cancer [75]
550 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554
immune system through symbiotic microbiota. Imbalance of the
gut microbiota may cause damage to the intestinal barrier, thereby
increasing the susceptibility to certain diseases [23]. The incidence
of intestinal diseases is closely related to lifestyle and diet. People
who consume more DF can regulate the gut microbiota, prevent
constipation, and maintain the integrity of the intestinal barrier,
thereby promoting intestinal health.
DF fermentation in vivo can promote the growth of beneficial
bacteria and inhibit the growth of harmful bacteria, which play a vital
role in preventing and treating diseases. Kang et al. [81] reported that
the Konjaku flour (KF) supplementation significantly reduces the
obese mice weight. This is because the KF boosts the abundances of
some obesity-related beneficial microorganisms (such as Megasphaera
elsdenii) in the gut microbiota of high fat diet mice, while reduces
those of harmful microorganisms (such as Alistipes, Alloprevotella,
Bacteroides acidifaciens, and Parabacteroides goldsteinii). In
addition, we found that soybean IDF can prevent obesity in mice
on a high-fat diet by regulating the gut microbiota. Soybean IDF
intake can increase the potential beneficial bacteria Lactobacillales,
Lactobacillus, Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group related to obesity.
The abundance of Bacteroides_acidifaciens significantly reduced
the weight of mice on a high-fat diet. Zhang et al. [82] showed that
inulin treatment can promote the abundance of probiotic bacteria
Lactobacillus, Lachnospiraceae, Phascolarctobacterium, and
Bacteroides in diabetic rats. Faraz et al. [83] found that high DF diet
can promote beneficial bacteria, resulting in protecting effect on colon
cancer. Alfa et al. [84] found that resistant starch can improve the gut
microbiota of middle-aged and elderly people, stimulate the growth of
Bacteroidetes, and change the ratio of Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes and
the relative abundance of butyric acid.
DF has good WHC and SWC, which can relieve functional
constipation and promote gastrointestinal digestion. Chao et al. [19]
showed that DF with WHC and SWC can increase defecation and
help to relieve constipation symptoms in children. In patients with
non-erosive gastroesophageal reflux disease, a DF-rich diet improves
Gut microbiota
DF Fermentation
SCFAs
Inflammatory factors
Mucosal proinflammatory
cytokines Apoptosis
Proliferation
Intestinal barrier
integrity Cancer
Intestinal disease
Fig. 2 The effect of DF on prevention and treatment diseases is related with the SCFAs.
esophageal motility and reduces the frequency of gastroesophageal
reflux and heartburn per week [22].
DF has the effect of promoting intestinal health, because it can
protect the intestinal barrier and enhance the intestine length. The SCFAs
produced by DF fermentation can inhibit inflammatory factors, thereby
protecting the integrity of the intestinal barrier. Chapman et al. [85]
studies reported that increased concentration of butyric acid has an
effect on alleviating ulcerative colitis. SCFAs fermented by inulin
in the colon can reduce mucosal proinflammatory cytokines, which
show a lower degree of mucosal damage and a decrease in the sting
of crypt damage [86]. Zohre et al. [87] reported that the intake of
cooked pea DF increases the abundance of Lachnospiraceae in the
intestine. Higher butyrate-producing promotes the Muc2 and Muc4
expression of the main components in the intestinal mucus layer, so
it is important for the protective function of this layer. The length of
the colon affects the effect of DF fermentation, which the increase
of the colon length can shorten the fermentation time and increase
the degree of fermentation. Dert et al. [88] reported that intestinal
diseases can shorten the length of the colon. Our team studies found
that the intake of soybean IDF can increase the colon length of mice,
significantly improve the intestinal damage of high-fat diet in mice,
and make the colon epithelial cells of mice intact and goblet cells
intact and uniform.
A number of studies have found that SCFAs produced by DF
through the fermentation of gut microbiota can prevent and improve
the occurrence of obesity, diabetes, cancer and intestinal diseases.
The effect of DF on prevention and treatment diseases is related with
the SCFAs (Fig. 2). DF is fermented by gut microbiota to produce
SCFAs, and SCFAs can promote the increase of PYY, GLP-1 and
insulin sensitivity, cancer cell apoptosis and intestinal integrity, which
is conducive to disease prevention and treatment.
3.5 Other functions
In recent years, with the deepening of researches, some other
functions of DF have been discovered, including reducing heavy
Feaces
Satiety
L cell
PYY
GLP -1
Cancer cell Obesity
Insulin sensitivity
Glucose homeostasis
Diabetes
 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554 551

metal toxicity, the risk of cardiovascular and female diseases, and
improving allergic symptoms such as rhinitis.
DF is a natural chelating agent, which can complex with lead
ions to form a precipitate, so it can effectively prevent the absorption
of lead in the gastrointestinal tract. DF can delay or reduce the
absorption of heavy metals and carcinogens in the intestine. The
laxative effect of DF, the residence time of feces and harmful
substances in the intestine is shortened, which greatly reduces the
harm of harmful substances to the human body, thereby reducing
the risk of pathological changes in cancer [89]. SDF contains some
carboxyl side chain groups, which can reduce the toxicity of heavy
metals. IDF has a network structure that forms physical adsorption,
indicating that IDF can hinder the absorption of lead ions and reduce
the risk of lead poisoning. Khotimchenko et al. [90] showed that
low-esterified pectin, high-esterified pectin and pectin calcium gel
particles have good adsorption of lead ions. Wang et al. [91] studied
that soybean IDF exhibits higher lead (II) ion adsorption capacity, and
adsorption occurs on the surface of fiber particles.
Soliman et al. [92] found that DF can reduce the risk of
cardiovascular disease. This is because SCFAs produced by
DF fermentation can increase the degree of acidification of the
environment in the colon cavity, while low pH can reduce the
solubility of free bile acids and their conversion to secondary bile
acids, and increase bile excretion [93].
Nagata et al. [94] reported that soybean DF reduces menstrual
pain, the reason is that DF intake can inhibit estrogen enzymes
and reduce the secretion of estrogen and steroid hormones, thereby
reducing dysmenorrhea and helping to reduce the risk of illness.
Zhang et al. [95] found that DF has a significant inhibit
allergic rhinitis complicated with allergic inflammation of
asthma. The results showed that proper fiber intake can regulate
gut microbiota and maintain immune stability to prevent and
treat allergic diseases.
DF has good physicochemical and functional properties, so
it plays an important role in the development of functional foods,
food packaging and the protection of beneficial active substances.
Furthermore, DF functional food has the effect of lowering blood
fat and blood sugar, and good food properties of beverages and jam
products, bakery, meat, and other products, including taste, color,
hardness, texture, gel capacities and mechanical properties, which
because DF has the good physicochemical properties (Table 3).
4. Conclusion and future research
These physicochemical properties of DF include WHC
(2.01−25.03 g/g), WSC (0.95−23.90 mL/g), OHC (0.65−29.00 g/g),
GAC (0.17−4.65 mmol/g), CAC (0.03−37.10 mg/g) and viscosity,
which play a vital role in preventing diseases. Good WHC, WSC,
OHC, and CAC have an effect on obesity; viscosity and GAC have
the greatest impact on diabetes; adsorption capacity has an effect on
cancer; WHC, WSC and viscosity have benefits for intestinal health.
DF is also widely used in functional foods. In this review, DF from
fruits have the high content, which are easy to obtain and inexpensive.
The DF from grains and beans also has the above advantages. Those
can be used as a good source of DF in the future for the development
of health food.
However, there are also shortcomings of DF studies in some
aspects. First of all, the different polymerization degree of DF
may have a preventive effect on different diseases, especially the
polymerization degree of DF from different sources is also different.
The polymerization degree of different DFs is still unclear on
the disease prevention mechanism, so the structure of different
polymerization degrees of DF from different sources is necessary for
further research on disease prevention. Secondly, the prevention of
diseases by DF is not limited to those mentioned in this review. In
particular, the prevention and treatment of other diseases by regulating

Table 3
The products of DF in functional food.
Classification Products Fiber type DF Sources Physicochemical properties Functional References
Increased fiber intake, fortifying ingredient,
Dietary fiber yoghurt IDF Wheat or oat fibers WHC, WSC [96]
Beverages better taste and flavor
and jams Beverages and Chinese cabbage Viscosity, WHC, OHC,
SDF Prebiotic and hypoglycemic [97]
nutraceutical products waste GAC, CAC

Pea dietary fiber cakes DF Pea WHC, WSC, OHC More attractive color [98]
Daily requirements of average dietary fiber intake, reduced
Dietary fiber cookies SDF Guar gum WHC, WSC [99]
hardness, sensory acceptable
Bakery products
Cookies DF Wheat bran WHC, OHC, GAC, CAC The lower total cholesterol (TC) and triglycerides (TG) [100]
Enhanced the dietary fibre intake, improved gluten moisture
Apple pomace bread DF Apple WHC, WSC [101]
absorption wheat dough resistance, lower extensibility
Beef burgers DF Wheat WHC, WSC, OHC, CAC Reduced hardness and calories, improved lightness [102]
Vienna sausages DF Starfruit WHC, WSC, OHC, CAC Improved physical and sensory properties. [103]
Meat products Bologna sausages DF Citrus WHC, WSC, OHC, CAC Reduced residual nitrite content [104]
Lower expressible moisture and enhanced the development of
Sausages DF Fruit peels WHC, OHC, [105]
thermotolerant lactic acid bacteria
Improved smooth surface, softness, transparency, texture,
Edible paper IDF Chinese cabbage WHC, WSC, OHC [106]
strength and packaging performance
Starch-based films DF Okara WHC, WSC Improved performance, reduced elongation at break [107]
Other products Dietary fiber isolate DF Coconut flakes GAC, CAC Ameliorates glucose and lipid levels [108]
Increased WHC, expansion ratio
Food gel SDF Tomato peels WHC, WSC [109]
and freeze-thaw stability
Viscosity, WHC，WSC, Enhancing the nutritional value and
Functional food ingredients DF Wine Grape Pomace [110]
GAC,CAC improving storability of the products
552 Y. He et al. / Food Science and Human Wellness 10 (2021) 545-554
the gut microbiota requires a lot of experimental researches. Third, the
intake of DF and the type of DF will have an impact on the prevention
and treatment of diseases. It is necessary to study the dosage and
type (SDF or IDF) of DF in the prevention and treatment of diseases
to determine the optimal intake of different types. After the above
problems are solved, DF will be more conducive to the prevention
and alleviation of human diseases, while promoting the development
of human health.
Conflict of interest statement
There is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by China Agriculture Research System
of MOF and MARA (CARS-04). And we also thank the National
Engineering Laboratory for Wheat and Corn Deep Processing
of China, and the Key Laboratory for Agricultural Product Deep
Processing for support.
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