Introduction To Sociology Notes Moodle 2

KABARAK UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ARTS
COURSE CODE: SOCI 100

COURSE TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
LECTURER: PROF FREDERICK B. J. A. NGALA, PHD, MBS
CONTACT: 0708 153615
PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

The course introduces the leaner to basic knowledge and information on sociology and how the
study of sociology affects Modern Workplace.
EXPECTED LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the course students should be able to
 Explain the meaning of sociology, methods of research in sociology, branches of

sociology, origins of sociology and sociological theories.
 Examine theoretical bases of social interaction , symboliaminteraction,
dramaturgicalapproach, conversation analysis and social exchange theory.
 Explain elements of culture, mass media and globalization of culture and culture and
cultural production.
 Explain socialization, meaning, types, theories, concepts, nature in socialization, narture
in socialization, agents and socialization processes..
 Discuss deviance, theories, types, and causes as well as social control measures.. discuss
crime, theories, causes, types, fuctions and control, social stratification and social
mobility, types, systems, influences, and solution.
 Explain socio economic problems, poverty, its characteristics and causes
 Explain classes of people, race, enthnicity, intergroup relations, divorce and violence.
 Describe social institutions, types and functions of family, marriage, divorce and
violence.
 Explain religion, its meaning, purpose, believes, religious practices and religious power
 Explain health and health care, problems , access, cost and impact.
 Discuss social change, work, organization, economy, state, politics, population,
environment, social movement, urbanization and its effects.
COURSE CONTENT
WEEK TOPIC SUB-TOPIC CF
1 Meaning, Origins And Branches Meaning of sociology. Methods of 3
research in sociology. Branches of
sociology. Origins of sociology.
Sociological theories.
2 Group Dynamics and relations Types of and group behavior. ; Social 3

organization. Sexuality, primary,
secondary and indirect relationships,
interactions at work place. Bureaucracy
and its alternatives.
3 Sociological Theories Sociological Theories and relevance to 3

the society , social control measures
4 Culture, mass media, social Elements of culture. Mass media and 3
stratification and mobility globalization of culture. Cultural
production:
5 CAT CAT 3
6 Socialization Socialization: meaning, types, theories,
concepts, nature in socialization, nurture
in socialization, agents and socialization
process.
7 Deviance and crime Deviance: theories types, and causes. 3

Crime: theories, causes, types,
functions, and control. Social
stratification and social mobility: Types,
systems, influence and solutions
8 CAT CAT
9 Socioeconomic problems and class Socio economic problems. Poverty and 3
its characteristics and causes
Classes of people. Race and ethnicity.
Intergroup relations. Gender and gender
inequality and politics of gender
10 Social institutions and education Social institutions: family; types, 3

function, marriage, divorce and
violence, education its function
11 Religion and health Religion, its meaning, purposes, 3
believes, religious practices, religious
power.
Health and health care, problems,
access cost and impact.
12 Social change and society Social change: work, organization, 3

economy, state, politics, population,
environment, social movement,
urbanization and its effects. Modern and
traditional society
13 REVISION
14 EXAMS
and
15
TEACHING METHODOLOGIES
CombiGnation of lecturers, seminars, tutorials , discussion, e-learning, case studies, library and
field research and reporting, online teaching
Lecturers, class discussion, and case studies and case studies, library research
INSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Textbooks, Handouts, whiteboard, chalkboard, Laptop and videotape, overhead projectors, charts
and library materials
COURSE ASSESSMENT:
Course assessment for face to face learning mode
Sit – in CATs (2) 20%
Group assignments: 5%
Class presentation 5%
Project/term paper: 10%
Final exams: 60%
Total : 100%
Pass mark: 50%
Course assessment for Blended Learning Mode

Discussion board forums:
1. Threaded contributions: 5%
2. Threaded replies:5%
Sit – in CATs (2) 10%

Group assignments: 10%
Class presentation 5%
Project/yerm paper: 5%
Final exams: 60%
Total : 100%
Pass mark: 50%
CORE TEXTBOOKS
Babbie, E. (2016). Sociology: An Introduction. California. WadsworthPlc. Company.

Godia, G.I (2007). Sociology of Education. Nairobi: Kenyatta University.
Harrison, A. & Mclntyre. D. (2013) Schools and Socialization. England: Penguin.
E-books
Journals
RECOMMENDED TEXTBOOKS
Landis. J.R. (2014). Sociology: Concepts and characteristics. Califonia: Wadsworth Plc
Company
5. Ballantine, J.H. (2010). Schools and society: a sociological approach to education. London:
Thomson learning.
6. Sing. R. (1994). Social thought and school education New Delthi: Commonwealth.
LECTURER
NAME: PROF FREDERICK B. J. A. NGALA, PHD, MBS

Sign: ____________________ Date: ______________
RECOMMENDED FOR USE BY HOD – EDUCATION ARTS
NAME: _____________________________ Sign: ____________________ Date:

______________
APPROVED FOR USE BY DEAN – SCHOOL OF EDUCATION
NAME: _____________________________ Sign: ____________________ Date:

WEEK I
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Meaning of sociology. Methods of research in sociology. Branches of sociology. Origins of
sociology.
Subtopics
Meaning and scope of sociology. Relate sociology to other social sciences.
SOCIOLOGY
Auguste Comte is the father of sociology. Sociology is a Social Sciences. The
word Sociology is derived from the Latin Word ‘Societus’ which means ‘society’
and the Greek word ‘logos’ means ‘science or study or advanced study’
DEFINITIONS
1) Sociology is the study of human interaction and interrelation of their
conditions and consequences
2) Sociology is a science of social institutions
3) Sociology is the study of social life”.
4) Sociology deals with the behaviour of men in groups
5) It is the study of society, the science of social life, the study of social
relationships, the study of human behavior in groups, the study of forms of
social relationships, the study of social action, the study of or the social
groups and social systems
6) As a social science it concentrates its attention on man, his social behavior,
social activities and social life.
7) Sociology is a Generalizing and not a particularizing or individualizing
Science – Sociology tries to find out the general laws of principle about
human interaction and association, about the nature, form, content and
structure of human groups and societies.
TYPES OF SOCIOLOGY
Qualitative sociology
Concerned mainly with trying to obtain an accurate picture of a group and how it
operates in the world. Early sociologists were fascinated by the social changes they
saw taking place and began conducting qualitative studies that involved personal
interviews and observations of ethnic rituals and ceremonies’
Qualitative sociology emphasizes understanding individuals’ experiences by

examining their books, television programs, interactions, and ceremonies, among
other elements. For example, a sociologist hoping to understand the experiences of
emergency medical technicians (EMTs) might spend time riding in the backs of
ambulances as the EMTs go out on calls
Quantitative Sociology
It relies on statistical analysis to understand experiences and trends. They quantify

their data to render it suitable for statistical manipulation.
KEY ISSUES ADDRESSED BY SOCIOLOGISTS

1) Social interaction and companionship
2) Structure of the society
3) Social institutions
4) Culture
5) Social change
KEY CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLOGY
a) Social structure,
b) Social action,
c) Functional integration,
d) Power,
e) Culture.
OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES
Social sciences concern people’s relationships and interactions with one another.
Sociology, with its emphasis on social life, falls into this category. A
multidisciplinary field, sociology draws from a variety of other social sciences,
including anthropology, political science, psychology, and economics.
Anthropology
Anthropology concerns individual cultures in a society, rather than the society as a
whole. Traditionally, it focuses on what might be termed “primitive” cultures, such
as the Yanomamo people of the South American jungle, who live much the same
way they did hundreds of years ago. Anthropologists place special emphasis on
language, kinship patterns, and cultural artifacts
Political Science
Political science concerns the governments of various societies. It considers what

kind of government a society has, how it formed, and how individuals attain
positions of power within a particular government. Political science also concerns
the relation of people in a society to whatever form of government they have.
Psychology
Psychology takes the individual out of his or her social circumstances and
examines the mental processes that occur within that person. Psychologists study
the human brain and how it functions, considering issues such as memory, dreams,
learning, and perception
Economics
Economics focuses on the production and distribution of society’s goods and
services. Economists study why a society chooses to produce what it does, how
money is exchanged, and how people interact and cooperate to produce goods
SCOPE OF SOCIOLOGY
Specialistic or Formalistic School
It holds the view that Sociology is studying human interactions, their conditions
and consequences. It has a limited field of enquiry and deals with those problems
which are not dealt with in other social sciences. Sociology does not study all the
activities of society. The scope of sociology is the study of the generic (general)
forms of social relationships, behaviors and activities. Sociology is a special
branch of knowledge dealing with the ultimate forms of mental or psychic
relationships which unite people in society. Sociology is the study of forms of
social relationships. According to him, Sociology concerned with the analysis and
classification of types of social relationships
Synthetic School
Holds that Sociology studies everything and anything under the sun. It wants
sociology to be a synthesis (mixture) of the social sciences or a general science.
sociology is a synthesis of many social studies – task of three fold. – Studies in
particular part of the field. – Interconnect the results given by different social
sciences. – Interpret social life as a whole.
ISSUES STUDIED IN SOCIOLOGY

1) Theories of Sociology
2) Prejudice and Discrimination
3) Agents of Socialization
4) Cults
5) Social Experiments
6) Social Class
7) Social Institutions
8) Poverty
9) Gender
10) Health
11) Social Change
12) Crime and Deviance
13) Group Behavior
14) Conformity and Obedience
ELEMENTS, CONCERNS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Week 2
SUBTOPICS: Elements of Sociology for Pharmacists, Significance of sociology to
the Pharmacists and major concerns of sociologists in theory and research.
ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

The major components of social structure are
a) Norms
b) statuses,
c) roles,
d) social networks,
e) groups and organizations,
f) Social institutions(Collectivities eg schools , firms, families)
g) Society.
h) Values
BASIC ELEMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS OF A

SOCIETY
1) Likeness of members
2) Reciprocal behavior
3) Interdependence
4) Differences
5) Corporation
6) Conflict
IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY
General importance of sociology
1) Sociology studies the role of the institutions in the development of the

Individual.
2) The study of Sociology is indispensable for understanding and planning of
society.
3) Sociology is of great importance in the solution of social problems.
4) Sociology has drawn our attention to the essential worth and dignity of man.
5) Sociology has changed outlook with regard to the problems of crime etc.
6) Sociology has made great contribution to enrich human culture.
7) Sociology is of great importance in the solution of international problems.
8) Sociology is useful as a teaching subject
WEEK 2
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Types of and group behavior. ; social organization. Sexuality, primary, secondary and indirect
relationships, interactions at work place. Bureaucracy and its alternatives
INTERACTION AT THE WORKPLACE.

The concept of interaction has become one of the fundamental and most nearly universal ideas
almost in each of the fields of knowledge physical, biological and social. But it should not be
inferred that interaction as it takes place in the inorganic or organic order is the same in all
respects as is interaction in the super-organic (human-social) realm. It is also the core datum of
sociology.
This definition emphasized on two main conditions of social interaction:
(a) social contact.
(b) communication.
Social contact is the first place of interaction. It rather initiates interaction. Social contact refers
to the connection between persons and groups. For social contact, social proximity (mental
contact) and not the physical proximity (bodily contact) is essential.
Social contact differs from physical or bodily contact. Mere physical contact (proximity) of
individuals does not constitute a group. This is why, it is said, ‘where there is contact of human
minds, there association exists; where there is no contact, there is a state of isolation’.
Social contacts may be direct or indirect and positive or negative. Direct contacts involve
immediate presence of persons (face-to-face) in the exchange of ideas or things. Other contacts
are indirect as we find in the case of the writer and the recipient of a personal letter. Such
contacts may be established through any means of communication (telephone, TV, Internet).
Positive contact means associative interaction which leads towards assimilation through
tolerance, compromise or cooperation. Negative contact means dissociative interaction, which
gives rise to the feeling of hatred, rivalry, jealousy, indifference or lack of response.
The other condition for social interaction is communication. Society can only be conceived of
through communication. It has a central place in society. It may vary from writing a letter to a
friend, to all the modem methods of communication.
Means of communication may be language, script, gestures, words or symbols, etc. Language is
a symbolic communication because it consists of conventional cues or signs. Gestures and facial
expressions like speech and language play a significant part in communication at human level.
Hand-shake, head-nodding, waving the hand are good examples of gestures.
Communication in either form of material or sensory medium is a necessity for social contacts.
Communication plays an important role in personality formation, transfer of social heritage and
social experience from generation to generation. The following factors influence social
interactions.
FACTORS
i. Working environment
This is the area or place where people carry out their duties or jobs.
There should be an environment that caters for all the requirements of all kinds of
people at the work place. It is not biased on either side. Such an environment
entails adequate resources for work, basic needs like food and social amenities
like hospitals. People who are hungry will not focus on interacting with their
colleagues rather their minds will be on the essential needed at that time. An
environment that provides comfort of work is suitable for interaction as people
will have no worries. For example, a good working site should have peace,
minimized restrictions or no strict rules and workers have equality.
In such an environment people will interact freely. There will be a positive
interaction toward each other.
ii. Leadership and management
These and the people who are heads at the workplace. The way they run the
company or organization or institution will determine how both employers and
employees interact. When there is favourism1 among a group tribe or even social
and economic groups there will be a negative interaction. Some members will feel
they are either superior or inferior to others. In a workplace with a good leader
with adorable character, every employer may want to emulate and thus others
may even interact with them by asking them questions and being close to them.
When the leaders and managers treat everyone fairly and equally then there will
be a perfect interaction.For example, a situation where a vice chancellor of an
institution should be of good morals like a God-fearing person, a kind person and
an honest person.
iii. Religious differences
This majorly is the difference in what and whom different people believe in and
worship. People at a workplace may group themselves according to their religions
and would leave out those who don’t belong to their religion. For example, at a
workplace Christians may refuse to interact with Muslims, Hindus and even other
religions. When such differences are in a workplace, there will be a negative
interaction and thus a very poor interaction. When people forget their differences
whether good or bad and take others as the way they are, there will be a perfect
interaction in such a place.
iv. Social differences
This involves differences in classes in life, cultural beliefs, traditional beliefs,
people’s way of life and people’s statuses. For example, rich people and
averagely rich people, celebrities and common people, learned and not learned
people. One group may tend not to want to associate with another group. There
may be grouping of people according to their different categories of life. In such a
workplace people will not interact freely. There will be fear especially to those
who feel superior and will negatively affect interaction at a workplace. A
workplace that provides room for all social life and statuses of people will have
the people interacting freely.
v. Relationship at workplace
This refers to the way people know each other at a workplace. For example, there
may be couples, the elderly, enemies, church leaders, brothers and sisters and
other kinds of relationships. In such an environment people will interact basing on
how best one knows the other person, on how one values another person. For
example, a person with his or her fiancée will interact fearfully with another one
lest he or she breaks the relationship they are in. This may affect interaction either
positively or negatively.
vi. Work policies
This involves rules, regulations and guidelines at a workplace. For example, in a
place with very strict rules and working conditions, there may be little or no
interactions. When rules are favorable and cater for everyone’s personal space
there be a very good interaction at the workplace. For example, a few months ago
in the media, there was a company that did not allow people to laugh at a
workplace, this limits even the way people communicate so that they avoid
laughing which may cost them their job failure to obey rules.
vii. Technological advancements

Due to the digital world, there are environments that work on electronics, internet
and networks. For example, at a workplace where everyone does not mind about
others and are busyworking on their computers, laptops, phones and other devices
affects how people interact. In such environments there is very little or no
interactions and thus very poor interactions. This is because one has little or even
no time to talk to another person and substitutes the person with technology.
viii. Skilled labor
At a workplace with experts in a certain field will make them bond and relate
freely because they even share many things in common. For example, a group of
nurses in a hospital will want to interact freely with each other because of the
many things they would like to learn and know from one another. A group of
teachers in an office will interact freely because they may discuss on matters
affecting their field and how to assist each other.
ix. Family and personal life
This involves how a person has been at his or her home before coming to the
place of work. For example, conflicts in personal life may lead to stress, i.e.
when a person has had quarrels at their home with other people before coming to
a workplace, that person will behave irrationally and thus will not interact well
with other people. Individuals from poor families will have a habit of stealing
from others and even office stationery. When such people are caught, their
relationship with the rest is interfered with thus there will be poor interaction.
x. Effective communication
Leaders and managers need to communicate effectively with team members
when there is need to do so. For example, the moment employees feel left out,
they lose interest in work. This will negatively affect how they interact with
others and even the leaders. They need to have a say in organization’s major
decisions. They should also be allowed to express their views and their problems
and challenges at the work place.
xi. Job responsibilities

At a work place, different people have different responsibilities. There are some
jobs and tasks that are so demanding and may even limit the way people interact
because people would focus all their attention on working. This will lead to poor
interaction. Also employees should be given an opportunity to decide what best
they can perform rather than overburdening them. For example, for a teacher to
interact with a doctor there must be booking of appointments. This will make
everyone at the workplace feel equal and thus interact freely.
xii. Communication skills
This are values that aid in relating with one another. For example, turn taking
skills use of polite words. Communication is the essential need between people in
a working environment. There is need for good and effective communication. For
example, in a workplace where people don’t know how to talk to others in good
and courteous ways, they will have a poor interaction. Good communication skills
enhance good bonding, cooperation and people are free to interact. Poor
communication skills like lack of respect will affect the way people interact.
xiii. Perceptions
This refers to the way we view or understand something. We use the mental
process of perception to pay attention selectively to some stimuli and cues in our
environment. There are two types of perception. Social perception process is the
process of gathering, selecting, and interpreting information about how we view
themselves and others. In contrast, physical perception focuses on gathering and
interpreting information about physical objects rather than people. Closure
permits us to interpret a stimulus by filling in missing information based on our
experiences and assumption. For example, there are those who rely on the way
they perceive a situation to react to it. The way we perceive other people with
their occupations or the things, they really will determine how we interact with
them. This may be both negative and positive
xiv. Attitudes
This refers to the state of mind of a person and can be a negative or positive
attitude. Attitudes are comprised of feelings, beliefs, and behaviors. One
important work-related attitude is job satisfaction, the general attitude that people
have toward their jobs. Main five factors contribute to job satisfaction: pay; the
job itself; promotion opportunities; the supervisor; and relations with co-workers.
The relationship between job satisfaction and work performance is complex and
influenced by multiple organizational and personal factors. For example,
managers have more influence over job satisfaction than any other individual
difference discussed in this chapter.
xv. Values
Values are long-lasting beliefs about what is important, worthwhile, and
desirable. A person's value system is the way he/she organizes and prioritizes
values. Cultural values can affect personal values ethics. Value conflict occurs
when there is disagreement among values that an individual holds or between
individual and organizational values. To avoid value conflict, managers should
work toward integrating and fitting the values of different employees with the
values of the organization. which a person is courteous, likable, good-natured, and
flexible. For example, managers must remember that the relevance of any
personality dimension depends on the situation, the type of job, and the level at
which a person is working. Some people can uphold some of their cultural or
traditional values like for example, a young person should not greet the old one
first to the extent of not having good interactions.
OTHER FACTORS
Power of dynamics.
A "power dynamic" is the way different people or different groups of people interact with each
other and where one of these sides is more powerful than the other one. In social science and
politics, power is the ability to influence or outright control the behavior of people. Also, the use
of power need not involve force or the threat of force (coercion). At one extreme, it closely
resembles what an English-speaking person might term "influence", although some authors
distinguish "influence" as a means by which power is used. Dynamic power is not necessarily a
bad thing, but it can be used to show that a certain dynamic is not desirable and want to illustrate
what the problems of the dynamic are and how these problems could be solved. For example,
power of dynamics can be identified in groups such as; different genders, different races,
different classes and different ages of household members.
Social structure.
Social structure is typically referring to macro-level social forces including social institutions and
patterns of institutionalized relationships. The major social institutions recognized by
sociologists include family, religion, education, media, law, politics, and economy. These are
understood as distinct institutions that are interrelated and interdependent and together help
compose the overarching social structure of a society. These institutions organize our social
relationships to others and create patterns of social relations when viewed on a large scale. For
example, the institution of family organizes people into distinct social relationships and roles,
including mother, father, son, daughter, husband, wife, etc., and there is typically a hierarchy to
these relationships, which results in a power differential.
Group dynamics.
Group dynamics are the processes that occur between group members. These dynamics are
affected by each member's internal thoughts and feelings, their expressed thoughts and feelings,
their nonverbal communication, and the relationship between group members. Group dynamics
helps you understand how each person's actions make sense in the context of the group. The
study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behavior, tracking the
spread of norms in society, creating effective interactions and following the emergence and
popularity of new ideas and technologies. For example, the core of understanding racism,
sexism, and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination.
Social status.
Social status is the relative respect, competence, and deference accorded to people, groups, and
organizations in a society. Some writers have also referred to a socially valued role or category a
person occupies as a status. For example, being a criminal or mentally ill. At its core, status is
about who members of a society consider to hold more social value. For example, the beliefs
about who is more or less valued such as honorable, respectable, smart are broadly shared among
members of a society. As such, people use status hierarchies to decide who is worthy and who
deserves access to valuable resources. In so doing, these shared cultural beliefs make unequal
distributions of resources and power appear natural and fair, supporting systems of social
stratification.
Social roles.
Social roles are the behaviors one exhibits as a result of being in a social environment.
These behaviors vary depending on the situation and the individual. Social roles are not singular,
as many roles may be filled by an individual. They are highly situational, and may change
drastically based on the behaviors an individual is expected to exhibit within social circles. A
focus on maintaining social status within a group may also be a factor in behavior. For example,
being a friend, family member or authority figure. Their social roles within these relationships
may determine how they behave when interacting with others, and which behavioral norms they
exhibit.
Demographic factors.
Change in population both in numbers and composition has a wide effect on the society. The
size in population may bring about change in economic life of the people. Sudden rise in
population in a certain area leads to high demand of commodities such as food, health facilities
which in turn leads to seek jobs in towns. This causes dense population in towns thus shortage of
houses is experienced hence leading to creation of slums. For example, the Kibera slums in
Nairobi. This leads to increased chrime.
Cultural factors.
Any change in values or beliefs and background social groups of different communities affect
social interaction as different communities tend to borrow some of the cultural values and
conducts of other communities. This builds strong bond of interaction as the involved
communities share their cultural values and traditions. For example, intermarriages has led to
exchange of cultural norms and behaviors.
Political factors.
The system of governance is based on laws which bring the country as a whole and acts as an
instrumental of social economic and political interactions in the society. The system of
governance in a country has set laws which are enforced to ensure the citizens abide them. For
example, the constitution of Kenya has set the role of elections which bring the nation together
as each citizen who is eligible to vote has the right to exercise his/her duty thus leading to
interactions.
Technological factors.
Progress in technology has triggered the long lasting societal interactions. In the early times,
people exchanged commodities with other commodities. For example, exchanging maize with
salt. This aided interactions among them. Advancement in technology has led to emergence of
industries, several unions, banks among others which brings people closer. For example, Sacco’s
are formed by group of people partnering together.
Economic factors.
Economic factors influence the state and direction of social interaction. Through trade,
production of commodities, worldwide markets has made many venture in business activities
thus creating interactions. For example, the industrial revolution started in Europe in the 17th
century and slowly found its way around the globe bringing changes like; production of
commodities in industries, improved medical facilities and creation of jobs thus making people
interact with others.
Educational factors.
Education plays an important role in social interactions. The impact of education leads to
socialization and social control despite the level of education. This has creation of schools which
has brought many students together thus building strong relationship among institutions and
students. For example, through schools curriculum is the same. This ensures that the schools run
the same routines according to the stipulated academic calendar.
Environmental factors.
Environmental factors such as newly build cities, industrialization and urbanization also
influence social interaction. Rural-urban migration is experienced as a result of job opportunities
and better healthcare facilities among others in the cities. This leads to interaction as many
people of different races meet in towns hence leading to exchange of ideas and opinions as a
result of interaction. For example, many people move to Nairobi town in search of jobs created
in the industries.
Migration.
This factor affects social interaction as people move to new places and environment and they
establish new settlements there in which they meet other people of different race thus leading to
interaction. This may be caused by natural calamities such as drought, floods, earthquakes or
better health facilities and job opportunities created in towns. This makes people to look for
better environments elsewhere. For example, many people have moved from their rural areas and
established permanent settlements in towns thus meeting different races of people leading to
social interaction.
Conflicts.
Conflict is the social process in which individual or groups seek their ends by directly
challenging the antagonist by violence or threat of violence. It is similar to competition since
they are either dis-integrative or disassociate social processes. Often, conflict results when the
attention of rivals is averted from the object of competition to themselves. Such kind of a
conflicts include; group verses group conflicts, state versus state conflicts among others.
Marriage.
Marriage is a key factor influencing social interaction. Many communities have come together
due to inter-marriages leading to good relations among different groups thus creating strong bond
between them. This leads to separation between the married couples and their parents and
establishing new homes in other places. For example, inter-clan marriages establishes a strong
bond between the clans thus bringing them together.
Games and sports.
Games and sports play a central role in social interaction as people from different ethnicity come
together to show up their talents and ambitions. This leads to social interaction and exchanging
of ideas and opinions. Such kinds of games include; skiing, football, athletics, boat racing among
others.
Religion.
This is an important factor as people around the globe come from different religions which bring
them together. Religions such as Christianity, Islamic, Hinduism among others each has well laid
programs in which the follower follow. This creates social interaction as they are build up with
the same faith. For example, the Christians belief that there is life after death. For example,
christens believe there is life after death. This unites their faith together.
REFERENCES.
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Sutherland, R. L. (1996). Introductory sociology. Chicago: Lippincott Publishers.
Daft, R. L. (1997). Management. Fourth Edition: The Dryden Press.
Johns, G. (1996). Organizational Behavior. Fourth Edition: Harper Collins College Publishers.
Sherer, P. D., Rogovsky, N and Wright, N. (1998). What drives Employment Relationships in
Taxicab Organizations? Linking Agency to Firm Capabilities and Strategic Opportunities.:
Organization Science publishers.
Tomer, J. F. (1998).Organizational Capital and Joining-Up: Linking the Individual to the

Organizational and to Society, Human Relations:Plenum Publishing Corporation.
Wilsons, S. B. (1994). Goal Setting. Changing People’s Behavior. New York: oxford press.
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GROUPS
WHAT IS GROUP?
Is usually defined as a number of people who identify and interact with one another. Group also
can be defined as two or more people who has interdependence relation and where member of
this group influence one another. This is very broad definition, as it includes group of all sizes
from dyads to whole societies. While an aggregate comprises merely a number of individual, a
group in sociology exhibits cohesiveness to a larger degree. aspect that members of same group
may share include: interest, values, ethics, roles and kinship. Examples of groups include:
families, companies, circles of friends, clubs and etc.
TYPE OF GROUPS
Voluntary (secondary) groups

These are groups where one wishes to join and is never forced to join them. Example
political organization, peer groups and reference group.
Involuntary (primary) groups

These are groups that are automatically joined and one has no option or choice to join
them.
Example family or an army platoon where one is drafted to.
The following are the group’s types:
Reference group
These are groups where people may feel they “belong”. These group affects our action, our
appearance, our values, our ambitions, our lifestyles and so on. Our evaluations of ourselves are
strongly influenced by the referee group we choose: Example if you get a B in an exam and
compare yourself with an A students, your self-evaluation will be very different that it would if
you compare yourself with C students.
Peer groups
These are groups formed by young people at young ages. In this of groups there is influence
where the thing they learn and they hear about they are always influenced to do them whether
they are good or bad. At those groups they are always the young and the one at the adolescence
stage, when they are apt to form a distinctive subculture with its own taste, leisure activities,
dress and values.
Example according to research in America young people of schooling going, spend on average
twice as much time with peers as with parents and most of them prefer it that way.
Family
This is a group of people who are related through birth and through intermarriages thus making a
group. In this group member establish their first close emotional ties, learn language and begin to
internalize cultural norms and values. There is considerable evidence that first born children get
more attention discipline than children born subsequently, and that this may affect their later
personalities: first born tend to do better in school and to be higher achievers later in lie, while
younger brothers and sisters tend to be more social and relaxed.
Example the world is made up of millions of families where there are made of parents and their
children some are also made of extended families where the grandparent exist and their
grandchildren are there.
Horizontal groups
Groups formed by people from same social class level and people who are at the same class of
life.
Example of a horizontal group would be like any organization formed along occupational line:
an association of doctors where like in Kenya there are the doctors association which present
their problem to the government of Kenya , carpenters association or actors who are making a
play or presenting a drama.
Vertical groups
These are groups with members from different social classes. These groups are rare to find since
they are commonly groups that are formed for a specific purpose. In America for example it is
very hard to find this groups because many division are made along division line.
Example church congregation might constitute members from different classes, student at school
they come from different social classes this is another example of vertical group that we have.
Closed groups
These are groups that provide member with sense of legitimacy. Each and every member in the
group undergoes through an approval process to verify that he/she is a genuine member of the
group.
Example is an alumni group where member who studied together decides to form a group.
Open groups
These are groups that have no approvals to members who join to it. It may be a group that is
morally upright or it may not they are formed with aim to socialize or to fulfill a certain task or
just to socialize.
Example the friends group we make we do not approve the members who join this is because
they are just for leisure.
Gang groups.
Groups of associated friends or members of a family with a defined leadership and internal
organization that identifies with or claims control of a territory in a community and engages
either individually or collectively in illegal and possibly violent behavior.
Example yakuza in japan, crips and blood, hells angel in Kenya there are the gaza groups which
are young people who steals and are always armed with weapons.
Kinship groups
Web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all human in all societies,
although its exact meaning within this discipline are often debated. It can also refer both to
pattern of social relationship in one or more human culture. Example Fictive kinship, the
Samoans of the south pacific are another example and the aceltic group especially in the Scottish
highlands comprising a number of groups and the twelve tribes of the Israel.
Religious moment(group)
Is a subgroup within a region that operates under a common name, tradition and identity it is also
infrastructure management organization for religious activities.
Example: among the Catholics there other religious group which operate as “small churches” where
church members comes together and pray and worship together this small churches follows everything
that the church does so they don’t copy everything
ETHNIC GROUPS
It is the social group which has its cultural traits different from the general of the society. Is also
category of people who identify each other based on similarities such as common ancestry,
language, history, society, culture or nation. Ethnicity is usually an inherited status based on
society in which one lives. Members of ethnic group tend to be defined by a shared cultural
heritage, ancestry, origin myth, history, homeland and language. It sometimes possible for
individual or group to leave one ethic group and become part of another. They are always in
minority and have strong social solidarity among their members due to close and intense social
interaction. This has its customs, beliefs, and ritual different from one another.
Example kikuyu community, Kalenji community, Han chinese
CASTE GROUPS
Is a form of social stratification characterized by hereditary transmission of lifestyle which often
includes an occupation, status in hierarchy, customary social interaction and exclusion.Caste is a
permanent social group in which the status of an individual is fixed through heredity alone. Caste
is the described status received at birth. Caste is an element in determining social stratification in
our society.
Example royal family, is division in indian society into rigid social group, with roots in indian’s
ancient history and persisting until today.
PRESSURE-GROUP
It lays pressure on government to change its policies in its favor. Here are participants are high
class people, especially the rich and diplomats. This enjoy high status in society. Its member also
participates in running government and administration. Examples
VESTED INTEREST GROUP

It is social group which has its ends. Mostly the economic benefits are the major aims. This one
is for the sake of it aims does not interfere in government like the pressure group. This sort of
social group derives benefit from the government
SOCIAL GROUP
Consist of two or more people who regularly interact and share sense of unity, resources and
common identity/in other word, it’s a group of people who see each other frequently and
consider themselves a part of a group. Except in rare case, we all typically belong to many
different social group.
For example, you can be a member of a sport team, club, church group, college class, workplace
and more.
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FACTORS INFLUENCING BEHAVIOR IN GROUPS

The success or failure of a group depends on many factors. Factors affect the group process and
groups decision making and hence it is important to learn about them.
NORMS
Norms can be defined as “acceptable standards of behavior that are shared by the group
members”. It also refers to a standard against which the appropriates of behavior is judged. Thus,
a norm determines expected behavior in a particular circumstance. Norms helped in predicting
others people people’s behavior and enable people to behave in an acceptable manner. Norms
prevent chaos. This is guideline for members detailing they ought and ought not to do under
certain circumstance. Formalized norms are written up in organizational manuals, and all the
people in an organization are bound to follow that rules and regulation. But the majority of
norms in organization are informal. Norm is developed through an interaction of factors such as
the traditions of the group, the nature of task, the situation and personality characteristics
members.
Example
For a student in kabarak university norm for a student is to wear a decent cloth when in school
and wear dress when going for chapel.
SOCIAL FACILITATION
Is the tendency for people to be aroused into better performance on simple task when under the
Geyes of others, rather than when they are alone or competing against another? In Human, it is
strongest among those who are most concerned about the opinion of others, and when the
individual is being watched by someone he or she does not know, or cannot perform the task it
encourages them.
Example People often
perform their best when competing with others, like in race, as a result of social facilitation. This
is just one illustration of the influence of groups on individual.
SOCIAL LOAFING
Refers to the phenomenon that can occur when people in a group make less of an effort to
achieve a goal than they would when working alone/occurs when one or more group member
rely on the effort of other group member.as result of social loafing, group can sometimes
generate less total output than the combined performance of their member working individual.
Social loafing result from lack of motivation when working in a group because individual do not
believe their specific contribution will be evaluated.as a result they do not put in as much effort
as they otherwise would.
Example
Student in a group discussion
DEINDIVIDUATION
It refers to the phenomenon of relinquishing one’s sense of identity, self-awareness, or evaluate
apprehension. This can happen as a result of becoming part of a group that fosters obedience to
group norms rather than an individual’s norms. Example is army or mob. people feels a stronger
sense of anonymity when in a group for example in outbreak of a riot.
GROUP POLARIZATION
Refer to the finding that after participating in a discussion group, member tend to advocate more
extreme position or call for riskier courses of action than individual who did not participate in
any such discussion.
Example
Are demonstrated during sporting activity. As individual people are less likely to be antagonistic
to the sporting official.
GROUPTHINK
Is a term to describe a process by which a group can make bad or irrational decision. In a
groupthink situation, each member of the group attempt to conform his or her opinion to what
they believe to be the consensus of the group. Groupthink is perhaps the greatest danger to
effectiveness of group.
Example
A group of employees at a company with a product that is quickly becoming outdated who are
willing to consider new alternative to advance in industry the employees may collectively live in
a world where they can’t understand why their product is not selling and may refuse to
acknowledge the economic reality that they cannot survive without advancing.
COMPOSITION OF THE GROUP

It refers to the extent of homogeneity in members of the group.Since a group is association of
different type of people with variety of skill and knowledge. When a group is heterogeneous
rather than homogeneous in term of age, gender, race, educational background, personalities,
opinion, abilities skills and knowledge, it can be effective to complete a work. If the group is
homogeneous in one or more ways such as age, teaching experience, qualifications, expertise,
cultural background and several others such variable which are Important for work performance.
GROUP COHESIVENESS
The degree in which member are attracted to each other and are motivated to stay in the group
are called group cohesiveness. Group behavior are significantly affected by group cohesiveness.
Group cohesiveness can be increase by the smaller group, increase the members spend together,
encourage agreement about group goal, increase status of a group and etc.
GROUP STATUS
Status may be defined as a social rank or position given in a group by others. We live in a class
structured society, status is important for a group. For examples electing a school president,
electing a CEO of a company.
GROUP SIZE
It refers to the number of members in the group. The size of a group affects the group’s overall
performance or behavior. If, on account of its size, the group has more resources at its size, the
group has more resources at its disposal, it may be able to perform many independent
task.Smaller groups are faster at completing task that are large one. However, if a group is very
large, the interaction among the members become complex and communication become more
difficults thereby leading to disagreement. But if such a large group has prepared a formal
procedure or agenda discussion can be controlled and work may proceed smoothly. Beside in
large group, some people may dominate the proceeding whereas the shy ones remains in the
background. If groups are encouraging in problem solving large groups are perfect to small
groups example if we have few people in group, group cooperation increases.
REFERENCE
Cooley, C. (1909). Social organization. Chicago: Transaction book.
Giddons, A. (1982). Sociology. London: Macmillan Press.
Hiller, E. T. (1993). Principle of Sociology. New York: Harper Publisher.
Odotella, O. &Ademola, A. (1985). Sociology. London: Macmillan Education Limited.
Henslin, J. (1991). Down to Earth Sociology. New York: Free Press.
Awuondo, C. O. (1993). Introduction to Sociology. Nairobi: General Printer Limited.
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WEEK 3
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Sociological Theories and relevance to the society
SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
Evolutional theory by Auguste Comte,
Evolutionary scientists would not agree that biblical and scientific
explanations of the world are interchangeable . Creationists assert that
God created earth and human beings .Evolutionalist postulates that
human societies evolved from a simple form to higher level of
perfection .The main exponents of this theory are Auguste Comte ,
Herbert Spencer and Ferdinand Tonnies .
According to Auguste Comte, human societies evolve through
different stages namely theological/ fictitious stage , metaphysical
abstract stage and positive stage . Scientific stages according to Conte,
during the theological stage people are very religious and they attribute
all social and biological phenomena to god or God. A lot of magic,
exorcism and witchcraft is practiced. Then the society evolves to the
metaphysical stage where people begin to doubt divine intervention in
human affairs. People become more philosophical and ask many
questions about life. Human societies then evolved to the third stage
called scientific or positive stage where people interpret reality in terms
of science and everything is based on facts and experiences.
Evolutional theory by Hebert Spencer
Hebert Spencer developed on evolutionary theory called social
Darwinism . According to him ,social institutions evolve like biological
organisms .However ,they do not evolve in one line as proposed by
Conte but rather dichotomous be one society evolve in a militant form
and the other in an industrial form . Militant society depends itself for
presentation and people have fixed ranks occupation and it is severally
rigid .And that , an industrial society evolves peacefully and members
cooperate for the benefit of all .In term of school therefore , some
evolve as very strict institution with severe discipline being meted on to
non-conformists while some schools have evolved and that rules are
not necessarily followed to letter .
Evolutional theory by Fredinand Tonnies
Fredinand Tonnies also came up with another evolutionary theory

which proposes that human societies evolve dichotomously but that
the dichotomy is a form of community and society. That some societies
which evolve as a community have intimate relationships and are small
scale in size .But that those which evolve as a society have contractual
relationships and exhibit individualism.
Relevance:Evolutionary theory is a marvelous tool for assisting us in
understanding our heritage and our propensities as human. Those who
use ET typically Marshall ethnographic,anthropologicaland evolutionary
biological data to inform their interpretations of human societies and
individuals.
FUNCTIONALISM
This theory is also associated with Herbert Spencer .Human society
consists of individual parts which does some work .Each of these parts
are intimately related .Therefore human or societies ,culture , behavior,
,belief , rules, should be functional. But sometimes they become
dysfunctional, that is, works to the disadvantage of a social system
because social cultural disruption .This theory is related to systems
theory which suggest that social system function maintain patterns.
Example; slums are functional but also dysfunctional.
Relevance:social functions,social structure, manifest function and
lateral functions.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY OR SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY
This theory suggest that there is an elaborate exchange system
between members of a community and people device means of
defending and using others for their own survival ,including forging and
cheating .Survival of a community is through elaborate exchange
programme among the members and includes manipulation .Cheating
is here justify as necessary for survival .Outcasts are sympathized
with .We relate to maximize gain .Social interaction is a two-way traffic
where each member aims at getting something onto it example ;when
greeting ,praising other and expecting the same thing in turn .Social
action is therefore rational and god-oriented and reciprocity is needed .
Relevance:Helps in decision making with regards to factors affecting
affecting a certain community as wrong decisions.
Example ;Family relationships during family gatherings .
CONFLICT THEORY
Conflict is not always dysfunctional but are needed because it brings
about development .Conflict is necessary to improve the likes of
downtrodden in the society .Karl Marx argues that a few people in
any society tend to be manipulated by the rich .The society cannot have
equals which leads to perpetual struggle between the ruled and the
rulers .conflict offer result in its positive changes in the existing power
structure.
Relevance:It also helps to sharpen appetite for change ,creates
solidarity within each conflicting zone ,helps society to redefine its
goals and boundaries and also generates creativity and innovaliveness
on how to solve problems .He argues in this theory called diatectical
materialism that history of human societies is about the history of class
struggles .The struggle for control of production and material wealth
creates permanent struggles or conflict which contradict one another
for the benefit of one .
Example ;The conflicts between politicians so that they can rule the
country .
DISENGAGEMENT THEORY
It was created by social scientists Elain Cumming and Willian Earle Henry. The theory outlines a process
of disengagement from social life that people experience as they age and become elderly.
The theory states that, over time, elderly people withdraw or disengage from, the social roles and
relationships that were central to their life in adulthood. As a functionalist theory, this framework casts
the process of disengagements necessary and beneficial to society, as it allows the social system to remain
stable and ordered.
Relevance to modern society
The focus is on counseling perspectives aimed at helping the elderly individuals maintain a satisfactory
state of psychological well-being.
FEMINIST THEORY
It is one of the major contemporary theories, which analyzes the status of women and men in society with
the purpose of using that knowledge to better women’s lives.
Feminist theory is most concerned with giving a voice to women and highlighting the various ways
women have contributed to the society.
It focuses on discrimination and exclusion on the basis of sex and gender, objectification, structural and
economic inequality, power and gender roles.
Feminist considers how systems of power and oppression interact. It does not just focus on gendered
power and oppression, but on how it might interact with systemic racism, a hierarchical class system,
sexuality, nationality among other things.
SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY

The symbolic interaction perspective, also called symbolic interactionism, is a major framework of
sociology theory. This perspective focuses on the symbolic meaning that people develop and rely upon in
the process of social interaction.
For example, how would young people smoke cigarettes even when all objective medical evidence points
to the dangers of doing so? The answer is in the definition of the situation people create.
Most teenagers are well informed about risks of tobacco, but they also think that smoking Is cool, that
they themselves will be safe from harm, and that smoking projects a positive image to their peers.
CONFLICT THEORY
It emphasizes the role of coercion and power in producing social order. This perspective is derived from
the works of Karl Marx, who saw the society as fragmented into groups that compete for social and
economic resources.
Social order is maintained by domination, with power in the hands of those with the greatest political,
economic, and social resources.
Relevance to modern Society
Conflict theory and its variants are used by many sociologists today to study a wide range of social
problems. Example include, how exposure to environmental pollution and hazards is shaped by race and
class.
FUNCTIONALIST THEORY
The functionalist perspective, also called functionalism, is one of the major theoretical perspectives in
sociology. It has its origins in the work of Emile Durkheim, who was especially interested in how social
order is possible and how society remains relatively stable.
It focuses on the macro-level of social structure, but not the micro-level of everyday life. It interprets each
part of society in terms of how it contributes to the stability of the whole society.
Functionalist believe society consist of a stable system of interrelated parts of individuals, institutions and
structures. These structures serve social functions that contribute and work together to promote social
stability and a unified whole.
CRITICAL THEORY
Critical theory is a type of theory that aims to critique society, social structures, and systems of power,
and to foster egalitarian social change.
It holds that a theory can only be considered a true theory if it is explanatory, practical and normative,
meaning it must sufficiently explain the social problems that exist, offer practical solutions for how to
respond to them and make change.
Aims to uncover day to day social life and surfaces the assumptions that tend to hinder people from a
complete and honest understanding of how the word works.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
It is a theory that attempts to explain socialization and its effect on the development of the self. It looks at
the individual learning processes, the formation of self, and the influence of society in socializing
individuals.
It assumes that the behavior of a person is greatly influenced by the people around them.
It boosts one’s self esteem and helps individuals to freely identify who they are even in the midst of
people
Social learning theory is commonly used by sociologists to explain deviance and crime.
STRUCTURAL STRAIN THEORY

Robert K. Merton developed structural strain theory as an extension of the functionalist perspective on
deviance. This theory traces the origins of deviance to the tensions that are caused by the gap between
cultural goals and the means people have available to achieve those goals.
When people cannot attain their legitimate goals of economic success through legitimate means,
dedication and hard work, they may turn to other forms of illegitimate means of achieving their goals.
GAME THEORY
Game theory is a theory of social interaction, which attempts to explain the interaction people have with
another. As the name of the theory suggests, game theory sees human interaction as just that: a game.
It was initially an economic and mathematical theory that predicted that human interaction had the
characteristics of a game, including strategies, winners and losers, rewards and punishment and profit and
cost.
Applied in determining people’s lifestyle and their standards of living in the current society
SOCIOBIOLOGY
Sociobiology is the application of evolutionary theory to social behavior. It is based on the premise that
some behaviors are at least partly inherited and can be affected by natural selection.
It holds that behaviors have evolved overtime.
Applied in the study of genetics and sex-role stenotypes.
SOCIAL EXCHANGE THEORY
Social exchange theory interprets society as a series of interactions that are based on estimates of rewards
and punishments. According to this view, our interactions are determined by the rewards and punishments
that we receive from others, and all human relationships are formed by the use of a subjective cost-benefit
analysis.
It mainly bases on for societal leadership, force, ingenuity and splendor.
CHAOS THEORY
Chaos theory is a field of study in mathematics, however, it has applications in several disciplines,
including sociology and other social sciences. In the social sciences, chaos theory is the study of complex
nonlinear systems of social complexity. It is not about disorder, but rather is about very complicated
systems of order.
It works in solving problems that arise creating disequilibrium in the society.
Applied in revolutionizing the understanding of heart and brain function
SOCIAL PHENOMENOLOGY
Social phenomenology is an approach within the field of sociology that aims to reveal what role human
awareness plays in the production of social action, social situations and social worlds.
In essence, phenomenology is the belief that society is a human construction.
Mainly applied when sociologists examine the social construction of marital reality.
RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

Economics plays a huge role in human behavior. That is, people are often motivated by money and the
possibility of making a profit, calculating the likely costs and benefits of any action before deciding what
to do. This way of thinking is called rational choice theory.
It was established by George Homans.
Individuals are motivated by their personal wants and goals and are driven by personal desires.
Mainly applied to develop a more formal model of rational choice.
LABELLING THEORY
Labeling theory is one of the most important approaches to understanding deviant and criminal behavior.
It begins with the assumption that no act is intrinsically criminal.
Definitions of criminality are established by those in power through the formulation of laws and the
interpretation of those laws by police, courts, and correctional institutions.
applied to point of asking how social processes of treating someone as criminally deviant actually
quickens deviant behaviors.
Crossman, A. (2018). Major sociological theories. http://thoughtco.com/sociology-research-and-

statistics-s2-3026650
SOCIAL CONTROL MEASURES
BASCI DEFINITIONS
SOCIAL
Social refers to an informal social gathering, especially one organized by members of the of a
particular group or group
CONTROL
Control refers to the power to influence or direct people’s behavior or the course of events for
example the Government of Kenya has the power to control the budget of Kenya meaning no
other institution can try to change the budget approved by the Government.
MEASURE
A measure refers to a plan or a course of action taken to achieve a particular goal.
For example in the recent incidences of strikes in schools, the authority tends to put measures to
prevent the re-occurrence of the strikes again.
SOCIAL CONTROL
From the definitions above, social control can therefore be termed as the sum of methods by
which a society tries to influence human behavior in order to achieve a given order
For a society to achieve the set goals it must maintain a certain harmony hence the need for
social control in the society .
SOCIAL CONTROL MEASURE
Refers to the plan put in place in order to achieve social control in a given society
Social control measures are wide and can be categorized into two main types ;
Formal social control measures for example education and law.
Informal social control measures for example art and religion.
Both the formal and the informal social control measures are as discussed in the following
paragraphs below,
Social control refers to a way in which the society tries to prevent and sanction
behavior that violates social norms and arouses negative social reactions.
It implies the social intercourse is regulated in accordance with established and
effective social norms to stimulate order, discipline and mutuality and to punish
deviance.
It also refers to all the ways and means by which society enforces conformity to its
norms and compliance to the rules of a given society. The individual internalizes
social norms as part of his existence and personality.
The aim of social control is nipping deviant tendencies in the bud as explained by
Parson’s .If that has not been the need, social order would never have existed and
this would have made the law of brute to prevail.
The rewards or punishments are applied to control the behavior of the individual
and to bring the behavior of nonconformists into line.
Social control as thus says Lapiere ,is thus the corrective for inadequate
socialization .According to Ross,F.A the individual has deep rooted sentiments that
help him to cooperate with other fellow members to work for social welfare.
Dunne. A . G says ,social control is the system of
measures ,suggestions ,persuasions ,restain and coercion by whatever means the
including physical force by which the society brings into conformity to the
approved pattern of behavior.
Herbert .S . has said the view that the society is a collection of a group of
individual .Man lives in society because it has utility , through society he is able to
preserve his identity and views .
According to Madver ,social norms is the way in which the entire social order
cohereces and maintains itself –how it operates as a whole ,as a changing
equilibrium.
SOCIAL CONTROL MEASURES
BY DESIGNING SOCIAL EXPERIENCES.
The presence of social experiences in the current society for example working acts as a great
social control measure.
The presence of work in the society makes many people busy hence they may not be involved in
other activities that may not bring an impact in the society for example being involved in crime
like theft and killing.
The social experiences in life also help in impacting a lot of virtues in one’s life for example
patience and hard work. With this a lot will be achieved in the society as a whole as many people
will have gained enough virtues to help in the society.
Not only work but also other social experiences also help as social control measure.
BY USE OF SOCIAL SUGGESTIONS.

Refers to the suggestions that the citizens give to the authority in aim of what they expect from
the authority will be achieved.
Social suggestions help a lot in that the bad things done by those in authority will be criticized
and the authority does what is in will with the people. With this people will have faith in those
who are in authority and hence will do what is in will with the law.
Through this suggestions and ideologies the society controls the behavior of its members. The
social suggestions are made to the public through many mediums for example through books,
writings and spoken words.
Social suggestions help a lot in that it will have helped in nurturing talent among the writers and
even those who participate in spoken word. With these instead of the idle people participating in
activities that may not be of any help to the society they involve themselves in useful activities.
Use of social suggestions as discussed above help as asocial control measure.
BY USE OF FOLK WAYS .
Folk ways refers to a mode of thinking ,feeling or acting common to a given group of people.
In a community whereby folkways is used they have a common and uniform way of living.
According to F.B. Renter and C.W. Hart :simple habits of action common to the members of the
group ;they are ways of folk that are somewhat standardized and have some degree of traditional
sanction for their persistence.
If people have a way of which they live together in harmony and have they same teachings that
are channeled towards the success of the society they will be of good help as asocial control
measure.
For example if the people will have a good teaching and a good way of life they will likely do
what is in accordance to the law.
In conclusion social control will be made efficient and more easy by the use of folkways in the
society as the people are all guided by a common teaching.
BY USE OF MORES.
Mores are like folkways but then it is based on value judgement and they are mainly rooted in
the community way life.
Mores just like folkways also guide people in accordance to what has been taught to the specific
person but then they are based on the way they have been previously practiced by the community
at hand.
With this if the community has been of good conduct and the teachings are in accordance to the
law, members of that community are likely to follow the same and they may not be involved into
bad activities that may not help the community or rather that may bring harm to the members of
the particular society
The use of mores helps a great deal as a social control measure not only to one community but
also to many communities present as a whole.
BY USE OF A GOODBELIEF SYSTEM.
Belief system refers to what some of the values that some people believe in.
The belief system differs from one person to another but it also acts as a great social control
measure in the society. Belief system has greatly influenced the behavior of men from all over
the world.
With these once a person is rooted to a certain belief system one is likely to follow it strictly and
will try to influence others to do what he/she has believed.
Since the belief system is good the influence may spread to change the lives of many and hence
controlling the social lives of many involved in the process. For example Professor Wangari
Maathai believed in the conservation of trees and to date though she died she still is and will
remain a role model to many in the years to come. Use of a good belief system helps a lot as a
social control measure in the society .
BY USE OF EDUCATION.
Education can be defined as the process of receiving or giving systematic instruction at a school
or a university.
It can also be defined as an enlightening experience.
During the process of education to an individual , morals intellectual and social values are
inculcated in them.
Education guides one as after one is educated, he / she is always has a specific goal therefore
giving him a social vision of uniformity and fits him for a social role for example in a situation
of two people one educated and the other not educated, the educated person is more likely to be
involved in the activities that will bring a positive impact in the society since the person is
guided by the principles acquired while being educated. The other person who may not have
acquired the education will likely be involved in activities that will not bring an impact to the
society.
Therefore one will conclude that education plays a big role as a social control measure in the
society.
In the book; differences between Ekaja and Duija, education is potrayed to have an influence on
the structure of the society.
Education therefore links one to one’s heritage and sets a perspective before him. Education
also impacts a sense of continuity to a person. With this one will most likely be prepared and be
fit for a role in the society since one will be having all the above virtues. Therefore education
playing a big role as a social control measure.
USING THE LAW .

Law refers to the system of rules which a particular country or a community recognizes as
regulating the actions of its members and which it may enforce by the imposition of penalties.
Law can also be defined as a rule defining correct procedure or behavior .
The law controls people in the society therefore there are some activities that one may not be
involved in as it is in contradiction with the law therefore controlling the behavior of people in
the society hence social control will have been achieved.
Professor Holland defines law as a general rule of external action enforced by a sovereign
political authority and people are expected to follow it.
If one fails to obey the law there is the presence of penalties that will act as correctional
measures to those that will have disobeyed the law. This is the reason why there is the presence
of prisons and rehabilitation centers in Kenya. One can therefore comfortably say that law acts
as measure to social control
Law dates back to the ancient world. The laws that were repeated came to gain influence among
the people thus we can conclude that custom is an important source of the law.
Law acts as a tool as it brings everyone equal despite the fact that there are different social
classes in the society. This means that even those in authority are expected to follow the law.
From the above we can conclude that like education law also acts as an important social control
measure in the society.
BY USE OF ART.
Art refers to the expression or application of human creative skill and imagination ,typically in
a visual form such as painting or sculpture, producing works to be appreciated primarily for the
beauty or emotional power.
Art acts as a social control measure in that many people who have specific talents especially in
the field of art for example in the field of writing and maybe in the field of drama will influence
many others in the way that those influenced will change their ways.
For example in the field of drama in primary,secondary and universities always bring out the
evils in the society and urge people to desist from the evils in the society. In addition the
presence of writers in our society also play a big role in the field of art as a social control
measure in that they describe the society and the evils eating up the society. For example some
books for example Betrayal in the City by Francis Imbuga . The book showed the evils in the
society and also warned the people on how to avoid being involved in the evils in the current
society.
In addition the presence of art that is traditional art also brings out art as a social control
measure. For a very long time traditional art was looked down upon but currently through art
people have started appreciating it.
Art has also provided employment among the youth hence keeping them busy. Through art they
will not be involved in crime activities that will bring harm to the members of the society.
Through providing employment in the society it will have helped those that are in need of
employment therefore reducing the gap between the rich and the poor in he society.
Through the above definitions it is crystal clear that art also has a big role as social control
measure in the society.
THE PRESENCE OF RELIGION.

Religion refers to the belief in and worship of a superhuman controlling power, especially a
personal God or gods.
Religion includes those customs, rituals , prohibitions ,standard of conduct and roles primarily
concerned with or justified in terms of the supernatural and the sacred . Religion is powerful in
that it controls man’s relationship to the forces of his physical and social environment.
Religion affects the behavior of human beings in that once a person accepts the teachings of a
specific religion one is likely to follow the teachings faithfully throughout his/her life. For
example Christianity has a specific teaching to those who believe in God and those that believe
are likely not to follow any other teaching that is in contradiction with what was taught. On the
other hand the Muslim also have the Quran which is the basis of their teachings and once one is
taught they are likely to follow the teachings throughout their lives. Therefore religion guides
one through the teachings present in the specific religion. However the extent to which religion
controls the behavior of men depends upon the degree to which its adherents accept its teachings.
The presence of a variety of religion with different teachings but all leading to a super natural
being that is God presents religion as a social control measure in the society as a whole.
With this one can confidently say that religion has a hand as a social control measure in that if
one is not involved a specific religion they are likely to lack certain virtues in life therefore they
may be involved in activities that will not be of help to the society.
USE OF NORMS.
Norms refers to something that is usual, typical or standard.
Norms provide a standard of behavior and are regulatory in character, norms also provide the
guideline for action by influencing the attitude of individuals. Through this norms give cohesion
to the society.
For example in a society crime is considered to be bad, crime refers to many activities for
example killing and stealing. So if one is guided by norms and who is of sound mind is not likely
to involve himself or herself in criminal activities. The presence of norms acts as a guidance to
the members of the society. The choice of individual for striving towards the cultural goal is
limited by institutional norms.
Through norms social control is achieved in that people will follow what has been practiced over
a long period of time hence practices such as homosexuality that were not practiced in the past
will remain being condemned as it was not God’s intended purpose for human beings.
Norms becomes an efficient measure of social control when the old people in the society who
are considered wise are given the opportunity to share with the young in the society and impart
the wisdom unto them. Through this use of norms will efficiently work.
Norms hence plays a big role as a social control measure in the society as its like a Guidance to
the society
BY USE OF COERCION.
Coercion refers to the action or practice of persuading someone to do something by use force or
by use of threats. Coercion works a great deal as a social control measure. It has been used by
many societies since the ancient time.
Though some times force may breed revenge but others resolve to use of force since it may
instill fear among the people hence people may resolve to doing what is good in fear of the
punishment that may be given upon you.
From history other communities that gave up the use of force as a social control measure
sometimes ended up falling breaking up.
The presence of coercion in the society helps a lot to bring people into doing what is correct and
eliminating other people that may bring a lot of negative influence in the society.
In conclusion the use of coercion helps in achieving social control in the society.
BY USE OF GOOD IDEOLOGY.

Ideology refers to a system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic
or political theory and policy. Ideology can also be defined as the science of ideas and the study
of ideas .
Social thinking has always been influenced a great deal by the ideology at hand. The way people
think in a given society has a great deal with the ideology at hand. For example if the ideology is
good then people tend to do what is good in accordance to the ideology. On the other hand if the
ideology is not good then people are likely to be misguided and hence leading to the breeding of
a society that is not of good standards.
For a very long time the ideologies given by the authority at that particular time is mostly what
influences people of the particular society at that time, for example in Tanzania the UJAMAA
ideology guided the Tanzanians into working together breeding unity among them and hard work
in the society at that time.
In conclusion it is crystal clear that the use of good influence has a great impact to the people it
affects as a social control measure.
BY USE OF REFORMATORIES.
The presence of reformatories in a society helps a great deal social control measure.
Reformatories in the society offer great help to those that might have given up in the society, the
presence of the specific reformatories for example drug rehabilitation centers help those that
have a problem of drug abuse.
Thus acts a measure in that the people that may have been previously judged by the community
are given a chance to live good lives once again. With the reformatories it leads to the rise of
good characters in the society that will in turn impact them lives of others who may have
witnessed the change of the particular persons that were affected.
Reformatories brings a lot of aid as a social control measure in many communities nit only in
Kenya but also to the world as whole.
BY USE OF GOOD VALUES.
Values are standards of things held to be good, worthwhile, important or usefulness in the
society.
Values consists of culturally defined goals. The presence of goals that guide the people of a
specific community itself may also act as a social control measure.
Values involve various degrees of sentiments and significance. Values may consist of
inspirational reference. Presence of values that guide the people of a particular society acts as a
social control measure in that the people will always strive to live by their values and will always
try not to go against the values that they hold dearly and the course that they strive for.
Good values help a great deal as a social control measure in the society involved at that
particular time .
BY USE OF CUSTOMS.
Custom refers to the rule or norm of action. It is the immediate result of some social expediency.
Customs bring out automatic good character if the customs involved are good. Customs are
fixed in that they only change under very serious circumstances. With this it is clearly evident
that customs helps as a social control measure in that the good customs will always remain and
they will always guide the people in the right direction. People in a particular society will follow
to the latter the customs laid down from the past.
Customs also needs time to establish itself since it’s a handiwork of time. Customs help to bring
social control in the society as a measure since people will tend to follow what was considered
good by the old wise men of the past.
In conclusion it is clearly evident that the use of customs as a social control measure helps a
great deal in all the societies involved.
REEFERENCE;
Giddens. A. (1997). Sociology. Cambridge:Polity Press.

Max.W. (1978). Economy and Society. California:University of California Press.
Upholding belief systems.
This has deeply influenced man’s behavior. It has provided sanction to the social
norms and conditioned the growth of culture. Beliefs measures were used for
securing conformity and to check deviance.
In modern society, through the changing circumstances where people have adopted
individualistic orientation and in the era and globalization, unity ,cohesiveness and
peace is maintained by formal means. The religious ideology helped demarcate
between good and bad, sacred and profane.
One of the sociologist Samwel Stouffer’s research strongly influences was the
survey that culminated in the book “Dimensions of Tolerance: What Americans
believe about civil liberties (McClosky and Brill, 1983). The researcher’s based
their measure on religiosity. As with Stouffer’s study, the higher the level of
religiosity the lower support of civil liberties. Respondents who were highly
religious are more likely to stand at the intolerant, ant libertarian and civil liberties
scale (p. 407).
For Example , religiously devout were much more eager to clamp down on the
civil liberties of unpopular ideological deviant in some areas than others .In
Traditional society the Fear of god , Magic and spiritual power was to inculcated
in them to check deviance . Informal and subjective belief measures were used for
for securing conformity and checking deviance.
To provide social sanction

Markedly, deviation from the accepted norms is considered a threat to the welfare
of the society hence sanctions are used by the group to control the behavior of
individuals. A great deal of social control is coercive and repressive; it relies on
punishment and force. Often many of us want to move outside the lines, when we
do, certain agents of social control detect our behavior and use some sort of
punishment to bring us back into line.
Sanctions can be good as well as bad. Good sanctions are rewards given for
conforming to norms .For Example, a promotion at work is a positive sanction for
working hard.
Bad sanctions are a punishments to the miscreants for violating norms, for
Example, Being arrested for shoplifting. Both types of sanctions play a role in
social control.
Social Thinker, Graham Greene in his book “The Ministry of Fears” says pity is
cruel, pitydestroys; this gives an implication that any individual who goes against
rules should be brought into line without showing to the person self- pityto the
person.
That’s why Jeremy Bentham (1748 – 1842) British philosopher, Reformer and
Utilitarian came up with a plan for the modern prison. It was designed so that a
small number of guards could observe a large number of inmates. He called this
arrangement the panoptic on, which he saw would try to make control seem
benign.
Enacting laws
Law is for all practical purposes observed by Professor Holland “a general rule for
external action enforced by a sovereign political authority.” It is the general
condition prescribed by the state and the members of the body politic are expected
to follow it in given conditions .It is uniform and meant for all.
Before a society can be said to be sane, there have to be means by which that
society regulates the conducts of its members. If everyone in a society is left to do
as he wills , they might end up being no society .This is due to the fact that
absence of regulation would breed anarchy , making life “ nasty , brutish and
short” , it is due to this that every society has means by which it regulates the
conduct hence social control measure.
In principle , the agents of social control act not as individuals with their own
personal feelings about whether the behavior is wrong or right but , as occupants
of specific statuses in a specific bureaucratic organization i.e. The Criminal justice
system .
For Example, A child molester may serve a 10 –year sentence and be exposed and
humiliated by the members of the community which he lives after he is released.
Bringing up suggestions for social control

Social control ideas and opinions have been an important measure to social control.
Through this ideologies and suggestions, the society controls the behavior of its
members and their behavior regulation through different ways; for Example;
Through media.
The media do not operate like other agencies to ensure social control but it plays a
crucial role in influencing behavior. The media penetrates the hidden regions of
life .They pass judgment upon purely private act.
Through spoken words

Spoken words help who grew up feeling underestimated, hated or even less
important know that they are not alone. This because different poets showcase
different which entails information of different situations which perhaps happened
in their lives, hence this shows others that they are not alone and encourage them
to vocalize their own experience , to celebrate they are, inside out .
Marcel “Fablethe Poet “Price says “poetry inspires the individual of tomorrow
today. “ He says that, poetry acts as a catalyst to get students to unpack stressors
that they have been harboring or have bottled up for a long period. Adding up,
Marcel says that, he grew up in a home where substance abuse and domestic
violence were common, while struggling with his diagnosis of bipolar, anxiety and
depression. Juggling all of these issues caused feelings of displacement whereby,
he always carried a feeling of being under attack while, he simultaneously
pretended that none of that affected him, ultimately refusing to bring it to light.
“Until spoken word became my outlet, a preserver and a catalyst for than I could
ever imagined “this gives an implication of social control, since through spoken
word, individuals are able to present different issues concerning the society to the
world i.e. racism, or violence which would enable the people to site ways of
bringing peace which enable unity to prevail, which have helped in social control.
Checking cultural adjustment

The society is continually undergoing changes so individuals got to adjust their
behaviors according to the rapid changes taking place in the society. Therefore
social control measures are needed to prevent the society from disintegration
andchaos that can come up can come up due to violation rules and socialnorms.
Kimball Youngsays, “The need is greater in modern society because of its highly
complex characters and disintegrating forces present in it.
Max Weber tries to explain cultural maladjustment when he speaks about culture.
Culture is a finite segment of the meaningless infinity of the world, a segment on
which human beings confer meaning and significance.
Weber emphasized that culture is changeable. The cultural problems which shape.
Human beings are continuously reshaping themselves in different colors. In the
unending stream of concrete events, the boundaries to the area which achieve
meaning and significance for us;i.e. which are historically unique and constantly
subjective to change.
As an example, Weber referred to the cultural significance of a normatively

regulated legal system where the norms themselves undergo fundamental and
revolutionary change even within the terms of the ruling legal norms (p. 83 – 84).
In the article “Objectivity in Social Science”, we thus get a definition of Weber’s
concept of culture and an impression of how culture is related to the social world.
The decisive element in Weber’s of culture in values and ideas.
Human values are prerequisite for enabling social phenomena to be transformed

into culture. In this way culture becomes those segments of reality which humans
endow with meaning and significant through their thoughts.
Re –establishing the Old systems
The main need of the social control is to keep the existing order in place. In other
words it is the aim of the society to make its members to live in a manner in which
their forefathers have been living .Although enforcement of the order is changing
society may bring social progress , yet it is necessary to maintain continuity and
uniformity in society. Disregard shown to this brings forth disapprobation.
The National socialists hope of solving social problems by exterminating the Jews
of what is infect a universally prevalent feature of present day social life of
mankind.
In a family the old system impacted values and wisdom to the younger ones and
also taught of the need of being united which enhanced social control.The elder
taught the younger generation on the need of showing respect everyone no matter
the class, age, rank or status which brought about good relationships of both the
elder and the younger in terms of social control for the children had acquired the
right values and good morals. The elder are the custodian of our cultural and
traditional wisdom and knowledge .they transfer it to the next generation.
At the level of society and Nation they come to resolve the disputes as they are
respected and easily agreed upon , they do good to the nation but playing a socio –
judicial role, they play indispensable role in customary disputes resolutions thus
relieve the national judicial system from extra litigation pressure .
From the older time, because of great acumen, old and experience people had been
leading their tribal group, they were thought of having good judgment whether be
it political,social, cultural and economic. Even to date generally young people take
advices from the old regarding law and order , right and wrong things hence
bringing about social control, since the young would always there is a reputation
for against any law or rule thus enabling social control measure to prevail.
To bring solidarity
Social control is to create the feeling of solidarity in people’s minds. In this
competitive world, the lower class level group is likely to be exploited by the high
class level group equally the high class levels can be clashing among themselves.
This hinder harmony and order, bringing about solitude nature in some groups and
posing danger to the organization of the society.
For Example, concurrently the growing class power and public voice of
conservative and liberal well to do black folks easily obscures the class cruelty.
These individuals enact both in the way they talk about the underprivileged blacks
and the way they represent them. The existence of that class cruelty and its fascist
dimension have been somewhat highlighted by the efforts of privileged class
blacks to censor the voices of the black youth , as said by Bell Hook in his book
Killing rage ; Ending racism.
Karl Max talks about unequal system. Max divided the general population into two
rigid social groups: the proletariat and the bourgeois. The bourgeois are a small
and wealthy segment of society who control the means of production while the
proletariat is composed of the workers who rely on those means of production for
employment and survival. By centralizing these vital resources into few hands , the
bourgeois also has means to control the way the society is regulated from laws to
government to other authority which gives bourgeois the opportunity to maintain
and expand power in society , whereas the social control using different agencies
ensure solidarity whereby every individual is treated equally despite the status.
Obedience to social decision
Obedience is a measure of social control which influences an individual’s acts in
response to a direct order from another individual, who occasionally is an authority
figure. It’s usually assumed if there was no an authority figure many individuals
would not have acted in response to that direct order.
Society takes certain decisions .These decisions are taken to maintain and uphold
the values of the society. Through social control attempt is made to get the social
decision obeyed.
For Example, Adolf Eichmann was executed in 1962 for his part of organizing the
Holocaust, in which six million Jewish people as well as gypsies, communists and
trade unionists were transported to death camps and murdered in Nazi Germany
and surroundingcountries under the control of Nazi .Eichmann expressed surprise
at being hated by Jewishpeople, saying that he had merely obeyed the orders, and
surely obeying orders could only be a good thing. In his jail diary Eichmann wrote
“The orders were for me, the highest thing in my life and I had to obey them
without question “(extract quoted in The Guardian, 12 August 1999, p.3).
Eichmann was declared sane by a number of psychiatrists, he had a normal family
and observers at his trial described him as very average. Having nothing unusual
about Eichmann it is evident that his behavior was the product of the social
situation in which he found himself , and that under different situations we may all
be capable of monstrous acts. Despite the fact that Eichmann was obeying the rules
but it had a negative impact on the Jewish community he had to taste his own
medicine in that, he was executed for taking human life so as ensure that no other
individual would try that thus bringing about social control.
Keeping of values
Values consist of culturally defined goals. It is held out as a legitimate object of
realization for all or for diversely located members of the society. It involves
various degrees of sentiments and significance.
Constructionism seeks to understand, how distinctive social categories are created,

how these categories are infused with evaluative meaning – that is, how they are
attributed with the qualities of being good versus evil, true versus false, desirable
versus undesirable, positive versus negative, discrediting versus affirming and how
appropriate reactions to those persons are indicated and carried out, as researched
by Schwartz and Shalom H.
The Social thinkers considered value to be a key element of human groups and
societies. For instance the founders of sociology Emile Durkheim and Max Weber
considered how the difference in values and the extent to which our actions are
influenced by by these values.
Values give direction to the way that individuals , organizations and societies act ,
what they strive for and what they deem more important .They are culturally
approved , internalized wishes that motivate our actions hence used as a measure
of social control.
Establishing social unity
Social control regulates the behavior of of individuals in accordance with
established norms which brings uniformity of behavior and unity among
individuals.
Societies are highly concerned based upon which degree do people identify with
one another that is , to which extent they feel sameness as , connected to one
another and to which extent they have a commonality with one another. This
strength is identified by – The physical similarity of people in a group, the
emotional similarity of people behavior, the similarity of identity and culture in a
group –that is, way of doing things.
The more similar individuals are with one another , the more strongly will they
identify with one another , the more fond they will be of one another , the more
pronounced will be the social unity among them.
For that case social unity acts as a social control measure since, where there is high
degree of unity there would be less conflict, people would work together thus
encouraging good teamwork, there would be a relatively high degree of concern of
thewelfare of the others in that society, there would be a relatively higher degree of
concern for the society as a whole
For Example , In 2007 when Kenya had no peace and clashes was all around, due
to the different opposition democratic parties , Kofi Annan had to to arbitrate for
peace to prevail in Kenya since, no peace no unity. This makes unity genuinely a
measure of social control.
Setting up of norms
Norms are rooted in the institution to provide standard behavior and are regulatory
in characters. The choice of any individual to strive towards the cultural goal is
limited by institutional norms. These provide the guidelines for action since they
give a cohesion to the society. Indeed order rather than disorder is the rule of the
world, which is obtained through human behavior regulation according to certain
standards.
When a number of individuals get a coexisting bond , a set of standards develop

that regulate their relationship and mode of behavior i.e. That brothers and sisters
should not have sexual relations; a child should defer to his parents are
illustrations of norms which govern relationships among kinsmen.
Secord and Beckman say “A norm is a standard of behavioral expectation shared a

group members against which the validity perception is judged and the
appropriateness of feeling and behavior is evaluated. “ Members of a group exhibit
certain regularities in their behavior.
A norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behavior. As defined by Broom and

Selznick,“Norms are the blueprints of behavior setting limits within which
individuals may seek alternate ways to achieve their goals. “
Sociologists are more interested in operative norms, that is, norms that are
sanctioned in such a way that violators suffer penalties in the group. For Example,
most of the norms of sermon on the Mountain, one being punished for refusing to
“to turn the other cheek to be slapped”
We can hardly think of individuals without norms. A group of individuals without

norms would be to use the words of Hobbes,“Solitary,poor,nasty, brutish and short.
“ The human organism in order to maintain itself must live in a normatively
regulated social system. The normative system gives to society cohesion without
which social life is not possible.
Bringing conformity in the society

Social control intends to bring uniformity in the behavior of individual members
of the society and bring about different types of conformities in their
society .Conformity is a process that establishes some boundaries between groups ,
this in turn brings about a shared social identity to individuals as members of a
particular group.
Social groups such as families, peer groups, business firms and nations, only
maintain their distinctive cultural beliefs and moderately stable social structures
through the constant operation of conformity process.
For Example collectivistic cultures such as Japan emphasize the interdependence

of individuals which show higher levels of conformity than individualistic cultures
and the United States that focus on the independence of individuals
Conformity arises out of social influence between an individual and the group
majority. Serge Moscovici point out that a dissenting member is not just a recipient
of pressure from the majority, but someone who, by breaking the group laws
challenges the validity of the majority view, creating conflict, doubt and possibly
change of in the group. Therefore if conformity is enhanced it would in social
control since, individual’s would gain each other’s trust and stay in good terms
with one another.
For regulation of individual social behavior

This is in accordance with the social objective and social values to help maintain
the social order whereby individuals would live up to the prescribed norms of
conducts and unless their self-seeking impulses be subjugated to the welfare of the
whole.
Few dimensions of effective meaning provide a common basis for interrelating

personal identities and social actions. It holds that during interpersonal
interactions, social behavior is continually regulated to maintain an effective tone
compatible with whatever social roles or identities that define the situation.
Carver and Schemer try to social control through regulation of individual behavior
by saying,likethermostats, we sense our environment and then act with the aim of
bringing perceptions into line with some goal. In Heise’scase, compensatory
actions are designed to maintain our definition of the social situation.
For Example , In a court of law the prosecutor actually to stoop low to the humble
nature so as enable the complaint so he can be able to give his version of the
complaint especially if the complainant is a child. This brings about embracing of
social control.
REFERENCES
Taylor, S. (2000). Sociology issues and debates.175 fifth Avenue New
York: PALGRAVE Publishers.
Goode , E. & Brooke , S. (1997) . Deviant Behavior. Upper Saddle River and
New Jersey: Pearson Educ.
Odegi, C. & Awuondo. Introduction to Sociology. Kenya : Basic Books Limited .
WEEK 4
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Elements of culture. Mass media and globalization of culture. Cultural production: Social
stratification and mobility
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION
- Social stratification refers to the organization of a society’s people into

rankings of socioeconomic tiers based on different factors.
- It can also be defined as the grouping of people into socioeconomic strata
based on different factors.
- Stratification introduces inequality in society but the fact that it cannot be
alleviated as it is an essential social construct.
FACTORS INFLUENCING SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

1) Wealth- Wealth is one of the most apparent factors in the society today
and also in the past. In many societies there have been divisions over
the amount of assets possessed by different people and how these
people were treated in relation to how wealthy they were. Society was
traditionally divided into two parts and that is the rich and the poor but
in recent year’s new strata has emerged and that is the middle class
(Archie). A few things have always stood out in the societies affected by
this particular factors and one is that the poor in these communities are
oppressed by the rich in that society.
Example
This factor is mainly seen in societies such as Kenya where the rich oppress
the poor and this is mostly exemplified in the saying “The rich get richer
and the poor get poorer”. It is true that the rich in these communities get
rich at the expense of the poor. The poor traditionally were often obscenely
poor and could do nothing to change where they were in the pyramid but
this has changed in recent years and people can now their situation by
taking opportunities
2) Income – Income is another factor that has played a big role in shaping
the social pyramid of society. This can be seen in todays’ society in that
people who have big salary usually get to the top echelon of society
pretty quickly because they acquire wealth quickly and thus are held in
high regard in society but low income people are usually in the bottom
of the societal pyramid and in most remain there for the rest of their
lives so income plays a really big role in stratification. It is this factor that
has given rise to education as an important factor in the society because
education is an important factor because it is seen as a way to earn
more income and hold a better place in society.
3) Education– Education has been cemented as a very important factor in

how the society is divided for a very long time. The level of education a
person holds today is a really important part of how people see other
gpeople in society. A person who has a high level of education is held in
high regard by people in society and this can clearly be seen today since
people with PhD’s which is the highest level of education are generally
held in high regard and given a lot of respect. People with little or no
education are mostly not given a lot of regard and that is their social
standing. The layers in a society affected by this factor are usually two
strata, the educated on the top and the people with a low amount of
education in the bottom.
4) Race– Race is a factor that has been in the bane of society recently
because of the rapid pace of globalization and the emigration of people
from their places of origins and immigrating to other places voluntarily
or non-voluntarily (slavery). The latter really affected the way the society
in the countries or states in which it happened interacted and what
happened to the people in the different strata. One case is the American
debacle where the slaves were taken from Africa to the American states
to work and they were treated very cruelly. They were all in the lower
strata in that society because their skin color was very different from the
people living there at the time. Since they were from a different race
which was generally regarded as primitive in nature they were put in the
lower strata of society and the interaction with the people living in the
Americas at the time was not very good. The effects of this can still be
felt today as black people are still regarded as lower than their white
counterparts but this is changing.
5) Power– Power in a society can mean many things but the consensus it
that power entails the ability of a certain individual or certain individuals
to affect the goings on of a society. Power can be derived from many
things, wealth, name, position among other things. A powerful person in
society is basically in the upper bounds of the societal strata in a
pyramid because they can be able to manipulate things to suit him/her
and so this person can essentially do anything. The less powerful people
are left to follow the whims of the powerful and so they are in the lower
bounds of the societal pyramid. This forms a divide between the
powerful and the less powerful and this basically forms the layers in the
society affected by this.
6) Age– Age is also a factor that affects stratification in society in that in

some communities the people in the society might hold the elderly
people in very high regard and this is mostly evident in traditional
African societies and also in the world today. The elderly are put in a
higher tier than their younger counterparts and this creates a divide
between the people who are older and the people, who are younger,
and thus affecting the way the community is divided and who goes into
what place in the different strata that are created.
For Example –Traditionally in Africa generally old people are regarded

higher than young people and are generally in the highest strata but as
things change old people find themselves forgotten and people regard
being young as the prime of life.
7) Religion–Perhaps one of the factors that have come to light in recent
times is religion. This is mainly experienced in places where people have
immigrated to or where pilgrims have taken their religion. It is mainly
seen in the fact that in some societies today there is a significant divide
between people of one religion and the other. One example that can be
given is the Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and the others
where Islam is the main religion and there are few Christians. In these
places Christians are basically in the lowest strata of society because
they belong to a different religion than the majority. This creates a
divide of sorts between the people from different religions and this
makes the creation of strata imminent.
8) Birth Situations-One of the factors that really affects how the society is
divided is where and to whom a person is born. People who are born to
rich families or royal families automatically hold a higher position of
power than the people who are born into a family or families which are
not as wealthy. The society will regard these people in high regard and
they will be well respected while the people others will simply be passed
up. This is a factor that is prevalent in both traditional and new societies.
This factor affects the systems of stratification. In a closed system the
system does not allow people who are born into different strata change
their strata but these people remain in the same strata for the duration
of their life while in an open system people can change which strata
they belong to.
9) Sexual Orientation–This is a factor that for a long time was not

acknowledged as a legitimate factor but in recent times has been hitting
headlines in many places. This factor can shape how society is divided or
which strata someone belongs to in that people that are attracted to the
opposite sex are held in higher regard and are in higher strata than
people who are attracted to people of the same sex. This might be due
to many things but mainly because of how the community views these
people. The people who are attracted to the same sex might be put in a
lower position because they do not actually add any new life to the
society like in Africa among other things but in other places it is due to
prejudice based on their personal beliefs, regardless it can really affect
to which strata people in a society fall on among other things.
10) Occupation–This is a factor that has been affecting social

stratification for a very long time and is built into the way a society
functions. The role which someone holds is almost always directly
reflective of what position that person holds in the pyramid or the layers
which community divides its people into. Some professions or
occupations may have people linked to a high place in society for
different reasons.
Forexample: A doctor who is almost always regarded in high regard by

people in the society because of the role the doctor plays in the society
while a casual worker or trader may not belong to a high place in society
just because people do not perceive that as a profession that adds the
same value to the society as the doctor does.
11) Intelligence –Society in general generally refers to people who have
a low brain capacity or do their things in a way as to suggest they are
not smart in low regard bit people who have a large IQ and who do their
things in a smart way are automatically put in the higher strata of the
social pyramid. In most places the people who don’t have a high IQ find
themselves catering to the needs of the people who have a high brain
capacity because they are higher than them in many ways.
Forexample:People who are in Silicon Valley generally have a lot of brain

power and due to this fact they are placed in the highest social strata
formed compared to people who do manual work in the same country.
12) Origin –In many places people are born there and stay there for all
their lives and no do not move but in other situations people might
leave their place of origin and go to a new place and this definitely
affects where they are placed in the society they want to adopt them.
They might be placed in the lowest strata considering the circumstances
by which they left their place of origin or they might be held in high
regard and placed in a corresponding social strata and this definitely
depends on the conditions by which a person moves to a place and how
he/she or the group of people associate with the people they find there.
For Example: People who leave their countries as refugees like the
Somalis or the South Sudanese go to other countries and are placed
mostly in the lower strata of the social pyramid since they are beggars
but Europeans or Americans who come to an African country for
business or any other reason is placed in the higher strata.
13) Personality–A person’s personality or a specific group of people with

a certain personality may have a higher place in society than others with
a different type. This can happen in many societies where generally
people with a lot of charisma occupy a higher tier than the people who
are generally quiet and this may be because people who are very
charismatic may be really social and may have relationships with people
that the people who are quiet do not have.
For example: In our current society people who are very charismatic and
very friendly towards others are usually placed in the higher strata and
are generally very powerful. Many politicians in Kenya could be
attributed to this. It is due to charisma and personality that they gain
status.
14) Physical Appearance –In many communities the way a person looks
affects where they are placed in the social hierarchy. This may vary from
place to place depending on many things but generally the way a person
appears to others affects where they are placed in society significantly.
It varies from place to place what people think is applicable. The
attractiveness of a person from the appearance might make the
community place that person or group of people who take that
appearance and place them in a higher tier.
For example: In some places tall people are revered in society and are
placed in the higher strata of the social pyramid than the short people
while people in other societies might regard short people as more
desirable and thus they will be placed higher than tall people.
15) Gender –This has been a defining factor in the way many societies
are stratified or divided. It is true that for a long time and in many places
there has always been men at the helm leading and dominating the
women in that place. Men have had a defining role in the social
structures of many communities as the leader and it is in very few
communities that women were treated as leaders, this has although
changed in recent times because there has been a sprawling increase in
the campaign of social justice and gender equality. Men traditionally
occupied the top strata but due to changes women now occupy the
same place if not higher in some places. The way people view gender is
changing every day but there is no denying that it will always affect how
a society is stratified.
For example: In past years women occupied the lowest strata in society
particularly in Africa where a woman was the equivalent of property.
They could be exchanged for cows and other animals but today that kind
of exchange is very rare and women are being empowered by education
and other factors and they are now C.E.O’s and highly ranked
government officials.
References
1) Harold, R.K. (1983). Social stratification and inequality. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
2) Manza, J., Michael S. (2009). Inequality and Society: Social science
perspectives on Social Stratification. London: Norton.
3) McKee, V. (2015). Social stratification in the United States: Retrieved from
www.lumenlearning.com.
4) Archie, T., Ben, W. (2005). Class matters: Retrieved from www.nytimes.com
: The New York Times.
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TYPES OF SOCIAL MOBILITY AND FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SOCIAL
MOBILITY
TYPES OF MOBILITY:
i. Horizontal mobility
Horizontal mobility is transition of an individual or social object from one social group to
anotherfound on the same level, without noticeable change.
For instance when a doctor changes his occupation to teaching medicine in college .The
doctor has horizontally move from one occupational category to the other but with no
change in the system of social stratification.
ii. Vertical mobility:

Vertical mobility is the change in the occupational, economic, or political status of an
individualor a group which leads to change of their position.
For example when a big business person occur losses in his or her business and declared
bankrupt. He or she occupies lower status. On the other hand, if a small business person
with adequate skills of money become an industrialist, he or she occupies higher position
in the social ladder.
Vertical mobility is intensive in relatively open societies. Sorokin has indicated the following
general principles of vertical mobility:
(i) There has scarcely been any society whose strata were absolutely closed or in which vertical
mobility in its three forms – economic, political and occupational was not present.
(ii) There has never been existed a society in which vertical social mobility has been absolutely
free and the transition from one social stratum to another has had no resistance.
(iii) The intensiveness as well as the generality of vertical social mobility, varies from society to
society.
(iv) The intensiveness and generality of the vertical mobility – the economic, the political and the
occupational- fluctuate in the same society at different lines.
iii. Upward mobility.

Under upward mobility a person or a group of persons move from lower position to
upper position. The mobile man must leave behind many people and places .The person
must also leave the old ways of thinking and behaving that characterized many of his
older status. The person must learn the new ways of thinking and behaving appropriate
to his new status.
For instance, a person belonging to a lower position after winning elections becomes a
senator and occupies a higher position.His political and economic power move upward.
iv. Downward mobility.

Under downward mobility one loses his or her position and occupies lower position. Downward
mobility is more stressful for persons who suffers a drastic decline in station position. This is so
because the lifestyle of an individual changes to a lower one.
For example, a minister who own a respectable position in the society because of his
occupational position and education. If he is caught for accepting bribe or has committed a sin or
he is involved in corruption, he may be sentenced to jail and at the same time lose his job. This
particular person leaves his normal station position and settles on a lower one. Therefore his
political and economic powers lowers.
Downward mobility indicates that one loses his higher position and occupies a lower
position. We can take the example of an individual, who is an Engineer and occupies a
respectable position in the society because of his occupational position, education and may be
caste.
For example, under the traditional Indian system if a lady of higher Brahmin caste married a
man of Sudra caste, not only the man and woman were out casted but their children were
declared as ‘chandals.’
The Downward Mobility is an indicator of the extent to which a society institutionalizes the
value of equal opportunity through the creation of structure which supports and facilitates it.
Lipset and Zetterberg are of the opinion that this type of mobility is due to interchange of ranks
i.e. mobility arising from implementation of equality of opportunity.
v. Inter-Generational mobility:
Inter-generational mobility means that one generation changes its social status in
contrast to the preceding generation. However this mobility may be upward or
downward. For instance people of lower class may provide resources to educate their
children to get higher education, training and skills. With aid of this skills the younger
generation may get employment in higher position like engineering, doctor or lawyer.
For example,if the parents are farmers and their children have acquired these higher
occupations this would be now called upward inter-generational mobility.
With the improvement in the economic position, people start changing their style of
living by discarding the old practices of those who are high in social ladder. After two to
three generation their new position may be recognized.
Conditions for Inter-generational Mobility:
According to Sorokin, the following conditions affect rates of mobility between generations:
(a) Differences between Parents and Offspring’s:
If a parent occupies an important position requiring high capacity, his children who are less
capable are likely to be downward mobile. Conversely, children who are more capable than their
parents are likely to be upwardly mobile, especially open-class societies.
(b) Population Change:
In developed and developing countries, greater population expansion at the lower than at the
higher levels contribute to upward mobility. Overall population growth creates new positions in
the upper and middle levels, where growth is not great enough to fill the vacancies.
(c) Changes in Occupational Structure:
With the changing times many occupations have been upgraded and downgraded because their
socially defined importance has changed. Some occupations have moved up or down because of
changes in the scarcity of workers willing and able to perform their tasks. Such changes in
occupational structure has also effected the rates of mobility between generations.
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE SOCIAL
MOBILITY
1. Motivation:
This is the desire to have a better way of living and to improve upon your social stand. Each
individual has desire to achieve certain status. In open system it is possible to achieve any status.
This openness motivates people to work hard and improve upon the skills so that one can attain
higher social status.For example, young children have desires for various careers, for instance
engineers,doctors and even being a teacher
2. Education:
Education helps an individual to acquire knowledge. It also acts as a gateway to occupational
position for higher prestige.
For instance, for one to be an engineer he or she must have made the requirements and pursued
the engineering course. Therefore social mobility is clearly seen when a person at a lower status
educate himself or herself to become an engineer. He or she move up the ladder to join a higher
social status.It is only after acquiring minimum formal education that individual can inspire to
occupy higher position.
3. Industrialization:
With industrial revolution, people are given status according to their ability and training.For
instance, people who are employed in industries move from a lower status to higher one.
Industrialization has led to employment of many people. Employment of individual enhance
upward social mobility. With experience they move up the ladder. Industrialization facilitates
greater social mobility.
4. Politicization:
Through education and mass media of communication, people have known their rights. For the
people to achieve their rights people unite and force the authority in power to accept their
demands through methods like demonstration.For example, for a political party to get votes
they provide concessions. With aid of aid of new concessions and provisions, they improve upon
their social status.
Social mobility is also seen when some persons are elected or appointed for government political
positions for instance cabinet secretaries. The appointed cabinet secretary climb the ladder to
another status position.
5. Modernization:
The process of modernization involves use of scientific knowledge and modern technology. With
improvement in technology, people engaged in occupations of low prestige like scavengers
discard their traditional occupations and take up occupations which are better. In this manner
they change their position upward.
Level of development also affects social mobility. For example, the less developed societies
continue with old system of stratification and with accretive statuses. Whereas the developed and
modern societies paved the way for greater opportunities and competition. This allows upward
mobility of socialization.
6. Urbanization:
Urban settlement provide secrecy to individual’s caste and background. The person’s position is
largely dependent upon by his education, occupation and income rather than his background.For
example,If a person has higher prestige, he occupies high social status irrespective of his
caste.Urbanization facilitates social mobility by removing those factors which hinder social
mobility.
7. Migration:
Migration is the movement of people from one geographical area to another. People move from
one place to another either due to pull or push factors. Some places may not have opportunities
and facilitates to improve upon. Hence, people are force to migrate to other places to earn their
livelihood. These new places, may have different openings and opportunities. The individuals
make use of the available opportunities and improve their social position.
For instance, the people belonging to the scheduled caste of Uttaar Pradesh and Bihar, who
migrate to the states of Punjab and Haryana to earn their livelihood. They become farm laborers,
then after accumulating money they go back to their villages and buy land. They till their own
land and become owner cultivators and their social status improved.
The pull factors attract the people because they do not have those facilities at their place of
residence and the new place attracts them by providing these facilities, so that after acquiring
new skills and knowledge they could occupy better positions.
People migrate from villages to cities because urban centres have institutions of higher status as
well as opportunities for jobs. People come to urban areas to acquire education and skills and
occupy higher positions than their parents and brothers who continue to live in villages. In this
way we find that both push and pull factors lead to migration which subsequently facilitates
social mobility.
8. Wealth:
Wealth is the possessions of valuable materials. When someone work hard to acquire the wealth.
He or she move from one social mobility to the higher one. On the other side, when one lose
wealth and become bankrupt he or she changes his or her social mobility downwards.
The size of wealth that an individual has determines the social class of that particular person. For
example, lower class, middle class or high class.
9. Skills and Training:

The society makes provision to impart skills and training to the younger generation. The
individuals spend money and time to acquire these skills because the society gives incentives to
such persons.
When they complete their training they are entitled to high positions which they might have not
taken without such training.For example a carpenter. Therefore skills and training facilitate in
improvement of the position, this leading to social mobility.
10. Legislation:
Legislation is the enactment of new laws. New laws can facilitate social mobility. For instance,
when Zamindari Abolition Act was passed, most of the tenant cultivators became owner
cultivators which indicates improvement in their status, from tenants to owner cultivators.
Moreover the legal provision for reservation of jobs and promotion for scheduled castes and
scheduled tribes has also helped in social mobility.
11. Achievement and Failures:
Achievement here refers to extra ordinary, usually unexpected performance, which attracts the
attention of a wider public to the abilities of a person. Not all achievements will result in social
mobility. Achievements affect status only if they are remarkable. For example, a poor man who
has acquired wealth or an unknown writer who has won a literary prize will improve his status.
Failures and misdeeds have a similar effect on downward mobility. Fraudulent bankruptcy will
remove a member of the upper classes from blue books; he will receive no dinner invitations
from his peers and he will become ineligible as a marriage partner. If he is already married, his
wife may divorce him. He will have to resign from his clubs and all positions he holds. But he
will not become a member of the lowest stratum, although it will be difficult for him to find new
association.
REFERENCES:
Barber, B.(1961).Family Status, Local-Community Status, and Social Stratification: Three Types
of Social Ranking. Washington: Pacific Sociological Review.
Abbott, P.(1987).Women and Social Class. London: Tavistock Publishers.
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ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
Religion
these are the beliefs of a society art consists of architecture and style, the belief in worship of a
supernatural being. may be defined as a cultural system of designated behaviors and practices,
worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that relates humanity
to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements. Religious practices may include rituals,
sermons, commemoration or veneration (of deities), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances,
initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public
service, or other aspects of human culture.
Example: The Kalenjin believes in Asis who is believed to be the sun. therefore, they to always
pray during sunrise and sunset to give thanks.
Norms
Norms define how to behave in accordance with what a society has defined as good, right, and
important, and most members of the society adhere to them. Formal norms are established,
written rules. They are behaviors worked out and agreed upon in order to suit and serve the
most people. Laws are formal norms, but so are employee manuals, college entrance exam
requirements, and “no running” signs at swimming pools. Informal norms—casual behaviors
that are generally and widely conformed to—is longer. People learn informal norms by
observation, imitation, and general socialization. Some informal norms are taught directly—
“Kiss your Aunt Edna” or “Use your napkin”—while others are learned by observation, including
observations of the consequences when someone else violates a norm.
For example, money is highly valued in the United States, so monetary crimes are punished. It’s
against the law to rob a bank, and banks go to great lengths to prevent such crimes.
Symbols and Language
Humans, consciously and subconsciously, are always striving to make sense of their surrounding
world. Symbols—such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—help people understand
that world. They provide clues to understanding experiences by conveying recognizable
meanings that are shared by societies.
The world is filled with symbols. Sports uniforms, company logos, and traffic signs are symbols.
In some cultures, a gold ring is a symbol of marriage. Some symbols are highly functional; stop
signs, for instance, provide useful instruction. As physical objects, they belong to material
culture, but because they function as symbols, they also convey nonmaterial cultural meanings.
Some symbols are valuable only in what they represent. Trophies, blue ribbons, or gold medals,
for example, serve no other purpose than to represent accomplishments. But many objects
have both material and nonmaterial symbolic value. Societies often share a single language, and
many languages contain the same basic elements. An alphabet is a written system made of
symbolic shapes that refer to spoken sound. Taken together, these symbols convey specific
meanings. The English alphabet uses a combination of twenty-six letters to create words; these
twenty-six letters make up over 600,000 recognized English words (OED Online 2011).
Customs
Involves the repeated behavior that is common to the people in the society. Once a habit is
established, it becomes a norm of action. Customs often involve binding reciprocal obligations.
Also, custom supports law, without which it becomes meaningless. However, some of the
customs do not play any role in social control. They just exist because of their ancient nature
just as all people bathing in an unhygienic tank or a lake just because of an established religious
custom. In certain community’s custom determines the relations between two communities at
war. The Bedouins of the African desert will never destroy a water-well of the enemy.
For example: It is a habitual practice such as circumcision among the Kalenjin which is carried
out every year to youth boys not younger than 14 years of age.
Traditions
This a part of culture that is passed from one person to another or generation to generation. It
differs in details from family to family. For instance, the way we celebrate holidays, is different
from the way the western culture does. Common examples include holidays or impractical but
socially meaningful clothes, but the idea has also been applied to social norms such as
greetings.
Very good example is; Africans major mostly on what is right and wrong as far as the tradition is
concerned while the whites have much issue on what gives them more pleasure.
Values and Beliefs
Values are a culture’s standard for discerning what is good and just in society. Values are deeply
embedded and critical for transmitting and teaching a culture’s beliefs. Beliefs are the tenets or
convictions that people hold to be true. Individuals in a society have specific beliefs, but they
also share collective values.
To illustrate the difference, Americans commonly believe in the American Dream—that anyone
who works hard enough will be successful and wealthy. Underlying this belief is the American
value that wealth is good and important. Values help shape a society by suggesting what is
good and bad, beautiful and ugly, sought or avoided. Consider the value that the United States
places upon youth. Children represent innocence and purity, while a youthful adult appearance
signifies sexuality.
b) Explain elements of mass media

Mass media is technological tools, or channels, used to transmit the messages of a mass
communication. They include:
Transmission model
This is a dated model that is still useful in identifying the players in the communication process.
The transmission model of communication helps us assist how communication works. A
transmission model must consist of; An information source, that produces a message. A
transmitter, that ‘encodes’ the message into signals channel, that carries the signals, which
have been adapted to allow transmission, A receiver, that ‘decodes’ the message from the
signal. A destination, where the message arrives.
For instance, who is supposed to pass the information and who is the receiver amidst the whole
process.
Encoding
Refers to the changing of symbols into more meaningful information that is easily understood.
Since the subject matter of communication is theoretical and intangible, its further passing
requires use of certain symbols such as words, actions or pictures etc. Conversion of subject
matter into these symbols is the process of encoding.
For example; changing a plain text into a code in a computer for easy understanding.
The communication Channel
This is the part that connects the source of message to the receiver. The person who is
interested in communicating has to choose the channel for sending the required information,
ideas etc. This information is transmitted to the receiver through certain channels which may
be either formal or informal. Formal channels involve those channels which are made use of
mostly on official matters while informal are mostly used by peers and even people outside the
office.
For example, a telephone that connects one user to the other.
Receiver
Refers to the person or destination to which the information is being relayed to. It is the
receiver who tries to understand the message in the best possible manner in achieving the
desired objectives. This implies that a receiver has to access the information and give meaning
to so as to decide the form of feedback. The receiver has to convey the feedback as a way of
appreciating the fact that the message reached him or her.
For example; if Professor Ngala requests the chapel choir to join him in the chapel, the choir will
be the receiver.
Decoding
This is an instance of the translation of something into a form more suitable for subsequent
processing. Used to interpret communication protocols. The person who receives the message
or symbol from the communicator tries to convert the same in such a way so that he may
extract its meaning to his complete understanding.
For example; converting information from an encrypted form to a plain text, listening to music
and trying to give it meaning, hearing of people wailing and trying to gfigure out the message
being conveyed at that instance.
Message
This refers to the communication that is conveyed from one person to the other. Like,
Professor Ngala relays the message of telling the chapel choir to join him in the chapel. The
subject matter of the communication.
It may include: an opinion, attitude, feelings, views, orders, or suggestions that the sender
intend to pass to other people.
methods of cultural production

Symbols
This is anything that carries particular meaning recognized by people who share the same
culture. Humans, consciously and subconsciously, are always striving to make sense of their
surrounding world. Symbols—such as gestures, signs, objects, signals, and words—help people
understand that world. They provide clues to understanding experiences by conveying
recognizable meanings that are shared by societies. Cultural production, being a continuous
process, acknowledges some of the symbols as part of its production. The world is filled with
symbols. Sports uniforms, company logos, and traffic signs are symbols. In some cultures, a gold
ring is a symbol of marriage. For example,
among the Ahsante Kingdom, the spear is believed to be the symbol of community’s unity
hence they source their culture there.
Language
A system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another. language reflects,
among several other things, attitudes that speakers want to exchange or that just get reflected
through language use. These attitudes of the speakers is the sociologist's information Every
culture respects its language and upholds it with the most dignity. The way youths talk to the
elders is different from the way the elders talk to them. The youths, among Africans are
expected to use very respectful language while referring to the elders. A sociology of language
would seek to understand the way that social dynamics are affected by individual and group
language use. For example: according to
Su-Chiao Chen language is considered to be a social value within this field, which researches
social groups for phenomena like multilingualism and Lingual conflict.
Values
Culturally defined standards of desirability, goodness, beauty and many other things that serve
as broad guidelines for social living. Every individual in a society is expected to hold some values
that upholds dignity.
For example: among the Kalenjins and most of the African societies, mode of dressing among
men and women should in such a way that it communicates respect and not seduction.
Miniskirts and trousers are prohibited among women.
Beliefs
Specific statements that people hold to be true. It is an acceptance that something exists or is
true, especially one without proof. For example, Christians belief that God created the universe
and all that is in it. This is a belief that has been held and is believed to be true throughout
generations. Different societies and religions have their own beliefs to which they hold on to
them as far as their doctrines define to them. Sometime referred to as a religious conviction.
For example; Christians believe that they are all descendants of Abraham.
Norms
Rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members. Norms are
regarded as collective representations of acceptable group conduct as well as individual
perceptions of particular group conduct. The two types of norms are mores and folkways.
Mores are norms that are widely observed and have a great moral significance. Folkways are
norms for routine, casual interaction. norms have two dimensions: how much a behavior is
exhibited, and how much the group approves of that behavior. Both of these dimensions can be
used in normative messages to alter norms and subsequently alter behaviors.
For example: a message can target the former dimension by describing high levels of voter
turnout in order to encourage more turnout.
Behavioral patterns
The typical manner in which people perform production, communicate e.g., language content,
technology choices, rituals of endorsing values, satisfy basic needs e.g., for dwelling, feeding,
security, sex, reproduction, entertainment, and many more.
Artifacts
Artifacts is a term that refers to the part of the organizational culture. They are artificial human
creations or products. They are external manifestations of culture, clearly awarded. This is one
of the cultural productions in sociology that involves the instinct material objects, such as
architecture, technologies, and artistic creations that man uses in daily life.
The artifacts are divided into: Tangible; architecture and design, logo, brochures, dress code,
etc. AndIntangible; language, stories and myths, heroes, traditions, rituals, ceremonies, etc.
Social institutions
Patterns of organization and relationships regarding governance, production, socializing,
education, knowledge creation, arts, and relating to other cultures. Community: A group of
people residing in the same locality and under the same government or a group or class having
common interests.
Social institutions include:
Community Service Organizations: Non-profit, charitable organizations dedicated to assisting
others meet basic needs, resolve personal or family problems, or improving their community.
This includes soup kitchens, rotary clubs, Boys and Girls Clubs, scouts, etc. (Definition Source:
None)
Educational Institutions: Social organizations dedicated to teaching skills and knowledge to
individuals, Ethnic or Cultural Groups: A social organization consisting of many extended family
groups related by a distant, common ancestry, Extended Family: A social organization consisting
of several nuclear family groups related by common ancestry, Families and Households: A
fundamental social group consisting especially of a man and a women and their offspring; a
domestic establishment including the members of a family and other who live under the same
roof.
Traditions
This a part of culture that is passed from one person to another or generation to generation. It
differs in details from family to family. Cultural production is therefore routed from there.
For instance; the way we celebrate holidays, is different from the way the western culture does.
Africans major mostly on what is right and wrong as far as the tradition is concerned while the
whites have much issue on what gives them more pleasure.
REFERENCE:
Brodd, J. (2003). World Religions. Winona: Saint Mary's Press.
Barzilai, G. (2007). Law and Religion. The International Library of Essays in Law and Society: Ashgate
Brown, R. (2009). Nashville voters reject a proposal for English-only. The New York Times: Daily
Newspaper
Harris, M. (1974). Cows, pigs, wars, and witches. New York, NY: Vintage Books
ELEMENTS OF CULTURE
Culture exists anywhere human exist and no two cultures are the same. The elements of culture
include symbols, language, values, norms and rituals.
Symbols
A symbol is anything used to stand for something else. People sharing a culture often attach a
specific meaning to an object, gesture, sound or image. Every culture has its own set of symbols
associated with different experiences and perception. Thus, as a representation, a symbol’s
meaning is neither instinctive nor automatic. The culture’s members must intercept and over time
reinterpret the symbols. Symbols occur in different forms: verbal or nonverbal, written or
unwritten. They can be anything that coveys a meaning, such as words on the page, homes, cars,
and other consumer items are symbols that imply a certain level of social status.
An example is a red light at a traffic intersection is used to relay the message that you need to
stop your vehicle. Another example is of American flag representing their entire country
Language
Language is a system of words and symbols used to communicate with other people. This
includes full languages as we usually think of them, such as English, Spanish etc. It also includes
body language, slang and common phrases that are unique to certain groups of people.
An example is even though English being spoken fluently in America and Britain, we have a
slang and phrases that mean different things.Another example is the fact that eye contact
represents different meanings in different cultures. In America, eye contact suggests that you are
paying attention and are interested in what a person has to say.
Values
These are culturally defined standards for what is good or desirable. Members of the culture use
the shared system of values to decide what is good and what is bad. Conflict theory focuses on
how values differ between groups within a culture, while functionalism focuses on the shared
values within a culture. A culture ma has conflicting values. For instance, the value of material
success may conflict with the value of charity.
For example, in America the individuals encourage and emphasize competition and emphasize
personal achievement. A person who accepts promotion in our culture is praised for their
individual hard work and talent.
Rituals
Different cultures have different rituals or established procedures and ceremonies that often mark
transitions in the life course. Rituals both reflect and transmit a cultures norms and other
elements from one generation to the next. It can also be defined as a sequence of activities
involving gestures, words, and objects, performed according to set sequence. They are
characterized but not defined by formalism, traditionalism, invariance, rule-
governance,sacralsymbolism and performance.
For example, In many societies, girls around the world undergo various types of initiation
ceremonies to mark the transition to adulthood. An instance is of baptism or a traditional vow in
a catholic wedding.
Norms
Norms are understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society. Norms are divided
into formal and informal. Formal norms refer to the standards of behavior considered the most
important in any society e.g. traffic laws in US. Informal norms refer to the behavior considered
less important but still influence how we behave. Norms may be incorporated within the
individual so that there is no conformity, without external rewards or punishments, or they may
be enforced by positive or negative sanctions from without.
For example, men should do repairs at the house and be the one to work and make money while
women are expected to take care of the housework and children.
ELEMENTS OF MASS MEDIA

It refers to communication devices which can be used to communicate and interact with a large
number of audiences in different language. The elements of mass media include newspapers,
magazines, billboards, television and radio.
Radio
It is an interactive means of communication with all the dial-in programs which give the listeners
an opportunity to feature on radio. Some outstanding features of the radio include interactivity,
its ability to needle a dialogue and to lobby the contribution of residents with lesser production
expenses and extreme adaptability. Listeners are educated on different topics through concepts
and facts. The messages reach out and educate both the educated and illiterate audience
depending on their learning needs.
It has a significant reach for example some people tune into radio every week while on their way
to work.
Television
Television appeals to both the auditory and visual senses and hence is an important
communication device as it beholds the attention of the audience. It also provides both
information and entertainment. Television is considered as the most powerful and exciting means
of communication ever devised by man.in its working, television converts a living sense into an
electronic image in the same way as original sound is converted into electronic audio signals in
the radio broadcasting.
This category includes electronic media like movies, dvds and airing of news.
Billboards
These are huge advertisement that are put up at a height in strategic locations to draw more
attention. They usually attract the target audience by their bold colors, attention, grabbing
headlines, creativity,designs,special effects etc.Billboards are a great way to reach the masses
that is where they live, commute, work and socialize. It works by transforming the landscape we
live in and visibly changing the look of our towns and cities.
An example of a billboard is that of advertising a certain product like cocacola from their
company expressing about their commodity.
Newspapers
It has enjoyed the position of the most preferred medium to reach a wider audience where
electronic media fails to reach. It plays the role of providing authentic firsthand information,
building opinions, updating the knowledge of the reader and serves as a good platform for
advertisers to promote their products. Newspapers supply us with various information regarding
business news, political news, sport news, daily news and so on. They inform us on what is
going on around our lives and neighborhood.
Major functions of newspaper are to inform, interpret the news to provide a service to readers
and to entertain.
Magazines
They cater a specific type of audience who are looking for information based on a particular
subject. Magazines cover topics like current affairs, business, finance, consumers, gadgets, self-
help, lifestyle etc.Advertising is crucial to magazines. Reader surveys help to determine the pass-
along readership, which is a measure of exposure for advertisers. In some cases, the advertising
may be more important than the context to the reader, as is often the case with glossy fashion
magazines.
Magazines aids in major things like, informing persuade and entertain the audience and put them
advertising messages of national, regional, state and city scope.
METHOD OF CULTURAL PRODUCTION

Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of social life.
According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, system of language,
communication, underlying assumptions, interests, experiences, upbringing, habits and attitudes
that create a person’s behavior.
Culture is a powerful human tool for sGurvival, but it is a fragile phenomenon. It is constantly
changing and easily lost because it exists only in our minds.
Values
A culture’s values are ideas about what is good, right, fair and just. What makes an action
valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases or alters.
It is debated whether some values that are not clearly physiologically determined such as
altruism.
Examples of values include, a belief that honesty is always the best policy and that trust has to
be earned
Beliefs
Belief is the state of mind in which a person thinks to be the case with or without there being
empirical evidence to prove that something is the case with factual certainty. Beliefs can be
powerful forces that affect our health and capacity to heal.
For example, the Nigerian belief that intercourse during menstruation turns people into
albinos(although it is not harmful) may encourage sex during the fertile period
Underlying assumption
They are sources of values in a culture and what causes actions within the culture. They are
comprised of unconscious thoughts, beliefs, perception and feelings. They also identify the idea,
cause, problem etc. that forms the basis of something.
For example, in an organization, a basic assumption employees and managers share might be that
happy employees benefit their organizations.
Interests
The interest in culture continues to grow but this growth comes with a proliferation of over-
simplified and incorrect information about culture and culture change.Some culture tends to say
that if one has no interest in his or her particular culture, he or she is rejected in the society
because of not showing interest in their way of life. Many cultures share equally the same type of
interest like their way of worship or performing other traditional rituals.
For example, the maasai community have great interest in their culture even if urbanization takes
place.
Experience
Experiencing culture shock will shape your personality significantly by teaching you to trust
your gut, survive during periods of loneliness and unfamiliarity and develop a thicker skin.
After the effects of culture shock subside and you become more comfortable in your new
surroundings, you will have an opportunity to expand your circle of friends to include people
from all over the world. For example, travelling to new people with different perspectives,
backgrounds and life experiences can be a transformative experience because it often shapes you
into a more open-minded individual.
Upbringing
This is the way a person is brought by being treatment and instruction received by a child from
its parents throughout through its childhood. This helps the children to grow when knowing all
about their culture in order to prepare for the next generation. The role of upbringing the children
are the grown-ups who take the responsibility of educating the younger ones.
For example, a child is taught on how to relate with an elder person.
Habits
This is a routine of behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously. It is
also an accepted behavior within a group of people, sharing some common backgrounds such as
language, family heritage, education, living and socializing environment.
For example, signing off emails with hugs or kisses: xx’s and oo’s, which are fairly common in
the U.S. and U.K. can be seen as too intimate or forward by people in many places in the world.
Communication
Communication and culture reciprocally influence each other. The culture in which individuals
are socialized influences the way they communicate and the way individuals communicate can
change the culture. The internet and modern technology have opened up new marketplaces that
allow us to promote our business to new geographic locations and cultures. And given that it can
now be as easy to work with people remotely as it is to work face-to-face, cross-cultural
communication is increasingly the new norm.
For example, in some cultures eye contact is important whereas in some it is rude and
disrespectful.
Systems of language
Language is a system that helps people express thoughts, feelings and meaning through symbols
and sounds.
The cultural function of language is that language serves to pass on and shape culture and culture
shapes language in return.
For example, hey Eric. I’m sorry boss. I feel sick to my stomach. I’m gonna need to take the day
off. Here we are using terms like Dr. Smith instead of Eric and I’m going to instead of I’m
gonna. It is too informal for a newly formed boss-employee relationship.
Attitude
Attitude is defined as a settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something, typically
one that is reflected in a person’s behavior. Cultural attitude - is a way of thinking related to
something or someone who belongs to a specific society which has their formed way of living
and customs.
For example, a pencil is a culture trait, football, bat, fishhook, keeping cattle, handshake,
gestures and house. Cultural traits are interrelated with each other, their collective function forms
complex.
Reference books
 Steedman,C.(1999/1991). Culture, cultural studies and the Historians. New York: Tata
McGraw-Hill publisher.
Blumler,J.(1981).Mass communication Research in Europe.London:Beverley Hills
WEEK 5: CATS
WEEK 6
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Socialization: meaning, types, theories, concepts, nature in socialization, nurture in
socialization, agents and socialization process.
TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION, THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION AND

FACTORS WHICH AFFECT SOCIALIZATION.
Socialization is the science of nurture.

It is a continuing process by which an individual requires a personal identity and learns
the norms, values, behavior and social skills appropriate to his or her social position.
Example:when a child is born they are like an empty box. A child has to be taught and
exposed to values, norms, and rules associated with the society they are born into.
FIVE TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION
CHILDHOOD SOCIALIZATION
This is also called basis or early socialization. The terms “primary”, “basic” or
“early” all signifies the overriding importance of the childhood period for
socialization. Much of the personality make-up of individuals is forged at this
period in life. Socialization at this stage of life is is a landmark; without it, we
would cease to become social beings. The human infant who is a biological being
or organism is changed into a social being mainly at this stage. Hence Children
should be appropriately socialized from birth up to about five years of age,
because this period is basic and crucial one. A child who does not get
appropriately socialization at this stage will not likely be deficient in his or her
social, moral, intellectual and personality development. Some grow up
developing anti-social attitude, aspiration and practices.
This type of socialization happens when a child learns the values, norms and
behaviors that should be displayed in order to live accordingly to a specific
culture.
Example:a child hears his or her friends talk bad words against another child.
The child would think that this behavior is socially acceptable, so he or she would
start talking bad words against older people.
ADULT SOCIALIZATION
While socialization is an overbidding issue for children and adolescents, it is a
never-ending process that continues throughout life. Adult socialization is
necessitated when individual take up new roles, reorienting themselves
according to their changes, social statuses and roles, as in starting marital life.
The socialization process at this stage may sometimes be intense.
Example:when immigrants go to other countries, they may need to learn the

language, values, norms and a host of other custom and folkways, coupled with
experiencing economic hardships may prove to be stressful and most
challenging. Although it may be fairly stated that childhood socialization
experiences what kind of people we become, the challenges of socialization thus
continues in late adolescent and adult stages. This happens to be so particularly
in the context of fast changing world in complex societies.
DEVELOPMENT SOCIALIZATION
Development socialization is the process of learning behavior in a social
institution or developing your skills. This kind of learning is based on the
achievements of primary socialization. “It is built on already acquired skills and
knowledge as the adult progress through new situations such as marriage or new
jobs. These new expectation, obligation and roles, new learning is added to and
blended with old in a relatively smooth and continuous process of
development”-Ian Robertson.
Example:when a new teacher joins school, he or she has to act in a way that is
different from pupils and learn the new rules from people around them.
RE-SOCIALIZATION
In the lives of individuals, as they pass through different stages and life
experiences, there is the need for re-socialization and de-socialization.
Re-socialization means the adoption by adults of radically different norms and
life ways that are more or less completely dissimilar to the previous norms and
values. Re-socialization signifies the rapid and more basic changes in the adult
life. The changes may demand abandonment of one life way with a new one,
which is completely different from and also incompatible with the former. This
quite so often happens as adult life in modern society’s demands sharp
transitions and changes.
Re-socialization takes place in total institutions such as mental hospitals, prisons,

religious denominations and military units and an all-encompassing and often
isolated from the community. They demand a thorough de-socialization of the
new entrants before they assume full-fledged membership. In each case,
persons joining the new setting have first to be de-socialized, before they are re-
socialized.
Re-socialization may also mean socializing individuals again into their former
values and norms after they rejoin their former way of life, spending a relatively
longer period of time in total institutions. This is because they might have
forgotten most of the basic values and skills of the former group or society. This
kind of re-socialization may also be regarded as reintegration, helping the ex-
community members renew their memories of their former life ways, skills and
knowledge.
Example: becoming a prisoner or a widow.
ANTICIPATORYSOCIALIZATION
Anticipatory socialization refers to the process of adjustment and adaptation in
which individuals try to learn and internalize the roles, values, attitudes and skills
of a social status or occupation for which they are likely recruit in the future.
They do this in anticipating the actual forthcoming socialization. It involves a kind
of rehearsal and preparations in advance to have a feel of what the new role
would like. However, anticipatory socialization may not be adequate when the
nature and scope of life transition is complex. It may be difficult to fully
anticipate what will happen.
Example: a person who intends to join the army may start doing physical
exercises to toughen his body and learning the manners of army.
THEORIES OF SOCIALIZATION
C.H. COOLEY’S THEORY OF ‘LOOKING-GLASS SELF’:

Three main elements of ‘looking-Glass Self’:
Cooley had that self and social are two sides of the same coin. Our ideas,
loyalties, attitudes and points of view are derived from others. One means of
their transmission Cooley called the ‘looking-Glass Self’. According to him, self-
ideas or self-attitudes develop by a process of imagining what others think of us
by a kind of,looking-glass’ process. A self-idea of this sort seems to have three
main elements.
Example:computer technology, using computer technology, people can create an

avatar, a customized symbol that represents the computer user.
GEORGE HERBERT MEAD’S THEORY OF ‘SELF’

Mead has stated, ‘the individual, largely through interaction, becomes aware of
himself’. It means the individual comes to know about him-self by what is known as ‘role
playing’.
‘Role-playing’. Mead has said that the individual in order to get a picture of himself plays
the roles of others. In seeing himself as others see him, the individual is actually putting
himself in the place of others and imagining what their response might be.
Example: The others may be his parents, close associates and finally, society as a whole.
As the child gets older, he can be observed to act towards his dolls or toys as the mother
or other members of the family have acted towards him. The child, in his play, is taking
the role of another person.
FREUD AND HIS CONCEPT OF THE ‘HUMAN MIND’

Sigmund Freud was an Australian psychiatrist and the founder of psychoanalysis,
aclinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a
psychoanalyst.
Freud has divided human mind in three compartments as follows:

I. Id: the ‘id’ is the completelyunconscious, impulsive, child-like portion of
the psyche that operates on the “pleasure principle” and is the source of
basic impulses and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification.
II. Ego: the ‘ego’ acts according to the reality principle (i.e., it seeks to
please the id’s drive in realistic ways that will benefit in long term rather
than bringing grief).
III. Super Ego: the ‘super ego’ aims for perfection. It comprises that
organized part of the personality structure, mainly but not entirely
unconscious that includes the individual’s ego ideals, spiritual goals and
the psychic agency that criticizes and prohibits his or her drives, fantasies,
feelings and actions.
THOMAS THEORY OF THE ‘DEFINITION OF THE SITUATION’

According to Thomas, the situation in which the child finds himself has already
been defined for him. The rules according to which he must behave are
determined by the group into which he is born.
Example:a child who is told by someone that monsters live in the dark, or under
his bed, will actually begin to fear whatever it is that exists under his bed or in
the dark.
DURKHEIM’S THEORY OF ‘COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS’

Durkheim has asserted that the individual becomes socialized by adopting the
behavior of his group. Collective representation give meaning to the world and
social interactions and help humans make sense of their existence.
Example:if you see a wedding bandon the ring figure of a person’s left hand, you
would probably assume that the person was married. Just this symbol of
marriage can change the way that you would interact with this person.
FACTORS WHICH AFFECT SOCIALIZATION
IMITATION
Imitation is copying by an individual of the actions of other.
Mead defines it as self-conscious assumption of another’s acts or
roles.Imitation may be conscious or unconscious, spontaneous or
deliberate, perceptual or ideational imitation. The person imitating
performs exactly the same activity as the one being performed before
him.
Imitation is the main-factor in the process in the process of socialization
of the child. Through it he learns many social behavior patterns. The child
is compared to the adult poses the greatest capacity for imitation. It is
because of the tendency to imitate that children are so susceptible to the
influence of their parents and friends whose behavior they imitate
indiscriminately.
Example: when the child attempts to walk impressively like his father
swinging a stick and wearing spectacles he is imitating.
IDENTIFICATION
In his early age, the child cannot make distinctions between his organism
and environment. Most of his actions are random. They are natural
reaction of which he is not conscious. As he grows in 5age, he comes to
know of the nature of things, which satisfy his needs. Such things become
the object of his identification.
Example:the toy with which the child plays, the picture book which he
enjoys or looking and the mother who feeds him become the object of
his identification. The speed and area of identification increase with the
growth in age. Through identification he becomes sociable.
LANGUAGE
Language is the medium of social intercourse. It is the means of cultural
transmission. It is the study of relations between language and society. It
is closely related to the field of sociolinguistics, which focuses on the
effect of society on language. Sociology of language studies society in
relation to language whereas sociolinguistics studies language in relation
to society.
Example:at first the child utters some random syllables which have no
meaning, but gradually he learns his mother-tongue.
SUGGESTION
According to Mc. Dougall, suggestion is the process of communication
resulting in the acceptance with connections of the communicated
proposition in the absence of logically adequate grounds for its
acceptance. Suggestion is the process of communicating information,
which has no logical or self-evident basis. It is devoid of rational
persuasion. It may be converged through language, pictures or some
similar medium.
Suggestion not only influences behavior with others but also one’s own
private and individual behavior. In trade, industry, politics, education and
every other field people acquainted with psychological facts make use of
suggestions to have their ideas and notions accepted by other people and
to make the latter behave according to their wishes.
The suggestibility of the child is greater than that of the adult because in
childhood he is devoid of maturity and reason. The suggestibility of an
individual decreases with in his maturity and mental level. It maybe
however necessary to keep in mind that there can be a difference in the
suggestibility of children belonging to different society and also the same
society.
There are several external and internal conditions, which enhance
suggestibility. Thus, temperament, intellectual ability, ignorance,
inhibition, dissociation, emotional excitement and fatigue are some of
the internal conditions of suggestibility. Among the external condition,
mention may be made of group situation, prestige of the suggested and
public opinion.
Example:a childcries to suggest that he is hungry, sick and uncomfortable

or wants something out of his reach.
PERSONALITY
Society has several mechanisms for building us and our personality.
Through socialization we learn who we are and what is expected of us
and others in our culture. Socialization begins in childhood and continues
throughout our lives as we encounter and move through different
institutions. Even if human personality is the result of our genes, the
socialization process can mould it. Our social class, race and gender affect
how we are socialized, what type of social control we face, what
opportunities we receive and what obstacles we face by defining what
behavior is good, society also defines what is deviant behavior.
Example:most North Americans probably do not feel guilty about

exceeding speed limits when they are driving on freeways, however, they
would feel very guilty hitting someone with their car and would likely call
the police.
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
In a randomized, controlled trial that examined the technique known as
responsive classroom, researchers found that children in the classrooms
where the technique was fully used scored significantly higher in math
and reading tests than students in classrooms where it wasn’t applied.
Sara Rimm-kaufman, the study’s lead author and an associate professor
of education at the University of Virginia, said the results are important
during a period of increased emphasis on academic results is the extent
to which a student, teacher or institution has achieved their short or long
term educational goals.
Cumulative GPA and completion of educational benchmarks such as
secondary school diplomas and bachelor’s degrees represent academic
achievement which is commonly measured through examination.
GENDER IDENTITY
Socialization influences hoe people behave as males and females in
society. The social learning process that imbibes people into understating
the various aspects of culture includes the process of gender
socialization.
Gender identity encompasses the process of learning society’s gender
roles and the advantages and limitations. In many societies gender roles
are rigidly defined.
Example: men have traditionally been expected to be strong, aggressive

even dominating. Women have been expected to be nurturing,sensitive,
emotional and relatively passive. Children are taught these values both
conscious and sub-consciously from a very early age.
This is further rein forced with the use of toys as boys are given large
sized, noise making or violent type where as girls are oftengiven gentler
toys. These expressions influence information of self as well as identities.
CLASS LEVEL
Socialization of the child is influenced by the caste or class he belongs to.
The child from a majority group may consider himself superior to that
from a minority community. In each country there are children who
consider themselves inferior to others because of their class level. This
feeling may create an imbalance in their behavior and accordingly their
socialization is also affected.
Example: in Hindus a child from a so-called high caste regards himself as

superior to that from a caste which in his opinion is lower.
SOCIAL PERCEPTION
Perception is how we as individuals asses situations. A burning stove top
is preserved to be hot, people are perceived to be finally on threatening.
Yet when it comes to perceiving people, there are many more
perceptions that are made. These social settings and environments are
what make up social perception.
The most important part of social perception is the first meeting of a
person or the first impression.
Example: When two people meet for the first time, an instant anchor is
dropped. First impression can be slowly swayed over time. It is not easy
to change someone’s first expression by learning the personality and
tendencies of a person one can better understand that person’s
behaviors and actions.
STATUS ATTAINMENT
Status attainment traces the development of the research enterprise
known as social resources theory which formulated and tested a number
of propositions concerning the relationships between embedded
resources in social networks and socio economics attainment. This
enterprise seen in the light of social capital has been accumulated a
substantial body of research literature and supported the proposition
that social capital in terms of both access and mobilization of embedded
resources, enhance the chances of attaining better statuses.
Example: developing cultural strategies for overcoming various obstacles

and how we manage to develop sustaining and
supportive relationships with institutional agents.
REFRENCES:
Kohn,J.F.&Melvin,L.(1969).Classandconformity,AstudyinValues.Homewood:DorseyPress
Marshal,H.A.&Victors,W.
(1975).SocializationforImpendingDeathinaRetirementVillage.UnitedStates:AmericanJournalofSociolo
gy
Christenson,S.L.&Sheridan,S.M.
(2001).Schoolsandfamiliescreatingessentialconnectionsforlearning.NewYork:GuilfordPress
AGENTS OF SOCIALAIZATION
Socialization helps people learn to function successfully in their social worlds. The process of
socialization takes place through the interaction with various agents. The agents of socialization,
however are in two forms; there are the social group agents and both formal and informal social
institutions.
Social Group Agents

Social groups often provide the first experiences of socialization. Families and later peer groups,
communicate expectations and reinforce norms. People first learn to use the tangible objects of
material culture in these settings, as well as being introduced to the beliefs and values of society.
Family
The family is perhaps the most important agent of socialization for children.Mothers,
fathers,siblings and grandparents and members of an extended family, all teach a child what he
or she needs to know. For example,they show the child how to use objects such as
clothes,computers, eatingutensils, books, bikes and important and necessary skills.
Family members both the nuclear and extended family teach children how to relate with others
either as family, relatives,friends, strangers, neighbours and teachers. In relation to this they are
taught how to behave or relate and address to elders and their fellow young friends and siblings.
It is the family’s duty to teach their children how the world works both what is real and
imaginations. Parental influences play a key role on how we grow and view the world.
Forexample, particularly mothers’ influences on the child are very great and depends much on
classes, poor families teach their children on behaviour and conformity while wealthy families
emphasize on judgement and creativity.
Nothing is possible to produce a happy child than a family that loves and supports them.in
addition this helps them to get their social identity from their family. For example, parents are
the first to introduce their children to their culture of his group.
The family also teaches children how to control emotions and how to tolerate with people.
Forexample, in their adolescent stages they tend to be experiencing changes physically which
involves a lot of moods so it is the parent’s duty to teach them before then. Parental influences
them much on their behaviour.
Example: the family is always there for their children at any times and in any costs. Such as in
their emotions they tend to get extra attention and love from the family. Through the
unconditional love and support children get influenced by family n their growth and behaviours
and build confidence in them.
Peer groups
A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share
interests. Peer group help much in socialization especially for the youths where they tend to get
attracted to each and involve in activities where they like. Peers get involved on these activities
and in the process they get to know each other.
Peer groups socialization begins in the earliest years such as when kids on a playground teach
younger children the norms about taking turns, the rules of games or how to shoot a basket.as
children grow into teenagers, this process continues.
Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way, as they begin to develop an identity
separate from their parents and exert independence. Additionally, peer groups provide their own
opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different types of activities with their
peers than they do with their families. Forexample, they start getting attracted to their peers of
opposite sex.
Peer groups provide adolescents’ first major socialization experience outside the realm of their
families. Although friendships rank high in adolescents’ priorities, this is balanced by parental
influence. Peer groups get adolescents into bad practices such as drug abuse, sexual desires and
how to go against the laws, but this depends on how parents should educate them on the dangers
and consequences of those practices. However, the parents should also understand them not to
give them much freedom but a bit little to socialize and get friends of good morals.
Peers groups mostly influence adolescents. Adolescence is acritical period in which gender
attitudes and behaviours intensify and new gender roles emerge.it is also a period during which
the negative outcomes of some gender norms begins to manifest.
Example; peers influence each other in what they do like you find adolescents behaving the
same way, dressing code being similar and even wearing the same hairstyle. They tend to get
bored doing things with their parents. They are comfortable talking about sex,drugs and other
social issues with my peers and also engage in these activities.
Institutional agents
The social institutions of our culture also inform our socialization. Formal instructions like
schools, workplace and the government teach people how to behave in and navigate these
systems. Other institutions like the media, contribute to socialization by inundating us with
messages about norms and expectations.
Schools.
Schools serve a latent function in society by socializing children into behaviours like practicing
teamwork following a schedule and using textbooks. For example, when children are required to
work together on a project they practice teamwork with other people in cooperative situations.
Schools and classroom rituals, ledby teachers serving as role models and leaders regularly
reinforce what the society expects. This is described as the hidden curriculum where the informal
teaching is done in schools. For example, in the U. S, schools have built a sense of competition
into the way grades are awarded and they wat teachers evaluate students. When children
participate in a relay race or math contest, they learn there are winners and losers in the society.
Thus the hidden curriculum prepares children for the adult world.
Children learn how to deal with bureaucracy,rules, expectations, waiting their turn and sitting
still for hours during the day. They learn the virtue of patience and also moulds discipline in
them with presentable behaviours. They get to be more organised in their work and thinking.
Schools also socialize children by teaching them about citizenship and the national pride.in the
united states, children are taught to say the pledge of allegiance. Mostdistricts require classes
about U.S history and geography, as academic understanding of history evolves, textbooks in the
united states have been scrutinized and revised to update attitudes toward other cultures as well
as perspectives on historical events; thus children are socialized to a different national or world
history than earlier textbooks may have done. Forexample, information about the mistreatment of
African Americans and Native American Indians more accurately reflects those events than in
textbooks of the past.
Students are also not in school only to study math, reading, science and other subjects but also
learn to manifest function of this system. Forexample, the kindergarteners are not just learning to
read and write; they are being socialized to norms like keeping hands to themselves, standing in
line and reciting the Pledge of Allegiance.
Example; schoolshelped children socialize with others of different races and languages. Through
this interaction, they get to learn new ideas and other peoples’ cultures and beliefs. They also
know how to interact with elders and learn the laws of the country.
The workplace
Just as children spend much of their day at school, many U.S adults at some point invest on a
significant amount of time at a place of employment. Although socialized into their culture since
birth, workers require new socialization into a workplace both in material culture such as how to
operate the copy machine and nonmaterial culture such as whether its right to speak directly to
the boss or how to share the refrigerator.
People that are mostly workers must become to and socialized by, a variety of work
environments.in instance, different jobs require different types of socialization. Forexample, in
the past, many people worked a single job till retirement. Today, the trend is to switch jobs at
least once a decade. Between the ages of eighteen and forty-six, the average baby boomer of the
younger set held different jobs.
It provides employees with the skills and customs necessary for participating within the
cooperate culture and increases motivation. Skills that employees get are management skills and
leadership skills. Theyget friendship, mutual reliance, collaboration and sharing, which increases
motivation and address the human desire to bond.
It shapes the way employees view teamwork, work habits and the sharing of information, which
are all important factors for a small business. Through team building employees achieve
teamwork success and establishes lasting norms, traditions and customs. These team building
activities encourage bonding and as employees work together they meet a common goal.
Employees learn to depend on one another for mutual support. Employees are encouraged to
collaborate and harness individual talents to meet team goals; and when necessary seek guidance
or support from other team members and management. These teaches them to help one another.
Example; working people interact much in workplaces where they learn new ideas from their
colleagues in various places. Like they get to discuss how to go about family matters for the
married, they learn different cultures and create friendly zone as they understand each other in
their different community levels and work level.
Religion
Religion is an important avenue of socialization for many people. The united states are full of
synagogues, temples, churches, mosques and similar religious communities where people gather
to worship and learn.
These places teach participants how to interact with the religion’s material culture like a
mezuzah, a prayer rug or a communionwafer. For some people, important ceremonies related to
family structure like marriage and birth are connected to religious celebrations.
Many religious institutions also uphold gender norms and contribute to their enforcement
through socialization. From a ceremonial rites of passage that reinforce the family unit to power
dynamics that reinforce gender roles, organized religion fosters a shared set of socialized values
that are passed on through socialization.
Religion is a collection of cultural systems, beliefssystem, and worldviews that relate humanity
to spirituality and moral values.in the early society religion provided a bond of unity. Though in
modern society its importance has diminished, yet it continues to mould our beliefs and way of
life.
Parental religion is most influential part of religious socialization more so than religious peers or
religious beliefs.in every family, some of the other religious practices are observed on one or the
occasion. Forexample, the child sees his parents going to the temple and performing religious
ceremonies. He listens to religious sermons which may determine his course of life and shape his
ideas.
Example; as people come together in places of worship they tend to interact more regarding in a
biblical way it doesn’t matter which community they come from. They form groups where they
teach themselves the requirements of their religion and also how they work together in doing
work required of them.
Government
Many rites of passage people go through today are based on age norms established by the
government.to be termed as an adult it usually means being eighteen years old, the age at which
a person is responsible for him or herself. At the age of sixty-five years old is the start of old age
(retirement)since most people become eligible for senior benefits at that point.
Whenever we embark on one of these new categories –senior, adult and taxpayer, we must be
socialized into our new role. Seniors must learn the ropes if Medicare, Social Security benefits
and senior shoppingdiscounts. For example, in U.S when males turn eighteen, they must register
with the Selective service system within thirty days to be entered into a database possible
military serve.
People learn about their government and acquire beliefs, attitudes, values and behaviours
associated with good citizenship. Forexample, in U.S political socialization stresses teaching of
democratic and capitalist values.Agents including parents,teachers,friends, co-workers, church
associates, clubmembers, sports team, mass media, and popular culture pass on political
orientation.
Government provide children and other citizen a sense of identification of a country. College
students can form opinions based on their experiences working for a cause while older people
become active because they see the need to influence public policy that will affect their lives.
Political generations consist of individuals who develop a unique worldview as a result of living
through particular experiences. These group of individual such as citizens with higher levels of
education and income, are socialized to take an active part in politics while others are
marginalized.
Example; the government holds different people of different communities leading the
government. These people interact and have an agreement on how to work things out for the
people in the country. When leaders interact well and without hatred they become example of the
people in their communities and hence interact with others.
Gender roles
Gender roles begins at birth, intensifies during adolescence and contributes to gender inequalities
in education, employment, income, empowerment and other significant outcomes of well-being
during adolescence and later in life. Adolescence is a critical period in which gender attitudes
and behaviours intensify and new gender roles emerge.
The intensification of gender attitudes and roles during adolescence is linked to many negatives
outcomes but this period presents a great opportunity for adolescents to develop more equitable
gender attitudes and behaviours in order to decrease the negative outcomes.
Gender socialization assist the development of more comprehensive programmes and policies
which captures the dynamic process of gender socialization and the many factors that shape it at
different levels of influence; structural, social interaction and individual levels.
It acknowledges that as well as receiving messages about his or her gender identity, the
adolescent has agency and self-enforces gendered attitudes and behaviours and in turn influences
the gender socialization of others.
Gender roles helps in developing policies and programmes aimed at increasing gender equality,
decision makers can use this framework to position their efforts, understand the key areas and
actors they may be able to influence and the outcomes to which they can contribute and construct
a more comprehensive.For example, gender roles of women and girls in home, school and
community need to be considered to improve social status and employment.
Example; men in the society has their role to play and when they come together to participate in
those roles they interact in one way or another. In their interaction, they empower themselves
with different skills helpful in their roles.as well as men, women and girls interact together in
their roles in the society, here they learn different skills like cooking, how to look at children and
others.
Social classes
Many of life’s expectations are made clear and enforced on a cultural level. Through interacting
with others and watching others interact, the expectation to fulfil roles becomes clear. The
socialization that takes place in high school changes the expectation.by observing the excitement
and importance attached to dating and relationship within the high school social scene, it quickly
becomes apparent that one is now expected not only to be a child and student but significant.
Graduation from formal education; highschool, vocational school or college involves
socialization into a new set of expectations. Educational expectations vary not only from culture
to culture but from class to class. Forexample, families of middle and upper classes expect their
children to join four-year university after high school others expect their children to immediately
begin working full time as many have done in that family.
Adulthood brings a new set of challenges and expectations as well as new roles to fill.
Responsibility and commitment are emphasized as pillars of adulthood and men and women are
expected to start families and bring children and focus on their careers
People of different social classes socialize in their places of similarity and others differently.
Politicians socialize with their fellows in the parliament and even as they still stay together they
get to influence their families with those of their friends and pay themselves visits. Also others
back at home socialize in either way they understand themselves.
Parents socialize children depending on two factors that is social classes and biological sex.
working class and middle class parents tend to socialize their children very differently. Working
class parents emphasize on raising children with obedience and respect for authority while in the
other end middle parents raise their children to independent judgment and creativity.
Example; families of middle and upper classes raise their children in different ways from the
other families of lower classes. Children raised in upper and middle classes tend to behave
basing on judgement while children from lower classes are obedient and respectful.as they
interact they get to share ideas on how each was raised which is much helpful.
Community and cultures

Community is an important informal and active agency of socialization. Community models
good morals in the society through social contacts, group activities and group dynamic in such
away they participate in all desirable activities of community.
A child develops in the environment of community where moulds and modifies the behaviour of
the child according to ideas, ideals and goals. community environment alone in which the child
develops his language and the standard of living. The community exerts its impressions upon the
developing children in all perceptible and imperceptible ways.
The community has its own culture where we find great difference in the culture and behaviour
patterns of children belonging to different communities, children get to be taught of cultures in
the community by elders and they tend to practice those cultures. The cultures of different
communities differ and at times children or people of different communitiessocialize they get to
know them.
The community organises fairs, festivals, social conferences and many other religiousfunctions.
Allthese activities stimulate children to imbibe social ideas and a spirit of social service more
and more with results that they learn about social customs,traditionsand beliefs in a naturalway.
They offer ac hold an opportunity to participate in them and acquire a first-hand knowledge of
social life, social service and social sense.
Children learn the socially desirable values namely; sympathy, cooperation, tolerance, sacrifice
and adjustment. Through contacts with the other members of the community children also learn
very deeply that duties and rights, freedom and discipline are greatly essential for the natural and
wholesome development of their personality exerts a great influence of their social development
of the children.
Example;the community interact people in different ways in that for children they learn the
goods and bad as they stay with others much when playing or going for hikes together. Then for
the adults they teach interact mostly when called to correct their children and when they engage
in the activities done communically.
Mass media
Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, viatelevision, newspapers,
radio and the internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of
television and children averaging even more screen time.
Mass media greatly influences social norms. People learn about objects of material culture like
new technology and transportation options. They also learn nonmaterial culture like beliefs that
is said to be true, values which are important and norms expected.
Mass media has socialized people to politics greatly and in the process a number of media outlets
has increased and as new technologies allow for more interactive media experiences. Most
people political experiences occur vicariously through media for they do not have personal
access to government.
The use of more personalized forms of media such as text messaging and participation in social
networking sites, has expanded exponentially in recent years. Young people using these forms
have greater control over political socialization. Forexample, they can choose to follow politics
through Facebook group that consist large group of closely friends.
Media are rich sources of information about government, politics, and current affairs. People
learn about news though television, newspapers, magazines, radioprograms, internet websites
and social media. The press shows political leaders in action and the media can establish linkages
between leaders, institution and citizens.
Example; television has a lot of impact on kids.as they watch the cartoons they are still
absorbing everything they see and hear. Apart from television today’s generation get interacted
through the face book, what sup and social media. This is possible as they get to attractive
activities that can grant them popularity.They interact they learn ideas from their fellows and
help another in engaging in different helpful activities.
REFERENCES
Cornie, R. W.(2012).Oxford handbook of Organizational Socialization.United states of America:
Oxford University Press.
Joan, E. G.&Paul, D.H.(2014).Handbook of Socialization,Theory and Research. New York: The
Gullford press.
Barnes, B.(2011).Pixar Removes Its First Female Director. The New York times: Basic Books.
Shankar, C.N. R.(2013).Principles of sociology. India: S. Chand & Company Ltd
WEEK 7
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Deviance: theories types, and causes as well as social control measures.
Crime: theories, causes, types, functions, and control.
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SOCIOLOGY OF DEVIANCE
THEORIES OF DEVIANCES
Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms, and is usually of sufficient
severity to warrant disapproval from the majority of society. Deviance can be
criminal or non‐criminal. Today, we consider such activities as alcoholism,
excessive gambling, being nude, playing with fire, stealing, refusing to bathe,
purchasing the services of prostitutes, as deviant. People who engage in deviant
behavior are referred to as deviants.
The concept of deviance is complex because norms vary across groups, times,
and places, as what one group may consider acceptable, another may consider
deviant. For example in some parts of Indonesia, women are circumcised. In
America, the thought of female circumcision, is unthinkable; female genital
mutilation, usually done in unsanitary conditions that often lead to infections, is
done as a blatantly oppressive tactic to prevent women from having sexual
pleasure.
A number of theories related to deviance and criminology have emerged.
Differential-association theory
Edwin Sutherland phrased differential association to address the issue of how

people learn deviance. According to this theory, the environment plays a major
role in deciding which norms people learn to violate. Specifically, people within a
particular reference group provide norms of conformity and deviance, and thus
heavily influence the way other people look at the world, including how they
react. People will also learn their norms from various socializing agents such as
parents, teachers, family, friends, co‐workers, and the media. In short, people
learn criminal behavior, like other behaviors, from their interactions with others,
especially in intimate groups.
The differential‐association theory applies to many types of deviant behavior.
For example, juvenile gangs provide an environment in which young people learn
to become criminals. These gangs define themselves as countercultural and
glorify violence, retaliation, and crime as means to achieving social status. Gang
members learn to be deviant as they embrace and conform to their gang's
norms.
Differential‐association theory has contributed to the field of criminology in its

focus on the developmental nature of criminality. People learn deviance from
the people with whom they associate. Critics of the differential‐association
theory, on the other hand, claim the vagueness of the theory's terminology does
not lend itself to social science research methods or empirical validation.
Anomie theory
Anomie refers to the confusion that arises when social norms conflict or don't
even exist. Merton used the term to describe the differences between socially
accepted goals and the availability of means to achieve those goals.
The primary contribution of anomie theory is its ability to explain many forms of
deviance. The theory is also sociological in its emphasis on the role of social
forces in creating deviance. On the negative side, anomie theory has been
criticized for its generality. Critics note the theory's lack of concerning the
process of learning deviance, including the internal motivators for deviance.
Like differential association theory, anomie theory does not lend itself to precise
scientific study.
For example, Merton stressed that attaining wealth is a major goal of Americans,
but not all Americans possess the means to do this, especially members of
minority and disadvantaged groups. Those who find the “road to riches” closed to
them experience anomie, because an obstacle has prevented their pursuit of a
socially approved goal. When this happens, these individuals may employ
deviant behaviors to attain their goals, retaliate against society, or merely “make a
point.”
Control theory
According to Walter’s control theory, both inner and outer controls work
against deviant tendencies. People may want to act in deviant ways, but most do
not. They have various restraints: internal controls, such as conscience, values,
integrity, morality, and the desire to be a “good person”; and outer controls,
such as police, family, friends, and religious authorities. Travis Hirschi noted
that these inner and outer restraints form a person's self‐control, which prevents
acting against social norms. The key to developing self‐control is proper
socialization, especially early in childhood. Children who lack this self‐control,
then, may grow up to commit crimes and other deviant behaviors.
For example, the theory also suggests that people society labels as “criminals” are
probably members of subordinate groups, critics argue that this oversimplifies the
situation. As examples, they cite wealthy and powerful business people,
politicians, and others who commit crimes. Critics also argue that conflict
theory does little to explain the causes of deviance. Instead, the theory does
what it claims to do: It discusses the relationships between socialization, social
controls, and behavior.
Labeling theory
A type of symbolic interaction, labeling theory concerns the meanings people

derive from one another's labels, symbols, actions, and reactions. This theory holds
that behaviors are deviant only when society labels them as deviant. As such,
conforming members of society, who interpret certain behaviors as deviant and
then attach this label to individuals, determine the distinction between deviance
and non‐deviance. Labeling theory questions who applies what label to whom, why
they do this, and what happens as a result of this labeling.
For example, Powerful individuals within society such as politicians, judges, police
officers, medical doctors, and so forth, typically impose the most significant labels.
Labeled persons may include drug addicts, alcoholics, criminals, delinquents,
prostitutes, sex offenders, retarded people, and psychiatric patients, to mention a
few. The consequences of being labeled as deviant can be far‐reaching. Social
research indicates that those who have negative labels usually have lower
self‐images, are more likely to reject themselves, and may even act more
deviantly as a result of the label. Unfortunately, people who accept the labeling of
others be it correct or incorrect, have a difficult time changing their opinions of the
labeled person, even in light of evidence to the contrary.
Proponents of labeling theory support the theory's emphasis on the role that the
attitudes and reactions of others, not deviant acts per se, have on the development
of deviance. Critics of labeling theory indicate that the theory only applies to a
small number of deviants, because such people are actually caught and labeled as
deviants. Critics also argue that the concepts in the theory are unclear and thus
difficult to test scientifically.
The Essential Nature of Deviance
Émile Durkheim believed that deviance is a necessary part of a successful society.

One way deviance isfunctional, he argued, is that it challenges people’s present
views .
For example, when blackstudents across the United States participated in “sit-ins”
during the civil rights movement, theychallenged society’s notions of segregation.
Moreover, Durkheim noted, when deviance is punished, itreaffirms currently held
social norms, which also contributes to society (1893). Seeing a student
givendetention for skipping class reminds other high schoolers that playing hooky
isn’t allowed and that they,too, could get detention.
Strain Theory
Merton agreed that deviance is an inherent part of a functioning society, but

heexpanded on Durkheim’s ideas by developing strain theory, which notes that
access to sociallyacceptable goals plays a part in determining whether a person
conforms or deviates.
For example, From birth, we’reencouraged to achieve the “American Dream” of

financial success. A woman who attends businessschool, receives her MBA, and
goes on to make a million-dollar income as CEO of a company is saidto be a
success. However, not everyone in our society stands on equal footing. A person
may have thesocially acceptable goal of financial success but lack a socially
acceptable way to reach that goal.
According to Merton’s theory, an entrepreneur who can’t afford to launch his

own company may betempted to embezzle from his employer for start-up
funds.
Merton defined five ways that people respond to this gap between having a socially
accepted goal butno socially accepted way to pursue it.
Conformity: Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue their goals to
the extent thatthey can through socially accepted means.
Innovation: Those who innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate
means byinstead using criminal or deviant means.
Ritualism: People who ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them
through sociallyacceptable ways. These members of society focus on conformity
rather than attaining a distantdream.
Retreatism: Others retreat and reject society’s goals and means. Some beggars and
street peoplehave withdrawn from society’s goal of financial success.
Rebellion: A handful of people rebel, replacing a society’s goals and means with
their own.Terrorists or freedom fighters look to overthrow a society’s goals
through socially unacceptablemeans.
Social Disorganization Theory

Developed by researchers, social disorganizationtheory asserts that crime is most
likely to occur in communities with weak social ties and the absenceof social
control.
For example, An individual who grows up in a poor neighborhood with high rates
of drug use,violence, teenage delinquency, and deprived parenting is more likely to
become a criminal than anindividual from a wealthy neighborhood with a good
school system and families who are involvedpositively in the community.
Social disorganization theory points to broad social factors as the cause of
deviance.
For example, A person isn’t borna criminal, but becomes one over time, often
based on factors in his or her social environment.Research into social
disorganization theory can greatly influence public policy. For instance,
studieshave found that children from disadvantaged communities who attend
preschool programs that teachbasic social skills are significantly less likely to
engage in criminal activity.
Cultural Deviance Theory
Cultural deviance theory suggests that conformity to the prevailing cultural norms
of lower-class society causes crime. Researchers Shaw and Henry McKay studied
crime patterns inChicago in the early. They found that violence and crime were at
their worst in the middle of thecity and gradually decreased the farther one
traveled from the urban center toward the suburbs. Shawand McKay noticed that
this pattern matched the migration patterns of Chicago citizens.
For example, Newimmigrants, many of them poor and lacking knowledge of
English, lived in neighborhoods inside thecity. As the urban population expanded,
wealthier people moved to the suburbs, leaving behind the lessprivileged.
Shaw and McKay concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to race and
ethnicity resulted in ahigher crime rate. The mix of cultures and values created a
smaller society with different ideas ofdeviance, and those values and ideas were
transferred from generation to generation.
The theory of Shaw and McKay has been further tested and expounded upon by
Robert Sampson andByron Groves. They found that poverty, ethnic diversity, and
family disruption in givenlocalities had a strong positive correlation with social
disorganization. They also determined that socialdisorganization was, in turn,
associated with high rates of crime and delinquency—or deviance.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory looks to social and economic factors as the causes of crime and
deviance. Unlikefunctionalists, conflict theorists don’t see these factors as positive
functions of society, but as evidenceof inequality in the system. They also
challenge social disorganization theory and control theory,arguing that both
ignore racial and socioeconomic issues and oversimplify social trends.
Conflict theorists also look for answers to the correlation of gender and race with
wealth and crime.
Karl Marx: An Unequal System
Conflict theory is derived greatly from the work of sociologist, KarlMarx. Karl
divided the general population into two rigid social groups: the Proretariatand
theBourgeois. The bourgeois are a small and wealthy segment of society who
controls the means ofproduction, while the proletariat is composed of the workers
who rely on those means of production foremployment and survival. By
centralizing these vital resources into few hands, the bourgeois also hasthe means
to control the way society is regulated—from laws, to government, to other
authorityagencies—which gives the bourgeois the opportunity to maintain and
expand their power in society.
Though Marx spoke little of deviance, his ideas created the foundation for conflict
theorists who studythe intersection of deviance and crime with wealth and power.
TYPES OF DEVIANCES
Innovation
Society sets forth goals for the individuals to aim at and also lay down means to
achieve them. When a person accepts both goals and means the result is generally
conformity. Sometimes, a person may accept the goal but not the means. He may
innovate or create his own means for achieving the goals and in this sense, he
becomes a deviant.
If this innovated means brings positive results it poses no problem for the social
order and if it brings negative results it may pose a danger to the society.
For Example, some poor people and pleasure-seekers may be forced to ‘innovate’
or resort to illegitimate, “dishonest” means to get money. Such “innovate” are
problematic deviants.
Ritualism
Sometimes a person gives up important social value yet does lip service to them
by carefully observing related norms of behavior. They are ritualists. They
abandon the pursuit of success as fruitless and yet strictly adhere to the
prescribed means.
They regard rules as scared. They tend to lower their aspirations and never expect
success, because they find themselves unable to break out of their
commitment to the rules.
Ritualists are also deviants because such persons refuse to take courageous and
possibly dangerous action demanded by true adherence to value on the other hand,
they take refuge in neutral but safe behaviour which looks like decent conformity.
For example, a person stabbed to death within the sight of a number of

neighbours who refuse to get themselves involved in the case. This kind of
behaviour is ritualistic. It is difficult to criticize such behaviour harshly.
It is also a form of deviance because norms exist or should exist to serve values.
They should not eclipse values or transcend them.
Retreatism
The rejection of both values and norms is ‘retreatism’. It is in one way or another
of ‘dropping out’ of society. The person who drops out ‘resigns’ so to speak.
For example, Those who ‘retreat’ from the society refuse to pursue wealth either
by legal or illegal means.
They also refuse to lead a ‘conventional’ life. They are unable to get success
‘honestly’.They are not able to break the conventional procedure because of the
strongly internalized norm. The best solution to their dilemma is to ‘drop out’ of
society. Hence ‘retreatism’ is a kind of passive rejection of the goal of success and
of respectable occupational activities.
According to Merton, in this category fall “some of the adaptive activities of

psychotics, Autists , chronic drunkards and drug addicts”. Such people receive
strong disapproval because they care little of the values most people live by.
Rebellion
Rebellion is another response open to those who reject both ends and means. Some
people reject the prevailing order and engage in efforts to replace that order.
They try to substitute new ends and means for those that exist.
They are called ‘rebels’. Rebellion is produced by alienation from both values and
norms. Instead of ‘retreating’ the rebel gives active support and loyalty to an
incompatible set of values and norms.
He feels that they are superior to those of conventional society. He seeks some
reconstruction, some change in the existing order. He may even attempt at the
complete destruction of that order or struggle to replace it with another order.
Rebellion may vary from small-scale to that of greater scale.
For example, a student giving up education in the name of doing greater things is
an example of small-scale rebellion. A law-abiding young man going away from
society to form a criminal gang to take revenge upon some authority is an example
of greater-scale rebellion. Political and religious revolutions that were initiated by
one or the other individual also come under this category.
Conformity
Conformity involves the acceptance of the goals and means of attaining those
goals.
For example, a banker. Those who conform choose not to deviate. They pursue
their goals to the extent thatthey can through socially accepted means. It can also
be defined as “yielding to group pressure”. Group pressure may take different
forms for example: bullying, persuasion, teasing, criticism, just to mention a few.
Formal Deviance
Crime is the violation of formally written enacted laws. Examples of these may
include: robbery, theft, rape, murder and assault, just to name a few. Murder, for
examples, is illegal in every single country, therefore this makes it a formal
deviance as it is a violation of both the state laws and the fact that it is culturally
inappropriate.
To maintain control and regulate their subjects, groups, organizations, and societies
of various kinds can promulgate rules that act as formal sanctions to reward or
punish behaviour.
For example, in order to regulate behaviour, government and organizations use law
enforcement mechanisms and other formal sanctions such as fines and
imprisonment.
Informal Deviance
Informal deviance refers to violations of informal social norms that have been
codified into law. Examples of informal are: picking one’s nose, belching loudly,
or standing unnecessarily across cultures. Informal deviance, or violation of
unwritten, social rules of behaviour, results in social sanction, or stigma. Sanctions
may include shame, ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, and disapproval.
Informal sanctions can check deviant behaviour of individuals or groups, either

through internalization, or through disincentivizingthe deviant behaviour.
As with formal controls, informal controls reward or punish acceptable behaviour,

otherwise known as deviance.
For example, Dr. Karen Halnon of Pennsylvania State University studies how
some people exercise informal deviance. Her research focuses on what she calls
“deviance vacations”, where people of a certain socio-economic status descend to
lower strata. For instance, heterosexual white males may become drag queens on
the weekend. It is a vacation because heterosexual white males can afford to
descend temporarily and then return to the advantages of their true socioeconomic
status. Other examples include white Hip hop acts like Eminem and Nu-Metal
bands like Limp Bizkit that represent for the lower or middle class people in order
to use their socioeconomic credentials for profit, despite their true socioeconomic
status.
Societal Deviance
This is an act which most of society would agree is not classed as part of normal
behaviour. Drug abuse could be considered as societal deviance, most society
believes that is not normal and encourages criminal behavior.
For example, Drug users become outcasts and are considered to be deviants.
Concealed Deviance
This is deviance that no one see, something which a person can keep hidden away
it is still considered not part of societies set of norms.
For example, A man, who likes to dress up in women’s clothes, could be

considered a concealed deviant as they do this in the privacy of their own homes.
This is however, considered to be not normal behavior of the wider society and he
would be considered deviant.
Situational Deviance
It is only considered deviance in the culture you are in at the time and may not be
considered as deviant by every society.
For example, In Arab countries such as Dubai and Yemen, it is socially

unacceptable , due to religious reasons of these countries of Women to be seen
without wearing the traditional hijab, however in western society any woman seen
wearing one is considered as being deviant as it is not part of the western culture.
TYPES OF DEVIANCE
Innovation
This is equal to perusing goals that you cannot achieve through legitimate means
by instead use criminally or deviant means. If this innovated means brings positive
results it poses no problem for the social order and if it brings negative results it
may pose a danger to the society .an example some poor people and pleasure
seekers may be forced to innovate or resort to illegitimate dishonest means to get
money.
Rape
This is sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse or other forms of sexual
penetration carried out against a person without that person’s consent. The act may
be carried out by physical coercion abuse of authority ,or against a person who is
incapable of giving valid consent such as one who is unconscious,
incapacitate ,has an intellectual disability, or the below the legal age of consent.
This practice is a crime against humanity .rape is also recognized as an element of
the intent to destroy, in whole or in part of a certain group.an example is when a
7year old girl is taken advantage of by male teenager.
Homosexuality
This refers to sexual interest inand attraction to members of one’s own sex.This
kind of attraction among the male is referred to as gay and among females is
known as lesbianism .In different times and culture, homosexual behavior has been
variously approved tolerated, punished and banned. The conflicting views of
homosexuality as a variant but normal human sexual behavior and on one hand as
a deviant behavior on the other as remain present in most society in the 21st
century, but they have been largely resolved in the most developed countries. In
Africa such behavior is taken to be against the norms whereas in the west some
countries have legalized it.An example is Alexander the great who was gay.
Theft and burglary

This is defined as taking someone’s property without permission.it can also be
referred to as breaking into someone’s premises and take his property example in a
shop or a house. This behavior is completely discouraged in various societies and
any person caught practicing such a behavior is heavily punished .Some people
steal to sustain their needs while others steal out of greed for wealth. A senior
government official stealing money and investing in a foreign country is a good
example.
Corruption
This is misuse of government power for other purposes such as repression of
political opponents and general police brutality .corruption is also defined as
misuse of public owner by elected politician or appointed civil servant for private
gain.it not only covers the public servant and the politicians but also the CEO of a
company , team leader at workplace , administrator or admissions officer and
people who hold higher positions in their proffesion.It is a decay in the decision
making process in which a decision maker consents to deviate or demands
deviation from the criterion which should rule his or her decision making ,in
exchange for a reward or for the promise or expectation of a reward while this
motives influencing his or her decision making cannot be part of the justification of
the decision. Major corruption comes close whenever major events involving large
sums of money or huge quantities of products .an example when players of a
certain soccer team are supposed to be paid and when money is released someone
may decide to keep aside some for his own gain.
Early pregnancies
Adolescent boys and girls engage in premarital sex leading to early pregnancies.
Such a behavior is considered deviant in most of the African societies .This may
even lead to excommunication in some societies.Teenegers are encouraged to be
patient till they are ready to start up families .This pregnancies lead to students
dropping out of schools to take care of their babies. It brings shame to the families
and hence it’s a totally discouraged action.
REFERENCES.
Erich, G. (2015). The Handbook of Deviance.NewYork:Wiley-Blackwell
David, D. & Paul,R (1982). Understandingdeviances a guide to the sociology of
crimeand Rule-breaking. New York:Oxford Publishers.
Steve, H. (2012). Theorizing crime and Deviance. London: Sage Publishers.
References
Albenson,R.(2016).Healthcare issues.A.G: Springer International publishing

Switzerland.
Gomez,N.(2016).Healthtechnologychallenges NewYork NY: James cook

publishers.
Yancey,G.(2009).Interracial females currentconcepts.New York NY:General

synod office.
Shishkin,S.(2007).A review of health reforms .Europe :WHO regional office for

Europe.
REFERENCES
Haralambos, M .(2004). Sociology A2 for OCR 2nd Edition. London: Collins.
Giddens, A .(1996). Introduction to Sociology. Britain: W.W. Norton Incorporated.
Little, W. (1999). Introduction to Sociology. Canada: BC Open Textbook Project.
https://en.m.wikibooks.org/wiki//Introduction_to_Sociology/Deviance
THEORIES AND CAUSES OF CRIME.

a) THEORIES OF CRIME.
i) BIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM THEORY.

In the 19th Century, Italian prison psychiatrist Cesare Lombroso drew on the ideas of Charles Darwin
and suggested that criminals were atavistic: essentially ‘evolutionary throwbacks’. He suggested that
their brains were mal-developed or not fully developed. In his review of prisoners, he found that they
shared a number of common physical attributes, such as sloping foreheads and receding chins. In so
doing, Lombroso suggested that involvement in crime was a product of biology and biological
characteristics: criminals were born that way. Lombroso’s theory is essentially a theory of biological
positivism.
Rather than measuring physical features of body, contemporary approaches focus on: biochemical
conditions such as poor diet or hormones, neurophysiologic conditions for example learning disabilities
caused by brain damage, genetic inheritance and intelligent. These attempts, to locate the causes of
crime within the individual, suggest that there are identifiable differences between offenders and non-
offenders. In other words, the criminal is ‘other’: in some way different or abnormal to everyone else.
Example individuals with sloping foreheads were consider to likely commit

crimes.
ii) SOCIAL DISORGANISATION THEORY.
Social disorganization theory grew out of research conducted by sociologists at the University of Chicago
in the 1920s and 1930s. It key proponents were Clifford R. Shaw and Henry D. McKay (1942), who used
spatial mapping to examine the residential locations of juveniles referred to court. Shaw and McKay
found that patterns of delinquency were higher in areas characterized by poor housing, poor health,
socio-economic disadvantage and transient populations. This led them to suggest that crime was a
function of neighborhood dynamics and not due to individual actors and their actions.
Example: a person’s residential location is a substantial factor shaping the

likelihood that that person will become involved in illegal activities.
iii) STRAIN THEORY.
Strain theory argues that crime occurs when there is a gap between the cultural goals of a society for
example material wealth and status, and the structural means to achieve education and employment.
This strain between means and goals results in frustration and resentment, and encourages some
people to use illegitimate or illegal means to secure success.
In short, strain theory posits that the cultural values and social structures of society put pressure on
individual citizens to commit crime.
Example: dealing drugs or stealing to achieve financial security.
iv) SUBCULTURAL THEORY.

Status frustration is associated with the work of Albert Cohen (1955), who conducted research into
group offending by young, lower-class men. Cohen argued that lower-class youths could not aspire to
middle-class cultural goals and so, frustrated, they rejected them to create their own sub cultural system
of values. In school, for example, they gain status and respect by meeting the expectations of peers not
teachers, engaging in delinquent activities such as smoking, truanting, and acting up in class.
Richard Coward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) built on these ideas, pointing to the differential opportunity
structures available to lower-class young people in different neighborhoods: criminal that is making a
living from crime, conflict that is territorial violence and gang fighting, and retreatist that is drugs and
alcohol.
v) SOCIAL CONTROL THREORY

Strictly speaking control theory does not address the causes of crime, but rather focuses on why people
obey the law. In other words, it explains conformity rather than deviance.
It is primarily associated with the work of Travis Hirsch (1969), an America social scientist who proposed
that people general conform to social norms due to strong social bonds. Conversely, they engage in
delinquent acts when these bonds are broken or weak. The key components of social bonds are , firstly,
Attachment: How strong or weak is an individual’s relationship with others? Do these others expect
certain kinds of behavior such as obeying the law from this individual? The stronger the attachment and
the stronger the expectations, the more likely it is that the individual will conform.
Secondly, Commitment: The more an individual commits his/herself to a particular lifestyle for example,
being married, being a parent, having a job), the more he/she has to lose if he/she becomes involved in
crime and so deviate from the lifestyle.
Thirdly, Involvement: This component comes down to time – the more time the individual spends
engaging in law abiding behavior, the less time he/she has to engage in law breaking behavior.
And lastly, belief: this relates to upbringing. If an individual has been brought up to be law abiding, they
are less likely to become involved in crime.
Example external or internal controls can cause a person refrain from acting in a criminal way. When an
individual engages in c a criminal activity is due to luck of social control from the individuals family or
from law enforcement
vi) RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY.

Left realism is a branch of critical criminology that developed in the UK and the USA in the
1980s. It suggests that crime disproportionately affects the lives of the poor and disadvantaged.
Rational or right realism is a branch of criminology that sees individuals are capable of making
their own choices, which includes choosing to commit crime. In any course of action, individuals
weigh up the likely benefits and disadvantages of each action.
Right realism emerged in the USA and the UK around the 1980s, in response to rising crime
rates and a perceived failure of sociological approaches to adequately address the real causes
of crime. It is associated with the work of Cornish and Clarke (1986). According to this theory,
individuals not only decide to commit crime, but decide when and where to commit crime.
Example an individual has preference among the available choices alternative that allows them
to state which option they prefer.
v) Left Realism/Relative Deprivation .
One of the key concepts of left realism is relative deprivation. Closely associated with anomie
theory, relative deprivation suggests that crime happens when individuals or groups see
themselves as being unfairly disadvantaged compared to other individuals or groups who they
see as being similar to themselves. Since the disadvantage is perceived and determined by an
individual, it is a subjective assessment.
Example some individuals involve themselves in selling alcohol to match the status of their
counterparts.
vi) Marginalization.
Some groups experience marginalization and at different levels that is social,
political and economic. These groups are on the periphery of society. Lacking
political representation, these groups represent themselves and their ways of
taking political action include the commission of crime and violence.
Example some people may form an illegal group which is against the government
on the basis of being segregated.
vii) Sub-culture theory.

Segregated individuals and groups may come into contact with others who share these
experiences, and who then may form their own sub cultures in which crime and violence may
feature.
This is for instance a case in slums whereby street children with common experiences converge
and end up indulging themselves in crimes such stealing.
viii) Feminist perspectives/Gender.

Feminist perspectives share a concern with gender inequality, pointing to the fact that crime is
disproportionately committed by men. Feminist criminologists such as Elizabeth Stanko (1985)
have paid particular attention to male violence against women, explaining its occurrence by
reference to wider structures of oppression – as well as gendered norms regarding
‘appropriate’ masculine and feminine behavior.
One concept used by feminist perspectives to explain the maleness of crime is hegemonic
masculinity: the set of ideas, values, representations and practices associated with ‘being male’
which is commonly accepted as the dominant position in gender relations in a society at a
particular historical moment.
Example in certain groups, men do masculinity that is, express their masculinity
through the engagement and commission of crime such as robbery with violence.
B) CAUSES OF CRIME.
Drugs.
People who are addicted to drugs are unable to support their addiction and more often thus
they end up in a life of crime to fuel their habits. Those people may steal in order to get money
to buy drugs. Besides that there are also a large number of people that are involved in the drug
trade. Though these people may not be drug users themselves, they often lure others into
drugs and crimes.
Example some people start selling drugs which is not allowed by the government such as
bhang, heroin and cocaine leading to crime.
Depression and mental disorders:

Depression is inability to visualize a happy future. These make some people to have no interest
to live according to the law hence they may decide to commit crimes. Other than depression,
people with serious mental disorders also end up committing crimes.
Example persons under depression or some other serious mental disorder can also easily cause
harm to themselves which is regarded as crime according to the law.
Poverty
This is the most common among all the other causes of crime. People who lack basic needs
such as food and cloths may do anything in order to have what they want. These people involve
themselves in activities that are illegal so as to achieve their needs. Therefore, poverty causes
an increase in crime rate, example someone will have to steal from another person in order to
get the money thus increasing the rate of crime.
High population growth

When number of people in a particular place or a country increases at high rate it leads to
competition of available resources and jobs which are limited. Then people involves themselves
in an unhealthy competition. However, when people too many for the available jobs and
resources, this makes it almost totally impossible for the country to support all of them, thus
some enter into committing crime for example lack of employment opportunities leads to
crimes like stealing and illegal businesses.
Lack of education.
Educational centre offer skills to people in the society of which people use the acquire skills
different to make money in legal way . Also, while at school, you are taught the right way to
behave and the negative effects of crime to a person and the society as a whole. Therefore, the
lack of education increases the crime rate.
Example person who is not educated may know rules and regulations governing hence they
can get in illegal businesses.
Not having good role models.

There are some people who have never had a good role model in their lives. This is common
with children whose parents are also involved in crime. This makes them to easily become
criminals since they see those around them also getting involved in criminal activities.
According to African tradition that state one’s live is shaped by people who are around them
and children will continue with work of committing crimes.
Example a child of a drug trafficker will be motivated to be a drug trafficker.
Peer pressure.
Some people are involved in crime simply because they want to please their peer. This is more
common with the people who make the wrong kind of friends. They thus end up wasting their
lives just because they hang around with the wrong kind of people.
Example people of the same age motivate one another in doing things which are against the
law such as drug abuse.
Overpopulation
Increase in population is the biggest cause of crime and much of the world’s worries. The
increase in population triggers of a dynamo effect in society and this leads to the creation of
more people with some form of frustration or resentment towards society as such.
Example when people are over populated there are minimal chances of employment. The
remainder get themselves into crimes in order to satisfy their financial crisis.
Politics
Politics is often a cause of crime. It is seen that many political associations all around the world
have their own mafias running which they use to manipulate people and subjugate people.
Political power is often misused to take advantage of weaker groups, people and dissidence
that rises out of such situations often force the victims to resort to crimes.
Example during elections the prominent leaders may corrupt young people to temper with
results of the election hence causing election violence.
Racism
Discrimination based on race is a serious issue all around the world. All humans are in a way
racist towards some people in some part of the world or another. Racism has contributed a lot
of unrest to many places all around the world and it is mostly because of one or two people in
classification of people by region. It is often that victims of such regionalism gets influenced and
enters the world of crime.
that such crimes are given birth to. It is a sad fact of the world that we live in that we end up
discriminating against something that is the same flesh and blood underneath even though the
external appearance and origin may be different.
Example people may decide to do unpleasing things to civilians of lower race which is against
the law leading to crimes.
Television violence
Television violence has gone up to staggering levels and it does not help when people are
influence and try to emulate such acts of violence. TV violence is a major cause of crime
especially among the youth that are unable to differentiate between fiction and reality. Since
television has become such an integral part of people that are unable to differentiate between
fictions and reality.
Example people go ahead to implement what they show on television such as unpeaceful
rioting.
Regionalism
Regionalism is a major cause of crime and unrest among people. Such people that harbor such
regionalist feelings often ignored by people and the administrative bodies as they too caught up
in classification of people by region. It is often that victims of such regionalism gets influenced
and enters the world of crime.
Example people of a certain region may be provoked to enter themselves in crimes due to
discrimination by other regions.
REFERENCES:
Cooley, C.H. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York: Scribner’s.
Park, R. E. (2007). Introduction to the science of sociology. Chicago: Macmillan publishers.

Brym, R. S.(2013). Sociology: Your compass for new world. Toronto: Oxford publisher.
FUNCTIONS AND DYSFUNCTIONS OF CRIME
Acrime is an act committed or omitted, in violation of a public law, either forbidding or
commanding it; a breach or violation of some public right or duty due to a whole community,
considered as a community. Even though it varies in nature, crime is found in almost every
society known to man. There is no society that is not confronted with the problem of criminality.
Despite the obvious social costs of crime, some crimes make important contribution to the
operation of a social system.
The study was mainly based on David Émile Durkheim research study. Durkheim authored some
of the most programmatic statements on what sociology is and how it should be practiced. His
concern was to establish sociology as a science. According to the thoughts of Durkheim,
deviance was an essential component of a functional society. He believed that deviance(crime)
had three possible effects on the society. First, He thought that deviance could challenge the
perspective and thoughts of the general population, leading to a social change by pointing out a
flaw in the society. secondly, deviant acts could also support existing social norms and beliefs by
evoking the population to discipline the actors. Finally, Durkheim believed that reactions to
deviant activity could increase camaraderie and social support among the population affected by
the activity.
FUNCTIONS OF CRIME
1.Boundary maintenance: Crime produces a reaction which unifies its members in
condemnation of a wrong doer in the society. This reinforces an individual’s commitment to the
shared norms and values. Mainly, the purpose of punishment is to reaffirm the society’s shared
rules and social solidarity. Courts can also dramatize the wrong doing and publically stigmatize
the offender, this will prevent people from breaking the rules that have been set for a smooth
running and functioning of the society.Crime produces a reaction from society, uniting its
members in condemnation of the wrongdoer and reinforcing their commitment to shared norms
and values (social solidarity).For Durkheim, this explains the function of punishment. This is
not to make the wrongdoer suffer or mend his ways, nor is it to remove crime from society. In
Durkheim’s view, the purpose of punishment is to reaffirm society’s shared rules and reinforce
social solidarity. This may be done through the rituals of a courtroom, which dramatize
wrongdoing and publicly stigmatize the offender (degradation ceremonies). This reaffirms the
values of the law-abiding majority and discourages others from rule breaking.
Example: If a criminal is caught and a court ruling made against him/ her after being found
guilty to have committed the crime, other people who wanted to go the different direction will
think of the punishment they will have to undergo when they’ll be found and therefore they will
start thinking on doing what is right.
2.Adaptation and change: For Durkheim, all change starts with an act of crime. Individuals
with new ideas, values and ways of living must not be completely stifled by the weight of social
control. There must be some scope for them to challenge and change existing norms and values,
and in the first instance this will inevitably appear as deviance. Every so often when a person is
taken to court and charged with a crime a degree of sympathy occurs for the person prosecuted.
The resulting public outcry signals a change in values and, in time, this can lead to a change in
the law in order For individuals that want change, there must be some scope for them to
challenge and change existing norms and values which is deviance. However, in the long run
their values may give rise to a new culture and morality. If those with new ideas are suppressed,
society will stagnate and be unable to make necessary adaptive changes. Thus for Durkheim,
neither a very high nor a very low level of crime is desirable.However, for Durkheim, neither a
very high nor a very low level of crime is desirable. Each of these signals some malfunctioning
of the social system for too much crime threatens to tear the bonds of society apart and too little
crime means that society is repressing and controlling its members to much, stifling individual
freedom and preventing change.
Example: An example of adaptation and change in crime is the way in which Kenyans as at now
are adapting to corruption being almost a daily activity since nowadays one cannot survive
without involving themselves in any form of corruption.
3.Social Integration: is the process during which newcomers or minorities are incorporated into
the social structure of the host society. It is one of the main dimensions of a newcomers’
experience in the society that is receiving him / her.A higher extent of social integration
contributes to a closer social distance between groups and more consistent values and practices.
It is a dynamic and also a structured process in which members of a society participate in a
dialogue in order to achieve and maintain peaceful relations. Socialintegration is not forced in
any way. It is mainly focused on the need to move toward a safe , stable and a just society by
mending conditions of social disintegration , social exclusion, social fragmentation and also
social polarization. Also, by expanding and strengthening conditions of social integration
towards peaceful social relations of coexistence, collaboration and cohesion.
Example: When particularly horrific crimes have been committed the whole community joins
together in outrage and the sense of belonging to a community is therefore strengthened
4.Maintains social order: Social order is a fundamental concept that refers to the way in which
the various concepts of the society and institutions ,behavior and cultural features work together
to maintain the status quo. it refers to the organization of many interrelated parts of a society.
Social order is present when individuals agree to a shared social contract that states that certain
rules and laws must be abided and certain standards, values, and norms maintained. Social order
can be observed within national societies, geographical regions, institutions and organizations,
communities, formal and informal groups, and even at the scale of global society. This mainly
means of ensuring that people generally behave in expected and approved ways. Crime aids in
maintaining social order since we are able to distinguish between what is good and bad for the
society. It is mainly concerned with ensuring that the society is ‘on track’. This means that crime
educates those in a certain society of what is good and also what is bad. The members of the
society will by all means necessary try to avoid anything that cannot bring social order into the
community and focus mainly on what is expected from them.
Example: The police will arrest anyone who tries to bring chaos into the society. As a result
people will be able to learn that crime is a bad thing to engage in and therefore flee from crime
by all means necessary.
5.Social regulation:This mainly means the reaffirming of acceptable behavior. Forinstance,
social regulation is seen when someone that has done wrong is being punished for the wrongs
he/she has done. This ensures that the dwellers of that certain society that a particular act is not
accepted in the community. Social regulation helps to instill knowledge to people on how to go
about in the day to day life keeping aside that which is not supposed to be practiced in a certain
society.In contemporary society newspapers also help to perform the publicity function, with
their often-lurid accounts of criminal acts. In effect, the courts and the media are ‘broadcasting’
the boundaries of acceptable behavior, warning others not to breach the walls of the law (and
therefore society)
Example: Each time the Police arrest a person, they are making it clear to the rest of society that
the particular action concerned is unacceptable.
6.Social control:Social control is the organization in which the social relations or behavior is
controlled. It aids in choosing behavior and fulfilling one’s desire for social status.Human beings
have to adhere to certain norms (folkways, mores, rules and regulations of the group) to satisfy
their wants (needs and desires) without any clash. These norms act as means of social control.
Thus, for the mutual welfare and well-being, some kind of control (inner as well as external, i.e.,
social control) is an almost necessity. Itensures balance between personal, cultural and social
mal-arrangements. the main function of social control is to realize certain purposes of the group,
including maintaining the social equilibrium for the continued existence of society.Functionalists
contend that people must respect social norms if any group or society is to survive. They stress
that order is necessary for effective social life. In their view, societies literally could not function
if massive numbers of people defied standards of appropriate conduct. To maintain unity,
stability, continuity and the balance in the group or the society, some kind of social control is
needed.By contrast, conflict theorists are concerned that the successful functioning of a society
will consistently benefit the powerful and work to disadvantage of other groups.
Example: Forcing people to obey social decisions made within the society.
7.Points to spots and problems which need attention in the society: Crime is very important
in telling those in a society on where there are problems that need attention. For instance, we are
able to know all the loop holes that criminals can use and also we will therefore be able to come
up with ideas on ways to seal them. Crime helps those in a certain society to know where to
improve security measures in order to curb insecurity and prevent it from ever happening again.
Example: If a thief uses the gate to get into the compound, one might consider always locking
the gate to prevent intruders from getting into the compound.
8.Crime helps in improving security: Since crime should be there to maintain a society going
on, crime also helps in improving security in the society. As crime enhances, powerful security
measures have to be implemented in order to overcome any crime activities that is being
planned. Without crimes in a society, there will be no need for putting up security measures as
everything will be in solidarity. This will not be good at all since if anything arises that bridges
the society, it might affect everything involved and also it might affect everyone in the society.
Crimes help in telling us where there is need for security and where there is no need for security
at all. Like for instance, if you find someone having an electrical fence, it means that they have
experienced theft before and therefore it acted as an indication that they should have theft
preventive measures put in place in order to prevent other thieves from getting in.
Example:Improving the number of guards in an estate following theft cases or setting up CCTV
cameras.
9.Crime brings change into a society: When a crime is committed, people start to consider
whether or not the social norm that was violated is valid. Crime also helps people change in the
way they think about social matters affecting the society. Mostly, crime makes people think
positively and those in the society may end up helping those that were caught committing a
crime overcome what led then into performing the crime. Since for someone to end up
committing a crime there must have been something that drove the person involved to doing so.
Example: Homosexuality being legalized in some countries in the world. Before, homosexuality
was considered a crime ,but due to rising cases of homosexuals, some countries have legalized it
and thus leading to a change in the way in which people viewed homosexuality before.
10.Crime is a prerequisite for a society function: Without crime in society, the law enforcing
officer which we term as the police will not function. More besides, in the absence of crime , the
justice system will not function. People need to contribute to society meaningfully in order to
create the condition of social justice. Therefore, crime is absolutely importance in society.
Example: If criminals start doing good deeds and shun away from crimes, police officers will not
have any reason to do their job and therefore there will be no need of hiring of having a justice
system in the society.
DYSFUNCTIONS OF CRIME
1.It constitutes a threat to the society: This makes living in a society difficult and
unbearable.Crime disturbs the social order and the social life of the members of a community.
Criminals have posed a threat to people, property and activity since time immemorial. For
centuries the concern was more about conventional crime, namely offences against individuals
and assets, in the awful forms of murder, fraud and theft. These uncivil behaviors persist. People
nowadays fear carrying themselves the way people carried themselves in the past as their lives
are under a threat. Even when there is nothing to really worry about, some people will still feel
threatened from doing what they are meant to, this is as aa result of them feeling that something
bad might happen to then therefore crime is becoming a threat to the society.
Example: there is a phenomenon now called the elderly fear of crime. It is a fear existing among
the elderly people who perceive that the criminals are after them. The fear of crime is due to the
increase in crime rate where the victims are mostly elderly individuals. They no longer feel safe
when they are out in the street. They are no longer living a normal life because of the perception.
2.It creates confusion about the norms and values of the society:In a utopic society, the rules
are clearly laid down and everybody follows the law. When one performs a crime, he / she goes
against social norms and values of a certain society that they come from. Therefore, this may
lead to confusions in the society concerning norms and values. However, let us consider a
community where majority of the teenagers are members of gang. Would it be possible for a
teenager to be pressured to join gangs thinking that it is a norm for a teenager like him to join
gangs? Yes. When majority of the members of the community are engaged in deviant behavior
the lines that divide which acts are normal and which acts are deviant suddenly becomes blurred.
The members of the society suddenly become confused which acts are the norms and which acts
are deviant.
Example: A teenager joining a gang in the society just because every teenager is in a gang . The
teenager may think that crime gangs are good but in the real since they are illegal and not
allowed in the society.
3.It diverts resources: When a crime has been performed by an individual in the society, all the
resources that were available will be diverted to trying to solve that particular crime. Therefore
some functions of the society will not function as expected. Resources that had been meant to
perform other tasks in aiding the growth of the society will be diverted to trying to solve that
particular crime that has been spotted. This will lead to some positive tasks that had been
planned for the society not to go as expected as the resources that had been allocated to that
particular task will have been diverted to try and solve a crime that has been committed by
someone else.
Example: If a supermarket has been robbed, the management of the supermarket may fail to add
stock to its supermarket since some resources will have been diverted in trying to solve the
previous criminal act on the supermarket.
4.It affects the trust: Crime affects the trust of the members of the community towards each
other. In a utopic society, everybody trusts and relies upon each other to do the right thing which
is to observe social rules and norms. However, when a member of the community disturbs the
peace of the community then some may start to distrust the rest of the community. This becomes
a slippery slope problem and the people start to generalize that everybody in the community can
no longer be trusted.
Example: If one member of a society is found to have been involved in any criminal activity, no
one will trust them again as expected as everyone will be seeing them as a threat to the society
5.Disrupts the social order, causes tensions and conflicts: Clearly, crime disrupts the social
order. As crime increases day by day, those in the society will have increased tension. Tensions
affect our day to day life negatively since we will not be able to do what we have to with a peace
of mind. As crimes intensify, even getting out of the house will become harder and harder. This
is because tension keeps us thinking negatively more about our security. This will also affect the
rate at which we do our day to day duties in the society.
Example: If Someone comes to your estate or home and threatens you that he is going to kill you
if you do something that he does not want you to do or even say anything that he does not want
you to say, you will be tensed as you will be worried more concerning your life. Also, you will
not relate well to other members of the society therefore bringing up social disorder.
6.Poverty: Crime may lead to poverty. If robbers come into your house and steal everything that
you ever had, there may be a high rate of losing hope in life and thus you may fail to work and
get property to restore what had been stolen. Other criminals may even perform crimes with the
aim of making sure that you go back to ‘step zero’ in life.
Example: Thieves going into a community stealing everything and then afterwards rapping
females in the society.
7.Crime kills economy:Our understanding of the effects of violence on the economy has been
greatly sharpened over the last decade. Studies showing a negative relationship between violent
crime and aggregate economic activity.Violence increasingly mutates and spreads. Since the
economy of a country mainly depends on its people, crimes bring down the economy since there
is no circulation of money due to crimes.
Example: We may be facing economic crisis soon if the issue of corruption is not given attention
to as early as now.
8.Reduced development: If there is a high number of criminal activities, development become
paralyzedsince everyone will be in the fear of the destruction of his/her property. Investors will
prefer to invest their wealth elsewhere rather than taking the risk. If this happens, then there will
be a reduced development within a given society and it is not unless crimes are taken with high
attention then there will always be a reduced development.
Example: With the increased corruption rate and theft cases in Kenya, investors may consider
investing in other countries other than risking their money on Kenya. Therefore, this leads to a
reduced development rate.
9.It may lead to death(s): It poses a great risk to the dwellers of a certain society.This makes
living in a society difficult and unbearable.Crime disturbs the social order and the social life of
the members of a community. Criminals have posed a threat to people, property and activity
since time immemorial. For centuries the concern was more about conventional crime, namely
offences against individuals and assets, in the awful forms of murder, fraud and theft. These
uncivil behaviors persist. People nowadays fear carrying themselves the way people carried
themselves in the past as their lives are under a threat. Even when there is nothing to really worry
about, some people will still feel threatened from doing what they are meant to, this is as aa
result of them feeling that something bad might happen to then therefore crime is becoming a
threat to the society.
Example: Robbers attacking someone and ending up beating him/her and leaving them for death
and also at times some criminals torture others just to let them have painful deaths.
10.Affects education:Although everyone feels differently when they are affected by crime, a lot
of people go through three main stages. The first is shock – you might be angry, confused,
depressed, or just not able to believe what’s happened to you. You may even go through a stage
of ‘denial’, when you tell people that you haven’t been badly affected, but really you’re just
finding it difficult to admit that you’re upset about what happened. The second stage is
acceptance, when what has happened to you, and the fact that you are a victim of crime, slowly
starts to ‘sink in’. The third stage is readjustment, when you get back to your usual life –
although often people make some changes, to make sure the same thing doesn’t happen again.
As you try to understand what has happened, it’s not unusual to have strange or negative
thoughts, or really strong feelings such as fear and anger – even flashbacks to the crime itself.
Not everyone goes through these stages, and people who do will still have different feelings
along the way; but if any of this process feels familiar to you, then you need to know you’re not
alone, that the way you feel is not wrong, and that there are people who can help you.
Example: Being friends with someone whom you know is a criminal and has committed a
particular crime may make you lose your concentration in class and at times it might even affect
your class attendance.
REFERENCES
1. Anthony , G. (1997) .Sociology. Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
2. Cook, E. J. (2000). Gun Violence. New York: Oxford Press Publishers.
3. Felson, M.T. (1998). Crime and Everyday Life. London: Pine Forge Press.
4.Madriz , E.B. (1997). Fear of Crime in Women’s Lives. California: University of California
Press.
5. Giddens. A. (1998) :Sociology Introductory readings.Great Britain: Polity Press.
WEEK 8
CATs
WEEK 9
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Socio economic problems. Poverty and its characteristics and causes
Classes of people. Race and ethnicity. Intergroup relations. Gender and gender inequality and
politics of gender
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS FACING AFRICA.

Social problems- refer to the general factor that affect and damage society. these term used to
describe with a particular area or group in the world or area. Social problems often involve
problems that affects how people react to certain situation.
Economic problems- refer to the assert that an economy’s finite resources are insufficient to satisfy all
human wants are unlimited, but the means to satisfy human wants are limited.
1. UNEMPLOYMENT
The whole world is facing a surge of unemployment especially among the youth but the case in
Africa is more precarious. This is because governments do not sufficiently invest in youths. As
the labor force increase there is a huge disconnect between the older generation in majority of
the policy and decisions making organs and the ever expanding youth population.
For example, in many African countries, a lot of youths are graduates, they have the required
paper work to enable them get decent jobs but due to unavailability of enough job
opportunities, many end up jobless and work their way into crimes and other social norms such
as gambling.
Solution to unemployment
African governments should seek ways to create more jobs for the population especially
through innovation, science, technology and even through sports. Rural agriculture sectors
should be promoted because this is the area with a big potential in most countries.
Implementation of this will result to many job opportunities for the jobless
2. HIGH POPULATION GROWTH

The African continent has some of the highest averages for fertility rates and population growth
in the world. The current population of the continent is 1.2 billion people up from just a half a
million people in 1980. The UN projects that as growth rates in the rest of the world decrease
Africa will contribute 54 percent of the overall world population growth by 2050.
With no effective planning and not sufficient planning by the government to mitigate and plan
for the explosions countries will be thrown into the viscous cycle that comes with the pressure
many people place on limited resources.
For example, in Africa, the population growth is on the rise at high percentage such as Kenya
the population growth rate is at 5%. Due to lack of contraceptives and family planning methods,
population is increasing thus decreasing the life expectancy of an individual.
How to solve high population

African governments should call for family planning also provide contraceptives to the
population to help curb this anomalous growth. It should teach the population on dangers
associated with large population so as to discourage large families.
3. OVER DEPENDENCE ON INTERNATIONAL AID

It is hard to find an African country that is debt free and the creditors are the so called 'elite
continents'. The introduction of the international aid was originally welcomed to get African on
its feet. Soon the lenders started controlling African leadership through this aids. The leaders
on the other hand, relinquish responsibility to the subjects and the country. The leaders at
times use the aids for themselves. These loans are cumbersome and may be difficult to repay.
For example, in Kenya, the government has been so over reliant on international aids to help.
Example is the construction of the standard gauge railway which is of benefit but is also a loss.
It has made the country enter in huge debts that it has increased tax so that the government
can raise more money to pay the debt.
Solution to overdependence on foreign aid

It's upon African countries to desist from a lot of borrowing and also ensure they use the aid
that they receive to mark their own development that would bring about self sustainability and
independence.
4. HOUSING DEFICIT
Take the case of Egypt with a population close to 90milion. The government is racing to
establish housing projects set to meet the current housing deficit estimated conservatively
3.5million. In Nigeria, Africa's most popular country the situation is not any better with only
100000 new houses being built annually compared to the annual demand and an accumulated
deficit of some 17million house. The same happens in South Africa, Kenya and many African
countries. The rest of the combined influences of a ballooning population, housing deficit and
urbanization have created perfect storm which if not curbed could result in reversal of
economic gains.
For example, in most African countries you’ll find that some people do not have lands to
construct their houses on. Or if they do, they do not have adequate funds for a construction of
a good house. Thus they opt to construct cheap traditional houses according to their financial
status.
Solution to housing deficit

The solution lies in African governments should provide affordable housing for African
population. Cheap houses that are well maintained should be made available for Africans thus
lowering the rate of house deficit.
5. RURAL URBAN MIGRATION.
Most African countries population migrate from rural areas to urban centers due push for or
pull factors. The push factors are those conditions in the rural areas that compel people to
leave, while the pull factors are those things in the urban areas that attract people in the rural
areas. These push factors include recreational facilities like stadia, swimming pools, cinemas,
amusement parks etc.
For example, in Kenya, majority of the youths migrate from their rural homes to urban areas for
hope they’ll find good jobs to help them support themselves and their families.
Solution to rural urban migration:

Provision of social amenities to rural areas. The availability of social amenities in rural areas will
discourage many people from migrating to urban areas.
Establishment of industries in rural areas. This will enable people acquire jobs in the rural areas
thus will not have to go urban areas to look for job opportunities.
6. VIOLENCE
Tolerance of domestic violence is twice as high in the rest of the developing world. Incidence of
violence against civilians are on the rise in most countries of Africa. While this litany of suffering
is true throughout sub-Saharan African, with regard to all these measure life is particularly
harsh for people living in roughly 34% of Africa where state have collapsed to the point of
irrelevance.
For example, in Kenya, domestic violence is on the rise where women beat their own husbands
surprisingly. Causes for this is due to alcohol or arguments in the home that may lead to
domestic violence.
Solution to violence
Africans ought to be thought on benefits of living together harmoniously. Women need to be
empowered to not tolerate domestic violence and also men on their part should embrace
change and leave this vice.
7. DROUGHT AND FAMINE
Weather patterns continue to a challenge to the continent which is yet to fully realize its
agricultural potential. Prolonged drought period. Result in people displacement and deplete
grain reserves and loss of livelihoods for a great number of people in the continent especially
along the horn of Africa. It takes countries steps back in development and affect the ability of
future generations to battle from malnourished childhood which might affect the health of the
individuals.
For example, in Kenya where there has been a drought and famine problem in the northern
parts of Kenya. The government should come with scientific problems to help solve the natural
disaster affecting those parts of Kenya.
How to overcome drought and famine

Investing in irrigation will help increase the volume of food produced and reduce reliance of
rain fed agriculture.
The government should invest in intensive research to develop crops that are best suited for
certain areas. There should also be crops that are drought resistant
People need diversify their diet to reduce overdependence on one diet i.e maize we could
move on to other foods such as cassava, potatoes and rice and invest more in their production.
This means if one crop fails there is another alternative
8. CORRUPTION
Corruption is endemic to the way of life in much of Africa. It has permeated all life facets from
simple things to things like access to medical care, school and jobs, to the grand scale of it all
like award of contract and the use of public resources. The effect has been great inequalities
both in access of services from government offices as well as opportunities for investment with
many local and foreign firms discouraged and forced to close business. Misappropriation of
public funds and biased awarding of tenders compromise on the quality service available to the
members of the public. As a result the huge gap between the classes is further enhanced.
Corruption affect key sectors like healthcare, education and infrastructure resulting in poor
living conditions.
For example, in Kenya, there is a corruption problem in the country where powered politicians
get away with corruption allegations because they’re powerful. From one scandal to the next,
suspects are mentioned but there’s nothing done about it to bring these people to justice for
the Kenyan citizens.
How to overcome corruption

End impunity - effective law enforcement is essential to ensure the current and punished and
punished and break the cycle of impunity or freedom from punishment or loss. Successful
enforcement approaches are supported by strong legal frame work, law enforcement branches
and effective court system.
Reform public administration and finance management -reforms focusing on improving
financial management and strengthening the role of auditing agencies have in many countries
greater impact than public sector reforms on curbing corruption, this prevents waste and
misappropriation of resources.
Promoting transparency and access to information- for a country to be successful on this it has
to have a long tradition of government openness, freedom of press, transparency and access to
information. This increases the responsiveness of public participation in a country.
9. INSECURITY
This is rampant across Africa hindering progress at national and regional levels. From the urban
crime to the terrorist groups like Al-Shabaab and Boko Haram to Civil Wars in South Sudan and
political instability in Libya and Somalia, the examples are unending. The insecurities affect all
factors of production, cause massive displacement of people, loss of investment, lives and also
scare away direct foreign investment.
For example, Nigeria is being hit hard with terrorist activities from terrorist group Boko Haram
where they kidnap school children and as for a ransom in order for the children to be released.
Other countries such as Congo and south Sudan have civil wars.
How to overcome insecurity
Reduce unemployment and create work for the idle youth who often make bulk perpetrators of
crime.
Finding a solution to the problem of informal settlements and unplanned urban development.
Politicians should avoid negative ethnic politics as this may threaten some people of the
country.
Increase the number of uniformed police officer and street monitoring systems.
Engage local leaders in the boroughs and make 'peace champion' so that we can carry out
behavior change campaigns aimed at rehabilitating criminals.
10. HEALTH
Health outcomes are worse in African continent than other continents anywhere in the world.
Even though the life expectancy is very high compared to other continents, this life expectancy
at birth has risen and chronic child malnutrition has declined since the mid-1990 s this state is a
major threat to most African countries in Africa.
For example, access to medical services in rural areas in Kenya is a problem due to few medical
centers usually crowded and no enough doctors to attend to all the patients. Sometimes
there’re no enough drugs for disposal to patients in the health centers.
How to overcome ill-health in Africa
Make health insurance personal and portable- nothing would do more to fix our health care
system than moving away from a system dominated by employer-provided health insurance an
instead making health insurance personal and portable controlled by an individual rather than
government or employer
Empower non- physician medical professionals. – Nurses, practioners, physician assistants,
midwives and other non-physicians should have greater ability to treat patients.
Have seniors make their own Medicare decisions- instead of paying directly to physician, the
government should turn that money over the recipients themselves as a voucher to help them
purchase private health insurance.
11. ENDLESS POVERTY
It's widely believed that Africa is a poor continent even by the Africans themselves. If that were
why then did the colonists come? African countries have some of the most valuable natural
resources that form raw materials for the industries responsible for the growth of the
developed world yet the people living in Africa are poor. Humanitarian organizations such as
UNICEF, WHO and doctors without borders among others survive on portraying Africa as a dark
continent to get funding for their quire operations in the continent.
For example, the Kenyan government has been over reliant on humanitarian organizations to
cater for Kenyan needs when disaster strikes. This led to even USAID to think of revoking its
services in Kenya due to the over reliance by the Kenyan government.
How to overcome poverty

African governments must develop infrastructure and end corruption at all levels. Good roads
must be in place, affordable electricity connected, water points distance should be reduced,
schools built and chain linked facilitated, corruption ended to even opportunities for all
categories of people to encourage great talents, hard work and genuine competitiveness.
12. ENDLESS CONFLICT
The problems of Africa are very much tied to war and conflicts. The continent is known to be a
place where a brother kills brother and son a father. You would wonder why people who have
lived alongside each other for generation suddenly decide to attack a neighbor. While the elites
tell the world that these conflicts are caused by ethnic intolerance, they create the ethnic
groups themselves. Look at the unstable African countries where rebels attack the government.
For example, in Libya where rebels rejected the further rule of Colonel Muammar Gadhafi
which led to endless conflict in the country for a period of time before he was finally captured
and killed by the rebels. This finally brought peace to the country.
How to overcome endless conflicts

Preaching peace by the political leaders, national cohesion should be enhanced so as to prevent
clashes among people of different communities. Security systems to help fish out perpetrators
who spread negative ethnicity
13. INADEQUATE SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING EDUCATION
When colonists invaded Africa, they claimed to bring the good news of education, religion and
trade. Well, they delivered on their promise but not in a manner that can help the indigenous
Africans to be self-sufficient instead of educating African child on science and technology, they
favored literature and subaltern mindset that would equip graduates with knowledge only good
enough enable them assist these people in running their colonial government.
For example, in Kenya where we do not have enough engineers and scientists forcing us to hire
foreign engineers to develop our own roads.
Solution to science
African nations should borrow a leaf from developed countries hence invest heavily in science
and engineering. Also they should set up workshops and institutions to help in teaching and
guiding people on necessary skills to help run this workshops and industries that may come by
as a result of exposure innovation an invention by those who shall have acquired the
knowledge.
14. POOR MEANS OF TRANSPORTATION AND COMMUNICATION.

Majority of African countries are still faced with a problem of poor roads which has hindered
and slowed down transportation of goods i.e raw materials from the area produced to the
areas being manufactured or being processed. Poor roads has also slowed down delivery of
service which are deemed essential to livelihoods.
For example, in rural areas in Kenya, there are few tarmacked roads and network boosters due
to underdevelopment thus having a problem in communication and transport along towns in
rural areas.
Solution to poor means of transportation

Africans should volunteer to give space for roads train and even airports so as to open up
regions and fasten the service delivery they also ought to better the available means of
transportation so as to suit them and help in swift movement of goods, raw materials, finished
goods, service and even people.
15. UNSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE, NUTRITION AND FOOD SECURITY.

Inadequate investment in agricultural systems and even sustainable agriculture and significant
social protection remain the major blow to enhancing food availability. Climate changes i.e. rain
patterns which fluctuate from time to time has also adversely affected many countries in Africa.
This has compromised their people i.e. SC shortages and up to sometimes forcing the countries
to borrow and even import.
For example, in Kenya where rain fluctuations in some counties make food shortages to be
more common in areas that depend on agriculture as their main source of food.
Solution to agriculture
African countries ought to seek new methods of farming, consult the meteorology department
hence be able to predict rain patterns which will in turn hell their farming a great deal. The
government also to increase funding to farmers to help boost morale since most of Africa's
economy depends on agriculture
16. GENDER DISCRIMINATION
Most parts of Africa seem to despise the female gender. Thus they can't offer a female an
opportunity instead they give men. Most of legislators in Africa are males which mostly defies
the gender rules. Some cultures dictate that women are of low status hence they can be
overworked. Some others their men don't allow them to work they tell them to stay at homes
as men only seek for money.
For example, in Kenya where gender discrimination is high, male politicians are more powerful
than the female thus making them to have higher chances of politics dominion than their
female counterparts. Also African belief where the man is more powerful to the woman is also
considered whereby man was chosen to lead and woman was to take care of the man.
Solution to gender discrimination

Boys and girls should be taught from an early age that they are equal. Africans need to be
taught on how important both genders can be if they were given equal opportunity. Women
and girls also have to be taught on way to avoid discrimination. The government should also
have equal programs for both genders.
17. MEDIA INJUSTICE
In Africa there is widespread outcry of media personnel being mistreated and punished for
giving out information about crime or on occasions i.e. some governments do not want media
coverage for oppositions. Governments also try to dictate even private media on what to air or
publish. Sometimes journalists can be harmed by the citizens too or even get abducted.
For example, recently in Kenya where media journalists were abused by police officers for
filming part of Miguna deportation from Kenya at JKIA airport. This led to a national appeal for
media justice by media governing bodies in Kenya.
Solution to media injustice
Governments or even individuals should not interfere with media since they play an important
role in informing the society. Those found affecting their work should be dealt with according to
the dictates of the law.
18. LOW ECONOMIC GROWTH.
According to research by the UN report, Northern Africa GDP per capita was she 1036.10 back
in 2014 and at 14% growth rate estimated for 2015. It would take Africa 50 years to double GDP
per capita. In addressing all these continent issues the new African Union will require working
several new leaders across Africa since elections are carried out at least yearly. However the
changes that may come by also offer opportunities for building international momentum for
the development and change, thus driving growth of Africa.
For example, in Kenya where we have low economic growth due to the large amount of debt
we have. More of the revenue generated is used to pay the debt instead of development thus
low economic growth.
Solution to low economic growth

African leadership to countercheck with large economies so to get to do something different to
enable boost the agricultural economy of Africa. Innovation and science to be given priority in
the quest for a better economies
19. ACCESS TO FINANCING
About 70% of Africans work in agriculture, but 10% of the total portfolios of commercial banks
goes to agriculture according to the World Bank. Challenging legal and financial environments
are constraining growth in Africa agriculture. For small holders, especially credit is often
inaccessible or not affordable. Without appropriate financing, farmers are not only less able to
invest in their operations but also much more vulnerable to market volatility and unpredictable
weather.
For example, in Kenya where credit or loans is not easily available in rural areas where most
people lack bank accounts and education on banking. Thus making financing a challenge.
Solution to inaccessible funding

African governments should consider reducing the money gap for farmers and other workers i.e
they can assist them to open bank accounts and kick start the program of giving loans to help
them grow their business.
20. UNRELIABLE ENERGY
A reliable, affordable supply of electricity is an important aspect of a comfortable standard of
living in modern world prerequisite for sustainable and successful economic growth. Most of
the time we have endless power cuts in Africa. Most African countries have severe problem
with electricity, since relatively small proportions of the population being supplied with
electricity. The use of wood and other material for fuel has an environmental down side. Most
Africans use wood, charcoal which are harmful to environment. These also forest cover hence
desertification.
For example, Tanzania which relies on electricity as the main source of energy is becoming
unreliable due to deforestation that reduces forest cover thus reducing water catchment areas
which in essence lowers the river water levels that does not provide enough water force
required for the production of electricity. This has led the country to import electricity from the
nearby country Uganda.
Solutions to energy
Alternative of electricity, solar energy should be encouraged to help boost the available. There
should be encouraged use of biogas and other less harmful sources of energy to help protect
our environment. The price for the cost should be subsided to enable everyone to manage.
REFERENCES.
1) https: // answersafrica.com/problems-africa.html (Retrieved from the internet on

14/10/2018 at 8:36 pm)
2) https://www.globalyoungvoices.com/fast-news-blog/2016/5/5/top-challenge-facing-
africa-today (retrieved on 14/10/2018 3:40 pm
3) Cohen, R., Kennedy, p. (2000). Global sociology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan
publishers
SOCIO-ECONOMIC PROBLEMS FACED IN AFRICA

a) POVERTY
 Poverty is the lack of a certain amount of possession be it food, shelter etc.Many
African countries are poverty stricken and this brings significant negative effects on both
social and economic growth.Nearly 1 out 10 people in Africa live on a wage that is less
than a dollar per day which is merely enough to cater for both their basic, primary and
secondary needs.There are different levels of poverty in Africa with the major and the
most evident one being absolute poverty where people lack everything including the
basic wants.One of the major causes of poverty is a high illiteracy level which is caused
by either lack of or poor education systems in Africa. Education is a key that enlightens
people’s lives to a better way of improving their lives by making use of the available
resources and skills.The ironical part of it all is that Africa is well endowed with
resources that do not benefit the people.Another cause is the state of lawlessness due
to war and crisis.War is evident in most parts of Africa some of them being ethnic and
tribal wars which cause destruction of property leaving people helpless.Other causes
are; high population growth, poor agricultural practice etc.An evidence of poverty is that
1 out of every four people in Africa are malnourished this is due to lack of food and also
lack of funds to access good medical care.Most people too don’t have access to water
and sanitary. This is mostly in cases of drought. They therefore solely depend on an
incompetent government to provide for them these essential needs.every seven kids die
due to either lack of access to good maternal care or completely lack of it.There is also
high mortality rate due to poverty.
For example in Kenya:

it is estimated that one out of social class in Africa is also an indication of `poverty. There are
people who are well off especially the political class who are self-centered. They use the
available resources for their own good not to the benefit of the people. This ends up benefiting
them while other people suffer in poverty.
b) GENDER INEQUALITY
Gender inequality –refer to the act of not providing equal opportunities and treatment to both
genders.Gender inequality is prevalent among the African communities because of some beliefs
and culture. For instance, among the Pokot, women are considered inferior and are supposed
to kneel to show respect while among the Mijikenda women are considered more powerful
than men.In African communities, religion positions like those of priests were not given to
women since they were considered inferior.This is also evident in African families where the
fathers are solely the bread winners while the mothers remain at home to perform domestic
duties. This more or less like downgrading the abilities of women.Even in the present day
African communities -women are not allowed to perform some duties fully since they are
considered inferior. For instance, in the army women are not allowed to go to war.Political
positions in most African countries are awarded to men. It’s evident that less than ten percent
of African countries have their presidents as women.
Forexample:
In Kenya a there was introduction of a third rule to balance gender among the political
leaders.Gender inequality has a negative impact on both social and economic growth.If
equal job opportunities were awarded to both genders more skills, innovativeness and
more sharing of ideas would be present in the job market.This also hinders Economic
growth.Gender inequality should be considered a thing of the past and all the people be
presented with equal opportunities, unfortunately that does not happen among the African
communities.
c) crime
Crime is an unlawful act conducted by citizens who are not law abiding and is punishable by
law.Crime is a trend in most parts of Africa especially among the youth due to
unemployment.The most common crimes are theft, drug abuse and violence while other
complex ones are murder, terrorism, carjacking etc.Most African youth are raised in a society of
a culture of criminality and violence.This makes them very vulnerable to such crimes. Most of
them end up normalizing violence as a part of them.The inefficiency of judicial systems in Africa
provides favorable grounds for crimes to thrive.The political leaders in Africa do not serve as
good examples to the people since they also engage in crimes like corruption.There is
emergence of criminal gangs like al-Shabaab and Al-Qaeda which participates in carrying out
terrorism activities in different parts of Africa. This has caused unrest between the people since
they live in Fear.Crime rates have risen in the past three years.
For example :
in Kenya the National Police Report indicates a great rise in Crime over the past three years.The
high rise in population makes it hard for the African countries since there is a stretch of the
scarce resources. This explains why many African youths remain unemployed and due to
idleness they end up in crimes.
d) insecurity
Insecurity refer to the act of not being safe.Insecurity in Africa ranges from human insecurity to
food insecurity.Human insecurity is mainly caused by conflicts, crimes and terrorism among
others while food insecurity is caused by drought, famine, ignorance and poor agricultural
practices among others.Human insecurity In Africa ranges from small conflicts between
individuals to ethnic groups to large criminal groups.This has made many Africans to live in fear
and this reduces social interaction between people.Living in fear reduces economic growth too
since people cannot exchange ideas together through activities like trade.Emergence of
criminal gangs and exchange of fire arms has proven to be a major cause of insecurity in Africa.
These gangs conduct criminal activities that lead to the destruction of property and the loss of
lives.This has affected economic growth in that investor fear to invest in places that are not
secure in fear of making loses. On the other hand trade has been paralyses because traders
would not like to trade in places where they are most likely to suffer destruction.The
governments are supposed to ensure security to all its citizens but most African governments
have failed in their roles.Food insecurity on the other hand is more evident in Africa. Many
people in Africa die of hunger because of food insecurity.The rate of malnutrition is high too;
this is brought about by lack of food.Many African countries highly depend on agriculture for
their economic growth and the counties have tried putting in measure to curb food insecurity
for example I Kenya the government has tried setting up irrigation schemes to deal with
this.Those efforts have however bore no fruits because of ignorance and high illiteracy levels.
Most farmers are not educated therefore it is hard to teach them on how to use good
agricultural methods.
For Example:
in Kenya people fear to live in places like Mandera and Pokot because of insecurity issues
associated with such places. In Nigeria, people live in fear of terrorist groups like Boko
Haram.Generally insecurity is a pressing issue in many African counties and it has grown over
time since it was there even before the attainment of independence by many African countries.
This is a problem that affects African countries both economically and socially.
e) High level of iliteracy
Learning to read and write is a fundamental right to every person yet nearly a quarter of the African
population is illiterate.Illiteracy is a condition that denies many African people opportunities for self-
improvement and development.It also denies the countries opportunities to economic growth since the
countries may lack skilled labour in the job market due to illiteracy.Education is the key to the
development of any nation and lack of it hinders both economic and social growth.Many African
communities are still stuck to their cultural ways and some cultural practices hinder provision of
Education.High poverty levels are contributed mainly by the lack of Education and on the other hand
high illiteracy levels are contributed by the high poverty levels since many Africans cannot afford good
quality education.Although many African countries have prioritized on increasing literacy levels among
its people, there is still a high illiteracy level among the people.There are measures that African
countries have tried putting in place to deal with this problem. They include; building of more schools,
raising awareness on the importance of education, provision and the provision of free education to its
people.Rapid increase in population is another cause of high illiteracy levels since the available schools
do not fit the number of people.African counties tend to put less investments on the education sector
forget that Education is the key to the social and economic development of any country.
Forexample :
research shows that illiteracy levels for instance in Kenya stands at 38% of adult population while that of
Zimbabwe stands at 40%.
f) HIV AND AIDS
AIDS, while continuing to be an important health issue, has evolved into a complex social and
economic emergency. HIV primarily affects young adults, cutting a broad path through society's
most productive layer and destroying a generation of parents, whose death leaves behind
orphans, desocialized youth and child-headed households. AIDS has a significant impact on the
more educated and skilled segments of society because HIV primarily infects productive young
adults rather than children or the elderly. The stigma attached to HIV and AIDS adds to the
impediments encountered in mounting a response to AIDS, in addition to the discrimination
already faced by infected individuals. HIV also increases social and economic vulnerability
among women.
Example
In the hardest-hit regions, AIDS is now reversing decades of development. It changes family
composition and the way communities operate, affecting food security and destabilizing
traditional support systems. By eroding the knowledge base of society and weakening
production sectors, it destroys social capital. By inhibiting public and private sector
development and cutting across all sectors of society, it weakens national institutions. By
eventually impairing economic growth, the epidemic has an impact on investment, trade and
national security, leading to still more widespread and extreme poverty. In short, AIDS has
become a major challenge for human security.
g) DROUGHT AND FAMINE
Drought and famine has adversely affected many African countries.This is very evident in many parts
of Africa because of lack of proper methods to ensure food security.One of the main causes of
drought and famine is the change in climatic pattern.This change in climatic pattern affects
agricultural act ivies for instance it causes death of livestock and crops and people end up with
no food.Many African countries have sought ways of dealing with drought but they have not
done enough yet in ensuring food security.Drought has caused the death of many people in
Africa which is an effect to the economy and the social being of the people.The African
countries should raise awareness among farmers on good agricultural methods and it should
also come up with measures to deal with food insecurity as a way of curbing drought and
famine.
For example:
in Kenya in the year 2000 there was a massive drought that crippled the economy of the
country since It mainly depends on Agriculture
h) INEQUALITY IN JUSTICE SYSTEM
This is where not all African people are awarded fair trial and hearing in courts of law.It’s
evident that the poor are the ones who face the wrath of the law in many African countries
while those with power and high positions continue to commit crimes as if they are above the
law.The poor cannot afford an advocate and most of the times their petty cases get a heavy
punishment.On the other hand the powerful people who actively participate in corruption and
other forms of crimes go unpunished.The judicial systems in African countries are considered
one of the most corrupt since most people serving in those systems serve their own interests
instead of serving the interests of the country and its people.For instance, In Kenya a high court
judge Noordin Haji was to be arrested over corruption scandal
i) Pollution
We release a variety of chemicals into the atmosphere when we burn the fossil fuels we use every day.
We breathe air to live and what we breathe has a direct impact on our health.
Breathing polluted air puts you at a higher risk for asthma and other respiratory diseases.
When exposed to ground ozone for 6 to 7 hours, scientific evidence show that healthy people’s lung
function decreased and they suffered from respiratory inflammation.
Air pollutants are mostly carcinogens and living in a polluted area can put people at risk of Cancer.
Coughing and wheezing are common symptoms observed on city folks.
Damages the immune system, endocrine and reproductive systems.
High levels of particle pollution have been associated with higher incidents of heart problems.
The burning of fossil fuels and the release of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are causing the Earth to
become warmer. Read about the effects of Global Warming here.
The toxic chemicals released into the air settle into plants and water sources. Animals eat the
contaminated plants and drink the water. The poison then travels up the food chain – to us.
OTHER S/E PROBLEMS AFFECTING AFRICA

i. Poor health
Growing evidence suggests that AIDS is having a devastating effect on economic growth and incomes.
According to the World Bank, had average national HIV prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa not reached 8.6
per cent in 1999, per capita income on that continent would have grown 1.1 per cent, nearly three times
the actual growth rate of 0.4 per cent achieved during 1990-1997. In the case of a typical sub-Saharan
African country with a prevalence rate of 20 per cent, overall GDP growth would be 2.6 per cent lower
each year. At the end of 20 years, the economy would be two thirds smaller than it would otherwise
have been.
For the example:
AIDS reduces the number of healthy workers, especially experienced workers in their most productive
years. This raises dependency, diminishes human capital, and may cut productivity growth by as much as
50 per cent in the hardest hit countries.In the public sector, AIDS reduces government revenues and
puts severe strain on budgets as spending on health and social welfare mount. Scarce capacity is
depleted, and the return on other public investments falls.Governance suffers as a result of the
epidemic: HIV/AIDS has a disastrous impact on the capacity of Governments, especially on the delivery
of basic social services. Human resources are lost, public revenues reduced and budgets diverted
towards coping with the epidemic's impact. Similarly, the organizational survival of civil society
institutions is under threat, with a corresponding impact on democracy.
ii. neocolonialism
Neocolonialism is present Day colonization. It is where the leaders in position act like the
colonialist. Instead of serving the interests of the people they serve their own interests.Some
leaders refuse to hand over power to other people an example being Museveni of Uganda so
that they go on serving and feeding their own needs.Neocolonialism is common among African
countries due to poverty such that many are not able to occupy political seats therefore those
few who are able use their power to suppress others.There are different forms of
neocolonialism one being the one stated above and the other comes in due to dependence on
foreign aid.Many African countries have scarce resources that are merely enough to fit the
needs of its people so sometimes the African governments are forced to seek foreign aid from
other well developed countries like China. These countries give foreign aid with conditions that
are often exploitative.For instance, the conditions may be taking part in exploiting a certain
percentage of a country’s resources. This deprives a country of full exploitations of its
resources.Most of the times these aids give those developed countries power over the African
countries and is more like modern day colonization.This is disadvantageous because African
Countries are not able to develop both economically and socially. There’s foreign invasion in
the economy and local investors do not get a chance Basically, many African countries will
continue to suffer neocolonialism because of the scarcity of resources and dependence being
the only option they have.
iii. Tribalism
Most African countries are divided along tribal lines. This is as a result of colonial
boundaries.
People divide themselves along tribal lines because it gives them a sense of belonging and a
sense of security.Different African countries have different tribes with each claiming a
different origin from the others.This belief is widespread across the tribe and they own a
different culture that governs their day to day life.Tribalism affects both Economic and
social growth since people from a particular tribe favor each other when it comes to some
things for example job opportunities. The people at the higher level tend to favor others
from their tribes so that they can benefit themselves and their tribes while leaving other
people from other tribes suffering. This impairs both economic and social growth since
those with skills may not secure job opportunities just because they are not from the same
tribe with the employer.it also affects social interaction between people.Tribalism also leads
to tribal wars between communities. An example is the tribal wars between the Pokot and
the Turkana triggered by their beliefs and culture. They therefore end up fighting because
of cattle and they have made cattle rustling a part of their life.In addition, tribalism has
caused other socio economic problems like poverty since only a few people benefit from
the available scarce resources while the others are left out.This grown to an extent of
enmity growing between different tribes and they do not want to associate with each other.
An example: is the Hutu and Tutsi of Rwanda.Tribalism has hindered sharing of ideas
between people thus economicsgrowth and interrelation is hindered too. Although schools
and other social institutions have neutralized tribalism, its effects still stand.
corruption
Corruption is considered a major issue affecting Africa.Corruption involves taking and giving of
bribes in exchange for favors.It ranges from bribes to looting of public funds for one’s own
benefit rather than the benefit of the nation.Members of the political class use their power and
position to benefit themselves by looting funds allocated to the people. This makes them rich
while services like good healthcare that were to be provided to be people are not provided. The
poor continue to suffer while the self-centered rich continue to benefit themselves.Most
African governments have put in efforts to fight corruption with the formation of anti-
corruption agencies but the efforts have proved worthless.The police sector is the one
considered most corrupt. For instance to join the police forces one has to pay a bribe. Police
even go to an extent of colluding with criminals to earn an extra coin.The transport sector in
Kenya for instance, has been adversely affected by corrupt traffic police who collect bribes from
drivers and car owners. This favors breaking of traffic laws by them and through that Kenyan
lives are endangered.Corruption emerges from many avenues. In Africa some of the identifiable
causes of corruption include the negative colonial legacy, poor leadership, and politics of the
belly, omnipotent state, greed and selfishness. Clientelism and patronage nepotism, absence of
popular participation of the public in government, weak institutions of governance, lack of
accountability and transparency, lack of political will, weak ethical values, centralist nature of
the state and concentration of state power, weak judicial system and constant insecurity and
conflicts are also the causes of corruption. It is the top African echelons who are mostly the
perpetrators of corruption.Corruption has entrenched its roots in Africa and efforts to deal with
it do not bear fruits because even those who are supposed to deal with it engage in it.Africa is
poor not because the right political ideologies are not in place. Africa is poor because of the far
reaching effects of corruption.
iv. OVERDEPENDENCE ON FOREIGN AID
Many African countries depend so much on financial help and aid from well developed
countries.African countries do not have the ability to fully exploit their natural resources to
their maximum potential. This situation forces them to seek help from other foreign countries
so that they can sustain their economies.Some of these foreign aids include: emergency relief
assistance, outrightgrants and soft loans among others.These African countries borrow blindly
without considering the effects that those Aids and debts will have on their economies.Many
African countries end up with a heavy foreign debt that they may not be able to pay.They are
then forced to impose measures like increasing the value added tax on goods and this has
adverse negative effects on the poor people since they will not be able to afford the
goods.Dependence builds good relations between the involved countries; this is the
advantageous part of it.However, these aids go along with conditions and some conditions may
not be favorable to the African people.Africa is not poor because of lack of resources; Africa is
poor because correct measures and skills have not been put in place to fully exploit the
available resources.Foreign Aid is not viewed as a long term plan because the funds will be used
and be depleted at the end of the day.There are possible ways of reducing this over
dependence on foreign aid with of it being African countries should increase regional
integration where countries can freely trade with each other. This will foster good interaction
and economic growth which is more sustainable.
For example:
the National Bureau of Statistics stated that By June this year, Nigeria’s foreign debt stood
at 15million dollars.In Kenya the foreign debt stands at approximately 4.8 trillion Kenyan
shilling.Foreign debt is more of a distress to African countries and this has adversely
affected the continent not only economically but also socially.
v. unemployment
In Africa close to two hundred million of the population consist of the youth. Unemployment is
more prevalent amount the youth. It’s estimated that 60 percent of the African youth is
unemployed.This situation is worsening due to continued increase in population. This is
because the job market offers only a few job opportunities to the people.It’s even worse that
people with skills and necessary qualifications do not have jobs.Many African governments
have tried putting in measures to curb this unemployment issues but it has become difficult due
to the increase in population.Some of the causes of unemployment are; corruption, poor
education system and a negative mindset.Unemployment has led to the increase in the general
cycle of poverty. This is because without employment the people lack a source of income
therefore they will not be able to cater for their needs.The high rise in employment also breaks
down social cohesion and makes the youth to get involved in crimes and violence.Moreover,
unemployment has impacted negatively on the economy of Africa since many youth live in
poverty this increased poverty levels.There are some measure that could be put in place to curb
this issue.These are; increasing job opportunities in the rural areas by building industries there,
introducing an efficient education system, trying to curb corruption among many others.
For example:
in South Africa, youth unemployment rate is estimated to be at 61 percent.
vi. POOR INFRASTRUCTURE
Many African countries do not have a well-developed infrastructure in terms of transport,

communication, roads, water and other amenities.Infrastructure is the backbone to the
development of any country.African countries have tried their best in developing infrastructure
though some corrupt leaders have blocked these efforts.Many African countries have poor
roads with some of them being impassable and this has hindered some economic activities like
trade and also people are not able to access some services like healthcare. People in many
African counties don’t have access to clean water and this makes the vulnerable to
diseases.There is lack of access to power and if accessible power outages have hindered
production in firms.Poor sewerage system in many African countries poses a great danger to its
people since it increases their vulnerability to contacting diseases.An example of poor
infrastructure is the TAZARA railway network that connects Tanzania and Zambia which is
prone to break down up to date.Poor infrastructure has a negative impact on both social and
economic growth of African countries.
vii. CONGESTION
Congestion is the overcrowding of people.This is brought about by the rapid growth in

population and the movement of people from people from rural to urban areas.Many African
countries experience congestion in the urban areas since people move to the urban areas in
search of employment.This congestion makes it difficult for many African countries to provide
its people with adequate social amenities.Congestion brings about the growth and
mushrooming of slums in the cities because many people who go to the cities in search of
employment end up unemployed and they are forced to live in the slums because they cannot
afford to pay for good housing.Most of the people affected by congestion are the youth
population.Most African governments have not taken the issue of congestion seriously and it’s
affecting the people both socially.There are ways that can be put in place to deal with
congestion.One of them is building of industries in the rural areas. This will help develop the
rural areas thus reducing the migration of people into the urban areas in search of job
opportunities.Another way is encouraging self-employment of people where they can create
job opportunities for themselves and others wherever they are without moving to the urban
areas for example farming.An evidence of congestion and growth of slums in Africa is Kibera
slums in Kenya, Soweto slums in South Africa.Congestion is becoming a major problem in Africa
and this is supposed to be taken seriously since it enhances the growth of other socio economic
problems like growth of crime among the youth and increased poverty levels too.
viii. POLITICAL DIFFERENCES
This is where people have different opinions on their political views and support.Since the time
of independence in African countries and the rise of democracy, there have been situations of
political differences between individuals, political parties and any other involved
parties.Political differences are a part of every society and Africa is not an exception.Presence
of different political parties with different view to their people in African countries elevates the
issue of political differences.This creates enmity between people with different political views
thus national cohesion between people is hindered.This has also brought political wars
triggered by political leaders who incite their political supporters. These wars bring about death
of people, destruction of property which is a problem to economic and political growth.
An example:
There was the post-election violence that happened in Kenya in the year 2007 that was
triggered by political differences between supporters of ODM and PNU.This caused massive
destruction of property and the death of many Kenyans.It is estimated that the economic
growth of Kenya dropped drastically during the period.Prices of goods increased and many
people suffered.
ix. VIOLENCE
Conflict in Africa ranges from individuals to inter states to intra states.For decades,
countries such as Liberia, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire and Guinea-Bissau were crippled by
conflicts and civil strife in which violence and incessant killings were prevalent.These
conflicts have resulted in the destruction of lives and property, the internal displacement of
people, a region-wide refugee crisis, poverty and disease, the proliferation of small arms
and light weapons, human and drug trafficking, illegal exploitation of natural resources and
banditry.Violent conflicts in West Africa remain one of the main challenges of the sub-
region.Nevertheless efforts of the civil society and that of the internal communities have
been evident in timely dealing with the eruption of conflict for example in Libya.Despite
these efforts the peace and stability of the Sub Saharan Africa has not been ensured and
people live in fear of emergence of conflict.Conflict is evident too between individuals in
Africa and many African countries have normalized conflicts.For instance in cases of
marriages there are marital conflicts, there are also tribal conflicts, and states too may
conflict between each other. This may arise in the fight for natural resources and may be
border issues.
An example is the fight between South Sudan and Sudan over the oil wells of Juba.
An example of a border conflict is the one between Kenya and over Migingo .
x. RACISM
Racism is the act of judging people by their complexion.This is another socio economic problem
that affects Africans.This is more prevalent in South Africa till date where the white still despise
the blacks.This was brought about by the colonialists during the colonial period but it’s quite
discouraging that even after the colonial period, this is still going on.It’s evident how black
people treat the whites too. This is sign of racism for example at animal orphanages and
national reserves the locals pay a lower fee compared to tourists.This has a negative effect on
the social well-being of the people since people of different races view each other as enemies
rather than friends and this hinders national cohesion and interaction between people.Racism
has a negative impact on the economy too since people of different races can’t carry out
economic activities that enhance economic growth like trade because of the poor interaction
between them and their attitude towards eachother.The effects of the apartheid regime in
South Africa show the adverse negative effects that racism can have to the people. During the
regime, there was intensive loss of African lives and destruction of a lot of property. However
many African countries have not put in measures to curb this problem because they do not
directly feel its effects but it obviously affects the economic and social growth of countries.
REFERENCES
John , J.&ken,P.(2005).sociology.Harlow:pearson education publisher.
Robin ,C. &Paul,K.(2000).Global sociology.NewYork:palgrave Macmillan.
Martin, H. &Peter,L.(2004).Sociology themes and perspectives.London:Harper Collins
Publisher.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF POVERTY AND CAUSES OF POVERTY

Poverty is a complex social reality. Complexity is not only concerned with the
factors that cause and efforts to overcome, but also related to poverty
measurement itself. There are two views regarding the size of this poverty. The
first view, poverty is measured from economic side, that is associated with
income and consumption. Poverty is seen as an inability to meet the household
needs of food, clothing, and shelter. This view is known as the basic needs
approach. The second view, poverty is not only related to economic
measurement, but also measures of related non-economic. Measurement of non-
economy include life expectancy, mortality, access to education, health, clean
water, sanitation, jobs and livelihoods. In addition, poverty is also associated with
future security, disability and social disadvantage, and vulnerability to shocks both
individually and majorly. Thus, poverty is not only related to economic aspects,
but also related to noneconomic ones
The word poverty in Kenya is a term that is common to many citizens. Also in the
world poverty is not a new term most people know the reality about it. It is
estimated that 50% of people in the world today live less than $2.50 per day.
Poverty is the state of being poor or indigent; want or scarcity of means of

subsistence. Poverty is multifaceted concept which may include social, economic,
and political elements. Absolute poverty refers to the complete lack of the means
necessary to meet basic personal needs such as food, clothing and shelter.
Those people who are unable to satisfy some of the basic needs such as food,
clothes,shelter,sanitation are called the poor.
The following therefore mark some of the major characteristics and causes of
poverty.
CHARACTERISTICS OF POVERTY
1. LOW LEVEL OF INCOME.
The occupation of the poor in rural areas is agriculture and physical labor in urban
areas. In the rural areas they own small and unproductive land ,without irrigation
and other physical facilities their production will be low resulting to low levels of
income. In urban areas physical labor doesn’t pay highly.In meeting food needs,
they consume more carbohydrates derived from white rice and more protein
comes from salted fish. Meat is a luxury food category. They rarely consume
meat as a protein source. This is still far away from the paradigm of a healthy
balanced diet.The poor see clothing as a primary need, but no urge to do so. They
have it once a year. This type of requirement fulfillment depends on the
ownership and money.
For example most kissii live in poverty because the income from their agricultural
produce is delayed by the government.
2.BAD HOUSING CONDITION
Housing is also a primary need. Each poor household has had a house that stands
on its own land or property of others. They belong to a very simple house, seen
from the vast and building materials. There is no large house. Their homes an
average sized of 4 x 6 metre, with a layout consisting of living room, bedroom,
and kitchen. It is also found also houses former kitchens and home were
awakened by the villagers on land owned by someone else. Seen from building
materials, their houses are very simple. Although the walls are made of brick, but
half of them are plastered walls, the roof is only a small part which is made of
wood, mostly made of bamboo. When the rainy season comes the roof frame
experienced weathering. Although it is found that the floor is tiled houses, but
many home floors are made of rebates. For air circulation, their houses have
windows in the front, but most have not been equipped with shutters. The only
window is closed by pieces of bamboo which are rarely laid, then covered with a
cloth.
Most poor people usually have large families and they live in small mud hut.This
causes limited space ,this huts usually don’t have electricity and other physical
facilities.ForexamplemostpoorpeopleinKenyaliveinslumswithnocleanwaterandele
ctricity.
3.LITERACY
Most of the poor people are illiterate this may be due to ignorance or poverty or
both.studies show that the educational background of husband and wife is low or
even they do not graduate from school. The poor parents can not afford to send
them to school. They do not have access to educational institutions as a channel
for social mobility. This condition is also experienced by their children. Although
they work hard to educate their children, but the data shows, there were no
children who are able to study at high school and higher education. For example
the level of educationoffered by the cheap local schools in the villages is poor due
to lack of qualified teachers.
4. HIGH EXPENDITURE PATTERN
The majority of the poor usually spend more than 70 percent of their income in
consumption. They usually spend almost all their income in order to survive.
Sometimes, they consume more than what their income is.For example casual
laborers in rural areas earn about sh100 per day which they use it all for food.
5.OWNERSHIP OF Valuable ASSET epresentation of the wealth they haves, but

some other do not have valuable assets. Studies show that there is no furniture
like tables and chairs in the living room of their homes. Instead they use a mat
that functioned as a place to sit, and some even use bed made from bamboo. For
example nomadic maasai usually own little furniture made from available wood.
6.FUTURE SECURITY
Poor people receive an income that is only sufficient, even less likely, to meet
basic needs like eating. They claimed not to have excess income, so life without
savings, in cash or valuable assets. They also do not have the ability to invest both
in economics and education. It can be proven that they are not capable of using
educational institutions as a channel of social mobility for their children.
E.g.people who earn less than 100 per day they use all the income on daily food.
Thus, the condition of those who lead poor lives they have no guarantee of the
future.For example in Kenya most people who have insurance are the rich hence
have safety for their future but the poor don't have.
7.DEMOGRPHIC PATTERN
Poor people often lack access to modern family planning services, this causes
large family sizes. This in turn causes high population growth rate, in this situation
children are regarded as the source earning. For example in most rural areas a
family can have up to 10 children.
8.HIGH GENDER DISPARITY
Due to lack of enough resources there few chances for children to go to

school ,this may cost one gender especially girls. This causes low levels of
education causing fewer employment opportunities. For example in a tribe like
kisii they believe boys are superior than girls hence deserve better education than
the girls.
9.VULNERABILITY TO SHOCK THAT ARE INDIVIDUAL AND MASS
Usually the lives of the poor is more difficult. They have difficulty making a living.
Despite its revenue, but not enough to meet the needs of everyday life. The
income they receive from hard work, not able to keep pace with the increase in
the basic needs of the market.e.gEvery time there is an increase in fuel prices
(fuel), it has a major impact on their lives. Rising fuel prices has simultaneously
effected toward the rising price of goods.Facing such a shock, they responded by
developing a variety of survival strategies. One of the strategies to survive is by
setting their daily consumption.The consumption may not be a balanced diet.They
buy basic needs not by paying cash, but by owning. They pay debts when they get
the salary. They say that they just want to be a trustworthy person, and also
depend on the store and the travelling salesman.For example the recent rise of
the price of fuel in Kenya most poor people are the one who suffered most.
10.LACK OF ACCESS TO STATE FACILITIES
Most poor people usually live in the rural areas and the government expenditure
pattern is concentrated in favor of urban sectors or to the rich. Therefore, the
rural people cannot enjoy the benefits from the facilities provided by the
government.For example those people who live in rural areas they can't access all
the services provided by the government due to corruption or lack of
infrastructure.
11.ACCESS TO EMPLOYMENT AND LIVELIHOOD

Poor people do not have access to the means of production. They are also an
uneducated labor and unskilled. Because it does not have access to the means of
production, uneducated and unskilled, so not many jobs that can be entered by
the poor. In the agricultural sector, poor people only have access to employment
as a laborer.Formal sector employment prospects require certain qualifications
such as higher education, mastery of information technology and communication,
the mastery of a foreign language, and other skills. With such requirements,
access to them is closed. They can only enter the formal sector jobs a factory
worker.For example most poor people are employed as watchmen which does
not pay well.
CAUSES OF POVERTY
1.HIGH GROWTH RATE OF POPULATION AND LOW ECONOMIC GROWTH
In countries where the growth rate of population is very high as compared to the
economic growth .This fails to bring about the required improvement in the living
standard of the people.For example third world countries have high population
growth rate compared to developed countries this makes them more poor.
2. UNEMPLOYMENT
In third world countries and developing countries , there is little development of

employment providing sectors. This in turn causes fewer employment
opportunities hence causing poverty.For example in Kenya very few people are
employed hence most people live in poverty.
3. INTERNATIONAL SANCTIONS
Many nations were affected by international sanctions due to the acts of their
governments.
Whenthesesanctionsarelevied,thesecountriesareexemptfrombenefitsofforeigninv
estmentsandimports.Thenthepeopleinthosecountrieshadtosufferfromhungerande
conomicproblems.
. For example Countries like North Korea, Iraq, Russia suffered from international
sanctions or economically advanced countries like United States, European Union,
Japan, etc.
4.LACK OF PLANNING
This is also one of the prominent cause of poverty. Lack of financial planning for
future or old age also leads to poverty. Many old age people suffer from poverty
due to lack of regular income or savings at that period. Apart from physical
weakness, poverty hurts them a lot. They cannot acquire nutritious food,
medicine and also support to ease the stress of old age. So we can notice many
old age people trying to get some monetary help. Nowadays it is quite easy to
avoid such situations by opting for old age pension plans, making sufficient
savings, etc.For example when one uses his pocket money on playing video games
without planning what to eat.
5.LOW INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT
The industry plays a key role in providing employment for mass people, but this
development in developing countriesis low due to lack of capital, infrastructure,
modern technology and appropriate industry policy.
This in turn leads to few employment opportunities hence causing poverty.For
example mumias sugar company was closed this shows the slow development of
industries.
6. POOR EDUCATION
Not every person without an education is living in extreme poverty. But most of
the extremely poor don’t have an education. And why is that? There’s a lot
of barriers stopping children from going to school. Many families can’t afford to
send their children to school and need them to work. Education is often referred
to as the great equalizer, and that’s because education can open the door to jobs
and other resources and skills that a family needs to not just survive, but
thrive.And, with even more education, world poverty could be cut in half. For
exampl the pokot don't see going to school as a big issue hence the are still poor.
7. SOCIO-CULTURAL FACTORS
Some people live in order to fulfill socio-obligations and their traditional religious
ceremonies. Some of the obligations say that one should spend extravagantly.e.g
the luo believe for one to be a real luo you must live a luxurios life this makes
them more vulnerable to poverty due to heavy spending.
8. OLD TECHNOLOGY
Old technology is also one of the causes of growing poverty the world. The
manufacturing industry is still employing the old technology and also the
agricultural sector this in turn causes low production. The low production causes
low income earned from produced this finally will cause poverty.For example the
methods used for agriculture in Kenya are the old ones lowering production like
kissii still use jembe for digging.
9. REGIONAL DISPARITY
The extent of poverty is also different is also different in each region because of
diversified geographical conditions. The life pattern in mountains and hills are
more difficult than in the fairly flat land. This is because of infrastructurefacilities,
this may make it hard to transport products hence increasing levels of poverty.For
example people who live in mandera have less accessibility to the resources given
by the government and also face hostile climatic conditions.
10. UNDERUTILIZATION OF RESOURCES
In underdeveloped countries utilization of resources is still low even though this

countries may be rich in minerals e.g. water,forest,and minerals but due to lack of
resources it may cause to lead to poverty. For example Kenya has a lot of
minerals but due to unavailability of modern technology and resources it is not
able to utilize them.
11.INADEQUATE SOCIO-ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE
The social-economic infrastructures such as transport,

communication,communication,health,education,safe drinking water and energy
are inadequate in rural areas. This services not only determines the starndard of
living of people but also influnces the income earning capacity of individuals. A
lack of infrastructure from roads, bridges, and wells to cables for light, cell
phones, and internet can isolate communities living in rural areas. Living “off the
grid” means the inability to go to school, work, or market to buy and sell goods.
Traveling farther distances to access basic services not only takes time, it costs
money, keeping families in poverty.For example people in mandera have
underdeveloped infrastructure this hinders them from selling their products
hence causing poverty.
12CLIMATE CHANGE
As it is, climate events like drought, flooding, and severe storms

disproportionately impact communities already living in poverty. Why? Because
many of the world’s poorest populations rely on farming or hunting and gathering
to eat and earn a living. They often have only just enough food and assets to last
through the next season, and not enough reserves to fall back on in the event of a
poor harvest. So when natural disasters (including the widespread droughts
caused by El Niño) leave millions of people without food, it pushes them further
into poverty, and can make recovery even more difficult For example the dry
season that came to Kenya caused food shortage and also the flooding that
occurred most recently.
REFERENCES
John,J.&Ken,P.(2005).sociology.Harlow:Pearson education publishers.
Robin,C.&Paul,K.(2000).Global sociology.New York:Palgrave Macmillan.
Martin,H.&Peter,L.(2004).Sociology themes andperspectives.London:Harper

Collins publishers.
EFFECT OF ETHNICITY IN AFRICA.

Poverty
Poverty is more contributed by negative ethnicity. Majority of Kenyans live below poverty lines.
Due to rivals and violence which arise as a result of ethnicity, some people lose their property
after fleeing from their homesteads to other places due to burning. This leads topoverty since
they have lost all their belongings. Poverty may also be brought by low wages. The chances of
paid below the living wages vary by ethnicity and gender.
Example:
Over a third of Pakistan men and over half of Bangladeshi men are paid below the living wage.
Political instability
Many scholars have identified ethnicity as a major cause of political instability. Ethnicity has
been used in many parts of the Africa continents in terms of mobilization by political failures for
seeking economics power. When a politician fails he or she will rash to his tribe claiming that
they are being finished and hence this cause conflict.
Example:
This happened in Nigeria Biafra civil in 1967.
Civil conflicts
Many wars and conflicts arise over ethnic or religious difference. Differences within a nation
leads to civil war. This usually happens since one group believes it is discriminated against
another group. Conflict may also arise due to borrowing of culture.
Example:
Malaysia and Singapore have great religious and ethnic diversity but avoided internal conflict
because they have distributed economic and political power among various groups.
Corruption
Ethnicity is one of the major cause of corruption. Different ethnicities will tend to favor groups
which they are related. These people will get favor while others do not get any favor. This is
rampant when one ethnic group is superior to the other.
Example:
Favors are now being given depending on the tribes. Job vacancies and medication is a good
example of how corruption is being practiced.
Discrimination
This is the act of treating one ethnic groupunequally. Discrimination may be positive where
special advantages are provided to certain ethnic group.it can also be negative where obstacles
in front particular categories of people are placed.
Example:
In high income industrial societies, bycontrast, cultural norms elevate the individual over the
group, so that achievement rather than ascription guides our code of fairness.
Migration and refugees

Through wars conflicts and disasters which arise as a result of ethnic violence, people are
compelled to leave their homes. Sometimes this leads to refugees’ settlement and sometimes
long journeys to find new home. This migration may positively or negatively affect people.
Some people may settle in places where they suffer others may get benefit from those places.
Example:
Sudan has a population of 38 million and is the largest country in Africa. The majority of its
population are Arabs Muslims. Over 50% and are the North by contrast groups in the south.
Tribal clashes
Tribal clashes in Kenya are the result of political manipulation of long simmering ethnic tensions
over land and power. TribalClashes is most encouraged by national political leaders and rival
groups fight over land.
Example:
In April 1992, seventy-six people mostly kikuyus were killed in several days of attacks in
Olenguruone.
Interference with Agriculture

When ethnic violence arises, some of people are forced to settle in places which doesn’t have
fertile soil to support agriculture and farming. Agriculture is disrupted here since people have to
abandon their previous land which they used for cultivation and farming. Disruption of
agriculture led to decline in agricultural production and income which eventually leads to food
shortage and starvation.
Example:
Ethnic violence which arise in 1992 resulted to hunger and starvation to people living in the Rift
Valley Province.
Disruption of Trade
Due to Agriculture and farming, there is this increased need for trade. Ethnic communities in
the regions where crops are cultivated exchange them with other ethnic communities in trading
centers. When ethnic violence erupts, some of the traders are forced to settle to areas which
has poor markets and some of trading centers are closed. This now affects trade and its
development.
Example:
Ethnic violence which arose in 2007 in Molo region drove people away to live in towns, learning
their land follow. Due to lack of farming, the trade was interfered with.
Deaths
Due to negative ethnicity and arose of ethnic violence there is death resulting from injuries that
warning communities sustained during attacks. Many people lose family members, relatives
and friends. These deaths are majorly caused by citizens who attacks other citizens based on
ethnic communities.
Example:
The 2007 violence led to many people losing their lives, others lost their family members,
friends and some were left orphans.
Disruption of education
As a result of negative ethnicity or ethnic violence many children are forced to drop out of the
schools. Children from displaced families drop out of schools because they can’t access their
schools, Furth more, many schools are closed as the attacker’sraids schools in session, burn and
loot school resources.
Example:
National council of churches of Kenya established that at least 55 primary schools in Molo failed
to reopen after eruption of violence in 1992.
Unemployment
Geographical dispersion may lead to unemployment. Blacks are more likely to live in
economically depressed areas than whites. This leads to unemployment to blacks compared to
white’s blacks tend to live in areas with worse economic prospects while whites tend to
congregate in areas with plentiful opportunities. This tends to blacks facing a lot of
unemployment than white
Example:
Hispanics relatively face high unemployment rate compared to Asians.
Borrowing of culture
This is the process by which minorities gradually adopt patterns of the dominant culture.
Interactions between different ethnic groups may lead to one changing modes of
Dress, values, religions, language or friends.
Example:
In the UK, while Afro-Caribbean and Asians cultures may be strong, they have also taken on
many key features of British society.
Drug and drug abuse
Drug and drug abuse is one of the commonly among behavior in youths. This is contributed by
negative ethnicity. When the ethnicity violence arises, some of the youths drop out of the
schools due to displacement from them arises. These youths settle in places where they are
idle, jobless and they have no parents to control and guide them. They thus engage themselves
in behaviors like smoking and abusing other drugs.
Example:
Ethnic violence which arose in 2007, some of the children engaged themselves in drug abuse.
Increased crime rate

Ethnic violence is a major cause crime in Africa .it affects both people living in urban and rural
areas. During the post-election violence there was increased number of orphans as deaths and
separation of family member’s. Those orphans engaged violence crime. They resorted to crime
as a source of income for survival. Other forms of crime also emerge following ethnic conflicts
and violence with girls and women. The rate of rape increased due to youth gangs found gals
and women during insecurity resulting from violence.
Example:
Ethnic violence which arose in 2007 in Molo region made some of children to drop out of the
school and thus they ended engaging themselves in crimes like robbery and rape.
Promotion peace
The world is becoming more interconnected and ethnic groups are facing one another more
often. In order to ensure peace, nations must learn how to cultivate societies of civic trust
across ethnic lines. Political institutions best explain the occurrence of ethnic peace.
Example:
Free press, independent legislatures and viable opposition parties provide peaceful ways to
resolve competitions between ethnic groups hence promoting peace.
Economic development
Long time ago, African economies went down and it underformance termed ethnicity as one of
its contributing factor. But today Africa states are now among the fastest growing nations,
indicating that the adverse effects of divided ethnicities on the development of economy is
incomplete. More international connections promote trade and growth through various
channels this trade leads to economic development.
Example:
Economic community of West Africa states (ECOWAS) since the mid 1990’s. ECOWAS is a
regional customs union that allows trade in locally produced agricultural products to largely
free of allows trade in locally produced agricultural products to largely free of trade restrictions.
Communication
Ethnicity leads to communication. People do business together and this is facilitated by
communication. The formation of other languages is as a result of passing information from one
person to other in a group. People are united since what is communicated is being understood.
Example:
The existence of many language groups in modern societies. Communication has been
enhanced since these people use common language to pass information especially during
trade.
Intermarriage
Ethnicity brings together the common characteristics and makes people think that they belong
to common origin. The language they are able to be understood by the group involved and thus
people are able to share stories together. The ability to interact and use same language brings
about the issue of relationships and courtship hence resulting to intermarriage.
Example:
The settlement of a certain ethnic group in an area where the other ethnic group understands
the culture of the other and language may lead to intermarriage.
Immorality
The cases of immorality results from youths. Ethnicity leads to emergence of small groups of
people who indeed come together and come up with their own language that every member in
a group can understand.in the case where these groups interact frequently and closely involve
themselves together may result to cases of immorality like adultery, fornication, prostitution
and incest.
Example:
In the year 2007, the violence which arose made some of people to settle in areas which were
lonely and insecure. Due to this lonely interaction with their peers this resulted to issues of
immorality especially prostitution.
Security
Ethnicity enhances security. People are able to understand the languages used and thus the
secrets of the community are well known by each member of the community. This brings in
unity amongst people and every member of a community is devoted to protect the community
by keeping their secrets within the community.
Example:
In traditional African societies each community had its warriors who protected the member in
the community. These warriors could also fight during wars and enhance ensuring that the
security was tight.
REFRENCES
Richard, T.S. (2006).Sociology a brief introduction. India: Tata McGraw-Hill
Judson, R.L. (2000).Sociology concepts and characteristics.USA: Eve Howard publishers
Ian, M. (1998).Sociology making sense of society. Harlow: Pearson Education limited
Steve, T. (1999).Sociology issues and debates. New York: Macmillan press limited
WEEK 10
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Social institutions: family; types, function, marriage, divorce and violence, gender, education its
function
MEANING AND FUNCTIONS OF FAMILY
NUCLEAR FAMILY
A nuclear family ,elementary or conjugal family is a family group consisting of two parents and
their children .it is contrast to single parent family.it is in contrast to a single parent family ,to
the larger extended family, and to a family with more than two parents.nuclear families typically
center on a married couple;some definition of nuclear family include only the blood childen
while others also include stepchildren.
The concept that defines a nuclear family is central to stability in modern society that has been
promoted by familialists who are social conservatives
EXAMPLE
A family that is made up of the father the mother and the children and probably the step children
for example mbogori has 12 children a wife and two step children
EXTENDED FAMILY
An extended family is a family that extends beyond the nuclear family, consisting of parents like
father, mother, and their children, aunts, uncles, and cousins, all living nearby or in the same
household. An example is a married couple that lives with either the husband or the wife's
parents. The family changes from immediate household to extended household some
circumstances, the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the
immediate family. These families include, in one household, near relatives in addition to an
immediate family. An example would be an elderly parent who moves in with his or her children
due to old age. In modern Western cultures dominated by immediate family constructs, the term
has come to be used generically to refer to grandparents, uncles, aunts, and cousins, whether they
live together within the same household or not.In a stem family, a type of extended family, first
presented by Frédéric Le Play, parents will live with one child and his or her spouse, as well as
the children of both, while other children will leave the house or remain in it unmarried .In an
extended family, parents and their children's families may often live under a roof. This type of
joint family often includes multiple generations in the family. From culture to culture, the
variance of the term may have different meanings.
Example
For instance, in India, the family is a patriarchal society, with the sons' families often staying in
the same house. In the joint family, the workload is shared among the members. The patriarch of
the family (often the oldest male member) is the head of the household. Grandparents are usually
involved in the raising process of the children along with guidance and education. Like any
family unit the success and structure are dependent on the personalities of the individual.
FUNCTIONS
STABLE SEXUAL SASTIFACTION
This is the most important essential function of family. Family has been performing this
functions since the inceptions of human civilization. It is a well known fact that sex urge is the
most important and powerful instinct and natural urge of human being. It is the primary duty of
family to satisfy the sexual urge of its members in a stable and desirable way.Through the
mechanism of marriage family regulate the sexual behavior of it’s members. Because satisfaction
of sex instinct brings the desire for life long partnerThrough the mechanism of marriage family
regulate the sexual behavior of it’s members. Because satisfaction of sex instinct brings the
desire for life long partnership of husband and wife. Satisfaction of this sex needs in a desirable
way helps in the normal development of personality. Ancient Hindu Philosopher Manu and
Vatsayan opines that satisfaction of sex needs is the primary objective of family. If it is
suppressed it creates personality improvement of husband and wife. Example Satisfaction of this
sex needs in a desirable way helps in the normal development of personality.. Because
satisfaction of sex instinct brings the desire for life long partnership of husband and wife.
Satisfaction of this sex needs in a desirable way helps in the normal development of personality.
Necessary arrangement of stable satisfaction of sexual urge resulted in procreation. Family
provides the legitimate basis for production of children. It institutionalizes the process of
procreation. By performing this function of procreation family contributes to the continuity of
family and ultimately human race. Hence perpetuation of human race or society is the most
important function of family. Not only the production of children but also child rearing is another
important function of family. Family is the only place where the function of child rearing is
better performed. Through the mechanism of marriage family regulate the sexual behavior of it’s
members. provides food, shelter, affection, protection and security to all its members. It plays a
vital role in the process of socialization of child. It provides healthy atmosphere in which the
personality of the child develops properly. Family takes care of the child at the time of need.
Hence it is rightly remarked that family is an institution par excellence for the procreation and
rearing of perform another important function of providing a home for common living to all.
EXAMPLE. A home that children are born and brought up. Even if children are born in
hospitals in modern time still they are taken care of and properly nourished in a home only.
Because family and a home have no substitute. In a home all the members of family live together
and a child is brought up under the strict vigilance of all it’s members. All the members need a
home to live happily with comfort, peace and protection. A home provides emotional and
psychological support to all it’s members. Man’s necessity of love and human response got
fulfilled here. Family provides recreation to it’s members. In a home family performs the role of
a modern club. Man got peace by living in a home.
Socialization
It is another important essential function of family. It is said man is not born human but made
human. New born human baby became human being after they are socialized. Family plays an
important role in the socialization process. It is one of the primary agents of socialization. Living
in a family human baby learns norms, values, morals and ideals of society. He learns culture and
acquires character through the process of socialization. His personality develops in the course of
his living in family. From family he learns what is right and wrong and what is good or bad.
Through socialization he became a social man and acquires good character.
Example
Famous Sociologist Maclver has divided functions into essential and non-essential functions.
Under non-essential or secondary functions he includes economic, religious, educational, health
and recreational functions. Along with the essential functions family also performs these non-
essential functions. These functions are non-essential or secondary in the sense that these are also
performed simultaneously by other social institutions in family. These functions are as follows:
Economic functions.
Since ancient times family has been performing several economic functions. It is an important
economic unit. In ancient time family was both a production and consumption unit. It used to
fulfill almost all the economic needs of it’s members such as food, clothing, housing etc. In the
then days family was self- sufficient. But now a days almost all the economic functions of family
is performed by other agencies and family only remain as a consumption unit. It do not produce
anything. All the members of family now working outside the home. Family still performing
some economic functions of purchasing, protecting and maintaining property. It also equally
distribute property among it’s members.
Educational functions.
Family performs many educational functions for it’s members. As an primary educational
institution family used to teach letters, knowledge, skill and trade secret to all it’s members. It
looks after the primary education of it’s members and moulds their career and character. Mother
act as the first and best teacher of a child. Besides he learns all sorts of informal education such
as discipline, obedience, manners etc. from family. Of course at present many of the educational
functions of family are taken over by school, college and universities sill family continues to
play an important role in providing the first lessons and primary education to its members.
Example
It is the role of the parent to ensure that the children get good education their fees is catered for
and their school needs are also addresed . they should also have a good link with the teachers to
know how well their children are doing in school.
Religious functions.
Family is the centre of all religious activities. All the family members offer their prayers together
and observe different religious rites, rituals and practices jointly. All the members believe in a
particular religion and observe religious ceremonies at home. Children learn different religious
values from their parents. Living in a spiritual atmosphere spirituality develops among the
children. Family transmits religious beliefs and practices from one generation to another. But at
present family became more secular in their outlook. Common family worship became very rare
and absolute. Still family continues to play an important role in shaping religious attitude of its
members.
EXAMPLE
It is the duty of the parent to ensure that the children are spiritually nourished,they should teach
them a culture of praying observing the Sabbath and respecting and honoring God in everything
they do.
Health related functions.
Family as a primary social group performs several health related functions for its members. It
look after the health and vigor of its members. It takes care of the sick old and aged persons of
the family. By providing necessary nutritive food to its members family takes care of the health
of all.Of course modern family delegates some of its health related functions to hospital. The
child is born today in a hospital or in a clinic and taken care of by nurses.The role of the family
physician is to ensure that every one in the family is in good health.whatever type of family there
is it should be ultimate to ensure that everybody in the family lives in good health.
Example
Aassume a child falls sick in themiddle of thenight it is upon the parent of the child to ensure the
child get proper medical attention.
RECREATIONAL FUNCTIONS
Family-performs several recreational functions for it’s members by entertaining them in various
ways. In ancient period family was the only centre of recreation. All the members together
organize family feasts, visit the family relations, organize family picnics etc.Family organize
different festivals which is another source of recreation. The relationship between grandparents
and grand children is another source of entertainment. After day’s work all the members used” to
assemble and exchange their view. Of course modern club replaces many recreational functions
of family. But at the same time it is said that present family acts as a modern club without its evil
effects.
Example
When a family plans to go out for a holiday either visit a national park,a picnic,or to the coast for
a weekend or a holiday.
Social functions.
Family performs a number of social functions. It teaches about social customs, mores, traditions,
norms, etiquette to the coming generations. Family exercises social control over its members and
bring them into conformity with accepted standards. Senior members of family directly control
the behavior of children and thereby they became a good citizen.Family in primitive and simple
societies formed the basic unit of social organization. However, in advanced societies, the
position is not the same. Here family does not exactly represent the basic organizational unit of
the society but its role in the determination of the texture and stability of social organization has
not at all diminished. On the other hand family structures or its internal relationships may affect
both state and religiousThe reproductive functions of the family help the human species to
survive. Family feeds amid protects the child and teaches him various cultural aids. In all
societies, primitive or modern, simple or complex, human sex urge requires established and
socially recognized channels of satisfaction. Family enables adults of both sexes to maintain a
socially approved sexual relationship.
EXAMPLE
Socialization of human personality is another important function of family. The child’s first
human relationships are with the immediate members of his family. Here he experiences ideal
love, authority, direction, protection, setting of example and ideals. According to Gillin and
Gillin, Habits form ‘according to the treatment they give him and according to the reactions
determined by his inherited capacity. As he grows older, initiation of parental actions and
exposures to their suggestion leads him to form habits which affect his social life more
profoundly than he will recognize until many years after, if at all
Economic functions.
The economic functions of a family are important for society. Family units make up the
institutions that run society. Without family, a weak economic unit would be left with no
stability or dependancy. The family is important so that there are available members to produce
and distribute goods and services. With working parents, the children can grow up to one day
take their place. Without families in society, there would not be a continuing population to
sustain this.
Families are also important for goods and services. Most of production is geared towards
families, for they need to be provided with everything. Families need food, clothes, a house,
vehicles, toys, cleaning supplies, raw materials, fuel, furniture, kitchen supplies, paraphernalia,
and all sorts of equipment from tools to camping supplies. The list continues on and on. Those
who work in the lumber industry eventually produce the wood needed to build houses. Those
who work in the vehicle industry provide the necessary transportation for families, and for
children of the families. If we had no families, our population would decline, meaning that the
demand for products would steadily decrease. Without consumers, the economy is useless;
therefore, families are extremely important for the economy.
When the father or mother of a family works, they provide the family with the monetary
needs. Families need money to purchase the necessary products and services that they are in need
of. Indirectly, the parents also provide products and services for other families, which also helps
support them. If one has a family, money is necessary to support it.
example
Children are in need of many products and services. From the first moments of life, they are in
need of a bed, blankets, diapers, milk, bottles, pacifiers, and much more. Parents must then be
prepared to provide them with these needs. As they grow older, they are need of more clothes,
different foods, health products, toys, and education. This continues on until the child is
eventually grown up to move out of the house and provide for their own monetary needs. This
cycle continues as this child may have a family of their own and provide them with their
monetary needs, and so on. Through this, we again see how important the family is to the
economy, and how important the economy is to the family.
With the family as the basic foundation of society's economic institutions, we see how
important it is that they run smoothly, supporting a strong work ethic, good values, and
motivation.
Psychological functions.
The family is most known for its providing of the psychological needs of its members. One of
the most important is love and affective nurturance. This is seen in parent-child relationships
which are extremely important for children to be able to be happy and successful in life.
Affection is the fulfillment of Maslow's love and belonging need. This sentiment makes an
individual feel wanted in the world, which is importnat for them to reach self-actualization, the
highest attainable need of an individual. With proper love and affection being shown, a friendly
personality is created where individuals love, respect, and appreciate other members of their
family as well as the whole of society. When love is not shown in a positive way, individuals
may devlop an unstable personality and perhaps criminal inclinations. Therefore, it is crucial that
a family provides love for all of their members.
A family also provides security, both physically and psychologically. A family gives its
members confidence to face outside pressures, and if needed, will shelter against these pressures.
A person will feel at home and secure when they are with their family becuase they know the
individuals they are interacting with, and know that they willl show them unconditional love and
respect just becuase they are family. This emotionally safe environment gives the individuals the
resect and reason they need to get through life feeling safe and secure with themselves and with
others. Families are there to protect each other and to support one another.
example
psychological function is to allow its members to change and grow. Elvira (2009) explains that
"A functional family lets people define themselves. Individual differeces are appreceiated even
celebrated. It also lets the kids become independent when it's appropriate and come back to the
safety of the family when they need nurturing." This means that a family allows for the maturing
and positive growing of its individuals, and respects this. A reasonable rate of change and growth
is expected in a family as they become older and expected to take on more responsibilities and be
able to use their own intellect and judgement. This type of growth and change also allows for a
resilient environment where members can bounce back from negative situations and help each
other cope with any changes that could have been negative or detrimental.
Cultral functions.
Culture is defined as a way of life based on ideas, beliefs, customs and practices. A landmark of
Hinduism is its rich culture of traditions, food, dress, festivals, religion etc. How vibrant a culture
is depends on the intensity of its practice. So how vibrant is Hinduism in our homes? Do we
light deeya, offer jal, say mantras, use the greeting “sitaram” on a daily basis? Do our children
know how to respond correctly when asked why their gods have many hands, wear snakes as
garlands, or have a monkey or elephant face?
A society cannot exist without culture. Culture gives society its identity. Society has established
that the family is responsible for teaching cultural practices to its members. Therefore patriarchs
and matriarchs of hindu homes have a crucial role to play in this regard. Authentic foods must be
cooked, including teaching the art of cooking (how to ‘chonkay a good dhal’), traditional clothes
must be worn, festivals must be observed and young family members must be exposed to the art
forms of dance, music etc. Children are the biggest mimics of all time. Whatever the adults
practise, children will follow.
Practice of our Hindu culture affords us so many merits. The gaiety and splendour of Phagwa fill
us with fun times; the sanctity of Divali brings experiences of spirituality and unity, Raksha
Bandhan enhances bonding and the close-knit relationship we traditionally share with
grandparents, other elders and the family pundit provides us with on the spot mentors,
counsellors and advisors. More importantly, practice of our culture provides us with an identity
of who we are. According to psychologist Abraham Maslow, identity fulfils our psychological
and social need of having a sense of belonging, self-worth and good self esteem, all necessary
tools for healthy growth and development. This sense of identity may provide good defence
mechanisms for our children against the threat of assimilation into other cultures.
We raise our hands in unity and proclaim “hum hindu hain” when called upon to do so by our
pundits.But our pride must go way beyond words. We must become publicly proud as the Hare
Krishna devotees (white in ethnicity), who will walk through crowded modern, western Florida
South Beach dressed in dhoti and sari, chanting God’s name and dancing to the beat of dholak
and the chimes of manjeera. We must wear our kurta as proudly as Brad Pitt did on his visit to
India. We should publicly glorify our culture like the non-hindu yoga instructors who willingly
use the terms vinyasa, asanas and who at the end of their demonstration will clasp their hands,
bow and say Namaste.
Hindu families can ensure the preservation of their culture by simply passing on the baton of
dharma to their children. They can do so by transmitting the traditions, way of life, customs and
beliefs from one generation to another to continue the links with our forefathers and so keep our
cultural heritage alive.
Respect.
"Honor," says the commandment, "your father and mother." This respect has respect to your
feelings, your words, and your actions. It consists in part of an inward consciousness of their
superiority, and an endeavor to cherish a reverential frame of mind towards them, as placed by
God over you. There must be high thoughts of their superiority, both natural and instituted, and a
submission of the heart to their authority, in a way of sincere and profound respect. Even your
love must be that which is exercised and expressed towards a superior. If there be no respect of
the heart, it cannot be expected in the conduct. In all virtue, whether it be that higher kind which
has respect to God, or that secondary kind, which relates to our fellow creatures, we must have a
right state of heart; for without this, virtue does not exist.
Your words should correspond with the reverential feelings of the heart. When speaking to them,
your address, both in language and in tones, should be modest, submissive, and respectful; not
loud, boisterous, impertinent, or even familiar—for they are not your equals, but your superiors.
If at any time you differ from them in opinion, your views should be expressed, not with the
flippancy and pertinaciousness of disputants, but with the meek inquisitiveness of pupils. Should
they reprove you more sharply than you think is due, you must lay your hand upon your mouth,
and neither answer them back, nor show resentment. Your respect for them should be so great, as
to impose a considerable restraint upon your speech in their company; for much is due to the
presence of a parent.
It is exceedingly offensive to hear a pert, clamorous, talkative young person, unchecked by the
countenance of a father or mother, and engaging much of the conversation of a party to himself.
Young people should always be modest and retiring in company, but more especially when their
parents are there. You should also be careful about the manner of speaking of them to others.
You should never talk of their faults, for this is like Ham's uncovering the nakedness of his
father. You must not speak of them in a jocose or familiar manner, nor say anything that would
lead others to think lightly, or to suppose that you thought lightly of them. If they are attacked in
their reputation, you are with promptitude and firmness, though with meekness, to defend them,
so far as truth will allow; and even if the charge be true, to make all the excuses that veracity will
permit, and protest against the cruelty of degrading your parents in your presence.
Respect should extend to all your behavior towards your parents. In all your conduct towards
them, give them the greatest honor; let it be observed by others that you pay them all possible
respect, and let it also be seen by themselves, when there is no spectator near. Your conduct
should always be under restraint, when they are within sight; not the restraint of dread, but of
esteem. How would you act if the king were in the room? Would you be as free, as familiar, as
noisy, as before he had entered? I am of opinion, that parents let down their dignity, and
undermine their authority, by allowing the same crude and boisterous behavior in their presence,
as in their absence. This should not be. When reason is expanding in children, they should be
made to understand and feel the truth of what I have already affirmed, that there is an outward
respect due to the very presence of a parent. All crude and noisy rushing in and out of a father or
mother's company is improper. It is the etiquette of our court, that no one shall enter the royal
presence, when the king is upon his throne, without honor; nor in retiring, turn his back upon the
throne. I do not ask for the same formalities in families, but I ask for the principle from which it
arises—a respectful deference for authority.
Obedience.
"Children obey your parents," says the apostle in his epistle to the Colossians. This is one of the
most obvious dictates of nature; even the irrational creatures are obedient by instinct, and follow
the signs of the parent animal, or bird, or reptile. Perhaps there is no duty more generally
acknowledged than this. Your obedience should begin early—the younger you are, the more you
need a guide and a ruler.
Obedience should be universal—"Children obey your parents," said the apostle, "in all things."
The only exception to this, is when their commands are, in the letter or spirit of them, opposed to
the commands of God. In this case, as well as in every other, we must obey God, rather than
man. But even here your refusal to comply with the sinful injunction of a parent, must be uttered
in a meek and respectful manner, so that it shall be manifest you are actuated by pure,
conscientious motives, and not by a mere rebellious resistance of parental authority. Your
obedience should have no other exception than that which is made by conscience.
Your personal inclinations and tastes are out of the question—both must be crossed, opposed,
and set aside, when opposed to parental authority.
Obedience should be prompt. As soon as the command is uttered, it should be complied with. It
is a disgrace to any child that it should be necessary for a father or a mother to repeat a
command. You should even anticipate, if possible their injunctions, and not wait until their will
is announced in words. A tardy obedience loses all its glory.Obedience should be cheerful. A
reluctant virtue is no virtue at all. Constrained and unwilling obedience, is rebellion in principle;
it is vice clothed in the garment of goodness. God loves a cheerful giver, and so does man. A
child retiring from a parent's presence, muttering, sullen, and murmuring, is one of the ugliest
spectacles in creation—of what value is anything he does, in such a temper as this
Obedience should be self-denying. You must give up your own wills, and sacrifice your own
desires, and perform the things that are difficult, as well as those that are easy. When a soldier
receives a command, although he may be at home in comfort, and he is required at once to go
into the field of danger, he hesitates not, he considers he has no option. A child has no more
room for the gratification of self-will than the soldier has—he must obey.
example
Obedience should be uniform. Filial obedience is generally rendered without much difficulty
when the parents are present, but not always with the same when they are absent. Young people,
you should despise the baseness, and abhor the wickedness, of consulting the wishes, and
obeying the correction of your parents, only when they are there to witness your conduct. Such
hypocrisy is detestable. Act upon nobler principles. Let it be enough for you to know what is the
will of a parent, to ensure obedience, even though oceans rolled between you and your father.
Carry this injunction with you everywhere; let the voice of conscience be to you, instead of his
voice, and the consciousness that God sees you be enough to ensure your immediate compliance.
How sublimely simple and striking was the reply of the child, who upon being pressed in
company to take something which his absent parents had forbidden him to touch; and who, upon
being reminded that they were not there to witness him, replied, "very true, but God and my
conscience are here." Be it your determination, to imitate this beautiful example of filial piety,
and obey in all things even your absent parents.
Balter,m.(2008).prehestoric family values:Science now daily news.

Miriam,m.(1963).Sex roles learning in nuclear family:child development.
James,v.(2006).Family life:Greenwood.
CAUSES OF DIVORCE.
Lack of communication skills.
1.
The easiest technique to build trust in marriages is through open and sincere communication
skills. If spouses cannot communicate effectively, then it will not be possible to solve marriage
problems. Communication involves talking about the lows in a marriage and coming together to
get a solution to their problems. Couples who are unable to communicate about the good and
bad in the marriage feel insecure in the marriage. Poor or no communication leads to drifting
apart which also impacts the children’s’ future negatively since there was no good example set
for them.
Example: When one member of the marriage does not feel good about the partner’s behaviour
and instead of talking to them about it, they keep quiet. This will lead to one feeling like they are
not comfortable in the marriage.
2. Physical and mental abuse.
Physical abuse and mental abuse go simultaneously. This is a serious problem, which makes it
necessary for the victim to end the marriage. In fact, 34% of the divorces take place due to
verbal, physical, or emotional abuse. The scars are visible in physical abuse, but the marks left
by verbal and emotional torture are invisible yet agonizing. In some cases, both the husband and
wife could be abusive, hurling expletives, and hitting each other. These makes the couples feel
more hatred than love towards each other which eventually ends as a divorce.
Example: Couples who are always fighting have more hate and dislike towards each other than
love.
Unrealistic expectations.
3.
Marital expectations hardly match the veracities of life inside marriage. Many people get into
marriage with huge expectations, expecting their spouse and marriage to live up to these
expectations. These expectations bring a lot of strain setting the marriage up for failure. It is
presumed that women who wear expensive gowns have large expectations of marriage. Problems
begin when the marriage does not meet the assumptions and expectations that they had. These
problems eventually lead to divorce if the couples cannot find a mature solution.
Example: A woman somewhere who thought that her husband will be perfect forever, will be
disappointed to know that he cannot always be as handsome and neat as he always was
when
she was dating him. Also, back then he would have been the perfect guy, all well-mannered or
characteristically orderly. A few months into marriage she could realize that he can also be
unorganized, in fact, more often than not. Alternatively, a woman’s husband might have wanted
her to maintain an hourglass figure even after having children, but she would have gained so
much weight he would be disappointed in her.
Infidelity.
4.
Infidelity is the act of being unfaithful to a spouse.
The feeling of betrayal and the pain that comes with it is unending. Some people decide to sort
things out while others decide that they cannot give their spouse a second chance. Others decide
to forgive their spouse and give them another chance but they are still disappointed as their
spouse keeps committing the same mistake over and over again. This makes one opt for divorce
and even abstain from future relationships for fear of being heartbroken and disappointed.
Example: You may have promised your spouse to be loyal to him forever and he may have
vowed the same to you. Down the years, these promises could get blurred. You or your husband
may have met somebody who generated interest in you or you thought he was giving you
something that you expected from your husband.
Money
5.
As they say, money is the source of all evil. It makes people forget where they come from and
where they are going to. Different values when it comes to spending money can cause a lot of
problems in marriage.
Example: Many married couples find issues in who has control over finances especially when
one partner is the bread winner and the other who does not work outside the house. The one who
works in the house always wants to manage the funds since they manage the household, which
means they know what is needed and when while the one who is the bread winner things it is
their right to manage the funds in the family since they are the ones who work for it. This brings
about conflict and mistrust making the partner who is not working opts for other source of cash.
This will make the other partner insecure eventually leading to divorce due to trust issues.
Lack of individual identity.

6.
An inter-reliant relationship is not healthy. Some people do not have their own interests and
make their partner’s interests their interests.

It gets worse when your husband and family do not
recognize the sacrifices you have made for them. That is when one will start trying to find
themselves and may end up giving up on the relationship in the process.
Example: You are a wife, a mother, a daughter-in-law, and more but the big question is, “Are
you YOU?” A decade after marriage, when you look back and see the traces of yourself getting
completely erased, you realize what you have lost in life.
Having different interests and priorities
7.
Having shared interests and exploring them together is essential for a successful marriage.
Couples should find common passions and find time and ways for experiencing them together. If
they do not do that, the couples find their marriage boring and they become distant, making them
to contemplate divorce.
Example: Your dreams and aspirations are different from his. You may believe in working hard
and making enough wealth to sit back and enjoy later in your life. He may want to take life as it
comes and live by the moment. You might think him to be too casual in life, and he might see
you as a person who takes life very seriously. Unless you draw an intersection somewhere, your
life could run parallel to his. This will make both of you to consider divorce.
Becoming lost in the roles

8.
When couple get children, most parents completely forget of their partners. From child birth to
teenage, all of the parent’s attention is directed to the child and after the child has grown, the
couple cannot remember why they got married in the first place since they no longer have
anything in common.
Children are of utmost importance to you. Anything or anybody comes only after your kids.
They demand every minute of your life when they are babies, as kids, they need your help in
education, teenage is the most delicate phase when your children need all your support. If you
are a working mom, then balancing your job and children will leave you with no time for your
spouse.
Example: The partners will start feeling like they don’t belong to each other, their level of
intimacy will go down and respect and commitment towards each other will gon down. This will
bring about disagreements, unfaithfulness, physical and domestic violence, drifting apart and
eventually divorce.
Family background
9.
In some marriages, one partner believes in saving while the other believes in spending. This
becomes hard to agree whether money should be spent or not and thus this will be a source of
constant disagreement. Money problems in marriages are by no means always because of lack of
money.
Example: Some people are not used to making money contributions and taking responsibilities
while their spouses believe in sharing responsibilities. This will make the end of every month to
be a time of disagreement. Due to the pressure, one partner or both gets into drug and alcohol
abuse. This eventually leads to domestic violence and the couples see divorce as the only
solution. Making it through both financial ups and downs can be really difficult for some
couples which make them opt for divorce.
Getting in marriage for the wrong reasons

10.
If you enter into the relationship, not because of love for each other but something else, then the
marriage will end once you meet your materialistic goal has been realised. If you get married to
him because he is hot, or if he has married you for your wealth, then the foundation is not strong
enough to stand the test of time.
Example: Some people get into married because of money while others get into marriage
because everyone is doing it (marrying or getting married). This brings about conflict when what
made one get married finishes or reduces and that is when that person will start regretting why
they got married in the first place. The person will start developing a negative attitude towards
his or her spouse and with that there will be both disrespect and dishonesty. This will bring about
cases of domestic violence and infidelity. When the victim cannot take it anymore, they will seek
divorce as a way to save themselves from destruction.
In conclusion, marriage is tough. It is hard to merge your life with someone else and face life
together no matter what it brings your way. It is my belief that divorce can be avoided by those
who know how to communicate efficiently, those who have realistic expectations. Healthy
marriages have couples who see difficulties in marriages as challenges to overcome rather than a
sign of failure.
CAUSES OF FAMILY VIOLENCE
Family violence is the use of violence, threats, intimidation to control or manipulate a family
member, partner or former partner.
Anyone can be affected by family violence, regardless of their social or economic status, or their
racial and cultural background though women are at greater risk.
1. Child abuse;
Research from surveys suggest a relationship between the experience of violence as a child and
subsequent victimisation as an adult. The IVAWS found that women who experienced abuse
during childhood were one and a half times more likely to experience violence in adulthood than
those who had not experienced abuse during childhood Data from the ABS Personal Safety
Survey 2005 indicate that both men and women who experienced child abuse under the age of 15
years were at greater risk of partner violence as adults (since the age of 15) than those who had
not experienced child abuse. Those who experienced physical abuse as children were more than
twice as likely to experience violence by a partner as those who had not experienced child
physical abuse. Victims of child sexual abuse were three times more likely to report violence by
a partner than those who had not experienced sexual abuse as children. An analysis of the ABS
1996 Women’s Safety Survey found that history of violent victimisation, whether as a child or as
an adult, predicts future victimisation.
Suspicion of infidelity
2.
Infidelity principally contributes to violence. Some men purportedly cheat on the wives with
their wives acquaintances and even house girls. This makes wives bitter and when chance
presents they are bartered with antagonism. Some men just run away from their responsibility
like paying school fees for their offspring and upkeep having spent money somewhere else. Out
of mistrust, a woman may become angry if he so much as speaks to another female.
Stress
3.
Stress may be increased when a person is living in a family situation, with increased pressures.
Social stresses, due to problems such as inadequate finances in a family may further augment
stress. Violence is not always caused by stress, but may be one way that some people respond to
stress. Families and couples in poverty may be more likely to experience domestic violence, due
to increased stress and conflicts about finances and other aspects. Some conjecture that poverty
may hinder a man's ability to live up to his idea of being successful, thus he fears losing honour
and respect. When a man is unable to economically support his wife, and maintain control his
family, he may turn to domestic violence as a technique of expressing masculinity.
4. Poverty and unemployment

Various studies have established that people in dreadful financial statuses are more likely to be
involved in domestic violence. For instance, a study that looked at welfare recipients in
Michigan found that 63% had experienced physical abuse and 52% had suffered severe physical
abuse. Half of homeless women and children report being victims of domestic violence. One
major cause of this trend is the fact that abuse victims in poverty often lack the means to escape
the situation. They may not have access to legal help or be able to afford their own housing.
Abusers often take steps to keep their victims in poverty as well. For example, an abuser may
sabotage a job opportunity for his or her victim in order to keep the victim dependent on the
abuser.
Traditional beliefs
5.
People with customary beliefs tend to think that they have the right to control their partner. They
also think women are inferior to men. Others may have learned this behavior from growing up in
a household where domestic violence was accepted as a normal part of being raised in their
family. That means that the abusers learnt violent behavior from their family, people in their
community and other cultural influences as they grew up. They may have seen violence often or
they may have been victims themselves.
6. Education
Survey research done by the World Bank shows that around the world education makes a huge
difference in rates of domestic violence. They found that each additional year of schooling was
associated with a 1% increase in a woman’s ability to ward off unwanted sexual advances.
Women with some secondary education lower their risk of domestic violence by 11% and
completing secondary education lowers the risk by 36%. The same trend exists in the United
States, possibly because women with more education are more likely to see themselves as equal
to their abusers and to have the means to secure their independence.
7. Alcohol and drug use;
Researchers fitted a logistic regression model to IVAWS data and found that the strongest risk
factors for current intimate partner physical violence were associated with the partners’
behaviour—drinking habits, levels of aggression and controlling behaviour
Alcohol is a significant risk factor for domestic violence, particularly in Indigenous
communities. A longitudinal analysis of alcohol outlet density found a relationship between
alcohol availability and domestic violence. Packaged liquor outlets that sell alcohol for off-
premise consumption were particularly implicated.
The ABS found that 49 per cent of women, who had experienced an assault in the preceding 12
months where the perpetrator was male, stated that alcohol or drugs had contributed to the most
recent incident. The NSW Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research found that 41 per cent of all
incidents of domestic assault reported to the police between 2001 and 2010 were alcohol related.
This percentage varied, however, from a low of 35 per cent in Sydney, to a high of 62 per cent in
Far Western NSW
At the most serious end of the spectrum, many intimate-partner homicides are alcohol related.
Between 2000 and 2006, 44 percent of intimate-partner homicides were alcohol related. The
overwhelming majority (87 per cent) of Indigenous intimate-partner homicides were alcohol
related.
Abusive childhood
8.
Some abusers may have grown up witnessing to domestic violence in their own homes. This
makes them to grow up thinking that it is the right way to go about their frustrations, fear and
troubles and when they get into a situation, they take it out on their families.
Some abusers acknowledge growing up having been abused as a child. Children who witness or
are the victims of violence may learn to believe that violence is a reasonable way to resolve
conflict between people. Boys who learn that women are not to be valued or respected and who
see violence directed against women are more likely to abuse women when they grow up. Girls
who witness domestic violence in their families of origin are more likely to be victimized by
their own husbands. Although women are most often the victim of domestic violence, the gender
roles can and are reversed sometimes.
9. Mental problems
A 1994 study found that 65% of women who were victims of severe physical abuse had a mental
illness. Likewise, abused women in the study were three times more likely to suffer mental
illness than women who were not abused. The illnesses studied included anxiety, depression,
alcoholism and drug dependence, antisocial personality disorder, and schizophrenia. It is not
exactly clear if mentally ill women tend to be abused, or if abused women develop mental
illness. Nonetheless, it appears likely the two unfortunate situations occur together.
Inferiority complex
10.
Abusers may feel the need to control their partner using physical and emotional violence for the
reason that they have low self-esteem, extreme resentment, difficulties in regulating anger and
other tough emotions, or when they feel inferior to the other partner in terms of educational and
socioeconomically background.
References
B Lumby, T Farrelly(2009) Family violence, help seeking and the close-knit Aboriginal
community. Sydney: Australian Domestic and Family Violence Clearinghouse
E Fish, M McKenzie , H MacDonald,(2009) Bad mothers and invisible fathers.

Seattle: Discussion paper, no. 7, Domestic Violence and Incest Resource Centre
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH GENDER INEQUALITY.
Gender refers to socially learnt behaviors attached to the sexes while sex refers to what makes
up the biological differences between males and females. These differences have however been
exploited to an extent where how a person is treated or perceived is based on his or her
gender. Gender has for many years been used as a criteria for distribution of important
economic and educational resources in most societies. Beliefs passed down from generation to
generation ,have helped in shaping the opinions of various people on which gender is
superior(male or female).This has resulted in gender inequality which in turn has led to the rise
of various problems. Some of these problems have been listed below;
1. Has led to the wrongful division of jobs within an occupation into "men’s work" and
"women’s work".
This has hindered people of one gender from being able to pursue careers that have
been dubbed to belong to the other gender. It also has created an unconducive working
environments for those who are already in jobs dubbed to be for the opposite gender.
While the women are denied senior roles in organizations, for leading has long since
been perceived as a man’s job. This has also discouraged many women from joining the
political field also. This is because some societies believe women cannot mix family work
and politics but fail to recognize that the women’s caring nature in the family is what
drives them into politics.
For example
male nurses and social workers have encountered stigmization for traditionally nursing
and social work has been a woman’s work. This is because these jobs are seen to require
a motherly approach which is definitely more evident in women.
2. Gender based violence.

Violent behavior is generally perceived to be a part of male behavior. Thus violent
aggression from husbands to their wives is seen as a normal thing in our societies. This
has led the society into allowing the husbands to exercise their 'authority' by beating up
their wives and other groups of males. Many women have suffered to the point of some
being maimed just because no one in the community will condone the violence or help
the woman.
For instance
some communities such as the meru the husbands were allowed to beat up their wives
as a form of 'disciplining' them. Any matter no matter how small could land a wife a
beating from her husband. The neighbors were not allowed to intervene for this was a
closed family matter that the husband as the head of the family is handling as per the
means provided by the community.
3. Impended economic growth.

Women are not given equal opportunities as their male counterparts in the job places.
Women working same jobs as men are underpaid, not given deserved promotions and
other restrictions that make the women less productive leading to the losses in general
productivity. Firms also might at times pick men over women for certain jobs although
both qualify. This is due to reasons such as inconveniences that might occur when they
get pregnant and require a maternity leave. This leaves women to be more dependent
and make less contributions to economic growth of their countries.
For example
As per a study done in japan-a country known for its historical discrimination of women,
japans GDP would increase by 15% if gender inequality is adjusted. Japan is a society
whose values over the years have shaped the women as housewives and the men as the
bread winners. Hence less women are making active contributions to the economic
growth of japan.
4. Has led to sex-selective abortion and abandonment.

In some societies there is a preference for male child birth over female child birth.
Female infants are under reported hence many female infants end up abandoned and
undocumented. These abandoned females end up mostly as sex workers just to get by.it
is a job they are forced to start at a very young age. In India birth of a boy child is
celebrated while that of a girl is viewed as a burden. This issue has however been
questioned by scholars. This is mainly because the data used to assess the situation is
based on birth sex ratios which may at times be naturally influenced. However cases of
sex selective abortions have been recorded over time in china. Still some scholars also
argue that the sex selective abortions are not all‘patriarchal’motivated. However in
some countries it is patriarchal motivated.
For instance
in countries like china with a 'one child policy’, families opt to have a male child over a
female child. This has led to abortions of girls for a chance at having a baby boy next
time. Girls are also abandoned by their families as the couples prefer to have that one
child as a male.
5. The practice of honor killing.

This is where a member of the family who is perceived to have dishonored his/her
family is killed. This practice is meant to restore honor to the family. Mostly it’s the
female members of the families who are killed. Since the laws were not very clear, a
woman might be targeted by her family members for even the slightest mistakes. As
long as the male members of the family through a council find the actions of the
perpetrators. Sometimes also male members would be targeted by a family that thinks
he dishonored their daughter.
Example
this practice is mostly common in Pakistan and the Muslim Middle East. It is mostly
carried out in open areas that are open and public. This is so as to serve as an example
to others in the community. Mostly carried out by siblings that were younger than those
who had been punished. This was meant to instill the moral lessons into the youngsters.
Honor killing can be done by stabbing, stoning, strangling or burning the perpetrator. In
July 2009, two sisters in Saudi Arabia were killed by their brother in presence of their
father in the name of bringing back honor to the family.
6. Work-life balance.
The traditional model of division of labor was gender based where productive tasks
(providing for the family) were a man’s role while reproductive ones (caring for children,
the elderly and general household work) left in the hands of women. With globalization
however this has changed, with more women taking up the productive roles. However
when it comes to the ‘reproductive roles’ less men are joining.
For example
a husband and his wife might both have jobs and in the evening when they come back
home from the wife will take over the duties at home while the husband just rests.
There is also a chance that family issues may intrude into ones working area. Research
performed has shown that women struggle to establish a balance between work and
family, men however tend to draw tight boundaries between work and family and tend
to get uncomfortable when one crosses over to the other side. Men also tend to pick
work over family,
7. Education sector.
Traditionally people of the female gender had a harder time accessing education as
women were viewed as 'slow' and not worth educating. However in the recent times,
activism for the girl child has led to the neglecting of the boy child. Measures that had
previously been put place to encourage education for the girl child are now hurting the
boy child. From another angle, a factor such as poverty among a family may make
education a limited resource. Here gender norms may come into play to help choose
who is going to be supported. In other cases the community doesn’t give enough
emotional and physical security to motivate students especially girls to go to school.
Where girls travelling long distances to school risk being attacked. Also once in school
there is risk from staff members and other students too. But still some policies are
hurting students of the male gender.
For example
in Kenya the pass mark (cut-off points) required to join an institution of higher learning
is higher for boys (60) than that for girls (58). As the positions in the institutions are also
limited, then you get to see that the girls get the upper hand as more girls with lesser
cutoff points will join while boys with the same points is left out.
8. Restricted citizenship
In some countries only a male is able to pass on citizenship unto a noncitizen. When it
comes to the issue of citizenship women are not treated on basis of their rights rather than
their social roles. The issue of citizenship and rights should all come in a package. This is
where women should be allowed to achieve full citizenship as long as they qualify like their
male counterparts. They should not wholly depend on blood ties to their fathers. Policy
makers ought to come up with policies that help incorporate the women more in the civil
world. Some countries however are still to come up with such policies.
For instance
in the Middle East with exceptions of Iran, Tunisia and Israel, most countries have permitted
only fathers to pass citizenship on to their children. Women married to locals are denied
citizenship. In Nepal also the constitution leans more on transfer of citizenship by birth from
father to children.
9. Custody rights
these are rights that legally make one a guardian to a child. In some societies the
children solely belong to their fathers. This was common among African communities
where when a wife returned to her parental home the children were to be left in her
matrimonial home with their father (the woman’s husband).
For example
In Bahrain the law allows for the judges to deny women custody of their children for the
most arbitrary reason. Priority of custody is usually given to the father despite his
religion. Unless the child is an infant then that’s when the women are considered as
custodians. And a woman from the man’s side is granted custody. However these laws
also lead to dilemmas since there is a certain age at which a man cannot continue caring
for the girls and a woman has to take over as the guardian.
10. Right to travel.

In some countries, women require permission of a male figure when travelling. This is
despite the United Nations and almost all countries offering their citizens freedom of
movement. It allows one to move in out and within the country without restrictions.
Some restrictions however are understandable such as shutting down airports due to
disease outbreaks. However other reasons are completely against human rights.
For instance
In Saudi Arabia for instance, women must obtain written permission from a close male
relative in order to travel from one part of the kingdom to another. Religion police
usually placed in areas of public transport have to check for the written permission from
women. Husbands can also stop their wives from leaving the country by writing to the
airports and harbors. So the right of women to travel in Saudi Arabia is wholly
dependent on the will of their male relatives. In some parts of Syria controlled by ISIS
they have banned women from appearing in the public alone without a male guardian
(mahram).
11. Divorce.
In many societies husbands can divorce their wives easily for even the slightest reasons
while their wives on the other hand have a harder time. Men in some communities
could even divorce their wives just by the word of their mouths whereas where it was a
woman who requested the divorce then certain channels have to be followed.
Committees had to be set to assess the situation and hear from both sides before a
decision is made.
For example
in Kenya among the Luo a hearing by the council of jodongo had to be carried out
before a decision on the divorce was reached. In the 21 st century still there are some
countries where issues of divorce are still gender biased. In Lebanon a battered woman
cannot file for divorce without testimony of an eye witness. A medical certificate from a
doctor alone is not good enough case to warrant a divorce for the woman.
12. Clothing requirement
Society has time and again dictated what should be worn especially by women while
men are left to dress as they will. Failure to abide by what is stipulated leads to one
suffering the consequences. In Kenya also we have had cases of women being stripped
naked just because their manner of dressing upset some groups of people. In some
religious sects also, the women are supposed to place another covering on the clothes
they are already wearing while their male counterparts just worship in the garments
they in. one of the worst cases of such gender discrimination was;
Example
In 2001 a militant group in Kashmir declared that all Muslim women should wear
garments that cover their bodies from head to toe leaving only the eyes exposed or risk
being attacked. The militants threw acid on the faces of the women who failed to
comply.
13. Driving cars and riding bikes

in some countries women are not allowed to drive or ride bikes.men also are not
supposed to drive female passengers that are not closely related to them.This has
created a dilemma on how to get schoolgirls to school by buses that can’t be driven by
women. The government is however recruiting a group of trustworthy men to be driving
the buses.in other cases we have female drivers being perceived to be less competent
compared to their male counterparts.in Kenyan roads we have female drivers being
bullied just because they are not thought of as equals by other road users.
for example
In Saudi Arabia women are not allowed to drive or ride bikes while men are not allowed
to drive women that are not closely related to them.
14. Property inheritance.

Many societies have laws that give less or no inheritance of ancestral property to
women as compared to men.in some communities the widows and daughters inherited
some property, but in many women had no possessions. Even the possession that
widows and daughters have over assets such as land are temporary. This limits women’s
access to land. It also reduces productivity of the land as there is a high chance of a
dispute occurring. This reduces productivity rate of the country in general.
Example
in the African traditional society, possessions of a father were divided among his sons
and in some communities (such as the Luo) the widows also got something.
15. Sexual harassment.
Sexual harassment is a form of violence that through a show of power intimidates,

humiliates, and affects another person’s dignity, this behavior is sexual in nature
(physical contacts, sexual advances and comments ) usually undesired.
For example
our societies today women have been reduced into sexual objects, this is clearly seen in
music videos and other form of media where they are objectified. This has led to the rise
of the so called ‘team mafisi’ that harass women sexually with vulgar comments about
their bodies.
REFFERENCES
Fausto, S. & Anne, G. (1985). Cognitive gender differences are disappearing. New York: Basic
books.
McConnell, G. & Sally, F. (1983). Intonation in a man’s world. Boston: Beacon.
Janet, S. & Linn, K. (1986). The psychology of gender. Baltimore MD: John Hopkins university
Press.
Gise, M. & Leslie, H. (1998). The premenstrual syndromes. New York: Churchill Livingstone.
Gould, K. & Stephen, J. (1981). The mismeasure of man. New York: W.W.Norton & Co.
Kramarae, C. & Henley, O. (1983). Language, gender and society. Rowley MA:
Newbury.
Fausto, S. & Anne, G. (1985). Myths of gender. New York: Basic books.
MANIFESTATIONS OF GENDER INEQUALITY

Gender inequality is the idea and situation in which women and men are not equal. It refers to
unequal treatment or perception of individuals wholly or partly due to their difference in gender
role. It arises from difference in gender roles. Women lag behind in many domains, including
education, labor market opportunities and political representation an in pay.
Many problems arise from this gender inequality as follows;
Economic
It is a major impediment to growth as it prevents countries from reaching their maximum
productivity potential. For example women constitute a large global work force there are many
who are still unpaid. Those who work are paid much below that of the male workers, despite
being much equally capable and skilled. Furthermore their status and promotions are limited to
middle or below ranks. Due to this restrictions, many countries experience loss of productivity
due to gender inequality.
Sexual harassment
This is a form of violence that through a show of power intimidates, humiliates, and affects
another person’s dignity. This behavior is sexual in nature, for example sexual advances
comments or jokes with sexual content which will be perceived by the victim as a hostile or
humiliating working environment in the work place.
Sex-selective abortion
It is a major disaster of gender inequality as it fuels human trafficking, demographic imbalance
and sexual exploitation. For example in China informally maintain the the practice of preference
for male child over female. Females are undervalued in chinese society.Under one child policy,
families opt for boys over girls. Females are widely viewed as weaker, more expensive and less
intelligent than men. Sex selection is a violation of gender inequality.
Femicide
This is the murder of women. Honor killing of a female member is killed for the perception of
having brought dishonor to the family. It has become a massive issue in countries. For example
in Saudi Arabia july 2009 two sisters were killed by their brother in precence of their father
under the rubric of defending the family’s honor. These actions are not only unlawful violence
against women, but also towards the whole of humanity.
Violence against women

The socially and culturally built hierarchy between the gender holds certain power relationships.
Any power relationships is symmetrical by definition. For example one of the gender has power
over the other and the other does not. Mainly the men are considered as being higher value. Most
women around the world have experienced violence at some points in their lives and it can
happen at the work place.
Individual and societal losses for a nation
Without equal representation of womens voice in policy making and government institutions,
decisions are often more advantageous for men and therefore inefficient to the nation as whole.
For example while women constitute high population than men only 14 out of 200 government
are headed by women this is due to highly uneducated women.
Legal rights
Is the context in which one isolated from or barred from certain activities. Most especially
women they were as rational or intelligent as men. They did not have rights to a lot of things e.g
social and economic activities as men they had to use their husbands. For example in America
1930s they were not allowed t travel using their own passports they had to use their husbands.
Also they were not allpwed the right to vote.
Labor force participation
This is where one is forced into labor with little or no payment. Women in the past were forced
into this participation with little payment compared to men. Example in the 1950s American
some of the women with children under 6 were in the paid labor force while most of them were a
stay home moms. This was clearly the cultural standard for white women. For black women the
norm was weaker.
Child marriage
This where one is forced into marriage at a tender age before their ability to reach their full
individual potential age. Those who suffer from child marriage often experience early pregnancy
which is a key factor in the premature end of education therefore it limits women’s opportunities
and their abilities. A good example is globally most women and girls alive today got married
before their eighteenth birthday. As young mothers they become socially isolated and are at an
increased risk for domestic violence.
Human trafficking
Adult women and girls account most percentage of all human trafficking victims detected
globally. Girls alone represent nearly three out of four children trafficked. Example is women
and girls are clearly the disproportionate victims of human trafficking with a great percent
trafficked just for sexual exploitation.
Female genital mutilation
This is where females are forced to be cut. It may result into excessive bleeding, severe pains
resulting from the accidental cutting of the clitoral artery or other blood vessels. Example most
women today have undergone FGM and therefore have developed many complications for
example chronic genital infections, reproductive tract infections are common. All of these
subsequent complications a long with the shock and use of force during this process are some of
the reasons why survivors describe the experience as an extremely traumatic event.
Trans and gender diverse
Trans and diverse people may feel forced to hide their gender identity when accessing services,
when in the work pace and In social settings. For example one is more likely to experience
mental illness, verbal abuse and physical abuse, as well as cyberbullying and social exclusion.
Work-life balance
Globalization has brought about changes in the labor market structure and labor organization
which has remained stable throughout. A good example is the traditional model of sexual labor
had placed productive tasks (supporting and providing for the family) in the hands of the men
and the reproductive ones in the hands of the women (caring and for the elderly and the children
and housekeeping).
Women’s health
Health is a universal human right. There was a time when women did not have aright to good
health facilities. For example most women were forced to give births at home with unspecialized
doctors and they used unsterilized tools hence can cause spread of different infections. This
caused most ladies to suffer a lot.
Transformation in the family structure
There has been a dramatic change in the family structure and the composition of households.
Most children lived with their parents until getting married or only lived on their own for a very
short period. This was clearly the cultural standard. For example by 2008 only half of all
households consisted of a married couple, remaining households consisted of cohabiting,
households headed by single parents and households of single people with roommates.
REFERENCE
Mona,P.M.A.(2016).Economics and politics.PatnaUniversity:Brixton Publishers.
Eric,A.(2006).Encyclopedia of U.S. labor and working-class History:CRS Press.
David,K.(1991).African successes:Four public managers of Kenyan
ruraldevelopment.USA:University of California Press.
.ISSUES RELATED TO POLITICS OF GENDER

It's the debate about the roles and relations of men and women. In relation to that quote, gender
politics influence how we see ourselves as men/women because it defines what each of those
titles are and what their roles are in society
1. Gender stereotypes
Gender stereotypes are preconceived ideas whereby females and males are arbitrarily assigned
characteristics and roles determined and limited by their gender. Stereotypes held about women
especially among men have the potential to be more discriminating than women beliefs about men.What
immediately apparent about the content of gender stereotypes is how different men and women are
believed to be.
Stereotypically speaking men act and women relate. This is the positive aspect of gender stereotypes
held that masculinity is associated with strength whereas femininity is associated with sociability and
nurturance.The themes of sociability and strength are also reflected in the negative aspects of gender
stereotypes where we see less valued expressions of both strength such as hostile, dictatorial and
sociability such as gullible, subordinate.
We consider two important aspects of stereotypes of women: the valuing of masculinity traits over
feminine traits and the ambivalent nature of stereotypical attitudes towards women. The content of
stereotypes about other groups reflects the prominent underlying dimensions competence and warmth.
Displayed in the table below are some attributes that make up gender stereotypes. These are generally
agreed-upon ways of thinking men and women and define and describe what is masculine and feminine.
Men Women
Positive Traits Negative Traits Positive Traits Negative Traits
Independent Egotistical Helpful Spineless
Self-confident Hostile Aware of others’ Gullible

feelings
Competitive Cynical Warm to others Servile
Stands under pressure Arrogant Gentle Subordinates self to

others
Active Boastful Emotional Whining
Makes decisions Greedy Devoted to others Complaining
Never gives up easily Dictatorial Kind Nagging
Feels Superior Unprincipled Understanding Fussy

2. Gender Bias
Gender bias is a preference or prejudice towards one gender over the other. Gender stereotyping is a
social problem associated with gender bias-the tendency to value men and masculine traits over women
and feminine traits.
In the classic demonstration of gender bias, Philip Goldberg (1968) gathered published writings from a
variety of professional fields and condensed them in a series of essays. He then had participants read
and evaluate the essays which were labelled with a fictitious male (John) and female (Joan) student’s
name. The results showed that the same writings was evaluated more favourably when it bore a man’s
name compared to a woman’s name
Other demonstrations of gender bias have found that men’s success is attributed to their ability, but
women’s success is attributed to the ease of the task (Feather & Simon, 1975).
Gender bias depends on what men and women are being evaluated for. For example, in one study
equally qualified men and women applicants were called about jobs that were traditionally masculine
(e.g. security guard) or feminine (e.g. receptionist). The supervisors on the other end tended to
discourage or disqualify women who were interested in in men’s jobs and men who were interested in
women’s jobs. In that study the mere voices of were sufficient to activate stereotypes.
However gender bias sometimes favours women, although this advantage is only gained in traditionally
feminine tasks, abilities or jobs. Recent research finds that women who hold gender stereotype-
inconsistent jobs----being a female police chief for example------are held to higher competence
standards. That is when women in male-dominated jobs make mistakes, they are punished more in the
form of lowered ratings of competence than women in traditionally feminine occupations, and they are
judged as less competent. Together these studies characterize the strong cultural bias against women
and female-stereotypic occupations.
Gender bias is subtly communicated in children in many forms such as in the colouring book and cereal
box character depictions. Researchers coded the content of a colouring books purchased from a random
sample of stores for gender biased characterisation. They found out that females constituted just 41% of
all characters. Furthermore characters that were shown doing stereotypically feminine things were
overwhelmingly female.
The characterisation on cereal boxes were similarly gender biased. In a comprehensive analysis of cereal
boxes, female characters were more likely than male to be shown as a child rather than as an adult and
in passive rather than active roles.
In summary, gender stereotypes reveal a cultural bias in which men and masculine traits are valued
more than women and feminine traits and skills. This gender bias results in a pattern of bias and
discrimination against women that extends to many areas in life.
3.Gender Roles
The concept of gender roles refers to activities ascribed to women and men on the basis of their
perceived differences. Gender roles are socially determined, change over time and space and are
influenced by social cultural and environmental factors characterizing a certain society, community or
historical period
Gender roles aim at setting boundaries between what is perceived as appropriate for women and for
men in the society with regards both to public and private domains. Such roles are accepted as natural
and internalized by girls and boys from a very early age, through the gender models they learn through
their social environment.
Both women and men perform multiple roles in their lives. In the, productive domain – which includes
activities related to the production of goods for consumption or trade and income-generating activities
and in the reproductive domain – which includes tasks and activities relating to the creation and
sustaining of family and the household.
In most societies, men’s role in the productive is prominent, whereas their reproductive or domestic role
is just subsidiary. Men’s productive work, usually takes place outside the home allowing them to
perform their roles sequentially rather than simultaneously. In most countries men are involved in
decision-making processes within political activities; they sit in assemblies and councils and direct more
government agencies than women therefore holding greater political power .Also they usually hold
greater economic power: they run more medium- and large sized companies and business activities and
proportionally earn more income at all occupational levels compared to women. Men’s contribution to
domestic activities is often limited to tasks that involve some financial decision, like children’s education
house purchases etc.
Women on the other hand have to juggle various tasks simultaneously because of their tendency to
perform multiple roles within the reproductive and productive spheres
Womenhave been described as often having a triple role.
 A productive role: Although women across the world do not engage in paid work or income
generation activities, they tend to lose out in terms of access to, control over, and benefits from
productive resources.
 A reproductive role: Reproduction refers to all activities necessary for the maintenance and
survival of human life. Examples include bearing educating children, cooking food.
 A community management role: This term is used to describe the activities usually carried out
by women- as an extension of their reproductive role- for the benefit of the community, for
example the provision and maintenance of scares resources. This work is mostly unpaid and
voluntary. Community management activities performed by men tend to be more visible and
higher social= value (e.g. administration of local justice).
Women’s reproductive role and community management role as often perceived as natural. They are
not recognised at the national economic level.
Some examples of gender roles in the society include:

Family
Women raise children but men make the final decision for punishment,
Women cook and clean and other indoor chores. Men take out the garbage, mow the lawn do repairs
and all outdoor chores
Work
Women hold jobs subservient to men’s jobs. Men are doctors women are nurses, men are pilots women
are air hostesses, men are executives women are secretaries.
Children
Girls play with baby dolls to prepare them for parenting and fashion dolls to prepare them for dressing
pretty as grown-ups. Boys play with action figure toys to prepare them to be aggressive in the real
world.
4. Gender Mainstreaming
Gender mainstreaming is the process of accessing the implications for women and men of any planned
action, including legislation, policies or programs in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for making
women’s concerns as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension of design
implementation monitoring and evaluation of all policies and programs in all political, economic and
societal spheres so that men and women benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated
Therefore it is a strategy for promoting gender equality, involving integration and promotion of gender
equality in all activities, i.e. moving them into a mainstream of activities.
It is the process of ensuring that men and women have equal access to and control over resources,
development benefits and programme operations. Gender mainstreaming entails that account must be
taken of the gender perspective in all the activities of all projects throughout their lifecycles.
A number of factors motivate gender mainstreaming. Gender mainstreaming as a strategy is motivated
by the rationale for human rights and social justice, which translates into the equal involvement of
women in all areas of societal development. Mainstreaming does not only focus on the gender equality
situation within an organisation but also on equal opportunities in terms of recruitment, advancement,
conditions of work, norms, organisation culture, management style and others .Furthermore, gender
mainstreaming is not only concerned with increasing opportunities and gender balance within an
organisation, but also incorporating attention to gender perspectives and the goal of promoting gender
equality
The aim of gender mainstreaming is to incorporate dimensions of equal opportunities and gender
equality for women and men in all policies and activities of society. By specifying gender equality of men
and women as a common objective in gender mainstreaming, the legal basis for the implementation of
the gender equality concept is reinforced on a state level. This ensures that the implementation of equal
opportunities and gender equality becomes the central theme of political and organisational action
Taking from the above, it is clear that there are several reasons that necessitate gender mainstreaming
 Firstly, gender mainstreaming puts people at the heart of policy making. This means that once
policy makers get used to gender mainstreaming, it will ensure the practice and evaluation of
policies will be centred rather than based on economic and ideological indicators
 Secondly gender mainstreaming will lead to better informed policies-making and therefore
better government.
 Thirdly, instead of a small group of women, the practise and inclusion of gender mainstreaming
will ensure that both men and women participate.
 Fourthly, gender mainstreaming will provide a clear idea of the consequences and impact of
political initiatives on both men and women and the balance of women and men
 Finally gender mainstreaming takes into account the diversity of women and men and
acknowledges that women and men are not a homogenous group.
Gender mainstreaming can only be achieved if certain conditions are met. These conditions are:
 Policies on equal opportunities and women and development must be clearly defined.
 Directors and heads of departments must devote sufficient attention to the question of equality
and equal opportunities.
 Everyone in the organisation must know how they can contribute to gender equality in their
own policy field.
 Gender experts should take part in decision-making policy.
 There must be enough resources for policy making and implementation and policies must be
assessed and accounted for at specific stages.
Examples of gender mainstreaming endorsements include:
The election of 1990 in Nicaragua brought to office the first female president in the Americas. April
25, 1990, Violeta Chamorro became the first and only woman to defeat a male incumbent
presentment. This helped to change and mobilize mainstream gender. In 1992 the existing outdated
Sandinista Women’s Organisation, the Nicaraguan Institute for Research on women, was revitalized
and renamed as the Nicaraguan Institute for women. This was to encourage the involvement of
Nicaraguan women in the economic, social, cultural and political development
Foundation of women’s rights has conducted research on gender mainstreaming and gender
equality development, produced gender resources kits for training and education, networked
women groups and entrepreneurs, participated in international exchange in UN, APEC gender
related meetings
Vienna Austria
In late 2006, the city council of Vienna, ordered several gender mainstreaming measures for public
facilities and areas. Pictograms and information display charts will feature a male silhouette holding
a baby to advice passengers on the underground railway to offer seating to parents with children.
Emergency escape paths will be marked by a square table featuring a long haired lady running in her
high heel boots. A pilot kindergarten now uses a flexible open play area instead of separate playing
corners with toy cars and Lego for boys or dolls and faux fireplaces for girls.
Infrastructure changes have included unisex playgrounds for city parks which encourage young boys
and girls to mix and redesigned streetlights to make parks and sidewalks safe for late night joggers.
UN peace keeping operations
In October 2000, the UN Security Council passed a resolution that called for an enhanced female
participation in the prevention, management and resolution of conflict. Peacekeeping was an area
of particular concern, and the Security Council recognized the urgent need to mainstream a gender
perspective into peace keeping operations.
5.Ambivalent attitudes towards women

Although prejudice has been regarded as holding negative attitudes towards members of another group,
prejudice sometimes reflects ambivalence-or the presence of positive and negative attitudes. Earlier we
learned that stereotypes of women are ambivalent in that women tend to be viewed either as warm but
not competent or as competent but not warm
Ambivalence towards women can also be understood in terms of hostile and benevolent forms of
sexism. According to Peter Glick and Susan Fiske (1997, 2001), hostile sexismregard to women as
inferior to men, assigns women to traditional and subordinate roles, considers women as sexual objects
and believes that women are ultimately interested in dominating and controlling men Hostile sexists
tend to support traditional gender role arrangements (e.g. wife as mother and homemaker, husband as
wage earner.) and tend to be openly derogatory of feminist ideals.
Benevolent sexism, on the other hand, regard women as refined objects to be idolized, protected, and
cared for. When Tom Cruise’s character in the famous scene from Jerry Maguire confesses “you
complete me” to his girlfriend, he is expressing a benevolent stereotype of women. Benevolent sexists
tend to romanticize women’s sexuality, rather than see it threatening. They also regard women as
emotionally weaker but morally superior and deserving of adoration and sacrifice from men.
Benevolent sexism doesn’t sound like prejudice, does it? Actually, hostile and benevolent stereotypes
both assume women are weaker and inferior to men and therefore, both stereotypes enforce patriarchy
—a social system in which men have more power, status, and resources than women
Glick and Fiske (2001) suggest that men’s benevolent stereotypes of women don’t feel oppressive or
unfair and are not recognised as sexist. Indeed many women may find such attitudes flattering and
attractive. Another explanation involves tendency for men who hold both hostile and benevolent
stereotypes of women to subtype women into more polarised groups (e.g. devoted mom or radical
feminists). Women therefore might never come to see the connection between- indeed the
complementary nature of- hostile and benevolent stereotypes. Julia Becker (2010) found out that
women endorsed hostile sexist attitudes when they were thinking about particular subgroups of women
(e.g. career women, feminists) but endowed benevolent sexism when they identified with more
traditional groups such as housewives. These findings are consistent with the distinction between
paternalistic and envious stereotypes of women. Finally women may not recognize benevolent
stereotypes as sexist because men may subtly use benevolent attitudes (e.g. I’m going to take care of
you) to reward women for occupying traditional gender roles. Similarly researchers found out
supervisors who displayed benevolent sexism in their treatment of female job applicants were liked
more than those who displayed hostile sexism. This suggests that benevolent, but not hostile sexism is
tolerated and even approved even though it is just as limiting to women than hostile form of sexism. A
final explanation for the persistence and social approval around benevolent sexism concerns the fact
that traditional roles for women reinforce status quo, whereas non- traditional roles unsettle and
threaten status quo.
To sum up, modern forms of sexism are ambivalent, treating women both as inferior objects to be
controlled and as treasured objects to be protected.
6. Feminism
Feminism is a range of political movements, ideologies and social movements that share a common
goal: to define, establish, and achieve political, economic, personal and social equality of sexes.
Feminist movements have continued to campaign for women rights including right to vote to hold public
office, to work, to earn, fair wages, to own property, to receive education. Feminists have also worked
had to ensure access to legal abortions and social integration and to protect women and girls from rape,
sexual harassment and domestic violence. Changes in dress and acceptable physical activity have often
been part of feminist movements
Feminist theory is the extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields including sociology,
economics and philosophy.
Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power, relations
and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory
also focuses on the promotion of women’s rights and interests. Themes discussed in feminist theory
include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification, oppression and patriarchy.
Kinds of feminism
Liberal Feminism
This is the variety of feminism that works within the structure of mainstream society to integrate
women into that structure. Its roots stretch back to the social contract theory of government instituted
by the American Revolution. Abigail Adams and Mary Wollstonecraft were there from the start
proposing equality for women. As in the case with liberals, they slog along inside the system getting little
done with all the compromises needing the help of some radical group.
Radical Feminism
Radical feminism provides an important foundation for the rest of feminist types. Seen by many as the
undesirable element of feminism, Radical feminism is actually the breeding ground for many ideas
arising from feminism which get shaped and pounded out in various ways by other branches of
feminism.
Radical theory was the cutting edge of feminist theory from approximately 1967-1975.
Marxist and Socialist Feminism
Marxism recognises that women are oppressed and attributes the oppression to the capitalist system.
Therefore they insist that the only way to end the oppression of women is to overthrow the capitalist
system.
Social feminism is the result of Marxism meeting radical feminism. Echols offers a description of socialist
feminism as marriage between Marxism and radical feminism, with Marxism the dominant partner
Cultural Feminism
As radical feminism died out as a movement, Cultural feminism started emerging. Many of the people
moved from radical to cultural feminism. The difference between cultural and radical feminism is that:
whereas radical feminism was a movement to transform society, cultural feminism retreated to
vanguard’s, working instead to build a women’s culture.
7. Gender-based violence
Violence against women also known as gender-based violence and sexual and gender –based violence is
collectively violent acts that are primarily or exclusively committed against women and girls. This type of
violence is gender based meaning that the acts of violence are committed against women and girls
expressly because they are female.
Violence against women can fit into several broad categories. These include violence carried out by
individuals as well as states. Some of the forms of violence perpetrated by individuals include: rape,
domestic violence, sexual harassment etc.
Some forms of violence by the state are such as: war, rape, sexual violence and sexual slavery during
conflict; forced sterilization, forced abortion
Types of Gender-Based violence
Rape
Rape is a type of sexual assault usually involving sexual intercourse. Rape is usually perpetrated by men
against boys, women and girls. Women are usually assaulted more often than girls.
Victims of rape can be severely traumatized and may suffer posttraumatic stress disorder. In addition to
physical harm caused by the act victims also suffer psychological harm.
Violence against victims
Following a rape, a victim may face violence or threats of violence from the rapistand in some cultures
from the victim’s family and relatives as a way of preventing the victim form reporting the rape, of
punishing them for reporting or forcing them to withdraw the report. This is in cultures where virginity is
highly valued and considered mandatory before marriage.
Marital rape
Also known as spouse rape, is non-consensual sex assault perpetrated by the victim’s spouse. It was
once widely condoned and ignored by the law but now it is repudiated by international conventions and
criminalized. The criminalisation of marital rape is recent having occurred during the past few decades.
Still in many countries spousal rape is tolerated and accepted as a husband’s prerogative.
Domestic Violence
Women are likely to be victimised by someone that they are intimate with, commonly called intimate
partner violence (IPV). Instances of IPV tend not to be reported to police.
Though this form of violence is often portrayed as an issue within the context of heterosexual
relationships, it also occurs in lesbian relationships, daughter mother relationships, roommate
relationships.
Honour Killings
Honour Killings are a common form of violence against women in certain parts of the world. In honour
killings, women and girls are killed by their family members (Usually husbands, fathers, uncles or
brothers) because the women are believed to have brought shame or dishonour upon their families.
Women are killed for reasons such as refusing to enter an arranged marriage, being in a disapproved
relationship, attempting to leave a marriage, having sex outside marriage.
Other types of gender-based violence include dowry violence, forced marriages, reproductive coercion,
human trafficking and forced prostitution.
9.Gender Identity
Gender Identity is the personal sense of one’s own gender. It is their internal sense of where they exist
in relation to being boys/men or girls/women.
A person’s gender expression is their external gender-related clothing and behaviour (including interests
and mannerism)
Transgender is a person whose gender identity, gender expression or behaviour does not conform to
that typically associated with their sex at birth.
In most societies there is a basic division between gender attributes assigned to males and females, a
gender binary to which most people adhere and which includes expectations of masculinity and
femininity in all aspects of sex and gender.
Core gender identity is usually formed by age three. After age three it is difficult to change and attempts
to reassign it can result to gender dysphoria. Both biological and social factors have been suggested to
influence its formation.
Factors influencing formation
Nature vs. nurture
Biological factors that influence gender identity include pre- and post-hormone levels while genetic
makeup also influences gender identity, it does not inflexibly determine it.
Social factors which influence gender identity include ideas regarding gender roles conveyed by family
authority figures and mass media. When children are raised by individuals who adhere to strict gender
roles, they are more likely to behave in the same way matching their gender identity with the
corresponding stereotypical gender patterns.
Biological Factors
Several prenatal factors, biological factors including genes and hormones may affect gender identity.
The biochemical theory of gender identity suggests that people acquire gender identities through such
factors rather than socialization.
Social and environmental factors
Factors such as absence of a father, a mother’s wish for her daughter, or parental reinforcement
patterns are influences gender identity.
It has been suggested that attitudes of the child’s parents may affect the child’s gender identity although
evidence is minimal.
Parental establishment of gender roles
Parents who do not support gender non-conformity are more likely to have children with firmer and
stricter views on gender identity and gender roles. Research has indicated that many parents attempt to
define gender for their sons in a manner that distances them from femininity.
Many parents form gendered expectations for their child before it is even born. The child thus arrives to
a gender specific name, games and even ambitions.
Gender identity can lead to security issues among individuals that do not fit in the binary scale. In some
cases a person’s gender identity is inconsistent with their biological sex characteristics resulting in
individuals dressing or behaving in a way which is perceived by others as outside cultural gender norms.
These gender expressions may be described as gender variant, transgender or gender queer.
10. Gender and Religion

Sex difference can be classified as either internal or external. Internal religious issues are studied from
the perspective of given religion and might include religious beliefs and practises about the roles and
rights of women in government, education and worship. External religious issues can be broadly defined
as an examination of a given religion from an outsider’s perspective, including possible clashes between
religious leaders and laity and the influence of and the difference between religious and social issues
In studies relating to gender patterns and religion, it has been established that females are more
religious than males. The first explanation is that women feel emotions at greater heights than men do
thus women tend to turn to religion in times of high emotions. The second explanation is that female
socialization is more likely aligned with values that are commonly found in religion such as conflict
mediation, tenderness. The third explanation is that females are more likely to be able to identify with
religion as a natural consequence of societal structures
The earliest documented religions and some contemporary animist religions involve deification of
characteristics of the natural world. The spirits are typically but not always gendered. Polytheistic gods
are typically gendered. The earliest evidence of monotheism is the worship of goddess Eurynome, Aten
in Egypt, the teaching of Moses in the Torah and Zoroastrianism in Persia are all masculine deities,
embodied only in a metaphor, so masculine rather than reproductive male.
Some scholars suggest that some ancient religious goddesses have been reinterpreted to follow specific
gender roles. For example, the Nordic goddess Freya first represented war and love but after centuries
she was transformed into only representing love and a sexual behaviour.
The Hindu goddess Kali breaks gender role of women representing love, sex, fertility and beauty because
she is the goddess of both the life cycle and destructive war.
In Christianity, one entity of the trinity the son, is believed to have become incarnated as a human male.
Christians have traditionally believed that God the father has masculine gender rather than male sex
because the father has never been incarnated. Islam on the other hand has a tradition that the name
Allah, like its referent can be allocated neither grammatical nor natural gender. Masculine pronouns for
Allah in the Quran are interpreted as generic.
Creation myths about human gender
In many stories man and woman are created at the same time with equal standing. One example is the
creation story in genesis 1” And God created man in his image” Some commentators interpret the
parallelism to be deliberately stressing that mankind is in some sense, a unity in diversity. Adam the first
man has been viewed as a spiritual being or an ideal who can be distinguished as both male and female,
an androgynous being with no sex. Some scholars argue that the “sexes” were developed through an
accidental division of the true self which existed prior to being assigned with gender.
In other accounts man is created first followed by woman. This is in the case of Genesis 2, where the
woman is created out of man’s rib as a companion or helper. This version is normally cited by Jewish
authorities in support if patriarchy. The second creation story of Adam and eve became influential in
regard to how women were viewed. Historically women have been placed into two categories: women
and virgins.
Leadership roles
Some religions restrict leadership roles to males. In some small minority religions some roles are
restricted to women only. The ordination of women has been a controversial issue in some religions
where either the rite of the ordination or the role that an ordained person fulfils has traditionally been
restricted to men because of cultural or theological prohibitions.
Beginning of the 19th century, some Christian denominations have ordained women. Among those who
do not, many believe it was restricted in 1 Timothy. Some Islamic communities have recently appointed
women as imams.
11. Gender inequality

Gender inequality is the idea that men and women are not equal. Gender inequality refers to unequal
treatment or perceptions of individuals wholly or partly due to their gender. It arises from differences in
gender roles.
Natural gender differences
Natural differences exist between the sexes based on biological and anatomic factors, most notably
differing reproductive roles. There is also a natural difference in the relative physical strengths of the
sexes.
Psychology
Prenatal hormone exposure influences to what extent one exhibits traditional masculine or feminine
behaviour. Men are more likely to take risks than women. Men are also more likely to be aggressive. It
has been theorized that these differences combined with physical differences are an adaptation
representing division of labour. A second theory proposes sex difference in intergroup aggression
represent adaptations in male aggression to allow for territory, resource and mate acquisition. Females
are more empathetic that males.
From birth males and females are raised differently and experience different environments throughout
their lives. In the eyes of society, gender has a huge role to play in many major milestones or
characteristics in life such as personality
In the work place
Income disparities linked to job stratification
The gender pay gap is the average difference between men’s and women’s aggregate wages or salaries.
The gap is due to a variety of factors including difference in education choices, difference in preferred
job and industry and differences of positions held by men and women
The gendered income disparity can also be ascribed in part to occupational segregation where groups of
people are distributed across occupations according to ascribed characteristics in the case of gender.
Occupational gender segregation can be understood in two ways; horizontal and vertical segregation.
With horizontal segregation it occurs as men and women are thought to have different physical,
emotional, and mental capabilities. These differences makes genders vary in types of jobs they are
suited for. With vertical segregation, it occurs as occupations are stratified according to the power,
authority, income, and prestige associated with the occupation and women are excluded from holding
such jobs
At Home
Gender roles in parenting and marriage
Gender roles are heavily influenced by biology, with male- female play styles correlating with sex
hormones sexual orientation aggressive traits and pain.
Gender inequality in relationships

Gender equality in relationships has been growing over the years but for the majority of relationships
the power lies with the male. A study showed that females thought that if they revealed their
intelligence to a potential partner, then it would diminish their chance with him. Men however would
much more readily discuss their own intelligence with a potential partners. Intelligence continues to be
viewed as a masculine trait rather than a feminine trait. The study shows that men think that women
with a high IQ would lack traits that were desirable in a mate such as warmth, nurturance, sensitivity or
kindness.
Attempts in equalizing household work
Despite the increase in women in the labour force, Traditional gender roles are still prevalent. Women
may be expected to put their educational and career goals in order to raise children while their
husbands work. Despite the fact that different households may divide chores more evenly, there is
evidence that women have retained the role of primary care giver
Gender roles have changed drastically over the years. Women who work spend less time with their
children and within the house. Furthermore, men are taking roles of women in the homes
Property Inheritance- Many countries have laws that give less inheritance of ancestral property for
women compared to men.
12. Gender difference/ sex difference

Sex difference in humans has been studied in various fields. Biological sex is determined by five factors
present at birth: The presence or absence of Y chromosome, the type of gonads, the sex hormones, the
internal reproductive anatomy (such as the uterus) and the external genitalia
Medicine
Sex difference in medicine include sex preference diseases, which are diseases that are more usual to
one sex or which manifest differently in each sex. Gender based medicine is the field of medicine that
studies the biological and physiological differences between the sexes and how that affects difference in
disease. Traditionally, medical research has mainly been conducted using male bodies as the basis for
clinical studies. The findings of these studies and the health care providers have assumed a uniform
approach in treating both male and female patients. More recently, medical research has started to
understand the importance of taking sex into account as the symptoms and responses to medical
treatment may vary between the sexes.
Physiology
Sex difference in human physiology are distinctions of physiological characteristics associated with male
or female. These can be of several types including male or female. Direct being the direct result of
difference prescribed by Y chromosome and indirect being a characteristic influenced indirectly by the Y
chromosome.
Direct sex differences follow a bimodal distribution. Through the process of meiosis and fertilization,
each individual is created with zero ore one Y chromosome
Indirect sex differences are general differences as quantified by empirical data and statistical analysis
Psychology
Research on biological sex difference in human psychology investigates cognitive and behavioural
differences between men and women.
Chromosomal make up is important in human psychology. Women have two X chromosomes while
males have an X and Y chromosome. The X chromosome is much more active than Y chromosome and it
affects behaviour. Genetic researchers theorize that the X chromosome may contain a gene responsible
for sociability
Sociology
Crime
Statistics have been consistent that men commit more criminal acts than women. Self –reported
delinquent acts are also higher for men than women across many different actions. Many professionals
have offered explanation for this sex difference. Some differing explanations include men’s evolutionary
tendency towards risk and violent behaviour, sex difference in activity, social support and gender
inequality.
Education
Sometimes and in some places there are sex differences in educational achievement. This may be due to
sex discrimination in law or culture or may reflect natural differences in the interests of the sexes.
Leadership
Leadership positions have predominantly been occupied by men. Women are rarely seen in senior
leadership positions.
Women and men have been surveyed concerning work place topics and when questioned about
preference of a female or a male boss, women choose a preference of a male boss 39% of the time
compared to 26% of men showing preference for a male boss.
Some examples of gender differences include:

Men are better at judging person’s size based on their voice. Men are better that women at acoustic size
judgements. This means that men have an enhanced ability to determine person’s size based on their
voice.
Men have better spatial awareness. Men possess the ability to think of objects in three dimensions
helping with navigation.
Women are better at locating specific items
Women are better at worrying. Women produce only about half as much as serotonin-a
neurotransmitter linked to depression--as men do. As a result women tend to worry more.
Women detect colours better than men. Women can detect subtle variations in colour that men fail to
identify.
13. Sexism
Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on a person’s sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone but it
primarily affects women and girls
Sexism has been defined as an ideology based on the belief that one’s sex is superior to another. Sexism
has been linked to stereotypes and gender roles. It is discrimination, prejudice or stereotyping on the
basis of gender and is most often expressed toward women and girls.
Sociology has examined sexism as manifesting at both the individual and institutional level. According to
Schaufer, sexism is perpetuated by all major social institutions.
Psychologists Mary Crawford and Rhoda Unger define sexism as a form of prejudice held by individuals
that encompasses negative attitudes and values about women as a group. Peter Glick and Susan Fiske
coined the term ambivalent sexism to describe how stereotypes of women can be both positive and
negative.
Feminist author Bell Hooks defines sexism as a system of oppression that results in disadvantages for
women. Feminist philosopher Marilyn Frye defines sexism as an attitudinal-conceptual-cognitive-
orientation complex of male supremacy, male chauvinism and misogyny.
Types of sexism
Occupational sexism
It refers to discriminatory practices, statements or actions based on a person’s sex occurring at te work
place. Some forms of occupational sexism include:
 Wage discrimination
 Gap in hiring-Research has shown that mothers are less likely to be hired than equally qualified
fathers.
 Earnings gap-Studies have concluded that on average women earn lower wages than men
worldwide.
Benevolent sexism
This type of sexism is chivalrous attitude that men have towards women that feels favourable but is
sexist
This form of sexism casts women as weak creatures in need of a man’s protection .Benevolent sexism
complements women based on stereotypes
Hostile sexism
This type of sexism is an antagonistic attitude towards women who are often viewed as trying to control
men through seduction or feminist ideology.
Examples of sexism include:

Sexist Language
Masculine generics like mankind, chairman which refer to male. This assumes that the default human is
male and subtly paints women as a subcategory of humans.
The generic “he”. Using the pronoun “he” to describe someone of unknown gender erases women from
the discussion entirely.
Objectification of women
Media and advertising barrage women with images and messages and dehumanize and objectify them.
When all we see is women’s bodies being used to sell products, women are taught that their worth lies
in their looks.
Dress codes
Dress codes are particularly restrictive for women and girls, proving yet to be another way of controlling
women limiting their power and confidence. Women are fed with the message that we’re not valued
colleagues or student, we’re distractions and their bodies will be the cause of their ruin.
Slut Shaming
Women and girls who act on sexual feelings have sexual partners, use birth control are often made to
feel guilty or ashamed by friends, family and society at large. This is known as slut shaming. Only girls
and women are ever ashamed for their sexuality but boys and men are congratulated for the same
behaviour.
14. Women Empowerment

Women’s empowerment is the process in which women elaborate and recreate what is that they can
be, do and accomplish in a circumstance that they were previously denied
It is the process for women to redefine gender roles that allow for them to acquire the ability to choose
between known alternatives whom have otherwise been restricted from such an ability
Women’s economic empowerment refers to the ability for women to enjoy their right to control and
benefit from resources, assets, income and their own time as well as the ability to manage risk and
improve their economic status and well-being.
Empowerment of women is a necessity for the very development of a society, since it enhances both
quality and the quantity of human resources available for development. Empowerment is one of the
main procedural concerns when addressing human rights and development.
Scholars have identified two forms of empowerment, economic and political empowerment.
Economic Empowerment
Economic empowerment increases women’s agency, access to formal government programs, mobility
outside the home, economic independence and purchasing power. Policy makers are suggested to
support job training to aid in entrance in the formal market. One recommendation is to provide more
formal educational opportunities for women that would allow higher bargaining power in the home.
They would have access to higher wages and as a result make it easier for women to get a job in the
market
Strengthening women’s access to property inheritance and land rights is another method used to
economically empower women. This would allow for better means of access accumulation, capital and
bargaining power needed to address gender inequalities.
Another popular methodology for women’s economic empowerment also includes micro credit.
Microfinance institutions aim to empower women in their community by giving them access to loans
that have low interests rates without collateral
Political Empowerment
Political empowerment supports creating policies that would best support gender equality and agency
for women both in the public and private spheres. Popular methods that have been suggested are to
create affirmative action policies that have quota for the number of women in policy making and
parliament positions. Furthermore recommendations have been made to increase women’s right to
vote, voice opinions and the ability to run for office with a fair chance of being elected. Policies that
would increase women’s bargaining power in the household will include policies that account for cases
of divorce, policies for better welfare for women and policies that give women control over resources.
There are many barriers to women’s empowerment. Some of these are: cultural norms, many women
feel inferior to men and have been accustomed to it, increased access to the internet has increase
exploitation of women, discrimination at the work place.
15. Gender and Development

Women first came into focus in development as objects of welfare policies including those that focused
on birth control, nutrition and pregnancy. These are gender related issues in a particular sector.
Information and communication technologies
Women and men have different needs when accessing and using ICT. In many societies, women’s and
men’s access to and use of ICT and use of technology is rooted to behavioural, cultural and religious
traditions.
 Cultural and social attitudes are often unfavourable to women’s participation in the field of
science and technology.
 Women are often financially dependent on men or do not have control over economic resources
which makes accessing ICT services more difficult.
 Allocation of resources for education and training often favours boys and men.
Gender responsive ICT can make technologies from telephones to computers available to more people
and offer ways for both men and women to access information and markets and participate in new
income generating activities
Governance
Development societies must ensure that all segments of society-both women and men-have a voice in
decision making either directly or through institutions that legitimately represent their interests and
needs
The exclusion of women from full participation constrains the ability of the public sector policies and
institutions to manage economic and social resources effectively
Infrastructure
The infrastructure sector is often assumed to be gender neutral with women and men benefiting equally
from the projects. Females and males however have different roles, responsibilities and constrains
which result in gender based differentials in demand for use of infrastructure facilities and services. The
development effectiveness and sustainability of the infrastructure sector could increase significantly by
addressing gender differences in demand and utilization. This involves incorporating a gender
perspective in selecting and designing infrastructure interventions, assessing safeguard issue and
conducting monitoring and evaluation.
Transport
Because women and men in different countries have different transport needs and priorities, they are
affected differently by transport interventions e.g. rural transport projects that build roads in rural areas
do not benefit rural women who mainly work and travel on foot.
The failure of the transport sector in meeting women’s needs and priorities affects women in several
ways. Because of lack of access to adequate transport, women enjoy less mobility than men, their access
to markets and employment is circumscribed. Women’s health is also negatively affected.
Water and sanitation
Women and men have different roles in water supply and sanitation activities. Often women
are the main users, providers and managers of water in rural households. Women are also the
guardians of human hygiene. Men are usually concerned with water for irrigation and livestock.
Hence women tend to benefit most when it comes to access to water. Improvements to WSS
are likely to shorten women’s and girls’ time spent on carrying water hence freeing their time
for other activities and school attendance.
REFERENCES
Bruce, E.B. (2007).Understanding the Psychology of Diversity. London: Sage publications ltd
Gilbert, P.K. (2012.Gender.New York: Oxford University press
Deraki, J. (2005). Women, Development and the UN. Bloomington: Indiana University Bloomington press
Tonesini, A. (2010). Feminist Philosophy. New York: Oxford University Press
Archer, J. (2002). Sex and gender. Cambridgeshire: Cambridge University press
WEEK 11
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Religion, its meaning, purposes, believes, religious practices, religious power. Health and health
care, problems, access cost and impact.
RELIGION
Durkheim defined religion as the interdependent system of beliefs and practices regarding things
that ate sacred -that meant beliefs and practices which unite all those who follow them in a single
moral community called church .
His last major book "The elementary form of religious life "(1912) has been the most original
work upon religion where suicide focused on a large amount of statistics varying from.
Durkheim set out to outdo two things established the fact that religion was not divinely or
supernaturally inspired and we infact a product of society .
Durkheim also sought to identify the common things that religion placed emphasis upon as well
as what effects those religion beliefs on the lives of all within society
According to Durkheim ,religion Is something eminently social .Religious representation -are
collective reality .Durkheim argued that religion is ,
a) -Is a source of solidarity.
b) -Religion provides a meaning of life.
c) -Religion provides cohesion.
d) -Religion provides purpose for all people.
e) -Religion provides means of communication and gathering for individuals to interact and
reaffirm social norms .
f) Religion provides purpose for studying elementary religion.first ,
g) -Durkheim wanted to clear all its obsession by writing a book on religion before his
death.
Secondly,Durkheim was influenced by scholars e.g W.Robertonsmith in his book the religion of
Semites ".1894 concluded that ancient religions Consisted primarily of institution and practices
that is of rites and errenous and that myths that is (beliefs and creeds )were out growths of this -
in fact his ideas later contributed the formation of sociological theory of religion
Durkheim developed the idea that study of religion is the most complex form that can be
understood, accomplished only when religion is studied in its most primitive and elementary
forms .
Thirdly,the confusion of the relationship between religion and science .According to Durkheim
science itself reveals that religion is merely the transfiguration of society .Durkheim studied the
Arunata tribes of Australian Aborigines to define religion ,he says he must first free the minds of
all preconceived ideas of the religion ,he also discards the notion that religion is co concerned
with the mysterious or supernatural phenomena ,with gods ,spirits and ghosts .
Additionally ,he also points out that religion is concerned with the ordinary and extra-ordinary
aspect of life .
And there are different types of ritual practices according to Durkheim, and they include,
-positive rituals-That refers to those that the people are obliged to follow .
-Negative rituals -that refers to practices which people are obliged not to follow .
-peculiar rituals -that refers to practicesbof awarding punishment to thosebwho have desisted
from norms and dictates of bestablished beliefs .
Durkheim in generalisation says ,
-All essential elements of religion ,thought and life ought to be found at least in the most
primitive religion .
Durkheim stated that the first attempt should made a study religion in its simplest form.Hence it
can be possible to go deeply into other including the religion in advanced society .To say
totemism is the simplest religion implies an evolutionist conception of religious history ,his
implicitly of acknowledging that religion has own evolution from single origin.
-secondly,Durkheim view of religion as socially determined led him to seek to establish crucial
religion beliefs and ritual practices .
However there are some of criticisms
FACTORS AFFECTING THE COST OF HEALTH

CARE.
Advanced technology
Despite the advancement that comes with scientific breakthrough, the cost of
accessing quality medicine and other prescriptions is relatively high. The
companies that manufacture drugs and medicine have been manipulative and
exploitive due to the demands thereby raising the costs. For instance, Kenya and
other third world countries have not advanced to this level yet, thereby relying on
developed countries for these drugs. The cost involved is very high affecting the
cost of healthcare.
Poor infrastructure
In third world countries, there’s lack of proper infrastructure, such as roads. These
demerits of accessibility and flexing of services in reference to the health sector.
Poor roads linking to hospitals causes an increasing in price relating to
transportation costs of both drugs and patients to the hospitals. For example, in
Kenya, most roads are damaged therefore transport cost is doubled causing the
price of drugs to increase.
Increased corruption rate

This reduces the amount of money funded to hospitals making the system not to
run well. As a result this increases the amount of charges to be paid by patients
making it difficult for some citizens to afford quality services. For example, in
Kenya, people who are in charge of managing this money end up using the money
for their own benefit. Therefore, this makes the system in the hospitals not to run
well.
Reduced hospital funding

Health care industry services depend on the amount funded to hospitals by private
and public sectors. When the amount funded is low in the health care industry is
not able to deliver quality services to the patients. For example, in Kenya, the
health sector was developed from the National Government to the County
Government in 2013. This means that the county government was to directly
manage the health care system. This led to a change in operation hence funding
was reduced thereby affecting services in the health sector.
Large population of uninsured families

There are high unemployment rates in the world today. This means that many
people do not have health covers from their employers hence makes it difficult to
afford proper medications. This causes many people to be vulnerable to diseases,
illness and possible death. For example in Kenya, the government through National
Hospital Insurance Fund (NHIF) is targeting to ensure all of its citizens even those
in subsistence sector so as to make health care services affordable and equitable to
all its citizens.
Shortage of staff
Due to reduced amount of money funded to this sector, there is reduced numbers
of doctors and nurses who get overworked. As a result they deliver poor services
like giving overdoses or sometimes misuse of materials. This leads to increase in
death rates in the health care industry. For example, in Kenya, there’s crisis of
doctors and nurses leading to poor services rendered by public hospitals.
Poor management
This is where some of the materials from public hospitals are stolen or transferred
to private hospitals. As a result, this leads to shortage of drugs in public hospitals.
Most of the people are not able to get treatment from private hospitals since they
are more expensive. They end up since there is shortage of drugs in public
hospitals, as a result, the price of drugs in public hospitals increases. For example,
hospitals run by a board of members who misappropriate funds and employ
incompetent workers, thus leading to poor performance of services.
Lacks of proper government structures

Improper government structures have adverse impact to the health sector. The
negligence by the government to ensure drugs are sufficient, leads to increase in
their price. Heads of hospitals employed by the government to run hospitals lack
experience because they are appointed from other fields due to their political
standing. Most hospitals lack modern methods and equipment for provision of
adequate services. For example, most hospitals underperform because of poor
government legislation.
Accessibility of health centers

Underdevelopment in many countries has led to few hospitals to serve a large
population of its citizens. Some Hospitals in Kenya are located far away from
where people live, therefore leading to patients to incur high expenses. Poor roads
also are a major factor to the underdevelopment and inaccessibility of hospitals.
For example, in Africa, patients walk long distances to find health care services.
The number of hospitals compared to the patients is very low.
Misappropriation of funds
This has led to escalation of costs in the health industry. This has led to
deterioration of people’s health with increase in diseases. For example, in Kenya,
massive losses of government funds through corruption.
Inadequate facilities
Vital equipment like x-ray machines, ultra-sound monitors among other required
tools and equipment are scarce in public a hospital which has led to poor medical
outcomes. This is mostly brought about by mismanagement of funds and resources
by the authorities, thus the funds allocated are inadequate to cater for the facilities.
For example, in Kenya, most hospitals do not have the required equipment to curb
some diseases; hence patients are referred to other countries for treatment; for
example kidney transplants, chemotherapy and other complex surgeries.
Minimal participation of Non-governmental organization

This leads to the health sector being understaffed and underequipped. Infant
mortality increases and cost of treatment increases. Less involvement of the non-
governmental organizations have led to minimal growth of hospitals to cater for
the needs of the patients in both the public sector and the private sector. For
instance, Kenya alonecannotsufficiently fund hospital and hence requiressupport
from non-governmental organizations.
Poverty
This has contributed to increase in mortality rate especially in remote areas like in
some parts of Kenya and sub-Saharan. Since most of the people in such areas are
below poverty line and they end up suffering and others dying since they cannot
afford money to pay for treatment, which as a result of increase of increase in cost
required for treatment because in such areas are rarely available. For example, in
Kenya, sixty-percent of the population live below the poverty line therefore they
cannot afford to cater for their health costs due to the high cost of living.
Conflicts
Sometimes cost of healthcare may rise as a result of increase in the number of
patients in hospitals. Some of the conflicts in the society may result to death and
injuries to people. In some cases, cost of the services rendered to patients may tend
to rise in order to reduce congestion in hospitals. For example, in Kenya, ethnical
conflicts mostly pastoralists and political affiliations.
External factors
In most recent times, neighbor countries interfere with other government to guard
their interests. This has led to affecting of hospitals and healthcare problems. These
policies affect the working and functioning at hospitals. For example; the Kenyan
government brought doctors from Cuba to work here which is costly to the expense
a burden on our budget yet we have our own doctors. This cost in importing of
foreign doctors hasin turn led to increase in cost of healthcare.
Poor implementation policies

The legislature has made policies that have led to decline in healthcare sector.
Leaders have lacked accountability and the right information in order to set up
plans for hospitals. They make laws which in turn affect workers. For example, the
government setting up referral hospitals in urban areas instead of setting them up in
rural areas to reduce the cost and the burden of accessing hospitals.
Theft and burglary
In third world, massive leakages of resources through theft and burglary either by
the workers or externally. In recent times, cases of missing drugs in public
hospitals have been on the rise. The scarcity of hospital equipments has also been
reported on theft by hospital workers. For example in Kenya, a patient will be
treated but will be referred to a chemist which is also owned by the doctor and sold
at higher prices. This has led to the health sector being at risk.
Expensive research
The government through its research policies in finding solutions and eradication
of epidemics. These research processes are expensive and costly. They require
skilled labour and sophisticated equipment or machines in which most cases is
imported. They are cost effective which their outcomes may sometime be positive
or negative. Research requires patience and its time consuming which brings it to it
having a heavy budget allocation. For instance, in Kenya, the government may
research on ways to eradicate malaria in areas prone to flooding.
Emergence of epidemics and diseases

In recent times, the world has reported at least new emerging diseases such as
Ebola and AIDS. These diseases have been emerging; the medics lack knowledge
and treatment to treat the diseases. This has become hazardous and disastrous. The
government in its ways to combat the menace, inputs a lot of resources through
research, educating the doctors and purchasing of drugs and equipment. For
example in Kenya, the rise of Ebola in neighboring countries have alarmed our
own government to carry out extensive research and updating its health personnel.
Education
Many people get silk because they are not well informed about certain diseases.
This is because of lack of information by healthcare stakeholders to the people.
When the spread of diseases adversely increases, it is costly to compact its
spreading. It is time effective and expensive as it is viral. Therefore in order to
ensure the cost of healthcare is not expensive, thegovernment needs to inform and
educate its on methods and precautions to avoid getting ill through channels like
mass media or door to door education. For example in order to control malaria, the
government of Kenya must educate on how to drain stagnant water, clearing the
bushes and advocating for mostly children and pregnant mothers to sleep under
mosquito nets.
Inaccessibility of hospitals
Like most African countries,Kenya also as a problem of fewer hospitals to cater for
a population over 40 million people.50 years after the end of colonial era, still
underdevelopment is the major problem .This has caused the health sector to be in
a poor state today.This has been caused by massive looting and corruption in
public hospitals.it has also been triggered by electing of incompetent leaders to
parliament. Poor roads have also led inaccessibility of hospitals.This has burdened
the people who are sick to reach these hospitals therefore,they spend a lot of
money to acquire health services.For example a Kenyan citizen will have to travel
from a rural area to urban over 50 km to get treatment.
REFERENCES
Marthe, R . (1996).Cost-effectiveness in health and medicine.London:Oxford publishers.
.
Amanda,B. (2012).The cost of hope. London:Random House publishers.
Michael,J.(1998).Health for all .London:Aldridge press centre.
Heslope,P.(1996).Confidential inquiry into premature deaths of people with

learningdisabilities.Bristol:Norah fly research centre.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HEALTH CARE

Lack of health workers
Most health companies aren’t willing to train their new hires,

since they want people who can show up on their first day and
go creating a complicated employment cycle since it encourages
young workers toapply but again blocks them from entry with
experience requirements an example can be illustrated by how
companies strive to complete large quantities of work with
smaller teams hence they don’t have the peers to help out their
work load
Long working hours
Due to the shortage of health workers those hired will probably

work longer hours than required when a company has ahandful
of employees, they will automatically require those employees
towork longer so as to make up for the workforce shortage since
the company always wants more
Ethical challenges
Ethical challenges in healthcare is abig issue. There are stories

to support the claim;in 2016 The British Broadcast Center
reports,Dr.Paolo was accused of providing misleading medical
research which led to deaths of patients.The incident hurt the
character and trust of medical leaders.It also creates legal costs
and rise in malpractise insurance coverage
.Extreme cost for advanced degrees
The post-secondary education has become very expensive for

the medical course.This has led to some unqualified persons
streaming into the healthcare firm illegally due to highcosts of
studies
.More people need healthcare
This has been a problem in healthcare for the past years.More

and more people than expected or needed require medical
attention.This can be as aresult of rapid population increase as
time goes by.This has led to the percentage of people living
unhealthy lifestyle increasing and this means that there are more
people that require medical attention
.Healthcare rising costs
As many people strive tolive longer and healthier healthcare

concerns also increases and so does cost.The healthcare cost and
spending often rise at rates exceeding inflation,and it’s expected
to rise in future
Millennials as consumers
Todays workforce is composed of more than 83.1 million

millennials,whose health needs and the way in which they obtain
care differ vastly from previous generations i.e 93perent
ofmillennial prefer retail health clinics.Their reliance on
technology like telemedicine will force traditional hosiptals and
health system to change how they offer and deliver care
Too much unnecessary care
This accounts from onethird to one half of all healthcare costs

which equals to a lot of money which leads to lost productivity
and disability
Avoidable harm to patients

This healthcare most common problem.Statistics are staggering.
Example one in four medicare beneficiaries that are admitted to
a hospital suffer from harm during the stay.Early elective
deliveries harm women and new borns ,for example babies born
at 37-39 completed weeks gestation are at higher risk of death
Perverse incentives in how we pay for care
Traditionally,healthplans,medicare and Medicaid pay providers

for whatever services they deliver regardless of whether the
service truly benefits the patient.The harsh truth about early
elective deliveries is that our payment system encourages states
like south Corolina and Texas are trying to reverse the
incentives,as are many employers unfortunately they are the
exception that proves the terrible rule of insane payment
incentives
FACTORS AFFECTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
Lack of health insurance

Several socioeconomic,ethnic,racial and other minority groups
lack adequate health insurance compared with the majority
population.Such individuals are more likely to delay health care
and can go without the required medication that they should
have purchased
lack of health care provider
In areas where minority population is concentrated such as

inner rural areas and cities the number of health facilities is
inadequate
.Languge barriers
Language is at the core of communication,thus when an

immigrant has difficulty speaking the language of the host
country it impactson the healthcare service access
Age
Older patients are often living on a fixed income and cannot

afford to pay for their healthcare services.The older people are
also likely to miss the information about health care which are
mostly communicate through the internet e.g watching videos
about different remedies of different diseases on you tube
Irregular source of care
Ethnic or racial minorities are less likely to be able to visit the

same doctor on a regular basis and tend to rely more on clinics
and emergency rooms without a regular healthcare
source,people have more difficulty obtaining their prescriptions
and attending necessary appointments
.Legal obstacles
Low income immigrant groups are more likely to experience

legal barriers like insurance coverage through Medicaid not
available to immigrants who have been resident in the united
States for less than 5 years
Acceptability coverage
This is the capacity of the health services to be appealing and

sought bypeople even if sources are available and
accessible,they may not be used if the population doesn’t accept
them.Acceptability includes religion and gender aspects and
aspects of affordability that relate to peoples perceptions of
health services such as expected costs and quality of care.
Cultural barriers
Traditional beliefs and practices hinder participants access to

healthcare services particularly those from rural areas
i.ephilippines, they find it hard to adopt to the new health
practice of the host country for instance, it is said that their
traditional practices have been part of their life since birth .Thus
accepting new health practice affect their accustomed ways of
maintaining health
Lack of financial resources
Insufficient finance is a barrier to health care for many people

but access to health care is reduced most among minority
populations.Racial and ethnic minorities are often given a health
insurance plan which limits the amount of health services
available to them as well as number of providers they can use
Structural barriers
Example of structural barriers include,health providers,inability
to obtain convenient appointment times and lengthy waiting
room times.All these factors reduce the likelihood of a person
successfully making and keeping their health care appointment.
DETERMINANTS OF COST OF
HEALTHCARE
1.HEALTH INSURANCE INDUSTRY
Insurance has grown and has had a great impact on healthcare costs.as is commonly known,private
insurance has not provided sufficientcoverage for medical care,particularly in such settings as the
home,partialhospitalization,and psychiatric rehabilitation programs.
Example.a person with an insurance cover or policy is likely to pay less than a person without an
insurance cover.
Insurance covers also don’t cover all types of illnesses hence a person suffering from an insurable illness
will have less payments to make as some will be covered.
2.ADVANCES IN MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY
Expensive technologies may not always be applicable to healthcare.however,patients are compelled to

avail of these technologies because they have this mindset that these technologies provide better and
assured service,whatever the cost maybe.ofcourse,state of the art facilities like these are most of the
time very expensive.
Example.hospitals with expensive and advanced facilities are likely to cost more than the rest.
People with health problems that require advanced facilities for treatment or treatment e.g MRI scans
for cancer patients will incur higher costs at the health centres.
3.CHANGES IN DEMOGRAPHICS
The number of births and deaths,especially the aging population has a great impact on increasing
healthcare costs.elderly patients who are admitted have complex discharge problems that often result in
a longer lenghth of stay than Is typically required.morever their conditions are more likely to be moe
complicated thus making their healthcare costs even higher.
Example.older people are more likely to have complicated problems hence pay more in health care
costs.
Since old people are deemed more likely to be prone to getting ill,the cost of their monthly pays for
insurance covers is also likely to be more than that of an average person.
Toddlers or babies are also likely to have more pays as they’re fragile and require constant medical care.
4.GOVERNMENT SUPPORT FOR HEALTHCARE
The government has a vital role in helping reduce the increasing healthcare costs today.especially in the
high costs of pharmaceuticals for example; since patients have to take long term medications and many
of these are expensive.the government should then do their part to compensate the other finances of
medicine to these companies to make it cost reasonably in the market.
Example.healthcare is certainly going to be cheaper with proper government support to this sector.
Government owned facilities are likely to be cheaper compared to private sector health stations since
theyre funded by the government and are thus not more profit oriented.
e.g getting treated at aga khan is definitely going to cost more than the same treatment at Kenyatta
national hospital.
5.CONSUMER EXPECTATIONS
With too much expectation,the consumer tends to have discontent on certain medical services thus
make them seek for a second opinion.these actions make them spend twice and even thrice the cost of
medical services.discontent on immediate recoveries also applies.
Example.a patient in need to recover quickly might seek for another way to heal and will thus spend
more.
Also,a patient with a negligible medical condition e.g common cold is more likely to forego medical
treatment in the view of getting well soon compared to a person expecting their illness to get more
complicated in the future.
6.INEFFICIENT MEDICAL SYSTEM AND MEDICAL PROVIDERS
Most insurers provide a fee for service system to doctors,healthcare providers ,hospitals and other
medical facilities by reimbursing for every treatment,procedure or visit when paired with a
disintergrated medical system.it leads to overtreatment and repetitive tests which gets accounted as
healthcare costs.
Example.an inefficient healthcare system may lead to further complications requiring further treatment
hence leading to more spending on healthcare.
e.g the child who had pins sewed inside his body due to medical incompetence had to undergo critical
surgeries for the removal and hence had to undergo further costs.
7.MAJORITY OF UNHEALTHY POPULATION
In some areas,majority of some people might be ill or sick.their could be inflations of several health
issues e.gdiabetes,heartdisease,cancer and other chronic health conditions.treatment and management
of lifestyle related problems and other chronic illnesses have further accelerated healthcare costs.
Example.increase in such chronic sicknesses cause rise in number of sick people hence more requisition
for healthcare which causes rise in the costs.
In some instances it’s the opposite as cure or treatment is offered as charity when a lot of people have a
common health issue in a region.
8.CONSUMER’S LACK OF INFORMATION
More often than not,people who are insured through their job are ignorant towards their medical
treatments and its relative costs .with very little information about any treatment and even for its
slightest chance of success people tend to make uninformed choices about their healthcare treatments
creating uneccessary hike in medical expenditure and their coverage.
Example.consumers with little healthcare information are more subject to complications and hence
spend more on healthcare costs.
Also,illiterate patients are prone to not know the exact costs of their treatments hence are subject to
being taken advantage of by the service providers and are thus prone to having to pay more due to lack
of medical information.
9.HEALTHCARE PRODUCT AND SERVICE PRICES
The level and growth of healthcare prices have a big impact on healthcare spending.studies have
consistently pointed to price growth as the cause of between 10 percent and 25 percent of healthcare
spending growth.
Example.high costs of drugs and equipment is more likely to lead to high costs of healthcare services.
Health stations that pay more for their service providers are going to have their services costing more to
meet the incurred costs.
10.MARKET POWER
Provider market power also drives spending growth.hospitals,physicians and other providers have been
consolidating at a rapid rate and merging with others can give them greater market power over insurers
and leverage in payment rate negotiations,studies have found consolidation can lead to an increase of 5
percent or more in hospital prices.
Example.healthcare providers with more market power are able to dictate prices hence there is going to
be higher healthcare costs.
e.g Kenyatta national hospital being an influential force in the market is likely to be more controlling of
service pricing compared to a regular district hospital.
11.DISEASE OUTBREAKS
Outbreaks of certain diseases is sometimes experienced in some regions.this leads to a spike in demand
for medication or treatment of the disease.healthcare providers take such opportunities to hike prices
due to the unavoidable need for their services.healthcare care costs hence go higher when there is high
demand.
Example.malaria medications are expected to be expensive in a time of its outbreak.
After several outbreaks leading to research hence eradication of measles hence there is less medical
costs for affected areas after the eradication.
12.RISE IN POPULATION
Due to the rise in population in the years,demand for more healthcare centres and efficient healthcare
systems has been on the rise too.with these also comes an increase in the cost of healthcare as their an
increase in healthcare related problems and vices hence a bigger demand for the services.
Example.higher populations means bigger demand for healthcare systems hence an increase in the
costs.
High populations also mean easy rise and spread of communicable diseases hence largely populated
areas are more likely to have more health related spending due to the higher risks of outbreaks and fast
spreads.
13.GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION
The geographical location of a region plays a huge role in dictating the costs of healthcare in the
region.in some areas,people have to travel for long distances to be able to access medical facilities.in
situations like these,people end up spending more on healthcare.equipment and drugs also take time to
reach some far healthcare stations hence tend to be a little expensive.
Example.people in some rural areas with no healthcare facilities have to travel to places with such
facilities and thus spend more in doing so.
Kisumu due to its close relation to lake victoria is more prone to malaria outbreaks whereas arid areas
e.g west pokot is more likely to nutrients deficiency diseases in their population hence more net health
costs due to the same.
14.MEDICAL ADVANCES
Some big advances have been made in the medical area in the past.some of these advances have seen
the eradication of certain disease completely through vaccination etc.this has thus led to a significant
drop in healthcare costs due to the wiping out of some diseases.
Example.measles was wiped out hence reduction in costs for its treatment.
Inventions of vaccines against diseases e.gpolio,hepatitisetc has led to low spending on them as they are
hardly contracted by people anymore.
15.PRIVATE AND PUBLIC HEALTHCARE FACILITIES
The type of healthcare whether private or public that a person seeks also determines the cost of the
services.publicly owned healthcare systems tend to be cheaper as theyre simple and accessible to all
members of the public.private healthcare systems on the other side are way more expensive as they
offer better services and have better facilities.
Example.aghakan in Kenya is way more expensive as its privately owned than KNH which is a public
medical facility.
More people are therefore likely to seek medical attention at publicly owned facilities compared to
private ones unless they are financially able.
REFERENCE
1. Finkelman,A.W. (1992). Psychiatric Home Care.Gaithersburg,Maryland :

Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
John,D.B. (1996). The A-Z Of Social Research.NewYork : Brixton Publishers

WEEK 12
ISSUES TO LOOK AT
Social change: work, organization, economy, state, politics, population, environment, social
movement, urbanization and its effects. Modern and traditional society
AGENTS OF SOCIAL CHANGE
Introduction.
Social change is an alteration in the social order of a society which includes change in
nature, social behaviors and relations. Throughout the historical development of
their discipline, sociologists have borrowed models of social change from other academic
fields. When evolution became the predominant model for understanding biological
change, ideas of social change took on an evolutionary cast, and, though other models
have refined modern notions of social change, evolution persists as an underlying
principle.
Other sociological models created analogies between social change and the West’s
technological progress. In the mid-20th century, anthropologists borrowed from the
linguistic theory of structuralism to elaborate an approach to social change
called structuralfunctionalism. This theory postulated the existence of certain basic
institutions that determine social behavior. Because of their interrelated nature, a change
in one institution will affect other institutions.
Various theoretical schools emphasize different aspects of change. Marxisttheory
suggests that changes in modes of production can lead to changes in class systems, which
can prompt other new forms of change or incite class conflict. A different view is conflict
theory, which operates on a broad base that includes all institutions. The focus is not only
on the purely divisiveaspects of conflict, because conflict, while inevitable, also brings
about changes that promote social integration. Taking yet another approach, structural-
functional theory emphasizes the integrating forces in society that ultimately minimize
instability.
Social change can evolve from a number of different sources, including contact with
other societies, changes in the ecosystem, technological change, and population growth
and other demographic variables. Social change is also spurred by ideological, economic,
and political movements.
For example, in Kenya we had communities migrating searching for suitable places all
over the country where they could live. In the event of settling down, some superior
communities displaced the less to disruption of the way of life that had been
adapted. Kenyan communities were attracted to Kenya from different regions by good
climatic conditions. They moved into the country between 2000BC and 1500BC. The
country has three main ethno – linguistic groups, namely Cushitic, Nilotic and Bantu
speakers. Over the years, however, this linguistic grouping has changed as a result of
intermarriage and other groups of people having migrated into Kenya from other regions
of the world.
The social changes include the following;

1. Technology.
Some would say improvement in technology has made our lives easier. In “The world Is
Flat”, Thomas Friedman(2005) argues that technology is a driving force behind social
change and globalization. Countries which took advantage of globalization have
expanded the most compared to others. A good example is countries like Japan, China
and most European nations.
China and Japan have greatly invested in creation of modern equipment that makes man’s
life easier. They have invented domestic based items like electric cleaners and cookers
including robots. If we compare to how in the old days’ people lived, it was time
consuming in finishing up duties unlike currently huge tasks can be completed within
seconds due to the effect of technology. Creation of modern communication devices have
greatly changed social lives both positively and negatively. People are able to
communicate and share information over distant locations in a short time impacting on
man easiness of no straining unlike during the old times.
Also today it’s easy and convenient to conduct business online over wide locations due to
availability of the internet. This in turn saves on movement from one place to another to
coordinate business deals
. For example,a Kenyan university student can be able to work online for a company in
England. The person is readily earning income right from home and also keeps one busy
and away from destructive minds.
Advances in medical technology have taken a huge stride whereby it allows infertile
women to bear children, which indirectly leads to increase in population. In the past it
was difficult for a barren woman to fit into society due to the inability to bear children
who were the important property in a marriage institution. Technology has made it easier
for the unfortunate women to visit hospitals and being able to bear children. Easiness
therefore prevails in the community leading to social life being simple.
Advances in agricultural technology have allowed us to genetically alter and patent food
products.Green houses have made growth and supply of food products to the people.
Also improvement in plant propagation has seen agriculture take a huge step towards
economic growth. Not forgetting introduction of new crops that can survive in bad
seasons has also helped the situation.
2.Family.
Influencing society to change involves not just being a parent and citizen and building
strong families and strong communities, it’s also about going to work, paying the bills
and feeding our families. There’s other work involved and it can involve the hard
stuff, being involved not only in our wider communities but also default membership
in the micro disability world. It’s also about being advocates for our family members,
standing up and speaking out, challenging, being members of school committees, and
staying in touch with family and friends.
Creating social change is about being active members of communities that can
include and embrace us, reject and exclude. Promoting social change is also about
expanding access to community based services for people with disabilities that
support people to get the support they need in the communities where they live. And
at the end of a short simple day of work, its simply about families with lived
experience of disability getting on and doing what families at their best. In general
speaking families that have a solid relations have appositive impact in society to
others improving social change and best living.
For example, the family of president Kenyatta through the first lady has also helped
in healthcare and family sensation.
3. Environment.
Individuals and the environment affect each other. As human populations move into more
vulnerable areas, there is an increase in the number of people affected by natural
disasters.Changes in the natural environment can also lead to changes in a society itself. We see
the clearest evidence of this when a major hurricane, an earthquake, or another natural disaster
strikes. Three recent disasters illustrate this phenomenon. In April 2010, an oil rig operated by
BP, an international oil and energy company, exploded in the Gulf of Mexico, creating what
many observers called the worst environmental disaster in U.S. history; its effects on the ocean,
marine animals, and the economies of states and cities affected by the oil spill will be felt for
decades to come. In January 2010, a devastating earthquake struck Haiti and killed more than
250,000 people.Slower changes in the environment can also have a large social impact. As noted
earlier, one of the negative effects of industrialization has been the increase in pollution of our
air, water, and ground. For example, today in the city of Nairobi a lot of waste is being dumped
everywhere affecting the lives of people.
Climate change, a larger environmental problem, has also been relatively slow in arriving but
threatens the whole planet in ways that climate change researchers have already documented and
will no doubt be examining for the rest of our lifetimes and beyond.
We both strongly believe that humans have come to a turning point in terms of our destruction of
ecological resources and endangerment of human health. A daily look at the major newspapers
points, without fail, to worsening environmental problems. Humans created these problems and
we have the power to resolve them. This can be possible if the governments set aside funds to
deal with the major problems changing and affecting the social lives of its citizens. Naturally, the
longer we wait, the more devastating the problems will become; and the more we ignore the
sociological dimensions of environmental decline the more our proposed solutions will fail.
Air pollution is also another environmental issue. Most air pollution stems from the burning of
fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal. This problem occurs not only in the wealthy industrial
nations but also in the nations of the developing world
For example, countries such as China and India have some of the worst air pollution. In
developing nations, mortality rates of people in cities with high levels of particulate matter are
15%–50% higher than the mortality rates of those in cleaner cities. In European countries, air
pollution is estimated to reduce average life expectancy by 8.6 months. The World Health
Organization (2008) World Health Organization. (2008), does not exaggerate when it declares
that air pollution “is a major environmental health problem affecting everyone in developed and
developing countries alike.”
4.Modernization.
Modernization describes the processes that increase the amount of specialization and
differentiation of structure in societies resulting in the move from an undeveloped society
to developed, technologically driven society. By this definition, the level of modernity
within a society is judged by the sophistication of its technology, particularly as it relates
to infrastructure, industry, and the like. However, it is important to note the inherent
ethnocentric bias of such assessment. Why do we assume that those living in semi-
peripheral and peripheral nations would find it so wonderful to become more like the core
nations? Is modernization always positive?
One contradiction of all kinds of technology is that they often promise time-saving
benefits, but somehow fail to deliver. How many times have you ground your teeth in
frustration at an Internet site that refused to load or at a dropped call on your cell phone?
Despite time-saving devices such as dishwashers, washing machines, and, now, remote
control vacuum cleaners, the average amount of time spent on housework is the same
today as it was fifty years ago. And the dubious benefits of 24/7 e-mail and immediate
information have simply increased the amount of time employees are expected to be
responsive and available. While once businesses had to travel at the speed of the U.S.
postal system, sending something off and waiting until it was received before the next
stage, today the immediacy of information transfer means there are no such breaks.
Further, the Internet bought us information, but at a cost. The morass of information
means that there is as much poor information available as trustworthy sources. There is a
delicate line to walk when core nations seek to bring the assumed benefits of
modernization to more traditional cultures. For one, there are obvious procapitalist biases
that go into such attempts, and it is short-sighted for western governments and social
scientists to assume all other countries aspire to follow in their footsteps. Additionally,
there can be a kind of neo-liberal defense of rural cultures, ignoring the often crushing
poverty and diseases that exist in peripheral nations and focusing only on a nostalgic
mythology of the happy peasant. It takes a very careful hand to understand both the need
for cultural identity and preservation as well as the hopes for future growth.
For example, cities have developed in Africa through modernization.
5.Social Institutions.
Each change in a single social institution leads to changes in all social institutions. For
example, the industrialization of society meant that there was no longer a need for large
families to produce enough manual labor to run a farm. Further, new job opportunities
Were in close proximity to urban centers where living space was at a premium. The result
is that the average family size shrunk significantly.
This same shift toward industrial corporate entities also changed the way we view
government involvement in the private sector, created the global economy, provided new
political platforms, and even spurred new religions and new forms of religious worship
like Scientology. It has also informed the way we educate our children: originally schools
were set up to accommodate an agricultural calendar so children could be home to work
the fields in the summer, and even today, teaching models are largely based on preparing
students for industrial jobs, despite that being an outdated need. A shift in one area, such
as industrialization, means an interconnected impact across social institutions.
Roughly speaking, an institution that is an organization or system of organizations
consists of an embodied structure of differentiated roles. These roles are defined in terms
of tasks, and rules regulating the performance of those tasks. Moreover, there is a degree
of interdependence among these roles, such that the performance of the constitutive tasks
of one role cannot be undertaken, or cannot be undertaken except with great difficulty,
unless the tasks constitutive of some other role or roles in the structure have been
undertaken or are being undertaken. Further, these roles are often related to one another
hierarchically, and hence involve different levels of status and degrees of authority.
According to collective acceptance accounts, social institutions are created and
maintained by collective acceptance. Collective acceptance accounts are constructivist;
institutional facts and, therefore, institutions exist only in so far as they are collectively
believed to exist or are otherwise the content of a collective attitude. Such collective
attitudes are not to be understood as reducible to individual attitudes or aggregates
thereof. Moreover, collective acceptance is not simply a matter of psychological attitudes
standing in some straightforward causal relation to the external world as is the case.
For example, with common or garden-variety intentions, including the joint intentions
definitive of basic joint actions, schools have promoted social change.
6. Politics and politicians.

Today, popular resistance comes from many fronts, inspiring new organizations and
movements. Battles against racist cops, campaigns against environmental criminals,
shaming of corrupt bank-hucksters and the exposure of the revolving-door government
con artists are but a few of the fronts in with the broad left is confronting a capitalist
system in crisis.
In the U.S. today, class and class-consciousness are being transformed. A new proletariat
is in formation, one reaching back to the Luddites at the dawn of capitalism and pointing
forward, calling for the end of social injustice and inequality, of the redistribution of
political power and economic wealth. This new proletariat is the emerging agent of
social change leaving behind relics of the past, including political parties and the old
working class. The adoption of Kenya's new constitution in 2010 provided a solid
foundation for the growth of vibrant democracy that is supposed to lead to sweeping
social progress. The constitution automatically provides for social and economic rights
and free expression. Despite this success, Article 43 on the rights to food, housing, health
and education has not met ordinary Kenyans’ aspirations, especially for those living in
urban slums and rural set-ups who are faced by widespread poverty and deep-rooted
inequality which have intermittently giving rise to conflict and violence. The majority has
limited access to basic rights, resources, education and are prone to infectious diseases
and AIDS-related deaths.
Life is grim. Heed keenly all the voices in urban slums and rural areas, even from the
mentally unstable, because that mental instability could be socially constructed and
expression of our possible collective condition. This condition should not be obscured by
the sentimental philosophy of the pulpit, where everything is outsourced to God and
ordinary people encouraged to believe that justice and goodness will somehow result
from some deity reaching down through the clouds to sweep all our sorrows away, wipe
our tears, build roads, schools and most important of all dish out money to the poor, idle
and jobless youths.
For example, in Kenya compound ourselves and create an impact by coming out in a
clearer, more consistent and compelling voice and propose conceivable actions to
demand the realization of Article 43, that section of the constitution would be a sheer
blueprint, like Vision 2030 prepared by the Kenyan government as a guide for Kenya’s
much-vaunted long-term development strategy.
With the promulgation of the new constitution, the fight against poverty needs to be
renewed and intensified.
7.Education.
Education enables a man to acquire virtue, by making him social, interactive, and
disciplined. It opens the virtue of learning by helping him better absorb information and
sharing the same. Education is considered the most important devise by the ruling classes
to ensure that the society largely conforms to their ideas and interests. In the traditional
educational system, the role of education was to transmit a fixed way of life to the
students as society itself was an unchanged and static entity. However, in this modern
context, education is seen as an instrument of social change brought about by changing
man’s attitude and outlook. It is a process which enables every individual to effectively
participate in the activities of society, and to make positive contribution to the progress of
society. During times of social change, the role of education in the services of the nation
is emphasized. When things are going well, more experimentation with education is
supported, and more idealistic goals are pursued. Education can initiate social changes by
bringing about a change in outlook and attitude of man. It can bring about a change in the
pattern of social relationships and thereby it may cause social changes.
Education can be used as a tool to empower the individual. Through child centered
learning, students are able to see their own role in transformation. Societal change comes
from the collective transformation of the individuals within that society. It has been
accepted as one major agency of socializing agents. In describing education as an
instrument of social change, three things are important: the agents of change, the content
of change, and the social background of those who are sought to be changed.
Educational institutions under the control of different cultural groups reflect the values of
those groups which support and control education. In this situation, teachers impart
specific values, aspirations and the children.
For example, Social reformers, who were educated emphasized values like removal of
caste restrictions, equity of women, doing away with social evils.
8. Culture.
Culture is a way of life of a certain ethnic group or nation at large. Culture affects social
change in fields of invention of new ideas e.g. Computer technology, which has
revolutionized the world making life simple and easy to live. It also brings change in
discovery, when people take note of existing elements of the world and create new social
patterns.
Culture is also in the field of diffusion whereby products, ideas and social patterns spread
across societies.
For example, during the community migration that took place in Kenya, most groups
adopted the cultures of their neighbors and perfected in them.
9.Attitude and values.

Social change is brought about by our attitude and values affecting society due to the
things we put in high esteem, the way we relate and behave affects the changes that will
occur in society. The way communities have a certain misconception affects its relevance
in the lives of people. Like some people can have different views on a referendum
proposal whereby each one has their beliefs on the opinions.
For example, politicians when they show certain attitudes in public, a message is passed.
10. Religion.
In the whole world religion is common among the people. In this case different
communities have got different opinions and beliefs on certain religions that they believe
are correct. In the event of trying to justify the relevance of their religions over others in
the world, social change occurs whereby some people tend to change religion, Marriage
also can compel one to change his/her religion to unify the family. Also the clergy men
are strong influencers in social change in order with social change.
For example, church organizations in Kenya educate the people on the values of social
change and their importance.
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH POPULATION

GROWTH.
POVERTY
Poverty does cause population growth and population growth does cause
poverty. Economic development means increasing control of both parts of the
cycle; the ability to choose your family size and the ability to make a living with
something more than your hands and the hands of your children. Some people
believe that poor people are motivated to have large families so they will have
lots of children and grandchildren to take care of them when they are old. This is
a great belief mostly to African cultures in that they see one having lots of
children is a sign of wealth to them and this earns them great respect in the
community. Poverty can also also give rise to increased date rates due to scarcity
of basic needs like food, water and shelter. Forexample; north eastern part of
Kenya has a low population growth due scarcity of human basic needs like food,
water and shelter.
HEALTH CONDITIONS
Malnutrition and diseases are concerns that must be addressed by regions that
experience population growth. Even in developed nations such as United States,
poor, displaced or elderly citizens are unable to receive access to sufficient health
care. In highly populated urban areas of these developed nations, just as much as
in third world nations, disease can easily spread when people are residing in close
quarters. Aperson’s susceptibility to disease like malaria and respiratory infections
is aggravated by malnutrition. Profound immune- suppression is also exacerbated
in victims of HIV as a result of malnutrition. This include proper distribution of
health services even to the country parts of a given region. This will reduce the
rate of infections at a given area hence enhancing proper population growth.
Regions which experience absence of health centers experience hard times when
it comes to matters involving there human life which may lead spread of any
emerging disease and may cause increase in date rates thus affecting population
growth. Forexample; arise of diseases like Ebola in third world countries like
Somalia can affect a large region thus lowering the growth rate of the region.
ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES.
Land, one of the nature’s most valuable resources, may suffer soil erosion as a
result of overgrazing and the unwise use of farming techniques. Scarceresources
may also include food, water, access to adequate health and even education
opportunities. Wise allocation of resources through social circumscription
measures may alleviate such problems as they are experienced within dense
populations. Highly populated urban regions may have better access to industrial
remedies for these problems than the less populated rural counterparts. This will
force many from rural areas to migrate to urban areas so as to gain access to
these arising industries hence increasing population growth in the urban
centres.On the other hand,the rural regions will undergo slow growth rate due to
few number of people residing in those areas.For example; a city like Nairobi has
large population number due to presence of job opportunities through the
several number of industries compared to regions like Turkana which have
scarcity of resources hence its population growth is rated low.
CRIME
Population pressure has been cited as an instigator of anomie, which is a state of
alienation related to social standards that are either inflexible or altogether
absent. Subjects who experience anomie are often motivated to commit acts of
crime against fellow members of the society as a result of cultural conflicts,
conflicts of values or sex rule conflicts. Deviantbehaviors such as criminal acts
committed by sociopaths is often more difficult for investigators to detect in
highly populated areas than in sparsely populated regions. As a result of other
problems associated with a dense population, such as poverty and malnutrition,
crime is often the only way for people to gain access to a variety of resources.
Many of the current youths engage in robbery with violence which may end up
causing loss of lives by many. Some also find it difficult to solve problems which
come across them and they end up deciding to commit crimes, which really
affects the population growth in the given area. Forexample; terrorists who
robbed a Westgate some years back caused loss of lives to many people who
were in the place and this caused decrease in population growth in parts of the
region.
POLLUTION.
Issues such as air pollution stemming from industrial activity, waterborne
infections carried through unsanitary drinking water and mismanagement of solid
waste plague densely populated areas of the world. Major cities with high
populations create significant amount of pollution through factory waste and
automobile emissions .In the absence of sufficient regulation. Environmentalist
allege that these cities severely damage the earth’s atmosphere. Bycontrast,
underdeveloped regions with dense population can cause damage to the earth’s
soil via ground water pollution or crude farming techniques. This lead to arise of
poor conditions which affects human health and may cause diseases to a large
number of individuals. Forexample; water pollution in a given region can cause a
common disease to the whole region and may cause death to a number of
individuals hence affecting population growth in a negative way.
GOVERNMENT RELEIF PROGRAMS.
Injustices resulting a poor distribution of wealth within a highly populated society
tend to reveal inadequacies’ in governmental relief programs. Inbustling
urbanareas, such injustices may include a tradition of corruption within low
enforcement agencies, which are challenged to keep tabs on their vast networks
of employees. Less developed regions also subject to population pressure, tend to
exhibit the savage consequences of these injustice through uncontrollable
poverty levels, high levels of illiteracy and child abuse. Government agencies in
such regions can be rendered important with regard to their abilities to initiate
effective reform programs, because of insufficient funds and the inexperience of
leaders in implementing such reform measures. This may also include insufficient
supply of resources to different parts of a given region, this may cause insecurity
to the affected region. For example; if a country like Kenya fails to send military to
the boarder of Kenya and Somalia then the terrorists from Somalia can take the
advantage of exercising their violence to Kenyan people around the region.
GOVERNMENT DEBTS
There is a negative long run effect of government debt and population growth on
growth.it will lead to address of issues of break effects between government debt
and economic growth of the specific country. Due to an increase in tax, return
from investment decrease on the private sector of which as a result,
overallinvestment will decrease. The external debt exerts significant negative
impact on economic growth thus affecting population growth. For example;
developing countries like Kenya getting external debt from developed countries
like china.
FRAGILITY AND FAILURES OF STATES
Fragile state is a developing country characterized by weak state capacity or weak
state legitimacy leaving citizens vulnerable to a range of shocks while failed state
is a country with a government that cannot or will not deliver essential political
goods or public services to its citizens. This may include the failure of a state to
deliver minimal services of security and wellbeing. Fragile states have
characteristics that substantially impair there economic and social performance
which include weak governance, limited administrative capacity, chronic
humanitarian crises, persistent social tensions and often violence on the legacy of
armed conflict and civil war. Examples of failed states are Syria, Somaliaetc. which
have got failures in terms of security access, economic growth etc. to its people.
UNEMPLOYMENT
Rapid increase in population, technologicalchanges, lack of education or skills and
rising cost lead to financial, social and psychological problems may cause
unemployment. Thehigh population will result to lose of income due to the
majority of the unemployed experience a decline in their living standards and are
worse off out of work. This leads to decline in spending power and the rise of
falling into debt problems. When someone loses a job, a family is affected.
Workers loose income, while the country loses production and consumer
spending. This will further lower the economy of a country leading to low growth
rate. For example when one is jobless, he/she will have no ability to raise the
family needs will result to arise of poverty thus affecting population growth.
MISMANAGEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES
Every major advance in agriculture has allowed global population to increase.
Irrigations, the ability to clear large swaths of land for farming efficiently, and the
development of farm machines powered by fossil fuels allows people to grow
food and transport it to where it is needed. Poor management of these
agricultural resources may result to scarcity of food, water, nutrientsetc. which
may cause increased number of death rates, immigration and refugee crises thus
lowering the population growth rate. Forexample; the nyanza region of Kenya
there is a part called Ahero where people grow rise in mostly small scale which
many do not take it as productive to them and may find themselves migrating
away from the region.
CLIMATE CHANGE AND GLOBAL WARMING
In developing countries, as contribution to local emissionsgrows, population size
and growth rates will become significant factors in magnifying the impacts of
global warming, “if we cannot stabilize climate and we cannot stabilizepopulation,
thenthere is not an ecosystem on earth that we can save. “Increase in global
temperature have created concern about effects of climatic variability in
population and climate has been shown to affect population dynamics in an
increasing number of species for example the migratory landbirds,climate change
would affect some peoples human health, infrastructure and transportation
systems as well as energy, food and water supplies. For example the northern
countries of the world which experience cold ice at different times in a year cause
many to migrate hence affecting population growth negatively in those parts .
MIGRATION AND REFUGEE CRISES
Population pressure and how push and pull factors in different nations refugee
crisis have projected impact of migration upon future population size which can
be determined by comparing a projection without migration and projection
including migration but with the same rates of fertility and mortality. The causes
of migration include; social, political and economic aspects. The effects of
migrations also vary for both sending and host nations. Examples include
European countries being host for African countries refugees.
POLITICAL INSTABILITY
Political instability has a negative effect in both population growth and economic
growth for at least two reasons.First,it disturbs market activities and
laborrelations, which have direct adverse effect on productivity.Second,political
instability decreases population and economic growth because it affects
investment of different resources like industries ,dams etc.negatively. Regarding
the channels of transmission, wefind that political instability affects growth by
slowing productivity growth and to a smaller degree, physical and human capital
accumulation. This results to arise of wars in different parts of the affected region
which may result to arise of increased death rates. For example wars in countries
like Libya, Sudanetc. which came as a result of political instability gave rise to
increased death rates in the region hence the population growth in the region
was hindered.
WATER AND FOOD SCARCITY
Limiting factors to population growth such as water scarcity and food scarcity in
different parts of a given nation causes lower birth rates, increased death rates or
lead to emigration. For population growth rate to be healthy, food, water,
nutrients and space must be available. An increase in population would also bring
industrialization and urbanization which causes environmental problems which
directly affects the quality of water supply which will further ruin the surrounding.
This will lead a riseof limiting factors of population growth in different parts of the
affected nation. For example; turkana only favors residence who have been there
for a long time and not people from different parts for they will find hard time to
adapt the conditions of the region itself.
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION
Rapid population growth in a country like India is threatening the environment
through expansion and intensification of agriculture, uncontrolled growth of
urbanization and industrialization, and destruction of natural habitats. Rapid
population growth plays an important role in declination per capital agricultural
land, forest and water resources. Population pressure contributes degradation
and soil erosion, thus affecting productive resource base of the economy.
Theenvironmental effects like ground water and surface water contamination; air
pollution and global warming are of growing concern owing to increasing
consumption levels in countries like India. Forexample; a region homa lime in koru
where mining has taken place are hard to find people residing in those regions
because many are displaced before mining takes place and even after mining has
been done the regions are left unconditional for human living.
REFERENCE.
1. Margaret, L.A, Howard, F, T. (2007). Sociology: The essential, Fourth Edition. UNITED STATES
OF AMERICA: Thomson Wadsworth Inc.
2. Ian. (1998).Society a brief introduction. UNITED STATE OF AMERICA: Worth publishers, Inc.
3. Antony, G. (1982). : Sociology: A brief but critical introduction. LONDON: Macmillan press
LTD.
4. Judson R. (2001). : Sociology Concepts and Characteristics II Edition. UNITED STATES OF
AMERICA: Thomson Wadsworth Inc.
BUREAUCRATIC THEORY
Bureaucracy is defined as an organizational structure that is characterized by
many rules, standardized processes, procedures and requirements, meticulous
division of labour and responsibility, clear hierarchies and impersonal interactions
between employees.
Max Webber, a German sociologist was the first person to use and describe the
term bureaucracy. He believed that bureaucracy was the most efficient way to set
up an organization or administration. In a bureaucratic organization, everyone is
treated equally and the division of labour is clearly described for each employee.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN BUREAUCRACY

TASK SPECIALISATION
In a bureaucratic organization,tasks are divided into simple routine categories on
the basis of competencies and functional specialisations. Every employee is
responsible for what he/she does best and knows exactly what is expected of
him/her.This makes the employers approach their employees more easily when
they do not stick to their tasks.
For example, it would be wrong for an IT expert to be found working in the
accounting department where he/she has little or no knowledge of accounting.
HIERARCHY OF AUTHORITY
In a bureaucratic organization,managers are organizedinto hierarchal layers
where each layer of management is responsible for its staff and overall
performance.The hierarchy of authority is a system in which different positions
are related in order of precedence and in which the highest layer has the greatest
power and the bottom layers are always subject to supervision and control of
higher layers.
For example, in a school, the head teacher occupies the highest layer of authority
while the subordinate staff occupy the lowest layer of authority. Teachers occupy
a higher layer than the subordinate staff. This means that both teachers and
subordinate staff take orders from the head teacher but the subordinate staff can
also take orders from the teachers.
FORMAL SELECTION
In a bureaucratic organization, all employees are selected on the basis of technical
skills and competencies which have been acquired through training, education,
and experience. Employees are paid for their services and the level of their
salaries is dependent on their position. Also the employees’ contract terms are
determined by organizational rules and requirements and the employee has no
ownership interest in the company.
For example, in a banking setup, employers select employees during employment
according to their expertise in which one can be an accountant, an economist or
IT specialist.
RULES AND REQUIREMENTS

Formal rules and requirements are required in a bureaucratic organization to
ensure uniformity. Uniformity is achieved by use of administrative processes
which are defined in the official rules which are made by the senior
management.By enforcing strict rules, the organization can more easily achieve
uniformity and all employee efforts can be better coordinated.
For example, in a learning institution, members of staff are required to obey
certain rules such as mode of dressing and punctuality where members of staff
are required to follow the school timetable which makes sure things are running
smoothly.
IMPERSONAL
Regulations and clear requirements create distant and impersonal relationships
between employees thereby giving the advantage of preventing nepotism or
involvement from outside. This makes decisions made be solely on the basis of
rational factors rather than personal factors.
For example, in a university where there is a vacancy in the position of the Dean
of School of Law and the position requires one to have studied law up to the post
graduate level and the brother of the Vice Chancellor has studied law up to the
undergraduate level, the regulations prevent the vice chancellor from making
things personal by hiring his brother.
CAREER ORIENTATION
Employees of a bureaucratic organization are selected on the basis of their
expertise. This helps in the deployment of the right people in the right
positionsand thereby utilizing human capital. The right division of labour within a
bureaucratic organization also allows employees to specialize themselves further,
so that they may become experts in their field and significantly improve their
performance.
For example,in a banking setup, employees are employed according to their
expertise in which one can be an accountant and work in areas requiring the
accounting expertise, an economist and work in areas requiring economic
expertise or IT specialist and work in areas requiring computing expertise.
ADVANTAGES OF BUREAUCRACY
The main advantage of bureaucracy is that large organizations with many
hierarchal layers can become structured and work effectively.
Also the established rules and procedures allow high efficiency and consistent
execution of work by all employees.
For example, the administrative rules in a learning institution such as a university
makes the institution to run smoothly since every employee knows where he or
she is supposed to be.
DISADVANTAGES OF BUREAUCRACY
Due to its many hierarchal layers, bureaucracy is characterized by paperwork,
many desks, certain office culture and slow bureaucratic communication. The
employees also remain fairly distanced from each other and the organization,
making them less loyal.For example, Nurses take care of their patients and don't
consider larger organizational issues. Also nurse managers oversee their nurses,
but don't concern themselves with issues involving the medical staff.
Since bureaucracy is dependent on regulatory and policy compliance, it restricts
the employees’ ability to come up with innovative ideas. Employees of a
bureaucratic organization also lack the opportunity to influence decision making
and this may demotivate them in the long run.There is rigidity making decision-
making slow or even impossible when facing some unusual case, and similarly
delaying change and evolution.
REFERENCE
Mulder,P.(2017).Bureaucratic Theory by Max Webber. Retrieved[7/10/2018]
From ToolsHero:https//www.toolshero.com/management/bureaucratic-theory-
weber/
Troolin,A.(2015).What Is Bureaucracy?.Retrieved [7/10/2018]
From Study:https//www.study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-the-bureaucracy-
role-structure-characteristics.html#
REFERENCES
Albrow, M. (1970). Bureaucracy. London: Macmillan.
Weber, M. (1947). The theory of social and economic organization. Translated by A.M
Henderson and Talcott .P. London Collier. London:Macmillan publishers.
Schwarz, B. (1996). The expansion of England: race, ethnicity and cultural history.
England:Psychology Pres.
ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN SOCIETIES.
1. Solid waste.
Solid waste can cause serious health risks affecting human health, children being more
vulnerable. Co-disposal of industrial hazardous waste can expose people to chemical and
radioactive hazards. Uncollected solid waste can also obstruct storm water resulting in
forming stagnant water bodies that become breading grounds of diseases that affect
humans.Workers working with waste containing chemicals and metals may experience
toxic exposure. Waste treatment and disposal sites can also create health hazards for the
neighborhood causing infectious diseases to human health. Organic domestic waste poses
a serious threat since they ferment creating condition favorable to the survival and growth
of microbial pathogens. Direct handling of solid waste can result in various types of
infectious and chronic diseases with the waste workers and the rag pickers being the most
vulnerable.
Example;
Construction and demolition debris, asbestos. Empty aerosol cans, paint cans and compressed
gas cylinders. Garbage, scrap metal and garbage.
2. Land use and housing.

The increasing demand for land, coupled with a limitation in its supplies, is a major
cause for more conflicts over land use throughout the world.
Each type of land use has a varying effect in hydrologic cycle, thereby affecting the
people and the natural resources on a landscape.
Agricultural activities are major forms of land use, including row crops, animal farms,
aquaculture and other agribusiness activities. Cropping activities involve soil and water
manipulation through tillage and irrigation, thereby affecting runoff water and
groundwater resources.
If improperly used, fertilizer and plant protection chemicals in agricultural operations can
affect water resources and ecosystems.
Example;
Agricultural land, which is used for growing crops and rearing animals, residential land
which is also used for housing and commercial land which is used for building business.
3. Pest and vector.

Pests can carry allergens into homes which can cause allergic reactions and their
shedding skin can pollute the indoor air hence affecting the human health. However,
other pests can also cause allergic reactions. Black widows and brown recluse spiders are
two venomous spiders that whose bites can cause significant health problems or even
death if left untreated. Bugs like wasps and bees can also sting which can cause a severe,
and sometimes lethal, allergic reactions to humans in the society.
Vector-borne diseases, whose agents are transmitted by insect vectors such as
mosquitos, flies and triatomine bugs, occur in more than 100 countries worldwide and
affect about half of the world’s population.
Example;Vectors are organisms that transmit disease to humans and examples of pests
include; ants, bugs, wasps and mosquitoes.
4. Food hygiene.
A virus can cause long lasting liver disease and spreads typically through raw or
undercooked seafood or contaminated raw produce. Infected food handlers are often the
source of food contamination. A range of diseases related to food, in effect causing a very
significant disease burden that seems to be increasing in both developed and developing
countries.A variety of safety hazards are associated with foods produced by any method.
These can be categorized by, pathogenic microorganisms: pathogenic microorganisms in
food include: viruses, bacteria, toxin producers and parasites. Food-borne pathogens
are often particularly risky for children, the elderly, and the immune-suppressed.
It is estimated that unknown pathogenic agents account for 81 percent of illness and
hospitalizations and 64 percent of deaths due to food-borne illness.
Example;
Many different disease-causing microbes or pathogens can contaminate foods, and
most foodborne diseases are infections caused by a variety of bacteria, viruses and
parasites.
5. Overpopulation.
Overpopulation brings about conflicts and wars in the society. Conflicts over water are
becoming a source of tension between countries, which could result to war and cause
even death to humans. It also causes more diseases to spread and makes them harder
to control due to large number of people. Overpopulation can also lead to crime as
many people in the society will steal various items to feed their families and provide
them basic amenities of life and that could be as a result of unemployment as there are
fewer jobs to support the large number of people. Overpopulation also has made
people to pay more to survive and feed their families to the high cost of living.
Example;
Indonesia’s population grew from 97 million in 1961 to 237.6 million in 2010, a 145%
increase in population.
6. Deforestation.
Deforestation contributes to global warming and climate change affecting millions of
people in the society. Deforestation also affects people through the greenhouse effect.
Deforestation is a double blow to human health because it increases the spread of
certain diseases while destroying plants and animals that may hold the key to treating
illness that plague millions of people.
Protecting natural landscapes can contribute positively to human health through
protecting future medicinal resources, reducing the impacts of pollution, toxins and
weather extremes and providing recreational places that support physical and mental
well-being.
Example;
Conversion of forestland into farms, ranches, or urban use. The most concentrated
deforestation occurs in tropical rainforests.
7. Climate change.
Climate change will affect certain groups more than others particularly groups located in
vulnerable areas and the poor, young, old or sick. Climate change could affect our societies
through impacts on a number of different social, cultural, and natural resources. Climate
change may especially impact people who live in areas that are vulnerable to coastal
storms, drought, and sea level rise on people who live in poverty, older adults, and
immigrant communities.
Some type of professions and industries may face considerable challenges from climate
change. Professions that are closely linked to weather and climate, such as outdoor tourism,
commerce, and agriculture, will likely be especially affected.
Example;
Climate change could affect human health, infrastructure, and transportation systems as
well as energy, food, and water supplies.
8. Water pollution.
Polluted water can cause infectious diseases which can be spread through contaminated
water. Chemicals in the water also have negative effects on our health. Due to human
activities, water gets polluted, by drinking the untreated water nowadays then our bodies
will immediately react to it. Some of the water borne diseases include, typhoid, cholera,
jaundice and malaria.
In humans, drinking or consuming polluted water in any way has many disastrous effects
on our health. It cause diseases like typhoid which makes humans to be ill hence forcing
them to seek for medication.
Example;
Disposing of waste materials into water sources and dumping of chemicals.
9. Air pollution.
Breathing polluted air puts you at a higher risk for asthma and other respiratory
diseases.
We release a variety of chemicals into the atmosphere when we burn the fossil fuels we
use every day. We breathe air to live and what we breathe has a direct impact on our
health. The toxic chemicals released into the air settle into plants and water sources,
animals eat contaminated plants and drink the water. The poison then travels up the
food chain to us human beings.
Air pollution are mostly carcinogens and living in a polluted area can put people at the
risk of cancer.
Example:
Carbon monoxide gas from motor vehicle exhausts.
Sulphur dioxide released from the factories.
10. Intensive farming.

Intensive farming has affected human health in many ways through the use of chemicals
used in the agricultural sector of farming. The chemicals used later are consumed by
humans hence affecting their life and may lead to diseases which may lead to death if not
treated early. Intensive farming also can cause soil erosion leading to creation of gulley’s
and during rains the humans are affected since the soil can no longer hold the water.
Humans may get affected due to lack of food as a result of much farming hence crops
cannot yield to give more food to the society.
Example:
Taking 100 cows and grouping them all together and putting them in a paddock of just
enough grass for them to eat in one day and then moving them in paddocks like that each
day.
11. Land degradation.

Land degradation and desertification can affect human health through complex
pathways. As land is degraded, in some places deserts expand, food production is
reduced, water sources dry up and populations are pressured to move to more
hospitable areas. Desertification can impact on respiratory diseases caused by
atmospheric dust from wind erosion and other air pollutants.
Most of the degradation is due to soil erosion and biodiversity loss in the less population
areas, while water shortage, soil depletion and soil pollution are most common in the
most agricultural areas. Land degradation has accelerated due to increasing and
combined pressures of agricultural and livestock production, deforestation and extreme
weather events such as drought.
.
Example:
Overgrazing brings about land degradation, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides,
deforestation and soil erosion.
12. Mining.
Humans are also affected by mining. There are many diseases that can come from the
pollutants that are released into the air and water during the mining process.
The miners experience tough times, during the mining process the mines may collapse
and kill miners hence leading to problems in the society for human beings. Mining also
creates an environment where solid waste is disposed thus creating an insecure
environment for the human society.
Example:
Extracting minerals such as coal, diamond, gold and granite from the earth’s surface.
13. Natural disasters.

Natural disaster is a naturally occurring event that exerts adverse effects onto human
society, including those caused by geological factors and infectious organisms.
The most direct and immediate impact of a natural disaster on a society is loss of human
life.
Natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods inflict serious damage and so seem to be
bad for the economy. For firms, natural disasters destroy tangible assets such buildings
and equipment.
Example:
Haiti earthquake which happened in 2010.
Tangshan earthquake in china 1976.
14. Toxins.
Toxins such as mercury, persist in the environment and accumulate. Humans or animals
often absorb them when they eat fish.
When toxins are consumed they affect the brain thus poor memory and concentration
to humans. Erratic behavior, headaches and cravings.Smoking and drug and alcohol
abuse have long been known to increase cancer and heart diseases, alcohol kills brain
cells, shrinks brain size, and increases the risk for dementia.
A common hazardous waste facility is one that stores the waste in sealed containers in
the ground. Less toxic waste that is unlikely to migrate, like soil with lead is sometimes
allowed to remain in place under the ground and then be sealed with a cap of hard clay.
Example:
Belladonna, botulinum, and tetrodotoxin.
15. Resource depletion.

Resource depletion can lead to increased population which affects the society in a
number of ways through diseases. The diseases can be caused as a result of increase in
the use of the resource. The depletion of our water resource is more serious than the
current oil depletion. Water remains an essential resource to humans and without water
there could be a number of calamities facing the human society and affecting their health
status.
Examples:
Fishing, farming and mining at an ever-high rate.
16. Oil spilling.

Oil spills on humans may be direct or indirect depending on the type of contact with the
oil spill. Oil spill affects the human society by breathing contaminated air, since oil and
products have many volatile compounds which are emitted as gases from spilled oil, the
air becomes contaminated with those volatile oil products or vapors producing specific
odors. Oil spill can also affect the human skin while walking in a contaminated area. Also
by bathing contaminated water and eating contaminated food can cause health problems
to humans. Mainly oil spills negative impact is being affected with diseases.
Example;
The Atlantic empress oil spill in 1979.
The kolva river spill in 1994.
17. Nuclear issues.

Long term- radiation induced cancers will affect many, often over 20 years later. Certain
cancers in children are particularly associated with exposure to radiation. The children
of those exposed to radiation are statistically more likely to be born with abnormalities
and suffer from leukemia.
Short term- survivors will be affected within a matter of days by radioactive fallout. The
extent of the fallout will vary according to whether the nuclear bomb detonates in the
air or upon impact on the ground.
Nuclear weapons have been used twice, on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki in august 1945. Effects can be divided into long term and short term.
Example:
On July 16, 1945, the US conducted the world’s first test of a nuclear weapon.
Less two months two bombs were dropped on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and
Nagasaki, bringing about the end of World War II.
Reference:
1. Shove, E., pantzar, M. &Waston, M. (2012).Environmental issues to humans in
contemporary society. New York: Sage.
2. Shah, H. (2012). Participatory approaches to monitoring the environment. London:
Temple university press.
WEEK 13
Exams
WEEK 15
Exams

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KABARAK UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION ARTS

COURSE CODE: SOCI 100

PURPOSE OF THE COURSE

 Explain the meaning of sociology, methods of research in sociology, branches of

2 Group Dynamics and relations Types of and group behavior. ; Social 3

3 Sociological Theories Sociological Theories and relevance to 3

7 Deviance and crime Deviance: theories types, and causes. 3

10 Social institutions and education Social institutions: family; types, 3

12 Social change and society Social change: work, organization, 3

INSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND EQUIPMENT

Course assessment for Blended Learning Mode

Sit – in CATs (2) 10%

Babbie, E. (2016). Sociology: An Introduction. California. WadsworthPlc. Company.

NAME: PROF FREDERICK B. J. A. NGALA, PHD, MBS

RECOMMENDED FOR USE BY HOD – EDUCATION ARTS

NAME: _____________________________ Sign: ____________________ Date:

APPROVED FOR USE BY DEAN – SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

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Qualitative sociology emphasizes understanding individuals’ experiences by

It relies on statistical analysis to understand experiences and trends. They quantify

KEY ISSUES ADDRESSED BY SOCIOLOGISTS

OTHER SOCIAL SCIENCES

Political science concerns the governments of various societies. It considers what

ISSUES STUDIED IN SOCIOLOGY

ELEMENTS, CONCERNS AND SIGNIFICANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

ELEMENTS OF SOCIAL STRUCTURE

BASIC ELEMENTS OR CHARACTERISTICS OF A

1) Sociology studies the role of the institutions in the development of the

INTERACTION AT THE WORKPLACE.

vii. Technological advancements

xi. Job responsibilities

Tomer, J. F. (1998).Organizational Capital and Joining-Up: Linking the Individual to the

Voluntary (secondary) groups

Involuntary (primary) groups

The following are the group’s types:

VESTED INTEREST GROUP

FACTORS INFLUENCING BEHAVIOR IN GROUPS

COMPOSITION OF THE GROUP

Fredinand Tonnies also came up with another evolutionary theory

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION THEORY

STRUCTURAL STRAIN THEORY

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

Crossman, A. (2018). Major sociological theories. http://thoughtco.com/sociology-research-and-

SOCIAL CONTROL MEASURES

BY USE OF SOCIAL SUGGESTIONS.

USING THE LAW .

THE PRESENCE OF RELIGION.

BY USE OF GOOD IDEOLOGY.

Giddens. A. (1997). Sociology. Cambridge:Polity Press.

To provide social sanction

Bringing up suggestions for social control

Through spoken words

Checking cultural adjustment

As an example, Weber referred to the cultural significance of a normatively

Human values are prerequisite for enabling social phenomena to be transformed

Constructionism seeks to understand, how distinctive social categories are created,

When a number of individuals get a coexisting bond , a set of standards develop

Secord and Beckman say “A norm is a standard of behavioral expectation shared a

A norm is a pattern setting limits on individual behavior. As defined by Broom and

We can hardly think of individuals without norms. A group of individuals without

Bringing conformity in the society

For Example collectivistic cultures such as Japan emphasize the interdependence

NAME: _________ Sign: Date:

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