Chapter2-Physical Characterstics of Soils

Soil Mechanics I Physical Characteristics of Soils
Chapter Two
Physical Characteristics of Soils
Table of Content
Page No
2. Introduction....................................................................................................................... 2
2.1 Definition of Key Terms..................................................................................................... 2
2.2 Composition of soils.......................................................................................................... 3
2.2.1 Soil Formation............................................................................................................... 3
2.2.2 Soil Types...................................................................................................................... 3
2.2.3 Clay Minerals................................................................................................................. 4
2.2.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water.............................................................................5
2.2.5 Soil Fabric..................................................................................................................... 6
2.2.6 Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use............................7
2.3 Phase Relationships......................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils..........................................................................12
2.4.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils.........................................................................12
2.4.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils..............................................................................14
2.4.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size.........................................................15
2.5 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils............................................17
2.6 Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits...................................................20
2.6.1 Casagrande Cup Method............................................................................................ 20
2.6.2 Plastic Limit Test.......................................................................................................... 21
2.6.3 Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits...........................................21
2.6.4 Shrinkage Limit............................................................................................................ 23
2.7 Soil Classification Schemes............................................................................................ 24
2.7.1 Unified Soil Classification System...............................................................................24
2.7.2. AASHTO Soil Classification system………………………….……………...35
2.7.3 Engineering Use Chart................................................................................................ 28
8
Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 1 of 29

2. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to introduce you to the physical prosperities soils. You will
learn some basic descriptions of soils and some fundamental physical soil properties that you
should retain for future use in this course and in geotechnical engineering practice. Soils,
derived from the weathering of rocks. One of the primary tasks of a geotechnical engineer is to
collect, classify and investigate the physical properties of soils. In this chapter we will deal with
descriptions of soils, tests to determine the physical properties of soils, and soil classification
systems.
When you complete this chapter you should be able to determine the following terms in physical
properties of soil:
 Describe and classify soils.
 Determine particle size distribution in a soil mass.
 Determine the proportions of the main constituents in a soil.
 Determine index properties of soil.
 Determine colors, texture structure, specific gravity, relative density, consistence limits
etc…
2.1 Definition of Key Terms
Soils are materials that are derived from the weathering of rocks.
Water content (w) is the ratio of the weight of water to the weight of solids.
Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids.
Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of void to the total volume of soil.
Degree of saturation (Sr) is the ratio of volume of water to the volume of void.
Bulk unit weight ( ) is the weight of a soil per unit volume (or weight density).
Saturated unit weight ( ) is the weight of a saturated soil per unit volume.
Dry unit weight ( ) is the weight of a dry soil per unit volume.
Effective unit weight ( ) is the weight of soil solids in a submerged soil per unit volume.
Relative density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest and
densest state of coarse-grained soils.
Effective particle size (D10) is the average particle diameter of the soil at 10 percentile; that is,
10% of the particles are smaller than this size (diameter).
Average particle diameter (D50) is the average particle diameter of the soil.
Liquid limit (wLL) is the water content at which a soil changes from a plastic state to a solid
state.
Plastic limit (wPL) is the water content at which a soil changes from a semisolid to a plastic
state.

Shrinkage limit (wSL) is the water content at which the soil changes from a solid to a semisolid
state without further change in volume.
2.2 Composition of soils
2.2.1 Soil Formation
Soils are formed from the physical and chemical weathering of rocks. Physical weathering
involves reduction of size without any change in the original composition of parent rock. The
main agents responsible for this process are exfoliation, unloading, erosion, freezing and
thawing. Chemical weathering causes both reduction in size and chemical alteration of the
original parent rock. The main agents responsible for chemical weathering are hydration,
carbonation and oxidation. Often, physical and chemical weathering takes place in recital.
Soils that remain at the site of weathering are called residual soils. These soils retain
many of the elements that comprise the parent rock. Alluvial soils, also called fluvial soils, are
soils that were transported by rivers and streams. The composition of these soils depends on
the environment under which they were transported and is often different from the parent rock.
The profile of alluvial soils usually consists of layers of different soils. Much of our construction
activities has been and is occurring on alluvial soils. Glacial soils are soils that were
transported by glaciers (large body of ice moving slowly down a slope). Marine soils are soils
deposited in a marine environment. Loess is a wind blown, uniform, fine-grained soil.
2.2.2 Soil Types
Figure 2.1 Soil type with size Range

Common descriptive terms such as gravels, sands, silts and clays are used to identify
specific textures in soils. We will refer to these soil textures as soil types; that is, sand is one soil
type and clay is another. Texture refers to the appearance or feel of a soil. Sands and gravels
are grouped together as coarse-grained soils. Clay and silts are fine-grained soils. Coarse-
grained soils feel gritty and hard. Fine-grained soils feel smooth. The coarseness of soils is
determined from knowing the distribution of particle sizes, which is the primary means of
classifying coarse-grained soils. To characterize fine-grained soils, we need further information

on the types of minerals present and their contents. The response of fine-grained soils to loads,
known as the mechanical behavior, depends on the type of predominant minerals present.
2.2.3 Clay Minerals
Minerals are crystalline materials and make up the solid constituent of a soil. The mineral
particles of fine-grained soils are platy. Minerals are classified according to chemical
composition and structure. Most minerals of interest to geotechnical engineering are composed
of oxygen and silicon, two of the most abundant elements on earth. Silicates are a group of
minerals with a structural unit called the silica tetrahedron. A central silica cation (positively
charged ions) is surrounded by four oxygen anion (negatively charged ions) one at each corner
of the tetrahedron (Fig. 2.2a). The charge on a single tetrahedron is -4 and to achieve a neutral
charge, cations must be added or single tetrahedrons must be linked to each other sharing
oxygen ions. Silicate minerals are formed by addition of cations and interaction of tetrahedrons.
Silica tetrahedrons combine to form sheets, called silica sheets, which are thin layers of silica
tetrahedrons in which three oxygen ions are shared between adjacent tetrahedrons (Fig. 2.2 b).
Silicate sheets may contain other structural units such as alumina sheets.
Figure 2.2: a) Silica tetrahedron b) Silica sheets c) Aluminum Octahedron d) Alumina sheet

Alumina sheets are formed by combination of alumina minerals, which consists of

aluminum ion surrounded by six oxygen hydroxyl atoms in an octahedron (Fig. 2.2 c, d).
The main groups of crystalline minerals that make up clays are the minerals: kaolinite,
illite, and montmorillonite.
Figure 2.3: Structure of kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite.
Kaolinite has a structure that consists of one silica sheet and one alumina sheet bonded
together into a layer about 0.72 nm thick stacked repeatedly (Fig. 2.3a). The layers are held
together by hydrogen bonds. Kaolinite is common in clays in humid tropical regions.
Illite consists of repeated layers of one alumina sheet sandwiched by two silicate sheets. The
layers, each of thickness 0.96 nm, are held together by potassium ions.
Montmorillonite has similar structure to illite, but the layers are held together by weak van der
Waals forces and exchangeable ions. Water can easily enter the bond and separate the layers
resulting in swelling. Montmorillonite is often called a swelling or expansive clay.
2.2.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water
If we subdivide a body, the ratio of its surface area to its volume increases. For example, a
cube of sides 1 cm has a surface area of 6 cm 2. If we subdivide this cube into smaller cubes of
sides 1 mm, the original volume is unchanged but the surface area increases to 60 cm 2. The
surface area per unit mass (specific surface) of sands is typically 0.01 m2 per gram, while for
clays it is as high as 1000 m 2 per gram (montmorillonite). The specific surface of kaolinite
ranges from 10 to 20 m2 per gram, while that of illite ranges from 65 to 100 m 2 per gram. The
surface area of 45 grams of illite is equivalent to the area of a football field. Because of their
large surfaces, surface forces significantly influence the behavior of fine-grained soils compared
to coarse-grained soils.
The surface charges on fine-grained soils are negative (anions). These negative surface
charges attract cations and the positively charged side of water molecules from surrounding

water. Consequently a thin film or layer of water, called adsorbed water, is bonded to the mineral
surface. The thin film or layer of water is known as the diffuse double layer (Fig. 2.4). The
largest concentration of cations occurs at the mineral surface and decreases exponentially with
distance away from the surface.
Figure 2.4: Diffuse double layer.
Drying of most soils (with the exception of gypsum type soils) using an oven for which the
standard temperature is 105 50C, can not remove the adsorbed water. The adsorbed water
influences the way a soil behaves. For example plasticity (which we will deal with in section 2.5)
in soils is attributed to the adsorbed water. Toxic chemicals that seep into the ground
contaminate soil and groundwater. The surface chemistry of fine-grained soils is important in
understanding the migration, sequestration, re-release, and ultimate removal of toxic
compounds from soils. These processes are of importance to geotechnical and
geoenvironmental engineers.
2.2.5 Soil Fabric
Soil particles are assumed rigid. During deposition, the mineral particles are arranged into
structural frameworks that we call soil fabric (Fig. 2.5). Each particle is in random contact with
several particles. The environment under which deposition occurs influences the structural
framework that is formed. In particular the electrochemical environment has the greatest
influence on the kind of soil fabric that is formed during deposition.
Two common types of soil fabric, flocculated and dispersed, are formed during soil
deposition as schematically shown in Fig. 2.5. A flocculated structure,

Figure 2.5: Soil Fabric.
formed under a saltwater environment, results when many particles tend to orient parallel to
each other. A flocculated structure, formed under a freshwater environment, results when many
particles tend to orient perpendicular to each other. A dispersed structure is the result when a
majority of the particles orient parallel to each other.
Any loading (tectonic or otherwise) during or after deposition permanently alters the soil
fabric or structural arrangement in a way that is unique to that particular loading condition.
Consequently, the history of loading and changes in the environment is imprinted in the soil
fabric. The soil fabric is the brain; it retains the memory of the birth of the soil and subsequent
changes that occur.
The spaces between the mineral particles are called voids, which may be filled with liquids
(essentially water) and gases (essentially air). Voids occupy a large proportion of the soil
volume. Interconnected voids form the passageway through which water flows in and out of
soils. If we change the volume of voids, we will cause the soil to either compress (settle) or
expand (dilate). Loads applied by a building, for example, will cause the mineral particles to be
forced closer together, reducing the volume of voids and changing the orientation of the
structural framework. Consequently, the building settles. The amount of settlement depends on
how much we compress the volume of voids. The rate at which the settlement occurs depends
on the interconnectivity of the voids. Free water, not the adsorbed water, and/or air trapped in
the voids must be forced out for settlement to occur. The decrease in volume, which results in
settlement of buildings and other structures, is usually very slow in fine-grained soils and almost
ceaseless because of their (fine-grained soils) large surface area compared with coarse-grained
soils. The large surface area in fine-grained soils compared to coarse-grained soils provides
greater resistance to the flow of water through the voids.
2.2.6 Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use
Coarse-grained soils have good load bearing capacities and good drainage qualities, and

their strength and volume change characteristics are not significantly affected by change in
moisture conditions. They are practically incompressible when dense, but significant volume
change can occur when they are loose.
Fine-grained soils have poor load bearing capacities compared with coarse-grained soils.
Fine grained soils are practically impermeable, and change strength and volume with variations
in moisture conditions. The engineering properties of coarse-grained soils are controlled mainly
by the grain size of the particles and their structural arrangement. The engineering properties of
fine-grained soils are controlled by mineralogical factors rather than grain size. Thin layers of
fine-grained soils, even within thick deposits of coarse-grained soils, have been responsible for
many geotechnical failures and therefore you need to pay special attention to fine-grained soils.
2.3 Phase Relationships
Soil is composed of solids, liquids and gases (Fig. 2.6a). The solid phase may be
mineral, organic matter, or both. We will not deal with the organic matter in this course. The
spaces between the solids (soil particles) are called voids and are filled with liquids or gases or
both. Water is the predominant liquid and air is the predominant gas. We will use the terms
water and air instead of liquids and gases. The soil water is commonly called pore water and
plays a very important role in the behavior of soils under load. If all the voids are filled with
water, the soil is saturated. Otherwise, the soil is unsaturated. If the voids are filled with air the
soil is said to be dry.
Figure 2.6: Soil Phases.
We can idealize the three phases of soil as shown in Fig. 2.6b. The physical properties of
soils are affected by the relative proportions of each of these phases. The total volume of the
soil is the sum of the volume of solids (Vs), volume of water (Vw), and the volume of air (Va), that
is:
(2.1)
Where Vv is the volume of voids. The weight of the soil is the sum of the weight of solids ( Ws),
and weight of water (Ww). The weight of air is negligible. Thus,

(2.2)
The following definitions have been established to describe the proportion of each constituent in
soil. Each equation can be represented with different variables. The most popular and
convenient ones are given here. You should try to memorize these definitions and equations.
1. Water content (w) is the ratio, often expressed by percentage, of the weight of water to the
weight of solids.
(2.3)
The water content of a soil is found by weighing a sample of the soil and then placing it in an
oven at 110 50C until the weight of the sample remains constant; that is all the absorbed
water is driven out. For most soils a constant weight is achieved in about 24 hours. The soil is
removed from the oven, cooled, and then weighed to obtain the water content. You will later do
an example on how to measure and calculate the water content of a soil.
2. Void ratio (e) is the ratio of the volume of void space to the volume of solids.
(2.4)
3. Specific Volume (V’) is the volume of soil per unit volume of solids.
(2.5)
This equation is useful in relating volumes and in the calculation of volumetric strains (chapter
3).
4. Porosity (n) is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume. Porosity is usually
expressed as a percentage.
(2.6)
Porosity and void ratio are related by the expression,
(2.7)
The proof of Eq. (2.7) is simple and is shown below,
5. Specific gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the weight of the soil solids to the weight of water of

equal volume:
(2.8)
Where = 9.81 kN/m3 is the unit weight of water. The specific gravity of soils ranges from
approximately 2.6 to 2.8. For most problems, G s can be assumed, with little error, to be equal to
2.7.
Two types of containers are used to determine the specific gravity. One is a pycnometer,
which is used for coarse-grained soils. The other is a 50 mL density bottle, which is used for
fine-grained soils. The container is weighed and a small quantity of dry soil is placed in it. The
mass of the container and the dry soil is determined. De-aired water is added to the soil in the
container. The container is then agitated to remove air bubbles. When all air babbles has been
removed the container is filled with de-aired water. The mass of container, soil, and de-aired
water is determined. The contents of the container are discarded and the container is thoroughly
cleaned. De-aired water is added to fill the container and the mass of the container and de-aired
water is determined.
Let m1 be the mass of the container; m2 be the mass of the container and dry soil; m3 be the
mass of the container, soil, and water; and m4 be the mass of the container and water. The mass
of dry soil is ms = m2 – m1, the mass of water displaced by the soil particles is m5 = m4 – m3 + ms
and Gs = ms/m5.
6. Degree of saturation (S) is the ratio, often expressed as a percentage, of the volume of
water to the volume of voids:
(2.9)
If S = 1 or 100%, the soil is saturated. If S = 0, the soil is dry. It is practically impossible to obtain
a soil with S = 0.
7. Unit weight is the weight of a soil per unit volume. We will use the term bulk unit weight,
, to denote the unit weight of a soil:
(2.10)
Table 2.1: Typical values of unit weight for soils
Soil type sat (kN/m3) d (kN/m3)
Gravel 20 – 22 15 – 17
Sand 18 – 20 13 – 16
Silt 18 – 20 14 – 18

Clay 16 – 22 14 – 21
Special Cases
(a) Saturated unit weight (S = 1):
(2.11)
(b) Dry unit weight (S = 0)
(2.12)
(c) Effective or buoyant unit weight is the weight of a saturated soil, surrounded by water,
per unit weight of soil:
(2.13)
8. Relative Density (Dr) is an index that quantifies the degree of packing between the loosest
and densest possible state of coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments:
(2.14)
where is the maximum void ratio (loosest condition), is the minimum void ratio
(densest condition), and is the current void ratio.
The maximum void ratio is found by dry sand, for example, into a mold of volume (V) using a
funnel. The sand that fills the mold is weighed. If the weight of the sand is W, then by combining
Eqs. (2.10) and (2.12) we get . The minimum void ratio is determined
by vibrating the sand with a weight imposing a vertical stress of 13.8 kPa on top of the sand.
Vibration occurs for 8 minutes at a frequency of 3600 Hz and amplitude of 0.064 mm. From the
weight of the sand (W1) and the volume (V1) occupied by it after vibration, we can calculate the
minimum void ratio using .
Table 2.2: Description based on relative density
Dr(%) Description
0 – 15 Very loose
15 – 35 Loose
35 – 65 Medium dense
65 – 85 Dense
85 – 100 Very dense
The relative density correlates very well with the strength of coarse-grained soils, denser soils

being stronger than looser soils. A description of sand based on relative density is given in Table
2.2.
EXAMPLE 2.1
Prove the following relationships:
(a) (b)
(c)
EXAMPLE 2.2
A sample of saturated clay was placed in a container and weighed. The weight was 6 N. The
clay in its container was placed for 24 hours at 1050C. The weight reduced to a constant value
of 5 N. The weight of the container is 1 N. If G s = 2.7, determine a) the water content, b) void
ratio, c) bulk unit weight, d) dry density, and e) effective unit weight.
EXAMPLE 2.3
An embankment for a highway is to be constructed from a soil compacted to a dry unit weight of
18 kN/m3. The clay has to be trucked to the site from a borrow pit. The bulk unit weight of the
soil in the borrow pit is 17 kN/m3 and its natural water content is 5%. Calculate the volume of
clay from the borrow pit required for 1 cubic meter of embankment. Assume Gs = 2.7.
Strategy: This problem can be solved in many ways. We will here use two ways. One way is
direct; the other a bit longer. In the first way we are going to use the ratio of the dry unit weights
of the compacted soil and the borrow pit soil to determine the volume. In the second way, we
will use the specific volume. In this case, we need to find the void ratio for the borrow pit clay
and the desired void ratio for the embankment. We can then relate the specific volumes of the
embankment and the borrow pit clay.
EXAMPLE 2.4
If the borrow soil in Example 2.3 were to be compacted to attain dry unit weight of 18 kN/m 3 at a
water content of 7%, determine the amount of water required per cubic meter of embankment,
assuming no loss of water during transportation.
Strategy: Since water content is related to the weight of solids and not the total weight, we need
to use the data given to find the weight of solids.

2.4 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils
2.4.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils
The distribution of particle size or average grain diameter of coarse-grained soils –

gravels and sands – is obtained by screening a known weight of the soil through a stack of
sieves of progressively finer mesh size. A typical stack of sieves is shown in Fig. 2.6.
Each sieve is identified by a number that corresponds to the number of square holes per
linear inch of mesh. The particle diameter in the screening process, often called sieve analysis,
is the maximum particle dimension to pass through the square hole of a particular mesh.
Figure 2.7: Stack of sieves.
A known weight of dry soil is placed on the largest sieve (the top sieve) and the nest of
sieves is then placed on a vibrator, called a sieve shaker, and shaken. The nest of sieves is
dismantled, one sieve at a time. The soil retained on each sieve is weighed and the percentage
of soil retained on each sieve is calculated. The results are plotted on a graph of percent of
particles finer than a given sieve (not the percent retained) as the ordinate versus the logarithm
of the particle sizes as shown in Fig. 2.8. The resulting plot is called a particle size distribution
curve (s) or, simply, the gradation curve (s). Engineers have found it convenient to use a
logarithmic scale for particle size because the ratio of particle sizes from the largest to the
smallest in a soil can be greater than 104.
Let Wi be the weight of the soil retained on the ith sieve from the top of the nest of sieves

and W be the total soil weight. The percent weight retained is:
(2.15)
The percent finer is:
(2.16)
You can use mass instead of weight. The unit of mass is in grams or kilograms.
Figure 2.8: Typical particle size distribution curves.
2.4.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils
The screening process can not be used for fine-grained soils – silts and clays – because of their
extremely small size. The common laboratory method to determine the size distribution of fine-
grained soils is the hydrometer test (Fig. 2.9). The hydrometer test involves mixing a small
amount of soil into suspension and observing how the suspension settles in time. Larger
particles will settle quickly followed by smaller particles. When the hydrometer is lowered into
the suspension, it will sink into the suspension until the buoyant force is sufficient to balance the
weight of the hydrometer. The calibration of hydrometer is affected by temperature and specific
gravity of the suspended solids. You must then apply a correlation factor to your hydrometer
reading based on the test temperatures.
Typically, a hydrometer test is conducted by taking a small quantity of a dry fine-grained soil
(approximately 10 grams) and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water to form a paste. The paste
is placed in a 1 liter glass cylinder and distilled water is added to bring the level to the 1 liter
mark. The glass cylinder is then repeatedly shaken and inverted before being placed in a

constant temperature bath. A hydrometer is placed in the glass cylinder and a clock is
simultaneously started. At different times, the hydrometer is read. The diameter D of the particle
at time tD is calculated from Stokes’s law as:
(2.17)
Where is the viscosity of water (10.09 millipoises at 20 0C), z is the depth, is the unit
weight of water, and Gs is the specific gravity. The dashed line in Fig. 2.8 shows a typical
particle size distribution for fine-grained soils.
Figure 2.9: Hydrometer in soil water suspension.
2.4.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size
The grading curve is used for textural classification of soils. Various classification
systems have evolved over the years to describe soils based on their particle size. The Unified
Soil Classification System (USCS) – which we will discuss in detail in section 2.7 – is one of
most common methods. The USCS separates soils into two categories. One category is coarse-
grained soils that are delineated if more than 50% of the soil is greater than 0.075 mm (No. 200
sieve). The other category is fine-grained soils that are delineated if more than 50% of the soil is
finer than 0.075 mm. Coarse-grained soils are subdivided into gravels and sands while fine-
grained soils are divided into silts and clays. Each soil type – gravel, sand, silt, and clay – is
identified by grain size as shown in table 2.3. The USCS does not differentiate silts from clays.
Clays have particle sizes less than 0.002 mm
Real soils consist of a mixture of particle sizes. The selection of a soil for a particular
use may depend on the assortment of particles it contains. Two coefficients have been defined
to provide guidance on distinguishing soils based on the distribution of the particles. One of
these is a numerical measure of uniformity, called the uniformity coefficient, UC, defined as:

(2.18)
where D60 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 60% of the particles are finer, and D10 is
the diameter of the soil particles for which 105 of the particles are finer. Both of these diameters
are obtained from the grading curve.
The other coefficient is the coefficient of curvature, CC (other terms used are the
coefficient of gradation and the coefficient of concavity), defined as:
(2.19)
where D30 is the diameter of the soil particles for which 30% of the particles are finer. A soil that
has a UC < 4 contains particles of uniform sizes (approximately one size). The minimum value
of UC is 1 and corresponds to an assemblage of particles of the same size. The gradation curve
for a uniform soil is almost vertical (Fig. 2.8). Higher values of UC (> 4) indicate a wider
assortment of particle sizes. A soil that has a UC > 4 is described as a well-graded soil and has
a flat curve (Fig. 2.8). The CC is between 1 and 3 for well-graded soils. The absence of certain
grain sizes, termed gap-graded, is diagnosed by a CC outside of the range 1 to 3 and a sudden
change of slope in the particle size distribution cure as shown in Fig. 2.8.
Table 2.3: Soil types, descriptions, and average grain sizes according to USCS
Soil type Description Average grain size
Gravel Rounded and/or angular bulky hard rock Coarse : 75 mm to 19 mm

Fine: 19 mm to 4.75 mm
Sand Rounded and/or angular bulky hard rock Coarse : 4.75 mm to 1.7 mm
Medium: 1.7 mm to 0.38 mm
Fine: 0.38 mm to 0.075 mm
Silt Particles smaller than 0.075 mm, exhibit 0.075 mm to 0.002 mm
little or no strength when dried.
Clay Particles smaller than 0.002 mm, exhibit < 0.002 mm
significant strength when dried, water
reduces strength.
The diameter D10 is called the effective size of the soil and was established by Allen
Hazen (1893) in connection with his work on soil filters. The effective size is particularly
important in regulating the flow of water through soils. The higher the D10 value, the coarser the
soil and the better the drainage characteristics. The diameter of the finer particle sizes, in

particular D15, has been used to develop criteria for soil filters. Terzaghi and Peck (1948), for
example, proposed the following set of criteria for an effective soil filter:
and
where F denotes filter and BS is the base soil. The average diameter of a soil is given as D50.
Particle size analysis has many uses in engineering. They are used to select aggregates for
concrete, soils for the construction of dams and highways, soils as filters, and material for
grouting and chemical injection.
EXAMPLE 2.5
A sample of dry coarse-grained material of mass 500 grams was shaken through a nest of
sieves and the following results were obtained:
Sieve no. Opening (mm) Mass retained (grams)
4 4.75 0
10 2.00 14.8
20 0.85 98
40 0.425 90.1
100 0.15 181.9
200 0.075 108.8
Pan 6.1
(a) Plot the particle size distribution curve.
(b) Determine (1) the effective size, (2) the average particle size, (3) the uniformity coefficient,
and (4) the coefficient of curvature.
(c) Determine the textural composition of the soil (i.e. the amount of gravel, sand, etc.).
Strategy: the best way to solve this type of problem is to make a table to carry out the
calculation and then plot a gradation curve. Total mass of dry sample (M) used is 500 grams but
on summing the masses of the retained soil in column 2 we obtain 499.7 grams. The reduction
in mass is due to losses mainly from a small quantity of soil that gets stuck in the meshes of the
sieves. You should use the “after sieving” total mass of 499.7 grams in the calculations.

2.5 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils
The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained soils is linked to four distinct states –
solid, semisolid, plastic, and liquid – in order of increasing water content. Let us consider a soil
in a liquid state that is allowed to dry uniformly. If we plot a diagram of volume versus water
content as shown in Fig. 2.10, we can locate the original liquid state as point A. as the solid
dries its water content reduces and consequently its volume.
Figure 2.10: Change in soil states as a function of soil volume and water content.
At point B, the soil becomes so stiff that it can no longer flow as a liquid. The boundary
water at point B is called the liquid limit; it is denoted by wLL. As the soil continues to dry, there
is a range of water content at which the soil can be molded into any desired shape without
rapture. The soil at this state is said to exhibit plastic behavior – the ability to deform
continuously without rapture. But if drying is continued beyond the range of water content for
plastic behavior, the soil becomes a semisolid. The soil can not be molded now without visible
cracks appearing. The water content at which the soil changes from a plastic to a semisolid
state is known as the plastic limit, denoted by wPL. The range of the water contents over which
the soil deforms plastically is known as the plasticity index, IP:
(2.20)
As the soil continues to dry, it comes to a final state called the solid state. At this state, no
further volume change occurs since nearly all the water in the soil has been removed. The water
content at which the soil changes from the semisolid to a solid is called the shrinkage limit,
denoted by wSL. The shrinkage limit is useful for the determination of the swelling and shrinkage
capacity of soils. The liquid and plastic limits are called Atterberg limits (also known as
consistency limits). The Atterberg limits were originated by a Swedish soil scientist, A.
Atterberg (1911).

We have changed the states of fine-grained soils by changing the water content. Since
engineers are interested in the strength and deformation of materials, we can associate specific
strength characteristics to each of the soil states. At one extreme – the solid state – the soil has
the largest strength and the lowest deformation. A measure of soil strength using the Atterberg
limits is known as the liquidity index (IL) and is expressed as:
(2.21)
The liquidity index is the ratio of the difference in water content between the natural (or in situ)
water content of a soil and its plastic limit to its plasticity index. Table 2.4 shows a description of
soil strength based on values of IL.
Table 2.4: Description of soil strength based on liquidity index
Values of IL Description of soil strength
IL < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture is expected.

0 < IL < 1 Plastic state – intermediate strength, soil deformation like a plastic
material.
IL > 1 Liquid state – low strength, soil deforms like a viscous fluid.
Typical values for the Atterberg limits for soils are shown in Table 2.5. The Atterberg limits
depend on the type of predominant mineral in the soil. If montmorillonite is the predominant
material, the liquid limit can exceed 100%. Why? Recall that the bond between the layers in
montmorillonite is weak and large amounts of water can easily infiltrate the spaces between the
layers. In the case of kaolinite, the layers are held relatively tightly and water can not easily
infiltrate between the layers in comparison with montmorillonite. Therefore, you can expect the
Atterberg limits for kaolinite to be, in general, much lower than either montmorillonite or illite.
Table 2.5: Typical Atterberg limits for soils
Soil Type wLL (%) wPL (%) IP (%)
Sand Non plastic

Silt 30 – 40 20 – 25 10 – 15
Clay 40 – 150 25 – 50 15 – 100
Skempton (1953) showed that for soils with a particular mineralogy, the plasticity index is
linearly related to the amount of the clay fraction. He coined a term called activity (A) to
describe the importance of the clay fractions on the plasticity index. The equation for A is:

You should recall that the clay fraction is the amount of particles less than 2 μm. Skempton
classified clays according to Table 2.6.
Table 2.6: Typical Atterberg limits for soils
A Description
< 0.75 Inactive

0.75 – 1.25 Normal
> 1.25 Active
2.6 Determination of Liquid, Plastic, and Shrinkage Limits
2.6.1 Casagrande Cup Method
The liquid limit is determined from an apparatus (Fig. 2.11) that consists of a
semispherical brass cup that is repeatedly dropped onto a hard rubber base from a height of 10
mm by a cam-operated mechanism.
Figure 2.10: Cup apparatus for the determination of liquid limit.
The apparatus was discovered by A. Casagrande (1932) and the procedure for the test is called
the Casagrande cup method.
A dry powder of the soil is mixed with distilled water into a paste and placed in the cup to
a thickness of about 12.5 mm. The soil surface is smoothed and a groove is cut into the soil
using a standard grooving tool. The crank operating the cam is turned at a rate of 2 revolutions
per second and the number of blows required to close the groove over a length of 12.5 mm is
counted and recorded. A specimen of soil within the closed portion is extracted for determination
of the water content. The liquid limit is defined as the water content at which the groove cut into

the soil will close over a distance of 12.5 mm following 25 blows. This is difficult to achieve in a
single test. Four or more tests at different water contents are usually required for terminal
(number of blows to close the groove over a distance of 12.5 mm) ranging from 10 to 40. The
results are presented in a plot of water content (ordinate, arithmetic scale) versus terminal blows
(abscissa, logarithmic scale) as shown in Fig. 2.12.
Best-fit straight line

called the liquid state line
Figure 2.12: Typical liquid limit results from the Casagrande cup method.
The best-fit straight line to the data points, usually called the flow line, is drawn. We
will call this line the liquid state line to distinguish it from flow lines used in describing flow of
water through soils. The liquid limit is read from the graph as the water content on the liquid
state line corresponding to 25 blows. The cup method of determining the liquid limit has many
shortcomings. Two of these are:
1. The tendency of soils of low plasticity to slide and to liquefy with shock in the cup rather
than to flow plastically.
2. Sensitivity to operator and to small differences in apparatus.
2.6.2 Plastic Limit Test
The plastic limit is determined by rolling a small clay sample into threads and finding
the water content at which threads approximately 3 mm in diameter will just start to crumble.
Two or more determinations are made and the average water content is reported as the plastic
limit.
2.6.3 Fall Cone Method to Determine Liquid and Plastic Limits
A fall cone test, popular in Europe and Asia, appears to offer a more accurate (less

prone to operator’s errors) method of determining both the liquid and plastic limits. In the fall
cone test (Fig. 2.13), a cone with apex angle of 30 0 and total mass of 80 grams is suspended
above, but in contact with the soil sample. The cone is permitted to fall freely for a period of 5
seconds. The water content corresponding to a cone penetration of 20 mm defines the liquid
limit. The sample preparation is similar to the cup method except that the sample container in
the fall cone test has a different shape and size (Fig. 2.13).
Four or more tests at different water contents are also required because of the difficulty
of achieving the liquid limit from a single test. The results are plotted as water content (ordinate,
arithmetic scale) versus penetration (abscissa, logarithmic scale) and the best-fit straight line
(liquid state line) linking the data points is drawn (Fig. 2.14). The liquid limit is read from the plot
as the water content on the liquid state line corresponding to a penetration of 20 mm. The
plastic limit is obtained by repeating the test with a cone of similar geometry, but with a mass of
240 grams. The penetration depth in the soil for the bigger cone mass at given water content
will be
Figure 2.13: Fall cone apparatus
larger than the smaller cone mass of 80 grams. Thus the liquid state line for the 240 gram cone
will be below the liquid state line for the 80 gram cone and parallel to it. The plastic limit is given
as:
(2.22)
where is the separation in terms of water content between the liquid state lines (Fig. 2.14)
of the two cones, M1 is the mass of 80 grams cone, and M2 is the mass of the 240 gram cone.

80 gram cone
Best-fit straight line
△w 240 gram cone
wLL=44%
Figure 2.14: Typical fall cone test results.
2.6.4 Shrinkage Limit
The shrinkage limit is determined as follows. A mass of wet soil, m1, is placed in a
porcelain dish 44.5 mm in diameter and 12.5 mm high and then oven-dried. The volume of
oven-dried soil is determined by using mercury to occupy the vacant spaces caused by
shrinkage. The mass of the mercury is determined and the volume decrease caused by
shrinkage can be calculated from the density of mercury. The shrinkage limit is calculated
from:
(2.23)
where m1 is the mass of the wet soil, m2 is the mass of the oven-dried soil, V1 is the volume of
the wet soil, V2 is the volume of the oven-dried soil, and g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8
m/s2).
EXAMPLE 2.6
A liquid limit test conducted on a soil sample in the cup device gave the following results.
Number of blows 10 19 23 27 40
Water content (%) 60.0 45.2 39.8 36.5 25.2
Two determinations for the plastic limit gave water contents of 20.3% and 20.8%. Determine
(a) the liquid limit and plastic limit, (b) the plasticity index, (c) the liquidity index if the natural

water content is 27.4 %, and (d) void ratio at the liquid limit, if G s = 2.7. If the soil were to be
loaded to failure, would you expect a brittle failure?
Strategy: To get the liquid limit, you must make a semi-logarithm plot of water content versus
number of blows. Use the data to make your plot, then extract the liquid limit (water content on
the liquid state line corresponding to 25 blows). Two determinations of the plastic limit were
made and the differences in the results are small. So, use the average value of water content
as a plastic limit.
EXAMPLE 2.7
The results of a fall cone test are shown in the table below.
Parameter 80 gram cone 240 gram cone
Penetration (mm) 5.5 7.8 14.8 22 32 8.5 15 21 35
Water content (%) 39.0 44.8 52.5 60.3 67 36.0 45.1 49.8 58.1
Determine (a) the liquid limit, (b) the plastic limit, (c) the plasticity index, and (d) the liquidity
index if the natural water content is 36%.
Strategy: Adopt the same strategy as in Example 2.6. Make a semi-logarithm plot of water
content versus penetration. Use the data to make your plot, then extract the liquid limit (water
content on the liquid state line corresponding to 20 mm). Find the water content difference
between the two liquid state lines at any fixed penetration. Use this value to determine the
plastic limit.
2.7 Soil Classification Schemes
A classification scheme provides a method of identifying soils in a particular group that

would likely exhibit similar characteristics. Soil classification is used to specify a certain soil
type that is best suitable for a given application. There are several classification schemes
available. Of the number of classification systems proposed over the past few decades, the
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) system are the most widely used by current practitioners,
particularly in America. Other countries like Japan, Europe and China also posses their own
soil classification systems. The AASHTO system classifies soils according to their usefulness
in roads and highways, while USCS was originally developed for use in airfield construction
but was later modified for general use.

2.7.1 Unified Soil Classification System
In this course, we will study the USCS in detail. The USCS uses symbols for particular
size groups. These symbols and their representations are: G – gravel, S – Sand, M – Silt, C –
Clay. These are combined with other symbols expressing gradation characteristics – W for well-
graded and P for poorly graded – and plasticity characteristics – H for high and L for low, and a
symbol O for the presence of Organic material. A typical classification of CL means a clay soil
with low plasticity and, while SP means a poorly graded sand. The flowcharts shown in Figs.
2.15 a and b provide systematic means of classifying a soil according to the USCS.
Experimental results from soils tested from different parts of the world were plotted on
a graph of plasticity index (ordinate) versus liquid limit (abscissa). It was found that clays, silts,
and organic soils lie in distinct regions of the graph. A line defined by the equation
(2.24)
called the “A-line,” delineates the boundaries between clays (above the line) and silts and
organic soils (below the line) as shown in Fig. 2.16. A second line, the U-line expressed as IP =
0.9(wLL – 8), defines the upper limit of the correlation between plasticity index and liquid limit. If
the results of you soil tests fall above the U-line, you should be suspicious of your results and
repeat your tests.
Figure 2.15a: Unified soil classification flowchart for coarse-grained soil.

Figure 2.15b: Unified soil classification flowchart for fine-grained soil.
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
50 Toughness and dry strength increase
with increasing plasticity index
40
Plasticity index
CH
30
20 OH
CL or
10 CL OL
or MH
ML
0 ML
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Liquid limit
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
Figure 2.16: Plasticity chart.
2.7.2 Highway Research Board (HBR) classification of soils
MH
This is called American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHTO) classifications of

Revised Public Roads Administration (PRA) soil classification system. This method enables
classification of soils by three simple laboratory tests namely, sieve analysis liquid limit and
plastic limit.
Soils are divided into seven groups A-1 to A-7. A-1, A-2, and A-3 soils are granular soils,
percentage fines passing 0.074mm sieve being less than 35. A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7, soils are
fine grained or silt-clay soils, passing 0.074 mm sieve being greater than 35 percent.
A-1 soils are well graded mixture of stone fragments, gravel coarse sand, fine sand and non-
plastic or slightly plastic soil binder. The soils of this group are subdivided into two sub-groups,
A-1-a consisting predominantly of stone fragments or gravel and A-1-b consisting predominantly
of coarse sand.
A-2 group of soils include a wide range of granular soils ranging from A-1 to A-3 groups,
consisting of granular soils and up to 35% fines of A-4, A-5, A-6 or A-7 groups. Based on the
fines content, the soils of A-2 groups are subdivided into subgroups A-2-4, A-2-5, A-2-6 and A-2-
7.
A-3 soils consist mainly, uniformly graded medium or fine sand similar to beach sand or desert
blown sand. Stream deposited mixtures of poorly graded fine sand with some coarse sand and
gravel are also included in this group.
A-4 soils are generally silty soils, non-plastic or moderately plastic in nature with liquid limit and
plasticity index values less than 40 and 10 respectively.
A-5 soils are also silty soils with plasticity index less than 10%, but with liquid limit values
exceeding 40%. These include: highly elastic or compressible soils.
A-6 group of soils are plastic clays, having high values of plasticity index exceeding 10% and
low values of liquid limit below 40%; the have high volume change properties with variation in
moisture content.
A-7 soils are also clayey soils as A-6 soils, but with high values of both liquid limit and plasticity
index, (LL greater than 40% and PI greater than 10%). These soils have low permeability and
high volume change properties with changes in moisture content.

Group Index of Soil

Fine grained soils of each classification group exhibit a wide range of properties as sub-grade
material.
In order to classify the fine grained soils within one group and for judging their suitability as sub-
grade material, an indexing system has been introduced in HBR classification which is termed
as Group Index. Soils are thus assigned arbitrary numerical values known as group index (GI).
Group Index is function of percentage material passing 200 mesh sieve (0.074mm), liquid limit
and plasticity index of soil and is given by the equation:
GI=0.2a+0.005ac+0.01bd
Where
 a=the portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve, greater than 35 and not exceeding
75% (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 40).
 b=that portion of material passing 0.074mm sieve greater than 15 and not exceeding
35% (expressed as a whole number from 0 to 40).
 c=that value of liquid limit in excess of 40 and less than 60(expressed as a whole
number from 0 to 20)
 d=that value of plasticity index exceeding 10 and not more than 30 (expressed as a
whole number from 0 to 20)
According to this formula, the minimum possible value of group index is zero and the maximum
possible value is 20, when the values of soil fraction passing 0.074mm sieve, liquid limit and
plasticity index are respectively higher than 75, 60 and 30 %. Higher the value of group index,
poorer is the soil sub-grade material.
The sub-groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 soils of A-2 group have GI values 0 to 4, A-4 group of soil have
GI values up to 8; A-5 soil up to 12, A-6 soil up to 16 and A-7 soil up to 20. The group index
value is indicated as suffix to the soil group within brackets, such as A-6(4) or A-6(16).
Engineering Use Chart
You may ask “How do I use a soil classification to select a soil for a particular type
of construction, for example, a dam?” Geotechnical engineers have prepared charts based on
experience to assist you in selecting a soil for a particular construction purpose. One that chart
is shown in Table 2.7. The numerical values 1 to 9 are ratings with No. 1 the best. The chart
should only be used to provide guidance and to a preliminary assessment of the suitability of a
soil for a particular use. You should not rely on such descriptions as “excellent” shear strength
or “negligible” compressibility to make the final design and construction decisions. You will

learn later more reliable method to determine strength and compressibility properties.
EXAMPLE 2.8
Particle size analyses were carried out on two soils – Soil A and Soil B – and the particle size
distribution curves are shown in Fig. E2.8 below. The Atterberg limits for the two soils are:
Soil wLL wPL

A 26 18
B Non plastic
Figure E2.8: Particle size distribution curves for soil A and soil B.
(a) Classify these soils according to the Unified Soil Classification System.
(b) Is either of the soils organic?
(c) In a preliminary assessment, which of the two soils is a better material for the core of a
rolled earth dam?
Strategy: If you examine the flowcharts of Figs. 2.15 a and b, you will notice that you need to
identify the various soil types based on texture: for example, the percentage of gravel or sand.
Use the particle size distribution curves to extract the different percentages of each soil type
and then follow the flowchart. To determine whether your soil is organic or inorganic, plot your
Atterberg limits on the plasticity chart and check whether the limits fall within an inorganic or
organic soil region.
Solution:

Chapter2-Physical Characterstics of Soils

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Soil Mechanics I Physical Characteristics of Soils

Physical Characteristics of Soils

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 1 of 29

2.1 Definition of Key Terms

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 2 of 29

2.2 Composition of soils

2.2.1 Soil Formation

2.2.2 Soil Types

Figure 2.1 Soil type with size Range

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 3 of 29

2.2.3 Clay Minerals

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 4 of 29

Alumina sheets are formed by combination of alumina minerals, which consists of

Figure 2.3: Structure of kaolinite, illite and montmorillonite.

2.2.4 Surface Forces and Adsorbed Water

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 5 of 29

Figure 2.4: Diffuse double layer.

2.2.5 Soil Fabric

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 6 of 29

Figure 2.5: Soil Fabric.

2.2.6 Comparison of Coarse and Fine-Grained Soils for Engineering Use

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 7 of 29

2.3 Phase Relationships

Figure 2.6: Soil Phases.

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 8 of 29

Porosity and void ratio are related by the expression,

The proof of Eq. (2.7) is simple and is shown below,

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 9 of 29

Table 2.1: Typical values of unit weight for soils

Soil type sat (kN/m3) d (kN/m3)

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 10 of 29

(a) Saturated unit weight (S = 1):

(b) Dry unit weight (S = 0)

Table 2.2: Description based on relative density

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 11 of 29

Prove the following relationships:

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 12 of 29

2.4 Determination of Particle Sizes of Soils

2.4.1 Particle Size of Coarse-Grained Soils

The distribution of particle size or average grain diameter of coarse-grained soils –

Figure 2.7: Stack of sieves.

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 13 of 29

The percent finer is:

Figure 2.8: Typical particle size distribution curves.

2.4.2 Particle Size of Fine-Grained Soils

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 14 of 29

Figure 2.9: Hydrometer in soil water suspension.

2.4.3 Characterization of Soils Based on Particle Size

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 15 of 29

Soil type Description Average grain size

Gravel Rounded and/or angular bulky hard rock Coarse : 75 mm to 19 mm

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 16 of 29

Sieve no. Opening (mm) Mass retained (grams)

(a) Plot the particle size distribution curve.

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 17 of 29

2.5 Physical States and Index Properties of Fine-grained Soils

Arba Minch University/Engineering Faculty/Civil Eng’g Dep’t Lecture Notes Page 18 of 29

Table 2.4: Description of soil strength based on liquidity index

Values of IL Description of soil strength

IL < 0 Semisolid state – high strength, brittle (sudden) fracture is expected.

Table 2.5: Typical Atterberg limits for soils

Soil Type wLL (%) wPL (%) IP (%)

Sand Non plastic